FoundationsofFlavor

TheNomaGuidetoFermentationRenéRedzepi&DavidZilber

PhotographsbyEvanSung

IllustrationsbyPaulaTroxler

Thisbookwouldnothavebeenpossiblewithoutthecountlesschefsandenthusiastswhohavetakenpartinournever-endingquestofdiscovery.SomanypeoplehavecontributedsmallpiecestothegreatpuzzlethathasmadeNoma’sworldoffermentationwhatitistoday.Notably,Dr.ArielleJohnson,TorstenVildgaard,LarsWilliams,ThomasFrebel,RosioSanchez,JoshEvans,BenReade,RobertoFlore,andallthoseinvolvedintheNordicFoodLab.Ifwehaveseenfurther,itisbystandingontheshouldersofgiants.

IntroductionAboutThisBook

PrimerLacto-FermentedFruitsandVegetablesKombuchaVinegarKojiMisosandPeasoShoyuGarumBlackFruitsandVegetables

EquipmentSources

AcknowledgmentsIndex

AbouttheAuthors

NomainitsnewhomeontheoutskirtsoftheChristianianeighborhoodinCopenhagen.Openingweek,February2018.

IntroductionRenéRedzepi

Ourstorywithfermentationisastoryofaccidents.

IntheveryearlyyearsofNoma,wewerecaughtupinasearchforingredients,lookingtostockourlarderwiththingsthatcouldkeepourcookinginterestingthroughthecoldermonthsoftheyear.

Irememberonedayintheearlysummerwhenourlongtimeforager,RolandRittman,walkedthroughthedoorwithahandfulofoddlittleflowerbuds,roundbutalsosomehowtriangular,perfectlyjuicy,withaflavorlikeramps—notgarlicky,exactly,butwiththatsamepunchanddepth.We’dnevertastedanythinglikeit.Rolandmentionedthattheseramson“berries”usedtobequitecommoninNordiccuisine,andthatpeoplewouldpreservethemforusethroughthewinter.

Andsowesetouttomakeourowncaper-likepickleoframsonbuds.Ifyou’daskeduswhatwethoughtwashappeningtothetinygarlickyorbsastheysatinajarpackedwithsalt,wewouldhavedescribeditas“curing”or“maturing.”Ifyou’dmentionedtheconceptoflacticacidfermentation,wewouldhavecockedourheadsandlookedatyouquizzically.

Theramsoncaperswerearevelation.Suddenlywehadthisingredientatourdisposalthatcouldbringlittleburstsofacidityandsaltinessandpungencytoanydish.Andwedidn’thavetoimportitfromsomewhereelse.Ithadgrowninourownbackyardandbecomesomethingmore,merelythroughtheadditionofsalt.

Oneaccidentalsuccessledtoanother.

Ican’trememberwhoseideaitwastosaltgooseberries,butitwasaround2008,soitmusthavebeenTorstenVildgaardorSørenWesth.Theyweremessingaroundwithallkindsofthingsontheboatthatwasanchoredinfrontoftherestaurant.

Nolargerthanafishingvesselyoumighttakeoutforadayontheocean,theboathousedsomethingwecalledtheNordicFoodLab.Itspurposewastoinvestigatewhatcouldbedonewiththefoodinourregionandsharethatknowledgefreelywithanyoneinterested.Itwasaplaceforlong-term

investigation,ratherthanatestkitchenfortinkeringwithnextweek’sdishes.Oneofourchefs,BenReade,usedtosleepamongthefermentsonthatboat—that’sthesortofcharacterwehadworkinginthelab.

Oneday,Torstenputaspooninfrontofmewithasliceofgooseberrythathadbeensalted,vacuum-bagged,andfermented,thenforgottenforayear.ItasteditandIwascompletelyshocked.Iknowthatprobablysoundslikeanexaggeration—afterall,we’retalkingaboutaspoonfulofpickledberry.Butyouhavetotrytoputyourselfinmyframeofmind:You’vegrownupinScandinaviaeatinggooseberriesyourwholelife,andnowthere’sthisthinginfrontofyou.Ittastesfamiliarbutalsolikenothingyou’veeverhadbefore,likeanoldcomfortablesweaterwithbrightnewcolorswoventhroughtheoriginalfabric.

TodaywhenItasteapickledgooseberry,Irecognizetheunmistakableeffectoflacto-fermentation,butthatfirsttimereallychangedeverythingformeandNoma.Itwasthebeginningofadecadeinwhichwewouldstudyfermentationwithintensefocusandenthusiasm.

GarlicFlower,NomaJapan,2015

Theorigami-likepetalsareapureeofblackgarlicclovesthathavebeenpassedthroughatamisanddriedtothetextureofafruitleatherbeforebeingfoldedanddressedwithapasteofantsandroseoil.

I’veforgottensomanydetails.Iregretnottakingmorenotesinthoseearlydays.Everyweekheldarevelationofsomesort,reachedbythesamebasictrainofthought:Weneedmorethingstocookwith.Wehavetheseseasonalingredients.Whatcanwedotomakethembetter?Whatcanwedotomakethemlast?Atfirst,wehadnoideahowfermentationworkedorwhenweweredoingit.Butyearbyyear,asmoreideasworkedoutandmoresmartpeoplecameintoourorbit,welearnedhowtotalkaboutwhatweweredoing,andbegantoseethelargertraditionwewerepartof.

In2011,wedecidedtoholdourfirstMADSymposium(madistheDanishwordfor“food”),agatheringofafewhundredpeoplewithavestedinterestinseeingthefoodworldgetbetter:peoplefromtherestauranttrade,alongwithscientists,farmers,philosophers,andartists.Wechosethetheme“PlantingThoughts,”andwebeganthinkingofpotentialspeakerswhocouldbringdiversethoughtsabouttheplantkingdom.

I’llbehonestwithyou:DavidChangimmediatelycametomindbecauseofkimchi.Hemaynotrememberservingit,butIrememberhavinganoystertoppedwithkimchiwateratMomofukuSsämBarandfindingitabsolutelyincredible.Heandhisteamwereworkingaparalleltracktoourown,learningtheirwayaroundfermentationanddevelopingnewproductsusingage-oldtechniques.IaskedhimtocomespeakatMADaboutfermentation.Whileonstage,heintroducedtheculinarycommunitytotheconceptofmicrobialterroir.

Changwasreferringtothelargelyunseenworldofmold,yeast,andbacteriaresponsibleforfermentation.Theyareomnipresent,transcendingcountlessculturesandculinarytraditions.WhatChangwassayingwasthatthemicrobesindigenoustoanygivenregionwillalwayshavetheirsayintheflavorofthefinalproduct,inthesamewaythatsoil,weather,andgeographyaffectwine.

Atthetime,peopleweretalkingaboutNomaastherestaurantresponsiblefordefiningmodernNordiccuisine.Fromourperspective,wefeltsaddledwithatremendousresponsibility.HowcouldweclaimtobecookingNordicfoodifweusedtechniquesfromabroad?Thenotionofmicrobialterroirhelpedchangeeverythingforus.Fermentationknowsnoborders.It’sasmuchapartofthe

cookingtraditioninDenmarkasitisinItalyorJapanorChina.Withoutfermentation,thereisnokimchi,nofluffysourdoughbread,noParmigiano,nowineorbeerorspirits,nopickles,nosoysauce.Thereisnopickledherringorryebread.Withoutfermentation,thereisnoNoma.

Peoplehavealwaysassociatedourrestaurantcloselywithwildfoodandforaging,butthetruthisthatthedefiningpillarofNomaisfermentation.That’snottosaythatourfoodisespeciallyfunkyorsaltyorsouroranyoftheothertastesthatpeopleassociatewithfermentation.It’snotlikethat.TrytopictureFrenchcookingwithoutwine,orJapanesecuisinewithoutshoyuandmiso.It’sthesameforuswhenwethinkaboutourownfood.Myhopeisthatevenifyou’venevereatenatNoma,bythetimeyou’vefinishedreadingthisbookandmadeafewoftherecipes,you’llknowwhatImean.Fermentationisn’tresponsibleforonespecifictasteatNoma—it’sresponsibleforimprovingeverything.

Itwaswiththatinmindthatin2014IaskedLarsWilliamsandArielleJohnsontobuildaspacededicatedtoexploringfermentation.Larswasoneofourlongest-tenuredchefs,andAriellebecameourresidentscientistin2013whilefinishingherPhDinflavorchemistry.Thetwoofthemwereresponsiblefortakingoureffortstothenextlevel,turningfermentationintoapursuitofitsownatNoma—almostcompletelyseparatefromtheday-to-dayactivitiesofrunningtherestaurant.

IwasinspiredbywhatthechefsatElBullihaddoneinseparatingtheactualcreativepartoftheirworkfromtheservicekitchen.Researchanddevelopmentweren’tjustactivitiestobedoneinbetweenpreparingmiseenplaceandcookingforservice.Therewasateamdedicatedtothem.Thatchangedthegameforcreativecooking,andthat’swhatwewantedtodoforfermentationatNoma.

DuringthesummerbreakatNoma,LarsandAriellebeganplanningwhattheiridealfermentationlabwouldinclude(withinreason,ofcourse).Upuntilthen,we’dbeenfermentingwhereverwecould—ontheboat,intheraftersofadjacentbuildings,inoldrefrigerators,underdesks.

Theycamebackafteraweekortwoandsaidthecheapestandmostefficientwaytodoitwouldbeinshippingcontainers.Thingscametogetherquickly.Oneday,threehugecontainerscameinbyforkliftandcrane.Theteaminsulatedtheinteriorsandputupwallsanddoors.LarswenttoIkea,boughtthesecond-cheapestkitchen,andmergeditwithequipmentwe’damassedoverthepast

decade.WestartedplanninginJuneorJuly,andbyAugustwehadourfermentationlab.

ImentionallthisbecauseIdon’twanttoover-romanticizefermentation.Itcanbeapainintheasstogeteverythingupandrunning.It’swork,butit’sincrediblygratifyingwork.It’sactuallyanamazingfeelingtowaitforsomethingtoferment.Itrunstotallycontrarytothespiritofthemodernday.

Andonceyouhaveyourfirstferments,itmakescookingsomucheasier.Ireallymeanthat.SomeofthesefermentsarelikeaperfectcrossbetweenMSG,lemonjuice,sugar,andsalt.Theycanbedrizzledontocookedgreens,addedtosoups,orblendedintosauces.Youcansmearlacto-fermentedplumsontocookedmeats,orusethejuicetodressrawseafood.Andhomemadeferments,packedintoglassjars,makeforuniqueandimpressivegifts.Onceyouintegratetheseingredientsintoyourcooking,youreatinglifeisgoingtobeirreversiblybetter.

DavidZilberstartedworkingwithusthesameyearwebuiltthefermentationlab.HecametousasacookfromCanada,andstartedintherestaurantasachefdepartie.WhenLarsandAriellewereleavingNomain2016,Iwasabitdistraughtthatwe’dhavetofindsomeonetotakeovertheirworkinthelab.Butourheadchefatthetime,DanGiusti,saidwewouldn’thavetolookfar.We

installedDavidastheheadofthefermentationlab,andit’sbeenaperfectfit.Hehasanincrediblyquickmindandaninsatiablecuriosity.Heunderstandsthescienceunderlyingfermentation,andbringsalinecook’sworkethictoitspractice.Ifyouaskhimsomethinghedoesn’tknowtheanswerto,restassuredhe’llbecompletelyeducatedaboutitthenexttimeyoutalktohim.He’slikeamachinedesignedspecificallytowritethisbookwithme.

Andit’simportanttomethatthisbookexist.It’simportantthatwedocumentthegoodworkthatpeoplehavedonehere.ButI’mmostexcitedbytheprospectofpeopletakingthatworkandapplyingitoutsidetherestaurant.We’vewrittenbooksbefore,butnonewherethemaingoalwastotranslatewhatwedointherestauranttoahomekitchen.It’sexhilaratingtothinkthatpeopleallaroundtheworldwillbeabletogetasenseforhowwecookatNoma.

That’stheonlypossiblenextstepforwhatwe’vebeenworkingonthispastdecade.Restaurantshaveinfluencedwhat’ssoldongrocerystoreshelves.They’veinvigoratedtourisminregionslikeours,wherepeoplewouldneverhavethoughttocomeeatbefore.Thenextphaseismoreeducationandmorecooking—peopleconnectingwhatwedoattop-levelrestaurantswiththeireverydaylives.That’showwecancreateacompletelynewcultureofeating.

Atthispoint,therateofdiscoveryinthefermentationlabhasslowed.Wecontinuetoadapttechniquestodifferentingredients,andsomefermentsremainlessexploredthanothers,butwe’renotstumblingintoeye-openingnewproductsatthesamepace.Whenyou’vemadegarums(ancientfishsaucesyou’lllearnallaboutlater)fromeverytypeofseafoodinScandinavia,andthey’veallbeengood,itbecomesdifficulttoidentifythenuances.Byputtingthisknowledgeoutthere,we’rehopingthatnotonlywillreadersexperiencethesamejoyofdiscoveryaswehave,butthatwe’llgetsomethingoutofit,too.Wehopethiswillspuronthefield.Perhapsoneofyouwilltakewhatyou’velearnedhereandcomeupwithsomethingcompletelynew.Ifwe’relucky,thatwillcomebacktoNomaandbolsterus.

Ibelieveinfermentationwholeheartedly,notonlyasawaytounlockflavors,butalsoasawayofmakingfoodthatfeelsgoodtoeat.Peopleargueoverthecorrelationbetweenfermentedfoodsandanactiveguthealth.Butthere’snodenyingthatIpersonallyfeelbettereatingadietfulloffermentedproducts.WhenIwasgrowingup,eatingatthebestrestaurantsmeantfeelingsickandfullfordays,becausesupposedlyeverythingtastyhadtobefatty,salty,andsugary.Idreamabouttherestaurantsofthefuture,whereyougonotjustforaninjectionofnewflavorsandexperiences,butforsomethingthat’sreallypositiveforyourmindandbody.

SeaSnailBroth,Noma,2018

Thebrothismadebybraisingseasnailsinanoilmadefromdriedkoji,thencombiningthecookingliquidwithseaweedstockandmoreoil.It’sservedintheshell,garnishedwithpickledherbs.

Ihopethisbookcanbealaunchingpadforhomecooksandrestaurantcooksalike.Whenwethinkofouridealreaders,DavidandItalkequallyabouttheparentwho’spassionateaboutcookingforhisorherfamilyanddoesn’tmindaweekendproject,aswellastheprofessionalcookorsous-chefwhocanreadbetweenthelinesandpulloutnovelideas.

Studyingthescienceandhistoryoffermentation,learningtodoitourselves,adaptingittolocalingredients,andcookingwiththeresultschangedeverythingatNoma.Onceyou’vedonethesameandhavetheseincredibleproductsatyourdisposal—whetherit’slacto-fermentedfruit,barleymiso,koji,oraroastedchickenwinggarum—cookinggetseasierwhileyourfoodbecomesmorecomplex,nuanced,anddelicious.

AboutThisBookTherearethousandsofproductsoffermentation,frombeerandwinetocheesetokimchitosoysauce.They’realldramaticallydifferentcreations,ofcourse,butthey’reunifiedbythesamebasicprocess.Microbes—bacteria,molds,yeasts,oracombinationthereof—breakdownorconvertthemoleculesinfood,producingnewflavorsasaresult.Takelacto-fermentedpickles,forinstance,wherebacteriaconsumesugarandgeneratelacticacid,souringthevegetablesandthebrineinwhichtheysit,simultaneouslypreservingthemandrenderingthemmoredelicious.Cascadesofsecondaryreactionscontributelayersofflavorsandaromasthatdidn’texistintheoriginal,unfermentedproduct.Thebestfermentsstillretainmuchoftheiroriginalcharacter,whetherthat’satouchofresidualsweetnessinacarrotvinegarorthefloralperfumeofwildrosesinarosekombucha,whilesimultaneouslybeingtransformedintosomethingentirelynew.

ThisbookisacomprehensivetourofthefermentsweemployatNoma,butitisbynomeansanencyclopedicguidetoallthevariousdirectionsyoucantakefermentation.Itislimitedtoseventypesoffermentationthathavebecomeindispensabletoourkitchen:lacticacidfermentation,kombucha,vinegar,koji,miso,shoyu,andgarum.Italsocovers“black”fruitsandvegetables,whicharen’ttechnicallyproductsoffermentationbutsharealotincommonasfarashowthey’remadeandusedinourkitchen.

