The Origin of Elements

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The origin of elements The structure of the nuclei of the elements as aggregates of protons and neutrons has resulted in theories to explain the origin and their relative abundances by synthesis, or buildup, starting with either or both of the basic building blocks. Several theories as to the mode of formation of the chemical elements have been proposed. One, which may be termed the equilibrium theory, proposes that the relative abundances of the elements are the result of a “frozen” thermodynamic equilibrium between atomic nuclei at some high temperature and density. By suitable assumptions as to the temperature, pressure, and density, good agreement with observed abundances is obtained for elements of atomic number up to 40. For elements of higher atomic number, however, these assumptions lead to impossibly low abundances. On this account, theories have been proposed which consider the relative abundances of the elements as resulting from non equilibrium processes; on this basis the light nuclei were built it up by thermonuclear processes and the remaining nuclei by successive neutron capture, with intervening β- disintegrations. The difficulty can be overcome by postulating the fusion of three He 4 nuclei to give C 12 , there by skipping the intermediate elements lithium, beryllium, and boron, these elements would be derived by secondary processes.

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Transcript of The Origin of Elements

Page 1: The Origin of Elements

The origin of elements

The structure of the nuclei of the elements as

aggregates of protons and neutrons has

resulted in theories to explain the origin and

their relative abundances by synthesis, or

buildup, starting with either or both of the

basic building blocks.

Several theories as to the mode of formation

of the chemical elements have been

proposed. One, which may be termed the

equilibrium theory, proposes that the relative

abundances of the elements are the result of

a “frozen” thermodynamic equilibrium

between atomic nuclei at some high

temperature and density. By suitable

assumptions as to the temperature, pressure,

and density, good agreement with observed

abundances is obtained for elements of

atomic number up to 40. For elements of

higher atomic number, however, these

assumptions lead to impossibly low

abundances. On this account, theories have

been proposed which consider the relative

abundances of the elements as resulting

from non equilibrium processes; on this

basis the light nuclei were built it up by

thermonuclear processes and the remaining

nuclei by successive neutron capture, with

intervening β-disintegrations. The difficulty

can be overcome by postulating the fusion

of three He4 nuclei to give C12, there by

skipping the intermediate elements lithium,

beryllium, and boron, these elements would

be derived by secondary processes.

However, the complexities of the

abundances data as established by Suess and

Urey showed that no single process can

satisfactorily account for these complexities.

The problem was elucidated by Burbidge,

Fowler, and Hoyle in 1957, when they

showed the feasibility of the following eight

processes for the synthesis of the elements

and their role in accounting for the observed

abundances.

1. Hydrogen “burning” to produce

helium

2. Helium “burning” to roduce C12, O16,

Ne20, and perhaps Mg24.

3. Alpha-particle processes, in which

Mg24, Si28, S32, Ar36, and Ca40 are

produced by successive additions of

alpha particles to O16 and Ne20.

4. The equilibrium e-process, a

statistical equilibrium between

nuclei, protons, and neutrons,

accounting for the abundance peak at

iron

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5. The s-process, in which neutrons are

captured at a relatively slow rate,

producing elements up to and

including Bi209.

6. The r-process, in which neutrons are

captured at a fast rate producing

elements up to Cf254 (californium).

7. The p-process, in which proton rich

isobars are produced.

8. The x-process, responsibe for the

production of Li, Be, and B.

These processes are correlated with

the observed features of stellar

evolution. All stars convert hydrogen

into helium, but only the most

massive stars produce the elements

in the upper part of the periodic

table. Certain heavy nuclides appear

to be formed only under catastrophic

conditions, such as the development

of a supernova. A supernova is

essentially a stellar explosion, the

catastrophic disintegration of a star.

The explosion produces luminosity

of the order of 108 that of the sun,

and the luminosity falls off

exponentially with a half-life of

about 56 days. It can hardly be a

coincidence that Cf254 decays by

spontaneous fission with a half life

of 56 days. Evidently, a supernova is

triggered by the r-process. Man has

reproduced the r-process on a

comparatively modest scale;

substantial quantities of californium

are produced in H-bomb explosion

when the U238 in the bomb is exposed

to an intense neutron flux during the

explosion.

