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Transcript of The Origin of Species Chapter 22. The Nature of Species The concept of species must account for two...
![Page 1: The Origin of Species Chapter 22. The Nature of Species The concept of species must account for two phenomena: –The distinctiveness of species that occur.](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022081506/56649e105503460f94afc325/html5/thumbnails/1.jpg)
The Origin of Species
Chapter 22
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The Nature of Species
• The concept of species must account for two phenomena:
– The distinctiveness of species that occur together at a single locality
– The connection that exists among different populations belonging to the same species
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• Speciation: the process by which new species arise, either by
– transformation of one species into another (phyletic speciation),
– or by the splitting of one ancestral species into two descendant species
The Nature of Species
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• Allopatric speciation: the differentiation of populations within separate geographic areas into species– Species that are isloated:
• Are separated by some complete or partial geographic barrier
• Are distinctive entities• Are phenotypically different
Speciation
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Speciation
• Sympatric speciation: the differentiation of populations within a common geographic area into species
• Species that occur together:– Are distinctive entities– Are phenotypically different– Utilize different parts of the habitat– Behave separately
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• Population: any group of individuals, usually of a single species, occupying a given area at the same time– Exhibit geographic variation
• Subspecies: within a single species, individuals in populations that occur in different areas may be distinct from one another
The Nature of Species
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The Biological Species Concept
• Ernst Mayr’s biological species concept defines species as…
“…groups of actually or potentially interbreeding natural populations which are reproductively isolated from other such groups.”
• In short: members of a population mate with each other and produce fertile offspring
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The Evolutionary Species Concept
• Simpson/Wiley’s evolutionary species concept defines species as…
“…a single lineage of ancestor-descendent populations which maintains its identity from other such lineages and which has its own evolutionart tendencies and historical fates.”
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• Reproductively isolated: populations whose members do not mate with each other or who cannot produce fertile offspring
• Reproductive isolating mechanisms: barriers to successful reproduction
Reproductive Isolating Mechanisms
- Geographic - Ecological
- Behavioral - Temporal
- Mechanical - Gamete fusion
- Postzygotic
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• Prezygotic isolation prevents the formation of a zygote, and waste of gametes
– Ecological isolation
• Utilization of different portions of the environment
– Geographical isolation
• Do not encounter each other
• Example: lion and tiger
Reproductive Isolating Mechanisms
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Lions and tigers are geographically isolated
Reproductive Isolating Mechanisms
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Tiglon in zoo
Reproductive Isolating Mechanisms
In captivity lions and tigers can mate and reproduce offspring that survive
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• Behavioral isolation: species differ in their mating rituals
Reproductive Isolating Mechanisms
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• Sympatric species avoid mating with members of the wrong species in a variety of ways, including differences in:
–Visual signals
–Sound production
–Chemical signals: pheromones
–Electrical signals: electroreception
Reproductive Isolating Mechanisms
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Reproductive Isolating Mechanisms
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• Temporal isolation: species reproduce in different seasons or at different times of the day
• Mechanical isolation: structural differences between species prevent mating
• Prevention of gamete fusion: gametes of one species functions poorly with the gametes of another species or within the reproductive tract of another species
Reproductive Isolating Mechanisms
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• Postzygotic isolation prevents normal development into reproducing adults
• Hybridization: mating between two different species with a zygote being formed
• Hybrids often:
– Do not develop into adults
– Do not develop into fertile adults
Example: mule
Reproductive Isolating Mechanisms
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• Criticisms of biological species concept:
– Interspecific hybridization
– 50% California plant species, in one study, not well defined by genetic isolation
– Asexual or parthenogenetic species
Biological Species Concept
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– Hybridization is not uncommon in animals
• 10% of bird species have hybridized in nature
• Hybrid offspring of Galápagos finches appeared to be at no disadvantage for survival or reproduction
– Reproductive isolation may not be the only force for maintaining the integrity of species
Biological Species Concept
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Evolutionary Species Concept
• A single lineage of ancestor-descendent populations which maintains its identity from other such lineages and which has its own evolutionary tendencies and hitorical fate.
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Reproductive Isolation
• Cladogenesis: one ancestral species becomes divided into two descendant species
• If species are defined by the existence of reproductive isolation, then
– the process of speciation is identical to the evolution of reproductive isolating mechanisms
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Populations can become geographically isolated
Reproductive Isolation
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• Given time, any two isolated populations will diverge because of genetic drift
• Random divergence may affect traits responsible for reproductive isolation
-Speciation may occur
Divergence
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Genetic Drift
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• Is geographic isolation required for speciation to occur?