Notablyabsentfromthisbookareinvestigationsofalcoholicfermentationandcharcuterie,dairy,andbread.(Breadcouldtakeup—anddeserves—itsownseparatediscussion.)Whilewedabblewiththefermentationofsugarintoalcohol,itisalmostalwaysenroutetosomethingelse,likevinegar.We’vealwaysworkedcloselywithincrediblewinemakersandbrewersandcannotpretendtobemastersoftheirdomain.Charcuterieissomethingthathasnotyetplayedalargeroleinourmenus,thoughoverthecomingyearsweintendtodivedeeperintofermentingmeatsaswecelebratethegameseasoneachfall.Whilewedomakecheeseattherestaurant,it’softenservedfreshandunfermented(thoughwe’renostrangerstoyogurtandcrèmefraîche).Wheneverwehavecookedwithartisanalagedcheeses,we’velefttheirproductioninthehandsofScandinavia’samazingdairyfarmers.

Eachchaptertacklesoneferment,providingsomehistoricalcontextandanexplorationofthescientificmechanismsatwork.Manyoftheideasandmicrobialplayersbehinddifferentfermentsareinterconnected,soyou’llsee

someconceptsrevisitedanddevelopedoverthecourseofthebook.Forexample,inordertomakeshoyu,miso,andgarum,you’llfirstneedtounderstandhowtomakekoji,adeliciousmoldgrownoncookedgrainsandharnessedforitspowerfulenzymes.Thatbeingsaid,youshouldfeelfreetodiveinwhereveryourinterestsleadyou.You’llstillgetathoroughunderstandingofeachfermentwithoutreadingtherestofthebook.

Includedwitheachchapterisanin-depthbaserecipe,whereweputideastoworkandwalkyouthroughthestepsofmakingarepresentativeexampleofeachstyleofferment.Inmostcases,there’snosingle“right”way,sotherecipesarewrittenwithmultiplemethodsandpossiblepitfallsinmind.Wegointoquiteabitofdetail—morethanyoumayneedinsomeinstances—butwewantyoutofeelascomfortablemakingthesefermentsasoneofourownchefswouldbeiftaskedwithmakingoneforthefirsttime.Eventhoughitmayrequirealittlepatienceandcommitment,youcanandabsolutelyshouldproduceyourownshoyusandmisosandgarums.Onceyoutastetherewardsofyoureffort,it’shardtoimaginecookingwithoutthem.Plus,itallgetseasierthesecondtimearound.

Afteryou’vereadthein-depthbaserecipeforaferment,youmayfeelreadytoapplythesameprocesstootheringredients,buttogiveyousomeinspiration,eachchapteralsocontainsseveralvariations,whichmayilluminateotherfacetsofthesametechnique.Insomecases,thesevariationsdivergeinmethodfromthebaserecipe,butrestassured,we’lldetailthesechangesandexplainwhywe’remakingthem.

Finally,followingeachrecipe,you’llseeafewpracticalapplicationsforthefermentinyourday-to-daycooking—manyofwhichareinspiredbypreparationswemakeatNoma.ThinkofthemasthingsthatacookfromNomawouldmakefordinnerathomeusingthefermentsinthebook.We’vewrittentheseshortrecipesinamoreinformalmanner,takingacuefromthenaturalistEuellGibbons,whowrotebeautifullyaboutforaging—anotherpreoccupationofours.InhisbookStalkingtheWildAsparagus,Gibbonsdetailshowtoidentifyandharvestwildplants,andthenprovidesrecipesinafluid,conversationalformat—suggestingratherthanprescribingwhattodowiththeincredibleingredientsyoucanfindoutdoors.It’sthesameapproachwe’retryingtotakehere.Wedon’tgointostep-by-stepdetailwhenitcomestohowyoucanemploythefermentsinthisbook,becausethespecificsaren’tnearlyasimportantasthepossibilities.Evenifyoudon’tfeeluptomakingyourownferments,you’llstillfindallmannerofnewusesforstore-boughtversions.

RoastedBoneMarrow,Noma,2015

Thebonemarrowismarinatedinbeefgarumandelderberryvinegar,thenroastedovercoals.It’sservedwithcabbageleavesdressedwithanemulsionofcaramelizedbeefgarumpulpandasauceofwhitecurrantjuiceseasonedwithlactocepwater.

Thisisabookmeanttobringsomeclaritytoahazyrealmofcooking,fullofconfusingandunfamiliarterminology.We’vespentthepastdecadeinvestigatingandunravelingfermentationforourselves,andwe’lltrytosharewhatwe’velearnedwithyou.Butmoreimportant,wewantyoutocomeawayfromthisbookwiththesamefeelingofexhilarationandwondermentthatwehavewheneverwemakeanduseoneofthemiraculousproductsoffermentation.

ChilledOystersandSaltedGreenGooseberries,Noma,2010

AlightlypoachedDanishoysterisdressedwithsliversoflacto-fermentedgreengooseberriesandtheirjuice.

1.Primer—WhatIsFermentation?WhatMakesFermentationDelicious?SettingtheTableforMicrobesWildFermentationBacksloppingCleanliness,Pathogens,andSafetyPotentialofHydrogen(pH)SaltandBaker’sPercentagesBuildingaFermentationChamberThinkingOutsidetheKrautSubstitutingStore-BoughtFermentsWeightsandMeasures

WhatIsFermentation?Beforewediveintothepracticalinsandoutsoffermentation,let’sfirstclearlydefinewhatitis.

Atthemostbasiclevel,fermentationisthetransformationoffoodbymicroorganisms—whetherbacteria,yeasts,ormold.Tobeslightlymorespecific,itisthetransformationoffoodthroughenzymesproducedbythosemicroorganisms.Andfinally,inthestrictestscientificdefinition,fermentationistheprocessbywhichamicroorganismconvertssugarintoanothersubstanceintheabsenceofoxygen.

ThewordfermentationcomesfromtheLatinwordfervere,meaning“toboil.”TheancientRomans,uponseeingvatsofgrapesspontaneouslybubbleandtransformintowine,describedtheprocessusingtheclosestanaloguetheycouldthinkof.Andwhilethosebubblingvatsofgrapeshadnothingtodowithboiling,theyweretruefermentsinthescientificsense,asyeast-producedenzymestransformedthesugarsinthegrapesintoalcohol.

However,notalltheprocessesweconsidertobefermentationfitneatlyintotidydefinitionsofit.Forinstance,whilekojiisfaithfultothedefinition,Noma’sgarumsarenot.Inkoji,themoldAspergillusoryzaepenetratesgrainsofriceorbarleyandproducesenzymesthatconvertthegrain’sstarchesintosimplesugarsandothermetabolites.Thisiswhat’sknownasaprimaryfermentationprocess.Thegarumsinthisbook,ontheotherhand,aretheproductofasecondaryfermentationprocess.Toproducegarum,wemixkojiwithanimalproteinsinordertotakeadvantageoftheenzymesproducedduringtheprimaryfermentationprocess.

Wedon’tdifferentiatebetweenprimaryandsecondaryfermentationprocessesinthisbook,butyoumayfindithelpfultohavethesedefinitionsunderyourbeltasyoufindyourwaywithfermentation.

Youtasteasmuchwithyourbrainasyoudowithyourtongue.

WhatMakesFermentationDelicious?Tasteisafunctionofthehumanbody,andtounderstandwhattastesgoodtous,wehavetounderstanditsroleinourevolutionaryhistory.Alloursensesservetoaidinoursurvival.Oursensesoftasteandsmellhavebeenshapedoverhundredsofmillionsofyearstoincentivizeustoeatfoodsthatarebeneficialtoourbodies.Ourtonguesandolfactorysystemareunbelievablycomplicatedorgansthattakeinchemicalcuesfromtheworldaroundusandtransmitthatinformationtoourbrains.Tasteletsusknowthataripepieceoffruitissweetandthusfullofcalorie-richsugar,orthataplant’sstalkisbitterandpotentiallypoisonous.Wearebornwithaversionstocertainflavors(asensethatbecomesreinforcedbyexperience),leadingustogagatthestenchofrottingfleshdecayingatthehandsofpathogenicbacteria,whileweregisterthescentofmeatroastingoverfireasmouthwateringlydelicious,becauseitindicatestoourbrainsthatwe’reabouttoeatsomethingrichinproteins.

Therearenumerousbiologicalprocessesatworkinanygivenfermentation,buttheonesthatmattermosttousfromatasteperspectivearethosethatbreakdownlargechainsofmoleculesintotheirconstituentparts.Thestarchesinfoodslikerice,barley,peas,andbreadareactuallylongchainsoflinkedmoleculesofglucose,asimplesugar.Proteins,whichcanbefoundinlargesupplyinsoybeansandmeat,areconstructedinasimilarfashionfromlengthy,windingchainsofaminoacids—smallorganicmoleculesessentialtoallaspectsoflifeonearth.Oneofthoseaminoacids,glutamicacid,registersonourtastereceptorsasumami—theelusive,crave-ablequalitythatconnectsfoodslikemushrooms,tomatoes,cheese,meat,andsoysauce.

Sowhatmakesfermentationsogood?Ontheirown,starchandproteinmoleculesaretoolargeforourbodiestoregisterassweetorumami-rich.However,oncebrokendownintosimplesugarsandfreeaminoacidsthroughfermentation,foodsbecomemoreobviouslydelicious.Kojimadefromricehasanintensesweetnessthatplaincookedricedoesn’t.Rawbeeflefttofermentintogarumhasasavorinessthatspeakstousonaprimitivelevel.

Simplyput,themicrobesresponsibleforfermentationtransformmorecomplicatedfoodstuffsintotherawmaterialyourbodyneeds,renderingthemmoreeasilydigestible,nutritious,anddelicious.Ouraffectionforthetastesthosemicrobesproducehasallowedthemtoevolveandstayinourcompany.Humanshavebeenfermentingforsolongthatmanyofthemicroscopicagentsresponsiblecanbeconsidereddomesticated,justlikehouseholdcatsordogs.

Butwhilepetscanstarelonginglyatyouifthey’rehungryorcold,microbesareabittrickiertoread.It’samutuallybeneficialrelationship,butonethatneedsabitofworktokeepeveryonehappy.That’sthejobofthefermenter.

Proteinsaremadeoftangledchainsofaminoacids,life’sbuildingblocks.

SettingtheTableforMicrobes

Thenumberofspeciesofmicrobesonearthisgreaterthanthatofallplantsandanimalscombined.

There’sathinlinebetweenrotandfermentation,andthatlinemightbestbeunderstoodasanactualline,likethekindyou’dfindoutsideanightclub.Rotisaclubwhereeveryonegetsin:bacteriaandfungi,safeorunsafe,flavorenhancingordestructive.Whenyoufermentsomething,you’retakingontheroleofabouncer,keepingoutunwantedmicrobesandlettingintheonesthataregoingtomakethepartypop.

Youhaveseveraltoolsatyourdisposalintryingtoencouragecertainmicrobesordeterothers.Someorganismsaremoretolerantofaciditythanothers.Likewisewithoxygen,heat,andsalinity.Ifyou’refamiliarwithwhatyourpreferredmicrobeneedstofunction,youcanwieldthesefactorstoyourbenefit.Eachchapterinthisbookwillgointogreatdetailabouttheconditionsyouneedtocreatesuccessfulfermentation,butforstarters,here’sanoverviewoftheplayersthatwillbeworkingforus.

BacteriaAmongtheearliestformsoflife,bacteriaaresingle-celledorganismsthatarepresentinuncountablequantitiesinnearlyeverycorneroftheglobe.Onlyafractionareknowntoscience.Therearemalignantbacteriathatcanproducetoxinscapableofkillingmuchlargerorganisms.Atthesametime,therearebillionsofbeneficialbacterialivingonandinsideofus.Attheendoftheday,themajorityofthemareharmlesstous.

Lacticacidbacteria(LAB)

LABarerod-andsphere-shapedbacteriathatarepresentinabundanceontheskinsoffruits,vegetables,andhumans.Weusethemfortheirabilitytoconvertsugarintolacticacid,givingpickles,kimchi,andotherlacto-fermentedproductstheircharacteristicsourness.Becausetheyproducelacticacid,theyareabletotoleratelow-pHenvironments.Theyarealsohalo-tolerant(salt-tolerant)andanaerobic,meaningtheythriveintheabsenceofoxygen.

Aceticacidbacteria(AAB)

LikeLAB,AABarereadilyabundantrod-shapedbacteria,everpresentonthesurfaceofmanyfoods.Theygeneratethesharpsournessofvinegarandkombuchabyconvertingalcoholtoaceticacid.Weoftenusetheminconjunctionwithyeaststhatfirstconvertsugarsintoalcohol.Theycantoleratetheacidicenvironmentstheycreate,andrequireoxygentocreateaceticacid,thusclassifyingthemasaerobicbacteria.

FungiFungiencompassahugeswathoflifeonearth,fromsingle-celledyeaststomoldstogiganticpuffballmushrooms.Multicellular,filamentousfungilikemushroomsandmoldsgrowbygatheringnutrientsthroughtendril-likehyphaethattogetherformaweb-likesystemknownasamycelium,similartotherootsofaplant.Theysecreteenzymesthroughtheirmycelium,effectivelydigestingthefoodintheirsurroundings,thenabsorbingthenutrientsfromtheirenvironment.

SaccharomycescerevisiaeAnextremelyhandyspeciesofyeast,Saccharomycescerevisiaeisresponsibleforthreeofhumanity’smostimportantculinarypillars:bread,beer,andwine.Bountifulinthenaturalworld,asdemonstratedbyproducersofspontaneouslyfermentedbreadandwine,S.cerevisiaemakesalivingconvertingsugarsintoalcohol.Itbreaksdownglucosetoharnessthechemicalenergyneededforitslifeprocesses,whileproducingcarbondioxideandethanolasby-products.Differentstrainsorsubspeciesareharnessedfortheirparticularqualities,whichcanleadtowidevariationsinflavor.Forinstance,thestrainofS.cerevisiaethatisusedinbreadbakingisn’tdesirableforproducingbeerorwine.Yeastcansurviveandmultiplyinthepresenceofoxygen,butalcoholfermentationtakesplaceanaerobically.Saccharomycesdiesattemperaturesinexcessof60°C/140°F.

Brettanomyces

Agenusoflong,cylindricalyeast,Brettanomycesisusedintheproductionofbeerswithsourqualitiesbecauseofitsabilitytoproduceaceticacidasametabolite.Brettanomycesalsooccursnaturallyontheskinsoffruits,andcanbepurchasedreadilyas“saisonyeast.”Itcansurviveinoxygen,butproducesethanolanaerobically.Likeotheryeasts,itcannotsurvivetemperaturesabove60°C/140°F.

Aspergillusoryzae

Perhapsthemostimportantmicrobeinthisbook,A.oryzae(pronouncedoh-RAI-zee)isthesporulatingmoldalsoknownaskoji.It’sbeenbredforhundredsofyearstogrowextremelyquicklyinhotandhumidenvironmentswhengivenaccesstotheplentifulstarchesinproductslikecookedriceorbarley.(Generallyspeaking,30°C/86°Fand70%to80%humidityareidealforAspergillus;temperaturesabove42°C/108°Fwillkillit.)Kojisecretestheenzymesprotease,amylase,andasmallamountoflipase,whichbreakdownproteins,starches,andfats,respectively.Weharnesstheseenzymesintheproductionofourmisos,shoyus,andgarums.

Aspergillusluchuensis

ArelativeofAspergillusoryzae,Aspergillusluchuensis(pronouncedloo-CHOO-en-sis)metabolizesstarchesandproteinsandproducescitricacidasaby-product.It’straditionallyusedtobrewthebasesofAsianspiritslikeKoreanshochuandJapaneseawamori,asthedistillationofthealcoholleavesthecitricacidbehind.Thoughit’salesser-knownspecies,it’sextremelydelicious.

EnzymesEnzymesarenotmicrobes—theyaren’tevenalive—butratherbiologicalcatalyststhatfacilitatechemicaltransformationswithinorganismsororganicmatter.Youcangenerallyidentifythembythesuffix-ase,asinprotease(anenzymethatbreaksdownproteins)andamylase(fromtheLatinwordamylum,meaning“starch,”whichbreaksdownexactlythat).Theyareaclassofproteinsbuiltthroughevolutiontoservespecificbutdifferentfunctions.Exactlyhowtheyworkisrathercomplicated,butyoucanthinkoftheonesfeaturedinthisbookasacrossbetweenkeysandscissors.They’rekeysinthesensethattheyaretailoredtofitspecificlocks,actingononeorganicmoleculewhileleavingothersalone;andthey’rescissorsinthattheycancutribbonsintoshorterlengths.Generallyspeaking,enzymesworkmostefficientlyinwarm,fluidenvironments,butifheatedtoohigh,theycanbe“cooked”toapointwheretheynolongerfunction.