Asal-usul elemen

Struktur inti dari unsur-unsur sebagai

jumlah proton dan neutron telah

menghasilkan teori-teori untuk menjelaskan

asal-usul dan kelimpahan relatif atom

dengan sintesis, dimulai dengan salah satu

unsur unsur dari golongan utama.

Beberapa teori mengenai cara

pembentukan unsur kimia telah

diusulkan. Satu, yang dapat disebut sebagai

teori keseimbangan, mengusulkan bahwa

jumlah relatif unsur adalah hasil dari sebuah

“pembekuan" kesetimbangan

termodinamika antara inti atom pada

beberapa suhu tinggi dan

densitasnya. Dengan asumsi yang sesuai

untuk suhu, tekanan, dan densitas, dengan

penyesuaian bahwa unsur unsur atom yang

dapat diamati kelimpahannya adalah nomor

massa atom sampai 40. Untuk unsur nomor

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atom yang lebih tinggi, namun asumsi ini

menyebabkan kelimpahannya lebih rendah.

Dalam hal ini, teori telah diajukan yang

mempertimbangkan jumlah relatif unsur-

unsur sebagai akibat dari proses

ketidakseimbangan, atas dasar ini inti

cahaya terbentuk melalui proses termonuklir

dan inti yang tersisa dengan penangkapan

neutron atau peluruhan partikel beta. Teori

ini memprediksi kecenderungan umum dari

data yang diamati tapi gagal untuk

menjelaskan beberapa penjelasan yang

detail. Kesulitan bisa diatasi dengan

mendalilkan fusi dari tiga He 4 inti untuk

memberikan C 12, dengan melompati ada

unsur-unsur antara lithium, berilium, dan

boron, menjelaskan dengan baik elemen-

elemen ini akan diturunkan dengan proses

sekunder.

Namun, kompleksitas data

kelimpahan yang ditetapkan oleh Suess dan

Urey menunjukkan bahwa tidak ada proses

yang dapat menjelaskan hal tersebut.

kemudian Masalahnya dijelaskan oleh

Burbidge, Fowler, dan Hoyle pada tahun

1957, ketika mereka menunjukkan

kelayakan berikut delapan proses untuk

sintesis elemen dan peran mereka dalam

catatan untuk kelimpahan diamati.

1. Hidrogen "pembakaran" untuk

menghasilkan helium

2. Helium "pembakaran" untuk

menghasilkan C 12, O 16, Ne 20, dan mungkin

Mg 24.

3. Proses Alpha-partikel, di mana

Mg 24, Si 28, S 32, Ar 36, dan Ca 40 diproduksi

oleh penambahan berturut partikel alpha

untuk O 16 dan Ne 20.

4. Keseimbangan e-proses, keseimbangan

statistik antara inti, proton, dan neutron,

akuntansi untuk puncak kelimpahan di besi

5. S-proses, di mana neutron ditangkap

pada tingkat yang relatif lambat,

memproduksi elemen hingga dan termasuk

Bi 209.

6. The r-proses, di mana neutron ditangkap

pada tingkat yang cepat memproduksi

elemen hingga CF 254 (Kalifornium).

7. P-proses, di mana proton isobars kaya

diproduksi.

8. The x-proses, responsibe untuk

produksi Li, Be, dan B.

Proses ini berkorelasi dengan fitur

diamati evolusi bintang. Semua bintang

mengubah hidrogen menjadi helium, tetapi

hanya bintang-bintang yang paling besar

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menghasilkan elemen elemen berat dari

tabel periodik. Nuklida berat tertentu

tampaknya dibentuk hanya dalam kondisi

bencana, seperti pengembangan

supernova. Sebuah supernova pada

dasarnya adalah sebuah ledakan bintang,

disintegrasi bencana bintang. Ledakan itu

menghasilkan luminositas urutan

10 8 bahwa matahari Hampir tidak dapat

tepat meluruhkan Cf 254  oleh fisi spontan

dengan waktu paruh 56 hari. Terbukti,

supernova dipicu oleh proses r,

diperkirakan bahwa pada proses ini

kehidupan sudah mulai ada, jumlah besar

kalifornium diproduksi di H-bom meledak

ketika U 238 di bom menghasilkan neutron

selama ledakan.

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di internet, dag kutau mi jga susun

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