The Origins of Modern Psychology
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Transcript of The Origins of Modern Psychology
CHAPTER 1 SECTION 3
The Origins of Modern Psychology
Modern Psychology
• First laboratory devoted to the scientific study of psychology: University of Leipzig in Germany in 1879
Wundt and Structuralism
William Wundt (1832-1920)
Trained as a physicianEstablished 1st laboratoryMission= describe the contents of the
conscious mindStudy psychology the same way as other
science
Structuralism
Break contents of the mind into basic unitsIdentify the structures of the conscious
experienceDescribe its major components (feelings,
sensations, and images)
Edward B. Tichener (1867-1927)
Wundt’s studentBrought structuralism to the U.S.Research method depended on a method
called introspection- participants gave verbal reports of their conscious experiences.
Problems of Structuralism
Patients had difficulty producing similar reports
Raised questions: Is there any common elements of conscious experience?
Replaced by other approachesConscious experience not considered a
legitimate subject for a long time
Functionalism
Developed in the U.S. in late 1800sConcerned with the purposes of consciousness—
what the mind does and whyWilliam James= “stream of consciousness” =
can’t be broken down into elements= lose realityWant to see how people use information and
adapt to their environmentApplied psychology= practical aspectsPeak in 1906-James Rowland Angell andRobert
S. Woodworth
Gestalt Psychology
Gestalt= “pattern,” “shape,” or “configuration”
Emphasized that perception of a whole differs from that of the individual stimuli that make up the whole
Challenged structuralismMax Wertheimer, Wolfgang Kohler, and Kurt
KoffkaBegan in Germany in 1912
Apparent Motion
a rapid sequence of stationary images creates the illusion of movement, as in a movie
Wertheimer described the visual illusion We perceive unified forms, rather than bits
and pieces
Behavioral Perspective
Focuses on observable behaviorsEmphasizes the importance of learning in
understanding how various behaviors occur
Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936)
Russian physiologistStudied digestion in dogsNoticed that dogs would salivate at sight of
food or the sound of jangling keys= Learned association
James B. Watson (1878-1958)
American psychologistRead Pavlov’s workBelieved psychology should be concerned
with observable behaviorDeveloped and applied principles in the
laboratory under strictly controlled conditions.
Used laboratory animals at first and expanded to human participants
B.F. Skinner (1904-1990)
Proponent of behaviorism“greatest contemporary psychologist”Behavior changes as a result of its consequences.Environmental consequences, rather than free
will, shape human behavior.Goal is identify and change the environmental
conditions that control behavior.Methods have used to teach people with
schizophrenia to speak, improve safety in factories, to teach basic skills to the mentally retarded, and train animals.
Sigmund Freud (1856-1939)
Watsons’ contemporaryDelved deeply beneath observable behaviorsProfound impact on psychology but very
controversialTrained as neurologistPatients suffered a variety of anxieties and
disturbances
Psychodynamic Perspective
Suggests that both normal and abnormal behaviors are determined primarily by unconscious forces
Psychodynamic forces = interact with each other
The unconscious mind exerted great control over behavior
“slips of the tongue” Analysis of dreams—not always aware of true
meaning
Early Childhood Experiences
Major influence on personality development
Freud gained great fame and notoriety by suggesting that people (even children) are driven by motives that are sexual in nature.
Psychoanalytic Therapy
Freud first turned to hypnosis but not everyone can by hypnotized.
Attempts to bring unconscious causes of distress to the conscious level.
According to Freud, once the sources of distress are brought to awareness, they can be changed.
Problems
Over time, both the psychodynamic and behavioral approaches were questioned.
Neither gave room for personal freedomBehaviorist views of human nature were
either neutral or negative.Psychodynamic saw behavior resulting from
irrational forces that are not even under conscious control.
Neither focuses on the creative potential and psychological health of human beings.
Humanistic Perspective
Emphasizes free will and individual’s control of their own behavior
More positive view of human natureView themselves as a “third force” because
they are an alternative to the behavioral and psychodynamic perspectives in psychology.
Proponents
Carl Rogers (1902-1987)Abraham Maslow (1908-1970)People have choices in their livesInstead of developing general principles, they
sought to understand each person as a unique individual.
Important principle: all human beings have a basic need to grow to their fullest potential.
The Physiological Perspective
Special interest in the functioning of the nervous system (brain and neurons (nerves cells)
Images of the brain have revealed that different areas of the brain have different tasks
Recent years-influence of heredity and stressStress has an influence on our health status.
The Evolutionary Perspective
Charles Darwin (1859) – theory of evolutionPrinciple of natural selection: strongest or
most fit organisms are those who have adapted best to their environment; survive and reproduce
Ask what role a physiological structure or behavior plays in helping the organism survive and adapt to its environment
Successful applied: mate selection, aggression, kin selection, care of offspring, and parenting
Example
When a cat is frightened, its hairs “stand on end.”An evolutionary researcher would want to
understand how this behavior contributed to the survival of the species.
The most plausible explanation is that when the hairs are erected, the animal looks larger and more intimidating to potential predators.
Cats who were able to erect their hairs when frightened passed their genes on to future generations.