Beta-amylaseisanenzymecapableofbreakingdownstarchesintotheirconstituentsugarmolecules.

WildFermentationThefermentsweundertakeatNomaalldependtovaryingdegreesonwildfermentation.Thatistosay,wecreateenviron-mentsthatareconducivetothegrowthofnaturallyoccurringbeneficialmicrobes,anddetrimentaltomalevolentones.Withourlacto-ferments,forinstance,wedependentirelyonawidesetoflacticacidbacteriaintheenvironment—onthefruitorvegetableswe’refermenting,onourhands,floatingintheair—toturnsugarintolacticacidandotherflavorfulmetabolites.Byallowingnaturetodoitsthing,wegetlayersofnuanceandcomplexityinourfermentsthatwouldn’tbepossibleifwedictatedexactlywhichmicrobeswereallowedtowork.Wildfermentationisanon-inoculatedandoftenverydiversefermentation.Simplyput,it’showfermentationwasfirstperformed,andit’sstilltriedandtrue.

Forourkombuchas,vinegars,andkoji,wedointroducebacteria,yeast,orfungusintotheequationinordertogettheresultswe’relookingfor,butwestillallowandencouragewildfermentation.Thesamegoesforespeciallylargebatchesoflacto-fermentedproducts.Forinstance,whenwe’refermentinghundredsofkilosofasparagusatatime,weaddpowderedlacticacidbacteria(LAB)tothebrine.IfforsomereasonthenaturallyoccurringLABhadtroublegettingstarted,we’dbeexposedtotheriskofsomeothermalignantmicrobetakinghold.AboostintheLABpopulationisanicebitofinsuranceagainstlosingallthatproductwhenyou’reworkingonalargescale.

BacksloppingBacksloppingisavitaltechniqueinpreppingmicrobialenvironmentsforfermentationandwillcomeupnumeroustimesinthisbook,especiallyintheproductionofkombuchaandvinegar.Theideaisbasicallytogivethesubstanceyouintendtofermentaboostofbeneficialmicrobesbyaddingadosefromapreviousbatchofthatsameferment.

Bypouringahealthyamountof,say,perryvinegarintoajaroffreshperry,webothlowerthepHofthesolutionandaddahealthyshotofaceticacidbacteria(AAB).LoweringthepH(acidifying)hastheeffectofslowingorstoppinganyunwantedmicrobesthataren’tacid-tolerantfromactingontheperry,andensuresthatthere’sahealthypopulationofAABtofermenttheperryintoperryvinegar.Backsloppingstacksthedeckinfavorofthemicrobeswewanttosucceed.

Ofcourse,ifthisisyourfirsttimemakingoneofthefermentsinthebook,youwon’tnecessarilyhaveapreviousbatchtouseforbackslop.Inthatcase,you’llhavetofindasimilarsubstitute.Forourvinegars,wesuggestunpasteurizedapplecidervinegarasareplacement.Forourkombuchas,youcanuseasimilarlyflavoredunpasteurizedkombuchaortheliquidthatyourSCOBY(the“mother”cultureofyeastandbacteriathatproduceskombucha;seecooperativefrementation)comespackagedin.Thedownsideisthatyou’regoingtodilutethepureflavorofthevinegarorkombuchayou’remaking.That’sfine,though,asitgivesyouaperfectreasontomakethesamevinegarorkombuchaagain—thistimeusingaportionofyourfirstbatchasbackslop.

Backsloppinggivesaboostfromonegenerationofafermenttothenext.

Cleanliness,Pathogens,andSafetyCleanlinessissomethingwetakeveryseriouslyinthekitchen,outofbothprideforourworkplaceandrespectforourcolleagues.However,acleanandsanitaryworkplaceisdoublyimportantinthefermentationlab,inordertopreventunwantedpathogensfrominvadingafermentandcausingittotasteoffor,worse,becomedangeroustoeat.AtNoma,wealwayserronthesideofcaution.Ifsomethingyou’vemadesmellswrong—notjustfunkylikefishsauce,butnose-stinginglyrotten—trustyournose.Ifyoutasteasmallsampleanditturnsyourstomach,rememberthatyourbodyisdesignedtorejectthingsthatmaybeharmfultoyou.Whenindoubt,throwitout.Ifyou’reeverunsureofafermentedproduct,tossit.Theweeksormonthsofyourinvestedtimearenotworthriskingyourhealth.

Potentiallyharmfulmicrobesareeverpresentintheenvironment.Bacteriacanmultiplyspeedily,withorwithoutoxygen,attemperaturesrangingfrom4.5°to50°C/40°to122°F,especiallyinmoist,nutrient-richenvironments.Ofcourse,thatdescribestheexactcircumstancesinwhichmanyfermentedgoodsareproduced.BoththeWorldHealthOrganizationandtheUnitedStatesDepartmentofAgriculturerecommendcookingfoodssensitivetopathogeniccontaminationabove70°C/158°Fbeforeconsumption.Now,that’safairlyseveresafeguard,andobviouslynotpossibleformanyferments.Thatbeingsaid,youshouldbecautious,butnotworried.Fermentationismeanttobearewardingandexhilaratingpractice,butrememberthatyou’replayingwithliveammo.

Cleanlinessisnexttogodliness(andalsocrucialtoasafeandsuccessfulferment).

Throughoutthisbook,wedoourbesttoprovideclearinstructionsthatwillproducesafeanddeliciousproductsiffollowedclosely.Don’teyeballmeasurementsortakeshortcuts.Whenarecipecallsforaspecificsaltcontent(above10percentbyweight)orpH(below4.5),it’stoensurethatyou’refermentingsafely.Butofcourse,thefirststepinpreventingunwantedmicroorganismsfromtakingholdinafermentistomakesureyourequipmentandhandsarecleanbeforetheycomeintocontactwithfood.Whilethisislessimportantincertaincases,it’scriticalinotherinstances.Whenmakingkoji,forexample,you’llneedtobesuretheincubationchamberisproperlysanitizedbeforeintroducingtheinoculatedgrains.Andwhenworkingwithyourhands,wearnitrileorlatexglovestopreventcontamination(exceptinplaceswherealittlebacteriafromyourskincanhelpthingsalong,aswithlactic-acidfermentation).

Now,whatdowemeanby“clean”?Thereisadifferencebetweenthelevelofcleanlinessyouwouldexpecttofindinauniversitybiologylabandthatinahomeorrestaurantkitchen.Let’sdefinesometerms.Cleaningmeansthatyou’veremovedvisibledirtfromthesurfaceofobjects.Soapandwaterwillcleanasurfacebutdoverylittletoreducethesurface’spopulationofmicroorganisms,goodorbad.Sterilizedimpliesthatyou’veeradicatedalllife-forms—viruses,bacteria,fungi—onyourequipmentandyourworksurfaces(andsometimesevenintheproductyou’relookingtoferment).Thisisalevelof

certaintyrequiredinhospitalsandmicrobiologylabs.You’llneverneedsomethingasseriousasanindustrial-strengthautoclaveforarecipeinthisbook.Whatwe’relookingtodofortherecipeshereissanitize.Tosanitizeapieceofequipmentorworksurfaceimpliesthatyou’veremovedmostmicrobiologicallife.Thatwillbesufficientforourpurposes.Runningyourequipmentthroughahotcycleinadishwasherorsteamingorboilingitforafewminutesismorethanenoughtoensurethatyou’reworkingcleanandsanitarily.Ifyourequipmentisheatproof,dry-heatsterilizationisanotheroption.Ceramic,glass,andmetalcontainersandutensilscanbebakedintheovenfor2hoursat160°C/320°Ftoensurethatthey’refreeofcontaminants.

Forequipmentorworksurfacesthatyoucan’tpopintothedishwasher,therearecommonsanitizersintendedforfoodproductionandfermentationlikeStarSan(availableatmanyhome-brewshops),distilledwhitevinegar(asanitizingagentfavoredbygrandmastheworldover),andevenhouseholdbleachdilutedwithwaterto20millilitersperliter(aslongasyourinsewithfreshwaterafterward).AtNoma,forlargeitemslikecrocksandbuckets,wedisinfectusingethanoldilutedwithfilteredwaterto60percentalcoholbyvolume(ABV)—40milliliterswaterforevery60millilitersethanol.(Wediluteitbecauseifthepercentageofethanolistoohigh,itcanactuallycoagulatetheproteinsthatmakeupthecellwallsofmanymicrobesandpreventthemfromdying.)Weputthesolutioninaspraybottleandspraywhateverneedstobesanitized,letitsitfor10to15minutes,thenwipeitoffwithapapertowel.

Finally,whileagreatdealoftimeisspentinthisbookintroducingtheamazingmicroorganismsresponsibleforfermentation,it’sequallyimportanttoacquaintourselveswiththemicrobesthatcanmakethingsgosideways.Withathoroughgraspofpathogenicbacteriaandmolds,andwhatconditionstheycantolerate,you’llbebetterequippedtokeepthemoutofyourproducts.

Whilemanymicrobesarebeneficialandthemajorityareharmless,therearestillafewbadmicrobesthatcancauseillness.

ClostridiumbotulinumC.botulinumisthesporulatingbacteriaresponsibleforbotulism.Itisananaerobicbacteriathatthrivesinnutrient-rich,warmenvironments.Itssporesarecommonlyfounddormantinsoilandwater,waitingforfavorableconditionstopropagateandreleasepotentneurotoxins.Ingestingjustamicrogramofbotulismtoxinisenoughtocauseseriousillness.Youcannottasteorsmellbotulismtoxin,andthustheonlywaytoguaranteesafetyisthroughcarefulattentiontobestpractices.

Thoughcasesofbotulismpoisoningarerare,it’susuallyfoundinimproperlyrefrigeratedanimalproductsorimproperlycannedvegetableproducts(wherecanningtemperatureswerenothotenoughand/orthecanningliquidwasnotsufficientlyacidic).Giventhatthesporesofthebacteriaareoftenfoundinthesoil,specialattentionshouldbepaidwhenfermentingroots,bulbs,andtubers.Whenmakingblackgarlic,forexample,you’rekeepingarootvegetableinananaerobicenvironmentatawarmtemperature.However,C.botulinumcannotsurviveatasustainedtemperatureof60°C/140°F.Yourresponsibilityistoensurethatyourheatingchamberdoesn’tdipbelowthatthreshold.

C.botulinumalsohasgreatdifficultygrowinginfluidmediumswithawateractivitybelow0.97(achievedbysaltconcentrationsof5percentorhigher)andinacidicenvironmentswithapHbelow4.6.Manyfermentsinthisbookbeginwithsaltconcentrationslowerthan5percentandapHabove4.6.However,thecombinedeffectofmoderatesaltcontentandagraduallydecreasingpHisusuallyenoughtosafeguardagainstmalevolentbacteria.Forinstance,avegetablebrinedat2percentsaltwillhaveahighenoughsaltcontenttoinhibitC.botulinumwhilebeneficiallacticacidbacterialowerthepH.IfafermentreachesapHbelow5withinthefirsttwodaysandendsupbelow4.6bythetimeofcompletion,itisgenerallyrecognizedassafe.

EscherichiacoliManystrainsofE.coliareactuallyharmlessandpartofanormalgutflora,butsomevarietiescancauseseverefoodpoisoning.Thesebacteriaareusuallytransmittedthroughpoorhygieneorcontaminatedmeatproducts.Cross-contaminationofworksurfacesandutensilsisoneofthemorecommoncausesofE.coli–relatedillness.Properandthoroughwashingofvegetablesincoldwaterwillgreatlyreducepopulationsofthepathogen,shouldtheybepresent.Forproductslikebeefgarum,saltconcentrationsof10percentorhigherwillkilloffthemicrobes.Ontopofthat,thehightemperaturesatwhichgarumfermentsofferanaddedlayerofprotection.

SalmonellaSalmonellaisagenusofrod-shapedbacteriaoftenfoundinrawpoultryproductsandunpasteurizedmilkandonunwashedfruitsandvegetables.Doingeverythingyoucantoavoidcross-contaminationfromrawpoultryisparamountinavoidingSalmonellafoodpoisoning.Forexample,ifyou’recookingchickenwingsforchickenwinggarum,besuretocleanandsanitizeanyutensilsbeforeputtingthembackintoactionwiththefinal,preparedingredients.LikeE.coli,Salmonellahasaminimumwateractivitylevelof0.95,meaningthatsaltlevelsabove10percentwillkillitoff.

PathogenicmoldsTherearethousandsofwildandinvasivemoldsthatwouldjumpattheopportunitytoeatyourfermentationprojectbeforeyougetthechance.Manymicroscopicmoldsporesareairborne,whileotherstravelinwateroronthebacksofinsects.Notallofthemwillnecessarilybeharmful,butifyoudidn’tputthemoldthereyourself,it’sbestnottotakethechance.

Therearemanyinstancesinthisbookwherewearetryingtocreatetheidealenvironmentforbeneficialmoldgrowth,sothebestpreventativemeasuresyoucantakeagainstpathogenicmoldsarecleaningandsanitizing.Byeliminatinganyunwantedguestsattheoutset,youensurethattheywon’tspoilthepartylater.Anothermethodistooverwhelmcompetingmolds.Withkoji,weinoculatesteamedbarleyheavilywithA.oryzaesporesinordertoelbowoutthecompetition.Withfermentslikegarumsandshoyus,thesaltcontentretardsmoldgrowth.Frequentstirringandcleaningofthecontainerwallswillbringanysporesonthesurfaceoutofcontactwiththeairanddrowntheminasaltysea.Forkombucha,keepingthesurfaceofyourSCOBYmoistbybastingitwithliquidisoftenenoughtokeepitacidifiedandmold-free.Last,moldsareeasiertospotthanotherpathogens.Whenmakingsomethinglikemiso,youcansimplyscrapeawayanymoldthatformsonthesurface.

PotentialofHydrogen(pH)

Theratioofhydroxideions(negativelycharged)tohydrogenions(positivelycharged)inanaqueoussolutiondeterminesitspH.

Potentialofhydrogen,orpH,isahugelyimportantmeasurementinchemistry,andakeyfactortoconsiderinfermentation.Simplyput,ithelpsyoumeasureacidity.ThepHscalewasfirstconceivedintheCarlsbergLabsinCopenhagenneartheturnofthetwentiethcentury.Itmeasuresthedifferenceinconcentrationinanaqueoussolutionbetweenhydrogenions(H+)andhydroxideions(OH−),witheveryincreaseinnumericalvaluefrom0to14indicatingatenfoldchangeinionicconcentration.

Indistilledwater(pureH2O),hydrogenandhydroxideionssitinexactbalancewitheachother.IthasapHof7,rightinthemiddleofthescale,andisneitheralkalinenoracidic,butneutral.Whenhydroxideionsoutnumberhydrogenions,thesubstanceissaidtobebasicoralkaline,andhasapHabove7.Whenhydrogenionsoutnumberhydroxideions,thesubstanceisacidic,andhasapHbelow7.Themostacidicsubstancesyoucanfind,likehydrochloricacid(acomponentofstomachacid)andsulphuricacid(foundincarbatteries),haveapHnear0.Themostbasicsubstances,likesodiumhydroxide(foundinlyeordraincleaner)haveapHcloseto14.

Attimesinthisbook,weseektocontrolorchangethepHofaferment,whichaffectseverythingfrommicrobes’abilitytothriveandpropagatetoanenzyme’sabilitytofunctionproperlytothetasteofthefinalferment.Sometimes,we’reseekingtolowerthepHinaferment—thusmakingittastemoresour—throughthecreationbymicrobesoflactic,acetic,orcitricacid.Weusealkalinesolutionstoo,asinthecaseofourmisomadefrommasa,whereweboilcorninacalciumhydroxidesolutiontocoaxoutfloralandfruitynotesfromthekernels.

YoucantrackpHusingafewtools,includingteststripsordigitalmeters.Moreexactingfermentersmayfindthesetoolshelpful,buttasteisyourbestguide.Ultimately,whatyoufindpalatableshoulddictatewhatyouthinkthe“right”pHis.