• Sympatric speciation occurs without geographic isolation
– Instantaneous speciation through polyploidy
• Individual is reproductively isolated from all other members of its species
Geography of Speciation
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• Allopolyploidy: two species hybridize
– Resulting offspring have one copy of the chromosomes of each species
– Is infertile: cannot reproduce with either species
– Can reproduce asexually
– Can become fertile if chromosomes spontaneously doubled (polyploidy)
Geography of Speciation
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– Results in tetraploids that could interbreed– New species is created– Occurs frequently in plants – Occurs in insects, fish, and salamanders but is
rare
Geography of Speciation
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Alloployploid speciation
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• Sympatric speciation may occur over the course of multiple generations through disruptive selection
• Two phenotypes would have to evolve reproductive isolating mechanisms
• Two phenotypes could be retained as polymorphism within a single population
Geography of Speciation
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• Eleven species of cichlid fish occur in Lake Barombi in Cameroon: sympatric speciation
• There is no within-lake isolation
Geography of Speciation
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Adaptive Radiation
• Adaptive radiations: closely related species that have recently evolved from a common ancestor by adapting to different parts of the environment
• Occurs – in an environment with few other species
and many resources– Hawaiian and Galápagos Islands– Catastrophic event leading to extinction
of other species
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Classic model of adaptive radiation on island archipelagoes
Adaptive Radiation
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Classic model of adaptive radiation on island archipelagoes
Adaptive Radiation
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• Key innovation: evolves within a species allowing it to use resources or other aspects of the environment that were previously inaccessible
– Evolution of lungs in fish
– Wings in birds and insects
• Allows descendant species to diversify and adapt to new parts of the environment
Adaptive Radiation
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• Character displacement: natural selection in each species favors those individuals that use resources not used by the other species
– Greater fitness
– Trait differences in resource use will increase in frequency over time
– Species will diverge
Adaptive Radiation
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Adaptive Radiation
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• Alternative:
– Adaptive radiation occurs through repeated instances of sympatric speciation
– Produces suite of species adapted to different habitats
Adaptive Radiation
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Case 1: Hawaiian Drosophila
• > 1000 species of Drosophila on Hawaiian Islands
• Diversity of morphological and behavioral traits
• Empty habitats resulted in fruit flies that are:-Predators -Parasites
-Herbivores -Detritivores
-Nectar eaters
Adaptive Radiation
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Case 2: Darwin’s finches
• Ancestors were subjected to different selective pressures
• Geographic isolation on many islands
• Diverse population, some evolved into separate species
• Occupy many different habitats
Adaptive Radiation
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• Ground finches– Feed on seeds: size of bill relates to
size of seed they eat• Tree finches
– All eat insects: one species uses a tool to get insects
• Vegetarian finch – Eats buds from branches
• Warbler finches – Eat insects from leaves and branches
Adaptive Radiation
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Adaptive Radiation
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Case 3: Lake Victoria cichlid fishes
• Was home to over 300 species of cichlid until recently
• Recent radiation: sequencing of cytochrome b gene -- 200,000 years ago
• Colonized from the Nile
• Changes in water level encouraged species formation
• Lake dry down 14,000 years ago
Adaptive Radiation
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• Cichlids: small, perchlike fishes
• Males very colorful
• Foraging:
– Mud biters, algae scrapers, leaf chewers, snail crushers, zooplankton eaters, insect eaters, prawn eaters, fish eaters
• Carry a second set of functioning jaws
Adaptive Radiation
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Adaptive Radiation
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• Abrupt extinction in the last several decades
• 1950’s Nile perch introduced into lake
• 1990’s 70% cichlids extinct
Adaptive Radiation
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The Pace of Evolution
• Gradualism: the accumulation of small changes
• Punctuated equilibrium: long periods of stasis followed by rapid change
– Proposed by Niles Eldredge and Stephen Gould in 1972
– Stabilizing and oscillating selection is responsible for stasis
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Two views of the pace of macroevolution
The Pace of Evolution
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• Evolution may include both types of change
– African mammals: evolved gradually
– Marine bryozoa: irregular patterns of change
– Many groups show evidence of both
– Speciation can occur without substantial phenotypic change
– Phenotypic change can occur within species in the absence of speciation
The Pace of Evolution
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Speciation and Extinction• Speciation, through time, has surpassed
extinction• Five mass extinctions have occurred
– Most severe at the end of the Permian period—96% of all species may have perished
– End of the Cretaceous: dinosaurs went extinct• Hypothesis: asteroid caused
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• Consequence of extinction: previously dominant groups may perish, changing the course of evolution
• Dinosaurs went extinct, mammals began their radiation
• Rates of speciation after an extinction may take about 10 my
• Takes time for: – Ecosystems to recover – Processes of speciation and adaptive
diversification to begin
Speciation and Extinction
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Not all groups of organisms are affected equally during extinctions
Speciation and
Extinction
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A sixth extinction is underway• Estimates:
– 1/4th of all species will become extinct in the near future
– Rebound in species diversity may be slower than following previous mass extinction events• A large proportion of the world’s
resources will be taken up by human activities
Speciation and Extinction