A once-adaptive behavior persisted.
Aggression
Aggressive organisms are able to acquire resources and defend their own territories.
It is predicted that men display more direct aggression (hitting, kicking), whereas women will display more indirect aggression (gossiping, ostracizing).
The evolutionary explanation centers on maternal involvement on the part of women.
Indirect aggression minimizes the chances of retaliatory injury compared to direct aggression.
Functional Approach
Evolutionary psychologists are interested in why certain physical structures developed and how they contribute to adaptation.
Comparative Approach
Often evolutionary psychologist compare the use of a structure among species
The Cognitive Perspective
Behaviorists did not study cognitive processes, but others disagreed that observable behavior should be the sole subject matter of psychology.
Study higher mental processes such as thinking, knowing, and deciding to determine how we store and recall information, solve problems, and make decisions.
Use more sophisticated techniques to examine brain functioning. Psychologist George Miller and Jerome Bruner established the
Center for Cognitive Studies at Harvard University in 1960, and Ulric Neisser published the book Cognitive Psychology in 1967.
The appearance of a widely read article supporting the study of cognitive processes combined with the ability of the computer to simulate human thought processes, generated considerable interest and research.
The Cultural and Diversity Perspective
Male Dominated to Diverse
The presence of women and minority psychologist sprovides a vivid contrast to the Caucasian, male-dominated field of only a few years ago.
Numerous barriers for women and ethnic minorities in the past: not accepted in colleges or denied degrees
Examining “Truth”
Psychologists are beginning to realize that the culture in which research is conducted; the gender, ethnicity, and personal biases of the researcher; and the gender and ethnicity of the research participants all influence our research results and contribute to our conception of “truth.”
Mary Whiton Calkins (1863-1930)
student of William James who studied at Harvard
denied a degree because she was a womandistinguished teaching careerfounded one of the 1st psychology
laboratories in U.S.1st women elected president of the American
Psychological Association
Kenneth B. Clark (1914-2005)
1st African American elected president of the American Psychological Association in 1970
Noted for his research on the harmful effects of segregation
Cited in Brown v. Board of Education
Richard Suinn
1st Asian American elected as president of the American Psychological Association in 1997
Contemporary Psychological Literature
Gender issuesEthnic groupsNational culturesSexual orientation,Persons with disabilities
Cultural Psychology
Psychological Revolution: move towards cultural psychology
We need to know what kinds of cross-cultural similarities exist in psychological principles and basic processes.
Knowledge about these similarities should help us in our endeavors to apply these principles to improve our lives.
David Matsumoto
“the psychological principles we derive about people may be consistent or discrepant across cultures.”
To the extent that differences do exist, it is important for all of us to appreciate how cultural factors moderate our psychological processes.
We can learn how our own viewpoint, developed within our own cultural framework, can distort our interpretation of other’s behaviors
Matsumoto, Kasri, and Kooken (1999)
Cross-cultural study of the intensity of facial expressions of emotions in Americans and Japanese
Americans exaggerated their ratingsPreviously, it had been assumed that the
differences between the two cultures occurred because Japanese participants suppressed their ratings.
The Environmental, Population, and Conservation Perspective
Increasing concerns about the effects of overpopulation on the quality of life and the quality of our environment.
Applying psychological principles to help save the planet.
Challenge: the task of increasing proenvironmental behavior
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Present Day Psychology
Eclectic Approach
Present-day psychologists do not align themselves strictly with one approach but combine several different approaches.
Employment
Most psychology majors who complete their education with a B.A. or B.S. degree are employed by for-profit companies and not-for-profit organizations.
The majority of psychologists with advanced degrees are either self-employed or work in some type of educational setting.
A person cannot assume the title of psychologist unless he or she meets certain standards of education and training established by a state board.
Most do not engage in research but in the application of psychology: health service provider or direct service specialties
Psychological Specialties
Clinical Psychology
Specialize in helping people with behavioral or emotional problems to adjust to the demands of life
Not psychiatristsAfter completing an undergraduate degree,
clinical psychologists earn a doctoral degree (4 more years)
They then complete an internship for at least 1 year to develop their diagnostic and therapeutic skills while being supervised by experienced psychologists
Psychiatry
Psychiatrist are medical doctors who have earned an M.D. degree.
After graduating from medical school, they complete a 3-year residency.
They are trained in the medical assessment of disorders and are more likely to view the disorders as caused by medical conditions
Counseling Psychology
Administer psychological tests and provide therapy
Often work with clients who have less serious problems such as people who are having difficulty dealing with everyday problems such as a physical handicap or a vocational decision.
Research Psychologist
Psychologist whose primary activity is to conduct and report the results of experiments
Areas of specialty: animal behavior, biopsychology, cognitive processes, cross-cultural, developmental, educational, motivation, personality, psychometrics, sensation and perception, and social
Ethnocentrism
The view that other cultures are an extension of one’s own
Modern psychology is highly identified with the U.S.
Cross-Cultural Psychology
Branch of psychology that seeks to determine if research results are universal
Careers
School psychologistIndustrial and organizational psychologistConsumer psychologyHealth psychologyForensic psychologySports psychologyneuropsychology