SaltandBaker’sPercentagesSaltisoneofthemostimportantfactorsinasafeandsuccessfulfermentation.Forstarters,ithastheremarkableabilitytoinhibitbiologicalprocessesofbothmicrobesandhumans.(There’sareasonwhydrinkingsaltwaterwillkillyouifyou’restrandedatsea.)Saltisanioniccompoundofsodiumandchloride,whichbreaksapartintoaseaofionswhenitdissolvesinwater.Natureabhorsimbalance,soanywheretheycan,waterandthesaltionsdissolvedinitwilltrytospreadoutintoanevendistribution.Putapieceofmeatorabacterialcellinasolutionofsalt,andwaterfrominsidewillflowoutwardwhilesaltionsflowinward,untileventuallyequilibriumisreached.It’showbriningworks,andit’salsothemechanismbywhichpathogenslikeSalmonellacanbekilledwithsalt.Saltdrawswateroutofthebacteria’scellsuntiltheyshrivelupanddie.(Foramoredetailedexplanationofthis,see“Salt/Water”.)Knowingthesalttoleranceofdifferentmicrobescanmakeaworldofdifferenceinaferment.

Forthatreason,westressprecisesaltmeasurements,usuallyexpressedinpercentagebyweight.NotethatinthefermentationlabatNoma,weusebaker’spercentages—whenwetellyoutoadd2%salttoakilogramofplums,wemean2%oftheweightoftheplums(whichcomesoutto20grams),notthetotalweightoftheplumsandthesalt(whichwouldbe20.4grams).Thedifferenceisnotalwaysverysignificant,butusingbaker’spercentagesstreamlinesthemath.

Last,thetypeofsaltmakesadifference.Wecallfornon-iodizedsalt,becauseiodineismildlyantimicrobial.Whileusingstandardtablesaltwon’tstopafermentcold,itcanimpedehelpfulmicrobesfromgainingastrongfoothold.Koshersaltwillworkwell,andshouldbeavailableinyourlocalgrocerystore.Mineral-richseasaltslikefleurdeselaregreat,too,andcanactuallyimprovethetextureoflacto-ferments.

BuildingaFermentationChamberBeginningwiththekojichapter,you’llfindthatsomerecipesinthisbookrequirespecifictemperatureandhumidityconditions.Therearemyriadoptionsforconstructingafermentationchamber,dependingonhowmuchproductyouintendtomake,andhowelaborateyouwantyourrigtobe.AtNoma,wehaveroomsdedicatedtofermentation,withaccurateandprecisetemperatureandhumiditycontrols.Duringourpop-uprestaurantinSydney,wecraftedafermentationchamberoutofabroomcloset.Youcanuseadecommissionedrefrigerator,aspeedrackwithavinylcover,Styrofoamcoolers,orwoodenboxes.Thetwobasiccriteriaforagoodcontainerareinsulationandwaterresistance.ThechapteronKojiexplainswhatfactorsyouneedtocontrolandwhytheymatter.

Whileyou’regettingyourfeetwetintheworldoffermentation,anappliancesuchasaricecookerorslowcookerwillsufficeforsomeprocessesinthisbook.(Notethatyou’llneedamodelwithoutanauto-offfunction,assomerecipescallforincubationtimesthatlastforweeks.)Butonceyou’rehookedonfermenting,buildingalarger,moreaccuratechamberisagamechanger.

Herewe’veoutlinedtwopaths,designedforsmall-scaleprojects,builtusingcomponentsthatareavailableonlineoratahardwareorrestaurantsupplystore.Itcanallbedoneforlessthanthecostofastandmixer.

CoveredSpeedRackForthisfermentationchamber,you’llneed:

• Aspeedrack:Thebonesofyourchamber.Speedracksareusedinrestaurantstoholdtraysofingredientsorfoodcomingoutoftheoven.They’remadeoflightweightbutsturdyaluminumandareequippedwithrailsontowhichyouslidesheetpansorgastro/hotelpans.Theycomeinvaryingheights,rangingfrom1to1.75meters.Lookforonethatcomeswithaheavyplasticorvinylcoverwithzippersrunninguptwosides.Thecoverwillretainheatandhumidity,andthezippersalloweasyaccesstotheinterior.You’llalsoneedafewsheetpansthatarethecorrectsizefortherack;thestyleandquantitywilldependonwhichfermentsyouchoosetomake.

• Asmallspaceheater:Thekindyoumightusetokeepyourfeetwarmunderneathyourdesk.Iftheheaterisequippedwithafan,allthebetter;ifnot,buyasmallsimplefan.

• Atemperaturecontroller,suchasaPID(proportional-integral-derivative)orthermostat:Thiswilladjustthetemperatureofthechamberasitvariesaccordingtoexternalinfluences.Youwantaprewiredversionthatyoucanplugaheaterdirectlyinto.It’saspecializedbitofgear,butit’snotcomplicatedorexpensive.Itwillincludeaprobethatyouseteitherinthechambertomeasureinteriortemperature,orintothefermentitself,suchaswhenyou’remakingkoji.

• Asmallhumidifier(onlywhenmakingkoji):Thetypeyou’dputinachild’sroomtohelpwithastuffynose.Plus,asimplehygrometertogaugehumidity;itwilllookabitlikeanoventhermometer.Oruseahumidistat,whichfunctionsmuchlikeathermostat.Whileslightlymoreexpensive,itwillsimplifythingsbyregulatingthehumidityinthechamberforyou.

BuildingaFermentationChamberwithaCoveredSpeedRack

1.Assemblethespeedrackandslideoneortwosheetpansintothelowershelves.Spacethemtoallowenoughroomforyourheater,humidifier,andhygrometerorhumidistat(andfan,iftheheaterdoesn’thaveonebuiltin)tositwithoutinterferingwithoneanother.Placethedevicesonasheetpanandsnakethecordsoutfromthebottomoftherack.

2.You’llwanttokeepyourtemperaturecontrolleroutsidethechamber.Plugitinandsetittothecorrecttemperature,followingthemanufacturer’sinstructions;forthefermentsinthisbook,thatwillbeeither30°C/86°For60°C/140°F.Runthetemperatureprobeintothechamber.Plugtheheaterintothetemperaturecontroller.

3.Arrangethehygrometerorhumidistatsensorsoitwon’tbeinthedirectflowofthesteamfromthehumidifier.Fillthehumidifierwithwater,plugitin,andsetittomedium.Notethatwe’reclearlydealingwithalotofelectricalcords,souseaproperlyratedpowerstrip.

4.Pulltheplasticcoveroverthespeedrackandzipitup.Airwillbeabletoenterthechamberfromthebottom,whichiswhatyouneedformostoftheferments.Whenfermentingat60°C/140°F,youmaywanttoaddanextralayerofinsulationunderneathorontopoftheplasticcover.Acleancottonorwoolblanketwilldothetricknicely.

5.Closethecovertobringyourchamberuptothedesiredtemperatureandhumidity.Ifyoudon’thaveahumidistat,you’lladjusthumiditybycheckingthelevelonyourhygrometerandthendialingthehumidifiersettingupordown.Thetemperaturecontrollerwilltakecareoftemperatureforyou.

6.Addyourferments.Keepaneyeonthetemperaturecontrollertomakesureit’sturningtheheateronandoffwhenthetemperaturedipsorrises.Youmayseeadriftofadegreeortwoaboveorbelowyourdesiredtemperature;that’snormal.

StyrofoamCoolerForthisfermentationchamber,you’llneed:

• AStyrofoamcooler:Styrofoamisanexcellentinsulator,andStyrofoamcoolersarefairlyinexpensiveandwidelyavailable.Theonepicturedinthisbookmeasures60×40×30centimeters.

• Anelectricheatingmat:Theseareusedtosproutgreensinnurseries(lookfora“seedlingheatmat”)andalsotowarmreptileterrariums(“reptileheatingpad”).Theyconsistofaresistiveelectriccoilrunningthroughathickplasticcover,andprovideevenheatoveralargesurfacearea.Youcanfindtheminmanysizes,andthey’reusuallywaterproofandeasytoclean.

• Atemperaturecontroller:Aswiththespeed-racksetup,thiswillactasyourthermostat,adjustingtheinternaltemperatureofthefermentationchamber.Manymodelsareequippedwithalittleholeforascrewsoyoucanconvenientlyattachittotheoutsideofyourbox.

• Asmallhumidifier(whenmakingkoji):Thesmalleryoucanfind,thebetter.Plus,asimplehygrometer,aninstrumentusedtogaugehumidity;itwilllookabitlikeanoventhermometer.Alternatively,youcoulduseahumidistat,whichfunctionsmuchlikeathermostat.Whileslightlymoreexpensive,itwillsimplifythingsbyregulatingthehumidityinthechamberforyou.

• Atrivet,orafewscrews:Inmostcases,youwanttokeepyourfermentselevatedoffthebottomofthecooler.Atrivetwilldothetrick,butforbetterairflow,procurefourscrewsthatarelongandsturdyenoughtomakeitthroughthewallsofthecoolerandsupporttheweightofatrayladenwithingredients.

BuildingaFermentationChamberOutofaStyrofoamCooler

1.EnsurethatyourStyrofoamcooleriscleanedandsanitized.Ifyou’remakingkoji,procurefourscrewsthatarelongenoughandsturdyenoughtobeartheweightofatrayofkojiandscrewthemintothesidesofthecontainer,abouthalfwayupthewalls.

2.Placetheheatingmatandhumidifierinsidethecontainer.Trytokeepthehumidifierofftheheatingmat,andsnakethecordsoutofthebox.Setthehumidifiertomediumandturniton.Placeyourhygrometer(ifyouhaveone)nexttothehumidifier(outofthedirectflowofsteam)tokeeptrackofthehumidity.

3.Plugtheheatingmatintoyourtemperaturecontrollerand,followingthemanufacturer’sinstructions,setittoyourdesiredtargettemperature;forthefermentsinthisbook,thatwillbeeither30°C/86°For60°C/140°F.Runthetemperatureprobeintothechamber.

4.Bringyourchamberuptothedesiredtemperatureandhumidity.Ifyoudon’thaveahumidistat,you’lladjusthumiditybycheckingthelevelonyourhygrometerandthendialingthehumidifiersettingupordown.Thetemperaturecontrollerwilltakecareoftemperatureforyou.

5.Addyourferment(s).Keepaneyeonthetemperaturecontrollertomakesureit’sturningtheheateronandoffwhenthetemperaturedipsorrises.Youmayseeadriftofadegreeortwoaboveorbelowyourdesiredtemperature;that’snormal.

6.Coverthefermentationchamberwithitslid.Forfermentsat60°C/140°F,closeitastightlyasyoucantokeepheatin.Forkoji,leaveitcrackedopenononesidejustatouchtoallowfreshoxygenin.Youcaneasilypropitopenmorewithascrewplacedintothelipifyou’reworriedaboutitbeingclosedshut.

Yourfermentsarelimitedonlybyyourimagination.

ThinkingOutsidetheKrautOurhopeisthatonceyou’vereadthetextineachchapterandmadeoneortwoofthecorrespondingfermentrecipes,you’llfeelcomfortableenoughtobeginsteeringtheshipyourself.Weencourageyoutotakewhatyou’velearnedandapplyittootheringredients.OneofthethingswetrytodothroughourstudyoffermentationatNomaistoseparatetechniquesfromtheirculturalframeworktoseewhathappenswhenthebiologicalprocessesareappliedtodifferentingredients.It’snotaboutdisregardingtheimportanceofculturalhistory,butratherunderstandinghowotherculinarytraditionscanimprovethecuisineinourpartoftheworld.

Forinstance,kimchiandsauerkrautaretwooftheworld’smostwell-knownlacto-fermentedproducts.Thatmaybeobvious,butmakingthedistinctionbetweentime-honoredfoodstuffsandthetechniquesthatproducethemisanimportantstep.Onceyouunderstandtheroleofacertainfermentationprocess—howittransformsingredients,whatitheightensandwhatitmutes—youcanconsiderwhatelsemightbenefitfromthesametreatment.Whatisitaboutcabbagethatlendsitselfsowelltobeingturnedintosauerkraut?Whatotheringredientshavesimilarqualities?Whatadditionalseasoningsmightcomplementtheaciditybroughtbylacto-fermentation?That’showwedirectalotoftheworkinthefermentationlabatNoma,andit’sledustosomeofourmostsuccessfulproducts.

Keepinmindthatasyouexperiment,you’llinevitablyfail.Don’tgetdiscouraged!Everyrecipeinthisbookbeganasanideathatedgeditswaytodeliciousnessthroughfailure,education,andadjustment.Surpriseanddelightareonlypossiblewhenthingsdon’tgoaccordingtoplan.

SubstitutingStore-BoughtFermentsOurhopeisthatyou’llcomeawayfromthisbookwithadeeperunderstandingabouttheworldoffermentationandcooking,evenifyoudon’tmakeasinglefermentwe’vedescribed.Wewantcooksandchefseverywheretoseetheutilityandvalueinfermentedproducts,whetherornottheymakethemfromscratch.Shoyuisn’tonlyfordipping,normisoonlyforsoup.Ifyoucomeacrossasuggestioninthisbookthatappealstoyou,like,say,shoyucaramel,youshouldn’tfeellikeyouneedtomakeyourownshoyutopullitoff.Store-boughtwilldo.Wealsorealizethatsomerecipesinthisbookcombinemultipleferments:sometimesoutofnecessity,othertimestoillustratethepowerfulandflavorfulinterplaythatcandevelopbetweendifferentplayers.Insuchinstances,youmighthavemadeoneproductbutnotitscomplement;asubstitutionwillmorethansufficetoexecutetherecipeandgetagoodideaoftheflavorswe’rechasing.

Unfortunately,we’venevercomeacrossanythingthatbearsacloseenoughresemblancetoMaizoorGrasshopperGarumtorecommendthem,buthereyou’llfindachartofusefulequivalenciesforsomeoftheproductsinthisbook—“cousins,”sotospeak.Asalways,qualitycounts.Therewillalwaysbecheaperormorerefinedversionsofproductsavailableonthemarket,andwithfermentedgoods,therangecanbequitedrastic.Useyourjudgmentandtheadviceoffriendsorgrocerystafftodeterminewhichproductsarecraftedwithcareandattention.

Ourferment Store-boughtcousinElderberryWineBalsamic

Traditionalbalsamicvinegar

PearlBarleyKoji

Driedricekoji

YellowPeaso

Okasanmiso

Ryeso

Hatchomiso

YellowPeaShoyu

Rawshoyu

BeefGarum

Worcestershiresauce

RoseandShrimpGarum Fishsauce(RedBoatbrand)

WeightsandMeasuresAtNoma,andinthisbook,weusethemetricsystemforallourmeasurements,becauseitallowsformuchgreaterprecisionandaccuracythanimperialmeasurements.Wheneveryou’redealingwithsensitiveoutcomes,accuracyiskey.Ashiftinsaltcontentofjust1percentcanbethedifferencebetweenafermentyou’llwanttoshowofftoallyourfriendsandsomethingyou’drathernooneeverknewabout.

ForanyofourskepticalAmericanreaders,knowthatthemetricsystemissupremelylogical,andmostkitchenmeasuringtoolsincludemetricmarkingsandsettingsanyway.Withthemetricsystem,youcanmeasurebothweight(gramsandkilograms)andvolume(millilitersandliters).Formanyofourrecipes,weuseweightratherthanvolumeforthesakeofsimplicity:Stickyouremptybowlonascale,tareit(meaningadjustthereadouttozero,therebydiscountingtheweightofyourbowl),andaddtheingredientuntilyou’vereachedthedesiredweight.Noneedtomoveingredientsbetweenmeasuringcupsandaworkbowl.

Adigitalkitchenscalethatmeasurestothesinglegramisessentialtotheexecutionoftherecipesinthisbook.Youcanbuyhigh-qualityscalesfornotalotofmoney;besuretohaveanextrabatteryonhandsoyouaren’tunexpectedlycaughtshortinthemiddleofarecipe.

Finally,we’velistedanapproximateyieldforeachrecipesoyou’llknowwhatyou’regettingintobeforeyoustart,butit’seasytoscaletherecipesupordown.However,payattentiontothesizeofthecontainerrequired.Thereareinstanceswherealittleextraheadroominajarorcrockmightbedesired,andifyouscaleuptherecipe,youmayalsoneedtoscalethecontaineraccordingly.

2.Lacto-FermentedFruitsandVegetables—LactoPlumsLactoCepMushroomsLactoTomatoWaterLactoWhiteAsparagusLactoBlueberriesLactoMango-ScentedHoneyLactoGreenGooseberries

TurningSweettoSourThere’snotadishonthemenuatNoma,fromtheveryfirstmouthfultothelast,thatdoesn’tinvolvesomeelementoflacticacidfermentation(akalacto-fermentation).Itsusefulnessispracticallylimitless.

Lacto-fermentedproductsbringfruitiness,acidity,andumamitoeverythingtheytouch.Forinstance,lacto-fermentingcepmushrooms(porcinis)yieldsanincrediblypotentliquidthatweusetoseasonfreshseaurchins.Justadroportwoovereachtongueofseaurchinwillmakeyourhairstandup—itinvigoratesandfocusestheflavoroftheurchininanunbelievableway.It’sliketakingapictureofanurchinandcrankingthesaturationandcontrastwayup.Asfortheactualmushroom,wesoakthatinsyrup,dryit,anddipitinchocolatetomakeacandythataccompaniescoffeeattheendofthemeal.

Thankfully,lacto-fermentationsarealsoincrediblystraightforwardtomake.Theprocessissimple:Weighyouringredient,add2%saltbyweight,andwait.Howmanydaysdependsonhowsouryouwantthefinalproducttobe.

It’sallmadepossiblebythehardworkoflacticacidbacteria,orLactobacillales(we’llrefertothemfromhereonoutasLAB).LABtransformsugarintolacticacid,andthey’rethesecretbehindsourpicklesandsauerkraut,ryebreadsandsourdoughs,yogurt,andsourbeer.They’realsoinvolved(toalesserextent)inmakingwine,cheese,andmiso,contributingtothenuanceandcomplexityofflavorthatcharacterizetheseandmanyothericonicfermentedfoods.

It’samicrobe’sworld.We’rejustlivinginit.

Generallyspeaking,LABareacid-andsalt-tolerant,rod-andsphere-shapedbacteria.They’reanaerobic,meaningtheycanflourishintheabsenceofoxygen.LABconsumecarbohydrates,mostlyintheformofsugars,andproducelacticacidasametabolite(aby-productoftheirmetabolism).Withoutgettingneck-deepinthechemistry,theprocessinvolvesthebacteriausingenzymestobreakdownglucose(C6H12O6)inordertoharnessitschemicalpotentialenergy,andthusconvertingeachmoleculeofglucoseintotwomoleculesoflacticacid(C3H6O3).

Differentstrainsoflacticacidbacteriaproducedifferentflavors.

SpeciesofLABthatspecializesolelyinconvertingsugarintolacticacidareclassifiedasbeinghomofermentative,whileothersareheterofermentative,meaningtheirmetabolitescanincludenotonlylacticacidbutalsoothermoleculessuchasalcohol,carbondioxide,oraceticacid.SomespeciesofLABareabletobreakdownproteinsintoaminoacids,givingcheeseslikecheddarandParmigianotheirunspeakabledeliciousness.

Likehumans,LABareindustriouscreaturesthathavemanagedtooccupyenvironmentstheworldover.They’representinthemilkofmammals,meaningyou’vebeeninvolvedinanintractablerelationshipwiththesebacteriasincethefirstmomentsofyourlife.Andfortunatelyforus,LABarepresentontheskinsandleavesofjustaboutanyvegetableorfruityouwouldeverwanttoferment,patientlywaitingforconditionstofavortheirneeds.

AtNoma,wepractice“wildfermentation”fornearlyallourlacto-fermentedproducts,allowingthenormalpopulationsofbacteriaalreadylivingonourfood

tokick-startthefermentationprocess.Inanygivenwildferment,therewillbemultiplestrainsofbacteriavyingforposition,bloomingandfadingatdifferenttimes,eachaddingitsuniquevoicetothechorusofflavors.It’stheintricacyofthisinteractionbetweendifferentLABthatmakeswildfermentssodelicious.

Bacteriacanactuallycommunicatewithoneanotherinalanguageofchemicalgradients.

OneofNoma’slongtimefriends,PatrickJohannson(akatheButterViking),oncesentasampleofthewildculturedbutterhe’dmadetoafoodlabforanalysis,andfoundtwelvedistinctspeciesofLABcohabitingwithinit.Commercialoperationsoftentrytoapproximatetheintricacyofwildfermentsbymanipulatingfactorslikethetemperatureofafermentovertime,tweakingtheconditionstosuitdifferentbacteriathatproducespecificflavors.LABbehavedifferentlydependingnotonlyontemperature,butalsotheavailabilityofnutrients,populationdensity,andwhotheirneighborsare.Chemicalcuesallowforcommunicationbetweenmicrobesthatinformseverythingfromtheirgrowthpatternstotheirrateofreproduction.

Aidedbynothingmorethansalt,LABcanperformincredibletransformations.

BeyondtheCucumberThemostcommonlacto-fermentedvegetableintheWesternworldisthestandard-issuesourcucumberpickle,whichislacto-fermentedinbrine.AtNomawelookfurtherafieldforvegetablestolacto-ferment,butwealwayskeepinmindthecharacteristicsthatmakeabasicdillpicklesoenjoyabletoeat.Welookforthingsthatare(1)tastywhenrawand(2)juicybutnotmushy.Thelattertraitisimportantbecausesomuchofapickle’sappealisitscrunch.(AsanyScandinavianwilltellyou,slicesofcuredfishgarnishedwithbitsofpickledvegetablesareoneoflife’sgreattexturalpartnerships.)We’vehadamazingsuccessmakinglacto-fermentedpicklesfromwhiteasparagus,smallpumpkins,beets,andcabbagestems.Leafygreenslikewatercressandramsonshavebeen...lessrewarding.

Ofcourse,vegetablepicklesareonlyonedirectioninwhichyoucango.Onceyouunderstandthatanythingwithsugarcanbelacto-fermented,itopensupaworldofpotential.It’sanabsurdlybasicrealization,butonceitoccurstoyou,youcan’tstopthinking,WhatelsecanIgivethelactotreatment?

EverySeptemberattherestaurant,attheendoftheberryseason,welacto-fermentblueberries,raspberries,mulberries,blackberries,whitecurrants,andprettymuchanyothersoftfruitwecangetourhandson.Eventhoughitlacksthecrunchofafermentedrootvegetable,thefinishedpuree-likemashisaprizeinitself—bothsweetandsavory,withmultiplelayersofsourness.

Lacto-fermentedberriesarepowerhousesofflavor.

Lacto-fermentedberriesarepowerhousesofflavor.

AsLABfermentsugar,theresultantlacticacidmingleswiththeacidsalreadypresentinthefruit.Citricacid—mostcommonlyassociatedwithcitrusfruitsbutalsofoundinmanyotherfruitsandberries—canbequitetartandalmostgiveoffaburningsensation.Malicacid,foundingrapesandapples(thinkofthetartnessofaGrannySmith),ismuchrounderandmouthwatering.Ascorbicacidissharpanddirect,andcanbefoundinallkindsoftropicalfruits,frombananastoguava.Theinterplayofdifferentacidsisoneofthemostinterestingandbeautifulfacetsoffermentedfruits.

Becausetheberriesusuallylosetheirshapeandtexturewhenlacto-fermented,weoftenuseajuicepresstoharvestthejuices.Fermentedberryjuiceisincredible—ithasbodyandeffervescence,saltiness,sweetness,andacidity.Mixfermentedraspberryjuicewithaspicyoliveoil,addafewgrindsoffloralspice—maybelongorpinkpeppercorns—andspoontheresultingvinaigretteoverthickslicesofripebeefsteaktomatoes.Sprinkleitwithseasalt,sugar,andafewtornleavesofmarjoram,andit’stheperfectdistillationoflatesummer.Anddon’tthrowawaytheberrypulp.Itwillbringnuanceandbrightnesstoabowloffreshberries,toppedwithfreshlywhippedcream.

PuttingLABtoWorkAsmentionedearlier,lacto-fermentationisgloriouslyuncomplicated,thanksinnosmallparttothefactthatLABcanbefoundalmosteverywhere.Thatbeingsaid,thereareafewbasicconditionsthatmustbemetbeforeLABwillperformatall(muchlikerockstars).Herearethevariousthingsyoushoulddotoensureasuccessfullacto-fermentation.

RemovetheAir

Packingjarstightlywillhelpremoveairandpreventspoilage.

LABfunctionbestintheabsenceofoxygen.Withmanytraditionallacto-fermentations,liquiddisplacementisallittakestokeepLABhappilydeprivedofair.Takesauerkraut,forinstance.Shreddingthecabbagerupturestheplant’scellsandreleasesmoisture.Saltdrawsevenmorewateroutoftheplantviaosmosis,andaweightplacedontopofthecabbagesubmergesitinitsownjuices,allowingtheLABtodotheirwork.

AtNoma,however,smushingvegetablesunderweightsisn’talwaysanoption,sowe’llgotogreatlengthstoensurethatthefinishedfermentedfruitsorvegetablesstaybeautifullywholefortheirfinalpresentation.WeuseplasticbagsandavacuumsealertoensurethatourLABdon’tcomeintocontactwithoxygen.

HoweveryouchoosetoremoveoxygenfromLAB’senvironment,you’renotonlyhelpingthebacteriatocarryouttheirfermentationwork,you’realsoexcludingpotentialpathogens.Bytakingoxygenoutoftheequation,youalsosabotageunwantedmolds,whichrequireairfortheircellularrespiration.

SaltSufficiently

Anindispensabletoolforsafefermentation,salthasbeenusedforitsantimicrobialpropertiestopreservefoodsinceprehistory.

LABdon’trequiresalttoflourish,buttheydotolerateit,meaningwecanusethesaltcontentinalacto-fermentasfurtherinsuranceagainstunwantedoutsiders.Forinstance,eventhoughClostridiumbotulinumisananaerobe(amicrobethatthrivesintheabsenceofoxygen),itstrugglesinthepresenceofsaltoracid,whichisgreatnews,becauseit’sthebacteriaresponsibleforbotulism.

DifferentspeciesofLABexhibitdifferentdegreesofhalo-tolerance(salttolerance),withsomespeciesabletocarryouttheirfermentationworkinsaltconcentrationsashighas8%byweight.AtNoma,westartourlacto-fermentationswith2%salt.It’senoughtodissuadeanymalevolentbacteriafromtakinghold,butnotsomuchthattheproductbecomesunpalatablysalty.

Youcanalsocreateanenvironmentthatisbothoxygen-freeandsalt-richbyfermentinginbrine.Manytraditionalferments,likethesourpickle,havebeenmadethiswayforcenturies.Softerfruitswillbegintodissolveinbrineoverthecourseofafewdays,butcrunchiervegetablesofmanageablesize(beets,radishes,oryoungcarrots)doextremelywellsubmergedinsaltedwater.

Whenlacto-fermentinginbrine,startoffbyplacingyouremptycrockorjaronascaleandtaringthescale.Next,placeyourvegetablesinthevessel,makingsuretheyfitsnuglywithoutbeingsquished.Coverthevegetableswithenoughwater

tofullysubmergethem,andnotethetotalweightofthecontents.Calculate2%ofthatweight,andmeasurethatmuchsaltintoamixingbowl.Pourthewateroutofthevesselintothemixingbowlandblenduntilthesaltiscompletelydissolved,thenpouritbackintothevessel.Notethatthesaltcontentinthismethodwillalwaysbehigherthanourstandardof2%salinity.Forexample:Assumingittakesabout1kilogramofwatertocover1kilogramof,say,cauliflowerribs,you’lladd40gramsofsalttothewatertocreatea4%saltbrine.Astimepasses,saltwillenterthefruitorvegetableanddrawmoistureout.Withthisratioofbrinetoproduct-to-be-pickled,the4%saltcontentwilleventuallyevenout,nearing2%oncethefermentationiscomplete,leavingyouwithperfectpickles.

Ifyouhaveapicklejarwithamildlytaperedneck,itwillhelpkeepthevegetablesfromfloatingabovethewaterlineduringthepicklingprocess;otherwise,youcanusesomeformofweightorbarriertokeepthevegetablessubmerged.Leaveacoupleofcentimetersofemptyspaceatthetop,andscrewthecaponlessthancompletelytight,preventinganythingfromenteringbutgivinggasaneasyescaperoute.

SweetPeas,MilkCurd,andSlicedKelp,Noma,2015

Bladesofgiantkelpcookedfor3daysinastockofdriedmushrooms,berries,andlactocepwaterareslicedthinandlaidoverfreshmilkcurdalongsidegreenpeas.

ChooseYourProductsWisely(andCleanThemLightly)Avoidfruitsorvegetablesthathavebeencoatedinwax,treatedwithpesticides,orirradiated.Choosingorganicisagoodwaytocheckoffallthoseboxes.ToensurethatyouhaveahealthypopulationofwildLAB,avoidwashingtheproductstoothoroughly.Ifthere’svisibledirt,removeitbygentlyrinsingincoldwater.Noscrubbing,andnofruitorvegetablewash.Besurenottofermentanythingalreadysproutingmoldorrotting.Fermentationisprettymagical,butitcan’tbringrottenapplesbackfromthedead.Plus,you’llbestartingoutwithunwantedmicroorganismsthatcanpreventLABfromthriving.That’snottosaythatyoushouldbeafraidofstretchingthelifeofleftoverswithlacto-fermentation.Choppingupamixtureofleftoverstrawberriesandcherriesandtossingtheminamasonjarwithsomesaltwillyieldadelicioustoppingforfrozenyogurtaweekhence.

ChocolatefromNativeJaguarCocoaandMixeChile,NomaMexico,2017

Thesepasillamixechilesarebraisedinlactomango-scentedhoneyandstuffedwithchocolatesorbet.

ControltheClimateMostlacto-fermentationswillfunctionjustfineatanambientroomtemperatureofabout21°C/70°F,butatNoma,wekeepmostofourlacto-fermentationsinaroomsetto28°C/82°F.Wefindthistobetheidealtemperatureforspeedyfermentation,whileavoidingtoomuchbacterialactivity,whichcangenerateoff-flavors.Lacto-fermentationwillalsotakeplaceintherefrigerator,albeitatafarslowerpace.Onethingtonote:Ifyouwanttopreventpicklesfromgettingmushy,fermentthemawayfromheat.Therearenaturalenzymesinvegetablesthatwillbreakthemdownmorerapidlyathighertemperatures.Ifyou’reespeciallyconcernedwithmaintainingpicklecrunchiness,addingtannicplantleaves—likegrapeorhorseradishleaves—toyourbrineorusingmineral-richunrefinedseasaltsoralumcanreinforcethepectinintheplantwallsandkeepthemsnappy.

ConsiderAccessorizingDuetothenumberofcomponentsintherecipesatNoma,wetrytokeeptheflavorsofourfermentsrelativelypuresotheyremainasversatileaspossible.Ifweweretoflavorourpickleswithbayleaves,forinstance,theycouldreallyonlybeusedinplaceswherebaymakessense.Butthat’snottosaythatyoushouldn’tseasonyourconcoctionsduringthefermentationprocess.Driedaromaticssuchasbayleavesandmustardseedsareobviousaccompanimentsforlotsofsourferments,buttheyaren’ttheonlyway.Tryreplacing5to10percentofthewaterinabrinewithfruitjuicetoinjectbrightnesswhilesupplyingadditionalsugarforLABtoferment.Vibrantfreshherbslikeverbenaorlemonbalmcanbeinfusedintothebrinebeforehandoraddedasdriedingredientsoncethefermentationiscomplete.Forspice,addaknobofhorseradishorahalvedchile.Evenwhenfermentingsousvide,youcanaddcomplementaryseasoningstothebagorjar,aslongasyoutaketheirweightintoaccountwhenaddingthesalt.

Differentvegetablessharingthesamebrinecanalsoexchangeflavors.Cauliflowerandsalsifymakegreatbedfellows.Onionsandturnipslacto-fermentedwithafistfulofaromaticherbslikelemonthymeororangeblossomcanelevateadishofcevichewithfloralnotesandacrisptexturalcontrast.Usecommonsensewhenfermentingdisparateingredientstogether—don’tpairblueberrieswithrutabagaandexpecttexturalharmony—butoneofthemostwonderfulandunpredictableaspectsoffermentationisthewayitdrawsnewflavorsfromrawingredients.Whatmightbeapleasantpairingwheneatenrawcouldendupbeingamind-blowingcombinationonceyou’vecompletedthecomplexdancewithbacteria,salt,acid,andtime.

WatchtheTimingIt’simportanttocatchafermentattherighttime.Fromthemomentyouplaceyourfruitorvegetableintoasaltyenvironment,itbeginsmovinginonegeneraldirection:fromsweettosour.Whileunderfermentedproductscantasteessentiallyraw,afermentcaneasilybetakentoofaraswell.Overfer-mentedfruitsorvegetablestendtohaveasamenessaboutthem,wheretheoriginalcharacterandflavoroftheproductiswashedawayunderaseaofsharpacidity.

Gaugingwhenafermentationisreadyisnodifferentfromknowingwhenyourpastaisperfectlyaldente,orafloretofbroccoliisproperlyblanched.AsThomasKelleroncesaid,“Putitinyourmouthandeatit.”Theonlywaytocheckontheprogressofalacto-fermentationistotasteit.Anideallacto-fermentationshouldmaintaintheessenceoftheoriginalrawproduct,butwithaddedacidity,umami,anddepthofflavor.

Fermentationisapracticeintiming.It’suptoyoutodecidewhenyourfermentis“done.”

Wait!Don’tThrowThatAwayThisfinalpointisn’tcrucialtoasuccessfullacto-ferment,butitmighthelpdeterminehowsuccessfulyouconsideryourprojecttobe.Aswementionmultipletimesinthisbook,fermentationisafantasticmeansofextendingthelifeoffoodscrapsthatmightotherwisegotowaste.Butthelacto-fermentationprocessitselfcanalsocreateveryusefulby-productsyoumightendupthrowingawayifyou’renotpayingattention.Someoftheworld’smostpotentanddeliciousconcoctionsareleftoversfromfermentation.MarmiteandVegemiteareremnantsofbeerproduction.Sakelees,theresidualricepulpofsakeproduction,areemployedinnumerouswaysinJapanesecooking,mostnotablyasasweet-and-sourpicklingagentforvegetables(kasuzuke).

Beforeyoupourthepicklebrineortherunofffromlacto-fermentedplumsdownthedrain,considerhowitmighttasteinasouporvinaigrette.Storeitinsealedcontainersorrepurposedcondimentbottlesinthefridge.Ifyourlacto-fermentedfruitorvegetabledidn’tturnoutexactlyasyouhadhoped,thatsalty-sourelixircanmakeforafineconsolationprize.

Halvedplums,saltedandreadytoferment.

LactoCepMushrooms

WildcepsarebestforagedinthelatesummerintheNorthernHemisphere.

Makes1kilogramlactomushroomsandjuice1kilogramcleanedcep(porcini)mushrooms,frozenforatleast24hours

20gramsnon-iodizedsalt

Thetrueprizeofthisrecipeisthefermentedjuicethatleachesoutoftheceps(akaporcinis).It’slikeaSwissArmyknifeforusintheNomakitchen—weuseittoseasoneverythingfromfennelteatomonkfishliver.Ithasabalanceandfunkthatreallyelectrifyanythingittouches.

Inordertomaximizetheamountofjuicewecanharvest,werupturethestructureofthemushrooms’cellsbyfreezingthembeforefermentation.Thatmeansprefrozencepsarefairgameforthisrecipe,asarefreshforagedones.Oystermushrooms,chanterelles,andbluefootsallfermentwellandhavetheirowndistinctcharacteristics,ifyoucan’tfindceps.Whilelessinteresting,buttonmushroomsandcreminiswillwork,too.

Thein-depthinstructionsforLactoPlumsserveasatemplateforallthelacto-fermentationrecipesinthischapter.Werecommendyoureadthatrecipebeforestartinginonthisone.

LactoCepMushrooms,day1(vacuum-sealed)

Day4

Day7

Iffermentinginavacuumbag:Placethefrozenmushroomsandsaltinthevacuumbagandtosstomixthecontentsthoroughly.Arrangethemushroomsinasinglelayer,thensealthebagonmaximumsuction.Besuretosealthebagasclosetotheopeningaspossible,leavingheadroomthatwillallowyoutocutopenthebagtoventanygasthataccumulatesandthenresealit.

LactoCepMushrooms,day1(inajar)

Day4

Day7

Iffermentinginajarorcrock:Mixthesaltandmushroomstogetherinabowl,thentransferthemtothefermentationvessel,makingsuretoscrapeallthesaltfromthebowlintothecontainer,andpressthemixturedownwithaweight.(Aheavy-dutyzip-topbagfilledwithwaterwilldothetrick.)Coverthejarorcrockwithalid,butdon’tsealitsotightlythatgascan’tescape.

Fermentthemushroomsinawarmplaceuntiltheyhavereleasedmuchoftheirliquid,yellowedslightly,andsourednicely.Thisshouldtake5to6daysat28°C/82°F,orafewdayslongeratroomtemperature,butyoushouldstarttaste-testingafterthefirstfewdays.Ifyou’refermentinginavacuum-sealedbag,youmayalsoneedto“burp”thebagifitballoons.(Thisshouldbelessofaproblemwithmushroomsthanotherproducts.)Cutacorneropen,releasethegas,tastethemushrooms,andresealthebag.

Oncethemushroomshavereachedyourdesiredlevelofsournessandearthiness,carefullyremovethemfromthebagorfermentationvessel.Strainthejuicethroughafine-meshsieve.Themushroomsandtheirjuicecanbestoredinseparatecontainersintherefrigeratorforafewdayswithoutanotice-ablechangeinflavor.Topreventfurtherfermentation,youcanalsofreezethemushroomsindividuallyonatray,transferthemtovacuum-sealedbagsorzip-topfreezerbagswiththeairremoved,andstoreinthefreezer.

Thereservedjuicecanbeclarifiedtoproduceaclearliquidthatispotentwithflavor.Toclarifythejuice,transferittoafreezer-safecontainerwithalidandfreeze.Oncethejuiceisfrozensolid,transferthebricktoacolanderlinedwithcheeseclothandsetitoveracontainertocatchtheliquidasitthaws.Coverwithalidorplasticwrapandplaceitinthefridgetothawcompletely.Don’tbetemptedtowringoutthecheeseclothonceit’sfinisheddraining,asyou’llendupforcingthemushroomparticlesthrough.Refreezetheclarifiedjuiceuntilneeded.

SuggestedUsesCandiedCepMignardisesAtNoma,weturnfermentedmushroomsintodessertbysoakingwholefermentedcepsintheirweight’sworthofbirch(ormaple)syrup,thenleavingthemtoinfusefor2daysinthefridge.Oncethey’vebecomesalty-sweet-sour,wedrythemslowlyinadehydratorat40°C/104°Funtiltheyhavethechewy

textureoftoffee.Dipthemintemperedchocolate,andtheybecomesublimemignardises.

Cep-BaconVinaigrette

Thejuicefromlacto-fermentedcepsisamultipurposeseasoningtoolweuseoftenatNoma—there’sabrightfunki-nesstoitthatelectrifiescertainingredients.Togetasenseforitspowers,makethissimplewarmvinaigrette:Whisktogetherequalpartslacto-fermentedcepjuiceandfreshlyrenderedbaconfat.Spoonovergrilledoystermushrooms,slow-roastedcauliflower,orgooseneckbarnacles.

Cep-OilCompanionAperfectfoilforlacto-fermentedcepjuiceiscepoil.Tomakecepoil,heat500gramsgrapeseedoiland250gramsfreshcepsinasaucepanovermedium-lowheatuntilthemushroomsbegintobubble.Afterabout10minutes,cuttheheat,cover,andallowtheoiltocooltoroomtemperature.Movethepottotherefrigeratorandallowtoinfuseovernight.Thefollowingday,straintheoilandkeeptheconfitmushroomsforanotheruse.Whisktogetherequalpartscepoilandlacto-fermentedcepjuice,thenstirinfinelymincedshallotsorsliveredgarlicscapes,andyou’vegotasharp,savorydressingforrawscallopsorlightlypoachedshrimp.

Lacto-fermentingtomatoesdoublesdownonboththeiracidityandumami.

LactoTomatoWater

Slowlystraininglactotomatoesseparatesthepulpfromthetomatowater.

Makes1kilogramlactotomatoesandtomatowater

1kilogramripetomatoes

20gramsnon-iodizedsalt

Tomatoesarealreadyanacidicfruitwithlotsofumami,sotheaimoflacto-fermentingthemisnottosourthemtoomuchfurther,butrathertocreatealightbalanceofsourandsweetthatalmostfoolsyouintothinkingyou’reeatingacookedtomatosauce.Aswithsomanyoftheselacto-ferments,thewaterfrom

thelactotomatoesisextremelyusefulindressingsandsauces.Butthat’snottosayyoushoulddiscardthepulp!Mincedintoapaste,itcanbefoldedintolambtartare,orspreadonpiecesoftoastwithfreshcheese,orblendedwithricottacheeseforalasagnafilling.

Thein-depthinstructionsforLactoPlumsserveasatemplateforallthelacticfermentationrecipesinthischapter.Werecommendyoureadthatrecipebeforestartinginonthisone.

Removethestemsfromthetomatoes,andcutthemintoquartersifthey’resmalloreighthsifthey’relarger.

LactoTomatoWater,day1(vacuum-sealed)

Day4

Day7

Iffermentinginavacuumbag:Placethetomatoesandsaltinthevacuumbagandtosstomixthecontentsthoroughly.Arrangethetomatochunksinasinglelayer,thensealthebagonmaximumsuction.Besuretosealthebagasclosetotheopeningaspossible,leavingheadroomthatwillallowyoutocutopenthebagtoventanygasthataccumulatesandthenresealit.

LactoTomatoWater,day1(inajar)

Day4

Day7

Iffermentinginajarorcrock:Mixthesaltandtomatoestogetherinabowl,thentransferthemtothefermentationvessel,makingsuretoscrapeallthesaltfromthebowlintothecontainer,andpressthemixturedownwithaweight.(Aheavy-dutyzip-topbagfilledwithwaterwilldothetrick.)Coverthejarorcrockwithalid,butdon’tsealitsotightlythatgascan’tescape.

Fermentthetomatoesinawarmplaceuntiltheyhavereleasedmuchoftheirliquidandsoftenedconsiderably.Thisshouldtake4to5daysat28°C/82°F,orafewdayslongeratroomtemperature,butyoushouldstarttaste-testingafterthefirstfewdays.Ifyou’refermentinginavacuum-sealedbag,you’llalsoneedto“burp”thebagwheneveritballoonsup.Cutacorneropen,releasethegas,tastethetomatoes,andresealthebag.

Onceyou’rehappywiththeflavorofyourtomatoes,lineafine-meshsievewithcheeseclothandsetitoverabowl.Pourthefermentedtomatoesandtheirliquidintothesieve,wrapeverythinginplasticwrap,andleaveittodrainovernightinthefridge.Thenextday,givethesieveafewsharprapswithyourhandtocoaxoutalltheliquid,butdon’tpressonthepulp.

Thetomatowaterandthepulpcanbestoredinseparatecontainersintherefrigeratorforafewdayswithoutanoticeablechangeinflavor.Topreventfurtherfermentation,youcanalsofreezethemseparatelyinvacuum-sealedbagsorzip-topfreezerbagswiththeairremoved.

SuggestedUsesLactoTomatoesandSeafoodAlmostanyliquidharvestedfromalacticfermentcanbeusedtomarinateordressseafood—thewateroflactotomatoesbeingnoexception.Seasonthelactotomatowaterwithyourpreferredchoppedherb—trydill,chives,basil,orshiso—thenfinishbywhiskingintwospoonfulsofoliveoil.Addasplashofshoyuforumamiandpotency,ifyoulike,butthesaucewilltastemuchfresherwithoutit.Usethedressingtotoprawoysters,clams,orslicesoffreshbassorpike-perch.

Lacto-fermentedliquidsarenotonlyforfinishingseafood—theycanbeapotentcookingmedium,too.Trysteamingmusselsinlactotomatowater,replacingtheusualwhitewinedirectlywithsour-saltylactotomatowater.

Tomato-WaterPicklesLactotomatowaterhasalltheacidityyouneedtocureabatchofquick,freshpickles.Nexttimeyou’rehavingfriendsoverforabarbecueorgardenparty,tryslicingupafewofyourfavoritecrunchyvegetables—carrots,radishes,celery—andcoveringthemwithlactotomatowater.Addasprinkleofsaltandletmarinateinthefridgeforaminimumof2hours,orpreferablyovernight.Drainandsetoutthelightlypickledvegetablesforyourgueststomunchonwhileyoumakedinner.Ifyoucanturnyourkidsontofreshpickleslikethese,you’llhaveaneasysnackonhandallthetime.

TomatoSauceYoucanthinkofthepulpoflacto-fermentedtomatoesasareplacementforstore-boughttomatosauce.It’ssaltierandsourer,butithasrichnessaswell.NexttimeyoumakearagùBolognese,replaceone-quarterofthevolumeofyourcrushedtomatoeswithlacto-fermentedtomatopulp.Ifyoufindittooacidic,aspoonfulofhoneywillhelpbalanceitout.

Ortoastslicesofcountryloafoneachsideinapanwithgoodoliveoilandseasonwithsalt.Whilethebreadisstillwarm,spreadabigspoonfuloflactotomatopulpoverthebread.It’saflawlessbruschettaasis,butifyoulike,youcangarnishwithtornleavesofbasilorshavingsofParmigiano.Ifyoureallywanttogildthelily,drapeathinsliceofhamoverthewholething.

LactoTomatoLeatherYoucandrythepulpoflacto-fermentedtomatoesintoafantasticchewysnack.Blendthepulp—seeds,too,astheyaddpectin,whichprovidesbodytotheleather—onhighspeeduntilsmooth.Passthepureethroughafine-meshsieveandspreaditinathinlayeronasheetpanlinedwithasiliconemat.Dryinalowoven(around50°C/122°F)untilleatheryandallowtocoolbeforepeelingitawayinsheets;youcanalsouseadehydratorforthis.It’satreattoeatasisorbrushedwithabitofhoney.

Lactotomatowatermixedwithfreshdillmakesasavory,herbaceousdressingforseafood.

Lacto-fermentedwhiteasparagushasanidealcrunch,balancedbitterness,acidity,andumami.

LactoWhiteAsparagusMakes500grams

WaterNon-iodizedsalt

500gramstrimmedwhiteasparagus

½lemon,cutinto0.5-centimeter/¼-inchslices

Whiteasparagusisatreatwelookforwardtoeatingeachspring,butitsseasonisshort.Almostassoonasitshowsupinthekitchen,it’sgone.Fermentingtheasparagusgivesitanafterlifethatkeepsussustainedthroughthecoldermonthsoftheyear.

ThisrecipewastaughttousbyourlongtimefriendandanarchistfarmerSørenWiuff.Themildbitternessoftheasparagusinteractswiththecitricacidofthelemonandthelacticacidformedduringfermentationtocreateaharmonynotunlikethatofaperfectlyripegrapefruit.Slicethelactoasparagusinhalflengthwiseandserveitasanaccompanimenttocharcuterie,orslicethestalkscrosswiseintothincoinsforabrightandcrunchyadditiontojustaboutanysalad.

AtNoma,wepreferwhiteasparagusforitsdelicateflavor,butgreenasparagusfermentswell,too.

Theamountofsaltandwaterneededinthisrecipewilldependonthesizeofthevesselyouuse.For500gramsasparagus,a2-litermasonjarshouldbeagoodsize.Inordertodeterminetherightamountofsaltandwater,firstplacethejaronascaleandtareit(meaningadjustthereadouttozerotodiscounttheweightofthecontainer).Standtheasparagusspearsuprightinthejar—theyshouldbepackedrelativelytightly.Pourinenoughwatertocovertheasparagus,andtakenoteofthetotalweightofthewaterandtheasparagus.

Calculate3%ofthatweight,andaddthatmuchsalttoamixingbowl.Pourthewateroutofthejarintothebowl.Whisktogetherthesaltandwateruntilthesalthasdissolved.Pourthebrineintothejarovertheasparagusanddistributethe

lemonslicesontopofthat.Keeptheasparagusspearssubmergedbeneaththelevelofthebrinebyweightingthemdownwithawater-filledzip-topplasticbag,afermentationweight,orsomeothercleanobjectwedgedbeneaththeneckofthejarorcrock.Coverthejarorcrockwithalid,butdon’tsealitsotightlythatgascan’tescape.

Fermenttheasparagusspearsinawarmplace(about21°C/7o°F)for2weeks.Begincheckingthemafteracoupleofdays.Ifyoutastelightlysournotes—beyondthelemon—you’reontherighttrack.Oncetheasparagushaspickledtoyourliking,leaveitinthebrine,sealthecontainer,andtransferittotherefrigerator.Itwillkeepinthebrineforseveralmonths.

LactoWhiteAsparagus,day1

Day7

Day14

SuggestedUseTheNewGherkinsWeliketodeploylacto-fermentedasparagusspearsthesamewayyouwouldgherkins,asrefreshingpalatecleansersortartgarnishes.Servethemsimplydousedinabitofoliveoilduringsupper,whetheryou’rehavinglasagnaorgrilledribs.Or,thenexttimeyou’remakingburgers,thinlysliceaspearoflacto-fermentedasparagusandshingletheslicesononesideofthecookedpatty,thencontinuewithyourusualcondiments.You’llbecountingdownthedaysuntilwhiteasparaguscomesintoseasonagain.

Packthejartightlybutnotsofullthatyoubruisetheasparagus.

Sprinklesaltevenlyovertheblueberriessoyoudon’tdamagetheproductwithtoomuchmixing.Iftherearepocketsofunsaltedberries,theywon’tfermentproperly.

LactoBlueberriesMakes1kilogram1kilogramblueberries

20gramsnon-iodizedsalt

Lacto-fermentedblueberriesareoneoftheeasiestandmoreversatileproductsinthischapter.Theyneednoprepotherthanaquickrinse,andoncethey’redoneyou’llfindheapsofsimpleusesforthem:Tosssomeontoyourmorningyogurtandgranola,oraddthemtoasmoothie,orpureethefruitandjuicestomakeasalty-sweetcoulistobedrizzledovericecreamorfreshcheese.Fermentedblueberriesfreezewellandthawquickly,makingthemeasytokeeponhandatalltimes.

Thein-depthinstructionsforLactoPlumsserveasatemplateforallthelacticfermentationrecipesinthischapter.Werecommendyoureadthatrecipebeforestartinginonthisone.

LactoBlueberries,day1(vacuum-sealed)

Day4

Day7

Iffermentinginavacuumbag:Placetheblueberriesandsaltinthevacuumbagandtosstomixthecontentsthoroughly.Doyourbesttoarrangetheberriesinasinglelayer,thensealthebagonmaximumsuction.Ifyou’regentlewiththem,theblueberrieswillretaintheirshapethroughthefermentation.Besuretosealthebagasclosetotheopeningaspossible,leavingheadroomthatwillallowyoutocutopenthebagtoventanygasthataccumulatesandthenresealit.

LactoBlueberries,day1(inajar)

Day4

Day7

Iffermentinginajarorcrock:Mixthesaltandblueberriestogetherinabowl,thentransferthemtothefermentationvessel,makingsuretoscrapeallthesaltfromthebowlintothecontainer,andpressthemixturedownwithaweight.(Aheavy-dutyzip-topbagfilledwithwaterwilldothetrick.)Coverthejarorcrockwithalid,butdon’tsealitsotightlythatgascan’tescape.

Fermenttheblueberriesinawarmplaceuntiltheyhavesouredslightlybutstillhavetheirsweet,fruityperfume.Thisshouldtake4to5daysat28°C/82°F,orafewdayslongeratroomtemperature,butyoushouldstarttaste-testingafterthefirstfewdays.Ifyou’refermentinginavacuum-sealedbag,you’llalsoneedto“burp”thebagwheneveritballoonsup.Cutacorneropen,releasethegas,tastetheblueberries,andresealthebag.

Oncetheblueberrieshavereachedyourdesiredlevelofsourness,carefullyremovethemfromthebagorfermentationvessel,andstrainthejuicethroughafine-meshsieve.Theblueberriesandtheirjuicecanbestoredinseparatecontainersintherefrigeratorforafewdayswithoutanoticeablechangeinflavor.Topreventfurtherfermentation,youcanalsofreezethemseparatelyinvacuum-sealedbagsorzip-topfreezerbagswiththeairremoved.

SuggestedUsesBreakfastToppingFermentedblueberriesplayabigpartinoursavorykitchenatNoma,butofcourse,mostpeoplethinkofblueberriesasasweettreatoratoppingforyogurtinthemorning.Fermentedblueberriesboostasimplebreakfastintomoresophisticatedterritory.Abigscoopofplainyogurt,aspoonfuloflactoblueberries,andadrizzleofhoneywilleasilygetyouthroughuntillunch.

LactoBlueberrySeasoningPasteThepulpoflacto-fermentedblueberries,blendedsmoothandpassedthroughasieve,makesforatart,savorycondimentforvegetablesandmeatalike.It’sspectacularbrushedonfreshcornonthecobwithabitofbutter,ortossedwithroastedbeets.Paintbarbecuedribsorporkchopswithlactoblueberrypastebeforeoraftergrilling,ormakeabarbecuesaucebysubstitutingitfortomatopasteorketchupinyourfavoriterecipe.

Pureelactoblueberriesandspreadthemovercornonthecob.

TropicalfruitsandchilesarehardtocomebyinDenmark,butweenjoyworkingwiththemwheneverwecan.

LactoMango-ScentedHoneyMakes700grams375gramswater20gramsnon-iodizedsalt

375gramshoney

5gramsfreshchiles,sliced250gramsdicedmango,withtheskinonHoneyismoreorlessinert,meaningitwillnevergobadinyourcupboard,butitwillalsoneverfermentinitsnaturalstate.Whileitcontainsarobustpopulationofbacteriaandyeastsinstasis,theirmicrobialactivityishaltedbecausehoney’ssugarcontentissimplytoohigh.WecanworkaroundthisproblembydilutingthehoneytoasugarlevelthatislowenoughtosupportLAB.We’veemployedthisrecipewheneverwe’veventuredintowarmerclimes;it’sfounditswayintodessertsonourpop-upmenusinbothAustraliaandMexico.

Thein-depthinstructionsforLactoPlumsserveasatemplateforallthelacticfermentationrecipesinthischapter.Werecommendyoureadthatrecipebeforestartinginonthisone.

Whisktogetherthewaterandsaltuntilthesalthasdissolved.Addthehoneyandwhiskagainuntilfullyincorporated.

LactoMango-ScentedHoney,day1(vacuum-sealed)

Day4

Day7

Iffermentinginavacuumbag:Transferthehoneymixturetoavacuumbag,alongwiththechilesandmango,andsealthebagonmaximumsuction.Besuretosealthebagasclosetotheopeningaspossible,leavingheadroomthatwillallowyoutocutopenthebagtoventanygasthataccumulatesandthenresealit.Massagethecontentsgentlytodistributethemevenly.

LactoMango-ScentedHoney,day1(inajar)

Day4

Day7

Iffermentinginajarorcrock:Transferthehoneymixturetothefermentationvessel,addthechilesandmango,andmuddlethefruitbypressingonitlightlywithaspoonorspatula.Layasheetofplasticwrapdirectlyontopoftheliquid,makingsureitreachesallthewaytotheedges,andcoverthejarorcrockwithalid,butdon’tsealitsotightlythatgascan’tescape.

Fermentthehoneyinawarmplaceuntilithassouredslightlyandtakenontheheatandperfumeofthechilesandmango.Thisshouldtake4to5daysat28°C/82°F,orafewdayslongeratroomtemperature,butyoushouldstarttaste-testingafterthefirstfewdays.Ifyou’refermentinginavacuum-sealedbag,you’llalsoneedto“burp”thebagwheneveritballoonsup.Cutacorneropen,releasethegas,tastethehoney,andresealthebag.

Oncefermentedtoyourtaste,strainthehoneythroughafine-meshsieveanddiscardthemangoandchiles.Feelfreetosavethestrainedfruitsforanotherapplication(likeaspicychutney).Youcanstorethehoneyintherefrigeratorforafewweeks,orfreezeitinavacuum-sealedbagorzip-topfreezerbagwiththeairremovedforlongerstorage.

SuggestedUsesSugarReplacementThemostobvioususeforlacto-fermentedhoneyisasa(moredelicious,moreinteresting)sugarsubstitute.Lacto-fermentedhoneystepsinmorethanadequatelyforthesugarincompotesandjams,helpingtokeeptheoriginalcharacterofthefruitmoreintact.Lactohoneyisalsofantasticinteaorcoffee,especiallyifyou’remakingchilleddrinks,whereitsflavorcanreallyshinethrough.

Honey-PoachedPearsLacto-fermentedhoneyisaperfectpairingtoalmostanyfruit,butespeciallypears.Inawide-bottomedpot,combine500milliliterslactohoney,500milliliterswhitewine,andaspoonfuleachofchoppedfreshrosemaryandthyme.Lower6ripebutfirmpeeledpearsintotheliquid,cover,andbringtoasimmer.Cookthefruituntilsoftenedslightly,3to5minutes,thenremovethepotfromtheheatandallowtocooltoroomtemperature.Notmanypeoplecanresistthesegems,slicedandservedwithahealthyscoopoficecream,ordressedwithadropofvinegarandpairedwithhardcheese.

LactogooseberrieswerethesoursparkthatbeganthepursuitoffermentationatNoma.

LactoGreenGooseberriesMakes1kilogramlactogooseberriesandjuice1kilogramfirm-ripegreengooseberries20gramsnon-iodizedsalt

GooseberriesarebelovedinnorthernEurope,buttheygrowintemperateclimatesaroundtheworld.Cultivarsrangeincolorfromajewel-likepalegreentocrimsonred,withastripedpatternthatrunslongitudinally.Forthisferment,weusegreengooseberriesthatarejustlessthanripeandstillfirmifpinched.Thisrecipealsoworksbrilliantlywithredgooseberries,whichareusuallyjuicierandsweeterthantheirgreencounterparts,andarequickertoferment.

LactoGreenGooseberries,day1(vacuum-sealed)

Day4

Day7

Iffermentinginavacuumbag:Placethegooseberriesandsaltinthevacuumbagandtosstomixthecontentsthoroughly.Doyourbesttoarrangetheberriesinasinglelayer,thensealthebagonmaximumsuction.Ifyou’regentlewiththem,thegooseberrieswillretaintheirshapethroughthefermentation.Besuretosealthebagasclosetotheopeningaspossible,leavingheadroomthatwillallowyoutocutopenthebagtoventanygasthataccumulatesandthenresealit.

LactoGreenGooseberries,day1(inajar)

Day4

Day7

Iffermentinginajarorcrock:Mixthesaltandgooseberriestogetherinabowl,thentransferthemtothefermentationvessel,makingsuretoscrapeallthesaltfromthebowlintothecontainer,andpressthemixturedownwithaweight.(Aheavy-dutyzip-topbagfilledwithwaterwilldothetrick.)Coverthejarorcrockwithalid,butdon’tsealitsotightlythatgascan’tescape.

Fermentthegooseberriesinawarmplaceuntiltheyhavesouredtoyourliking.Thisshouldtake5to6daysat28°C/82°F,oracoupleofdayslongeratroomtemperature.Theberriesshouldbetartandmildlybrinybytheend,butyoushouldstarttaste-testingafterthefirstfewdaystomakesurethey’reontherighttrack.Ifyou’refermentinginavacuum-sealedbag,you’llalsoneedto“burp”thebagwheneveritballoonsup.Cutacorneropen,releasethegas,tastethegooseberries,andresealthebag.

Oncetheberrieshavereachedyourdesiredlevelofsourness,carefullyremovethemfromthebagorfermentationvessel,andstraintheliquidthroughafine-meshsieve.Thegooseberriesandtheirliquidcanbestoredinseparatecontainersintherefrigeratorforafewdayswithoutanoticeablechangeinflavor.Topreventfurtherfermentation,youcanalsofreezethemseparatelyinvacuum-sealedbagsorzip-topfreezerbagswiththeairremoved.

SuggestedUsesGooseberryRelishSimplyslicedinhalf,thesesouredberriesmakeforarefreshinglybrightpalatecleanserinbetweenmouthfulsofricherdishes,likeseafoodchowder.Butlacto-fermentedgooseberriescanalsoserveasthebackboneofaspectacularrelish.Mince100gramsfermentedgooseberryfleshandcombinewith15gramseachchoppedparsleyandchoppedtarragon,1finelymincedclovegarlic,andaliberaldrizzleofoliveoil.Seasonwithsalt,ifneeded.Thistoppingbegstobesmearedoverbraisedshortribs,barbecuedquail,orgrilledvegetableslikeasparagusoryoungleeks.

LechedeTigreThejuicefromabagorcrockoffermentedgooseberriesisoneofourall-timefavoriteseasoningsattherestaurant.Allonitsown,thesalty,sour,fruityliquidcanturnslicesoffirmrawfishlikesnapperorseabreamintodelectableceviche.Totakethatideatoanotherlevel,youcanmakeaproperlechedetigre(the

Peruviantermforcevichemarinade).Withahandheldblender,blend1partbyweightpeeledrawrockshrimpwith3partslactogooseberryjuice,thenpassthemixturethroughasieve.Addasmuchfinelymincedshallotandmincedhabanerototheliquidasyoulike,andpourthemixtureoverslicedrawfish,allowingittositforabout5minutesbeforeenjoyingitwithsomechoppedfreshcilantro.

Buttermilk-GooseberryDressingFermentedgooseberryseedsaretinybutdelicious—theyretainapleasantbiteeventhroughthefermentationprocessandbenefitfromtheflavoroflacticacid,too.Toharvestthemfromthefruit,cutthegooseberrylaterallyandpressthefleshgentlyagainstacuttingboarduntiltheseedspopout.Therearen’tmanyseedspergooseberry,buttheirspectacularcombinationoftextureandtartnesswillmaketheworkworthwhile.Mixtheseedswithaspoonfulofbuttermilkandacoupleofcracksofblackpeppertomakeatoppingthatcutsthroughfatandelectrifieswhateverittouches.Itcanbeusedtogarnishfreshlyshuckedsteamedclams,slicesofrawamberjack,orblinistoppedwithfishroeandelderflowercrèmefraîche.

Theseedsoflactogooseberriesareasgoodasthefleshandwellworththeefforttoharvest.

3.Kombucha—LemonVerbenaKombuchaRoseKombuchaAppleKombuchaElderflowerKombuchaCoffeeKombuchaMapleKombuchaMangoKombucha

AHistoricBrewReimagined

KombuchawasborninancientChina.

WhenwefirstbegandedicatingtimeandattentiontolearningaboutfermentationatNoma,weconsumedeverypieceofrelevantliteraturewecouldgetourhandson.Eachtimewecameacrossanunfamiliarterminabook,itgaveusathrill.Thethingswewerereadingaboutmayhavebeencenturiesold,buttheywereessentiallynewtoourlittlecorneroftheworld.Tenyearsago,forinstance,hardlyanyoneinDenmarkwasdrinkingkombucha.Whenwefirsttriedmakingourown,wehadtogotoChristiania—Copenhagen’sself-declaredautonomoushippieneighborhoodwheretouristsgotobuyhash—tofindsupplies.

Kombuchaisasouredandlightlycarbonatedfermentedbeverage,traditionallymadefromsweetenedtea.ItsmurkyoriginsarebelievedtolieinManchuria(whatisnownortheasternChina)around200BCE.FromthereitspreadeasttoJapan,largelythroughtheeffortsofafabledKoreanphysiciannamedKombu.Hence,kombucha(chabeingChinesefor“tea”).

Historically,kombuchahasbeenconsumedinJapan,Korea,Vietnam,China,andpartsofeasternRussia.Butinrecentyears,kombuchahasexplodedinpopularityacrossNorthAmericaandWesternEurope,thankstoclevermarketingandthepublic’sgrowingfascinationwithallthingsprobiotic.

AtNoma,webrewkombuchasaseffervescentandvibrantbasesforsomeofthejuicepairingsthatmanyofourdinerschooseinplaceof—orsometimesinadditionto—winepairings.KombuchahasbeenincredibleforopeninguptherangeofourdrinkserviceatNoma.Inthesamewaythatwemightdevelopadishforthemenu,wemixkombuchaswithfreshjuices,spices,oils,andeveninsectstocreateelegantlybalancedbeverages.

Almostanyliquidwithenoughsugarcanbefermentedintokombucha,sowhileit’scustomarytomakekombuchafromsweetenedtea,someofthevarietiesthatweenjoymostaremadefromtisanes(herbalinfusions)orfruitjuices,whichyieldaroundnessanddepthofflavornotfoundintea.We’vemadegreatkombuchafrominfusionsofchamomile,lemonverbena,elderflower,saffron,androse,aswellasfromthejuiceofapples,cherries,carrots,andasparagus.

Thekindofkombuchawe’rechasingbearsverylittleresemblancetothesourliquidpeopleforcethemselvestodrinkbecauseit’ssupposedlygoodforthem.Tobeperfectlyhonest,wefindtheaveragestore-boughttea-basedkombuchaabitboring.Theflavoroftheteausuallyfadesintothebackground,andyou’releftwithaone-notebeveragethatdoesn’treallytakeyouonanysortofajourney.

CarrotkombuchawasoneofNoma’sfirstforaysintokombuchabrewing.

Oneofourearliestforayswasacarrotkombuchathatopenedoureyestowhatkombuchacanbe.Itwaslikeaperfectsoupallonitsown,acoldbroththatstill

hadsomecarrot-ysweetness,butwithatouchofacidity.Ithadtransformedintosomethingwithnewdimensionsthatcomplementedtheoriginalflavorwithoutobscuringit.Sincethen,we’vebeenonanongoingmissiontobrewkombuchafromasmanydifferentbasesaswecan.Someofourexplorationshavetakenusoffthebeatenpathintoexperimentswithdairy,treesaps,andstocksmadewithspicychiles.

Wecookwithkombucha,too.OnceyoustopviewingkombuchaassimplyaNewAgehealthdrink,anumberofculinarypossibilitiesopenup.Thelongeryoufermentkombucha,themoreacidicitgrows.Afterawhile,itbecomesalivelyingredientinmarinadesorvinaigrettes,oranintriguingsubstituteforwhitewineorChampagneinsauces.Oryoucanreducekombuchainapanintoamagicalsyrup—thekindofsweet,tarttoppingyoureallywantonyourpancakes.

CooperativeFermentationKombuchaisproducedbyacollectiveofmicrobesthatworksinsynctofirstturnsugarintoalcohol,thenalcoholintoaceticacid(thesameacidinvinegar).Asthemicrobesperformtheirwork,theyformavisibleraftthat’scommonlyknownasthekombucha“mother,”butalsosometimesconfusinglyreferredtoasthe“kombucha.”Technicallyspeaking,it’scalledaSCOBY(SymbioticCultureofBacteriaandYeast),sotokeepthingsclear,we’llusethetermskombuchaforthefinishedproductandSCOBYfortheorganisms/mother.

Thespecificspeciesofmicrobesthatproducekombuchawillvaryfromoneplacetoanotherandfromonebatchtothenext,butthemainplayersareyeast(aunicellularfungus)andaceticacidbacteria(AAB,forshort).TheyeastisoftenSaccharomycescerevisiae,butcanalsoincludemanyofitsrelatives.TheAABmightalsobeacombinationofseveralspecies,butsomerepresentativefromthegenusGluconacetobacterorAcetobacterwillalwaysbepresent.

AyoungSCOBYacquiredfromafermentationshop.

AndthesameSCOBYafter7daysspentbrewingabatchofkombucha.

Onceintroducedtoasugaryliquid,theyeastinaSCOBYkicksoffacascadeoffermentationbyconsumingsimplesugarsandproducingethanol—theprimarytypeofalcoholinwine,beer,andspirits—andabitofcarbondioxide.ThecohabitingAABthenfermenttheethanolbyoxidizingitintoaceticacid,utilizingtheoxygenfromitssurroundings.Thebacteria’squickworktransformingalcoholintoacidmeanskombuchadoesn’thaveasmuchalcoholaswineorbeer,butitisn’tcompletelyalcohol-free.TheABV(alcoholbyvolume)ofkombuchahoversintheneighborhoodof0.5%to1%.Forcontext,atypicalbeerisaround5%ABV,andwinesareinthelowteens.

Asaroughguide:

• Underidealconditions,yeasttypicallyferments2unitsofsugarinto1unitofalcohol.

• AABconvert1unitofalcoholintojustunder1unitofaceticacid.TheoperativewordinSCOBYissymbiotic,atermthatusuallyimpliesharmoniouscooperationbutactuallycoversamultitudeofdifferentrelationships.SymbiosistranslatesfromGreekas“livingtogether,”andparasites,pathogens,andcommensalorganisms(thosethatbenefitfromanotherwithoutharmingit)allqualify.Atoneextreme,parasitesweakenorevenkill

theirhosts.Ontheotherend,mutualistrelationshipsprovidebenefitstobothparties.AABarecommensaltoyeast:Thebacteriagetmoreoutoftherelationship,buttheydon’tharmtheyeast.YeastthatcoziesuptoAABisfairlytolerantofacidicenvironmentsandisn’tbotheredmuchbyitsacidicpartners.

ThebacteriaandyeastinaSCOBYlivetogetheronastructurecalledazooglealmat(theaforementionedraft).AsthebacteriaintheSCOBYmultiplyandpropagate,theyexcretecellulose,formingabuoyantsheetthatfloatsatoptheliquidlikeagloopyjellyfish.Asthemixtureferments,thematgrows,spreadingoutonthesurfaceoftheliquidtotheboundariesofthecontainer,thenincreasinginthickness.LivingonthematallowstheAABtocomeintodirectcontactwiththeairabovetheliquid,whichtheyrequiretoconvertalcoholtoacid.

Vinegarsaremadesourinaverysimilarprocess,butwithoneimportantdistinction:Vinegarisatwo-stagefermentation.Inthefirststage,yeastfermentsthesugartoalcohol.Differentyeastshavedifferenttolerancesforthealcoholtheyproduce,andwilldieoffoncethatlevelismet(ortheycanbekilledoffbypasteurizationwheneverthevinegarmakerchooses).

Inthesecondstage,AABfermentthealcoholintoacid,butwithouttheyeast,thebacteriawilleventuallyrunoutoffuelandfermentationwillstop.Choosingastrainofyeastthatwilldieoffonitsown—orkillingtheyeastafterithasproducedjusttherightamountofalcohol—ishowbrewerscontroltheprocess,andthusthesournessoftheirvinegar.

BergamotKombuchawithNativeMint,NomaAustralia,2016

AkombuchamadefrombergamotteamuddledwithnativeAustralianmintandfreshcitrusforourjuicepairing.

Kombucha,ontheotherhand,isasustainedfermentation.Theyeastcontinuallyfermentssugarintoethanolforthebacteriatoconvertintoaceticacid.Thatmeansthatunlikevinegar,whichcanbeagedforyearsorevendecadeswhilestillremainingslightlysweet,akombuchawillbecomemoreandmoresouruntilalltheavailablesugarisusedup.Evenifyouharvestakombuchaattherightmomentandtransfertheliquidtothefridge,itwillcontinuetoacidify.

That’swhysomecommercialvarietiesofkombuchacantasteoverfermentedandsourratherthanrefreshing.Awell-madekombuchashouldhaveenoughresidualsweetnesstobeenticingandenoughaciditytobelively.Strikingtheidealbalancebetweensugarandacidcomesdowntothethirdmemberofthekombuchasymbiosis:humans.It’suptoustodeterminewhenakombuchaisreadytoharvest.

Interestingly,therolethathumansplayalsoextendstotheevolutionaryhistoryofthebacteriaandyeastresponsibleforkombucha.Beforetheadventofmicrobiology,thebestindicatorsofaSCOBY’svigorwerevisualcues.ArobustSCOBYwaslikelytakenasagoodsignandprizedbykombuchamakers,who

wouldsaveandpropagatesuchspecimens,thusgivingprecedencetothebacteriathatwereabletoproducethem.WhilethemicrobesinaSCOBYdon’tneedazooglealmattofunction,humaninterventionhasensuredthesurvivalofSCOBYsthatproducethickrafts.

TheSweetSpotLet’shavealookatthebasicprocessformakingakombucha:

1.Firstmakeajuice,tea,orinfusion.Sweetenitandcoolit.2.BackslopwithapreviouskombuchatolowerthepH.3.AddaSCOBY,oracuttingfromone.Apiecethatcoversatleast25percentofthesurfaceoftheliquidshouldsuffice.4.Coverthecontainerandleavethemixturetoferment,ideallyatslightlywarmerthanroomtemperature.5.Tastethekombuchaoften.Onceit’sreachedyouridealbalanceofsweetnessandacidity,removetheSCOBYandreserveit,thenstrainandchillthekombucha.

So,withallthetalkofbalanceandtiminginthischapter,aglaringquestionremains:Howmuchsugarshouldyouaddwhenmakingkombucha?

Asakombucha’ssweetnessdiminishes,itsacidityrises.

Asaframeofreference,ifyouweretoplaceaSCOBYinajarofplainwater,itwoulddie,starvedofthesugarsneededtofuelitsmetabolism.Conversely,ifyouweretoplacetheSCOBYintoatubofsaturatedsugarsolution,itwouldalsodie,shockedbythehighconcentrationofsucrose;themicrobessimplywouldn’tbeabletofunction.(Thisisthesamereasonthathoney,whichismostlymadeofsugar,nevergoesbad.)Inshort,there’snoperfectanswertohowmuchsugaryouneedinyourkombucha,butagoodbitoftrialanderrorhaveledustoanumberwe’rehappywith.

SweetnessisexpressedindegreesBrix(°Bx)—ameasureoftheamountofdissolvedsucrose(tablesugar)asapercentageofthetotalsolution(gramsofsugardividedbythetotalgramsofsugarandwatercombined).WefindthatakombuchamadefromahighstartingBrixof35°Bx(verysweet)willnotbeanywherenearasdeliciousasonemadefromamoremoderatestartingBrix.Akombuchastartedat35°Bxwillcontaintoomuchsugarandtoomuchacid.We’vesettledat12°Bxformostofourkombucharecipes.

Asforhowlongtoletkombuchaferment,it’shelpfultovisualizethefermentationprocessasacurve.Inthebeginning,theliquidtastesfamiliarandsomewhatlifeless.Forexample,asweetenedinfusionofelderflowerbeginslifetastinglikeflatsodapop,butbydayseven,atthepeakofthecurve,itcanresembleanamazingsparklingwine(sansalcohol).Theoriginalfloralflavorwillbeclear,withaddedeffervescenceandbrightness.Butafterthathighpoint,thekombuchawillsteadilymovedowntheothersideofthecurvetowardanunpalatablyacidicandshockingendpoint.

Moresothanwithotherferments,pullingkombuchaandconsumingorcookingwithitattherighttimeiscritical.AtNoma,weoftenfreezeourkombuchastohaltfermentationandensurethatthey’reheldatthetopoftheircurve.Wecouldalsoachievetheeffectviapasteurization,butbyapplyingheatyouinvariablymuddleandmutetheflavorsoftheferment.

CaringforYourSCOBY

CaringforyourSCOBYmeanspreparinganicehomeforitinbetweenbatchesofkombucha.

Asdeliciousaswefindkombuchas,wealsothinkthey’refascinatingtoworkwithandwatchgrow.Asyou’retendingyourownkombucha,you’llgrowattachedtoit,inthewaythatpeoplewithsourdoughstarterscometodelightinnurturingthem.

Whilethere’snokombuchapetstore,thereareplentyofwebsiteswhereyoucanpurchaseliveSCOBYs(seeSources),nottomentionnaturalfoodsandhome-brewshops.SCOBYsarenormallysoldvacuum-sealedorjarredinasmallquantityofsouredkombuchabase.Ahealthyspecimenshouldresembleasemi-opaquediskoffirmgelatin.AsaSCOBYrequiresairtothrive,it’simportanttotransferittoanopen-aircontainerassoonasyoureceiveit.

Ifyouaren’tplanningtobrewkombuchaimmediately,you’llneedtoholdyourSCOBYinstasisuntilyouare.Whipupabatchof20%sugarsyrup(800gramswaterand200gramssugar,broughttoaboil,thencooled)andtransferit,alongwithyournewSCOBY,toanopen-topjar.Coverwithabreathabletowelorcheeseclothandsecureitwitharubberband.BesuretoaddanyliquidthatcamewithyourSCOBY,asit’sfullofthesamebacteria,yeast,andacidthatmakeforahappycolony.

Now,aswithasourdoughstarter,aSCOBYneedsalittleupkeepbetweenkombuchabrewingsessions.Ifyoumakekombucharegularly,youcangetintoasteadyrhythmoftransferringaSCOBYfromonebatchtothenext,alwayskeepingitbusy.Butifyouharvestyourkombuchaandaren’treadytostartanewbatch,you’llneedtokeeptheSCOBYfloatinginroughlytwiceitsweightofkombuchaorsugarsyrup.Theliquidwillsustainitforawhile,buteventuallytheSCOBYwillconvertallthesugarintoacidandyou’llhavetotransferittoafreshhome.Every2or3weeks,you’llneedtorepeattheprocessdetailedabove,brewingfreshsyrupandtransferringtheSCOBY.(SCOBYscanbestoredinthefridgetoslowtheirmetabolisms,butweprefertokeepthemnearroomtemperaturesothey’realwaysreadyforaction.)IfyounoticethetopoftheSCOBYdryingout,besuretobasteitwithliquidfromunderneath,inordertokeepitssurfaceacidified.

AnotherimportantfactorinthelongevityofyourSCOBYisprimingitsenvironment(whatwecallbackslopping).IfyouplaceaSCOBYstraightintosweetenedliquid(tea,fruitjuice,milk,etc.),there’slikelytobewildyeastsandbacteriathatcancompeteforthesugarswithintheliquidandimpartmusty,unpleasantflavors.Worsestillarewildfungalmolds,suchasmalevolentstrainsofAspergillus,whichcanproducewater-solubletoxins.Tohelppreventunwantedmicrobesfromflourishing,you’llneedtoaddsomekombuchafromapreviousbatch(orfromastore-boughtkombucha,ifthisisyourfirstbatch).

Byaddingsomekombuchatothemix(10percentofthetotalweight),youlowerthepHofthesolution,usuallytobelow5,whichisenoughtopreventinvadersfromblooming.TheSCOBY,ontheotherhand,notonlytoleratesalowpHlevelbutthrivesinit.Primingalsoaddsaboostershotofthebacteriaandyeastsyou’relookingtopropagatewithinyoursolution.

OnethingtonoteisthatSCOBYscanacquiretheflavorofthebaseliquidthatthey’refermenting,andpungentflavorscancarryovertothenextbatch.Toavoidthis,useSCOBYstofermentthesameorsimilar-flavoredliquidseachtime.AtNoma,wehavea“livinglibrary”ofSCOBYsforeachtypeofliquidbase.

SCOBYsarecommunitiesoforganismsinwhichhumansplayavitalrole.

Howdoyoucreatesuchalibrary?Well,ifyouwanted,youcouldgrowanewSCOBYfromtheliquidthatyourSCOBYcamepackagedin.It’ssofulloftheorganismsthatgivelifetokombuchathatitcouldproduceanewSCOBYwheretherewasnonebefore.ButgrowingaSCOBYthiswaycanbepainstakinglyslow,soifyouwanttoproducenewSCOBYsfordifferent-flavoredkombuchas,it’sbesttogrowfromcuttings—literallycuttingoffapieceofaSCOBYandtransferringittoitsownsyrupbath.Alternatively,youcankeeponelargeSCOBYactiveinaneutralbaseofplainsugarsyrupandtakecuttingsfromiteachtimeyoustartanewbatchofkombucha.

(WeadviseagainsttryingtogrowaSCOBYfromstore-boughtbottlesofkombucha,becauseevenvarietiesthatadvertiseliveculturesaresealedshut,starvingtheSCOBYofoxygen.Withoutknowinghowlongabottlehasbeensittingontheshelf,there’snoguaranteethatthemicrobesarehealthyenoughtoproduceanewSCOBY.)

Finally,youshouldalwaysbepreparedfortheveryrealpossibilitythatyourSCOBYmightdie.Therearemanybasesyoumightthinkwouldbedeliciousasakombuchabutmay,infact,harbornaturalantifungalorantibacterialagentsthatcankillaSCOBY.Thefirsttimewetriedmakingkombuchafromblack-garlicstock,thekombuchatooksomewhereintheneighborhoodof20daystoacidifyproperly—morethantwiceaslongasothervarieties.We’doverlookedthegarlic’snaturalchemicaldefensemechanisms.Itcontainsasulfur-basedcompoundcalledallicin,whichgivesgarlicitsaromaandalsofightsofffungi.

WesuspectthattheallicininthestockwasinterferingwiththereplicationoftheyeastintheSCOBY.Fortunately,however,someoftheyeasttookhold.Bythetimewestartedthefollowingbatch,wehadahealthySCOBYspecializedinfermentinginthepresenceofallicin.Fermentationisevolutioninrealtime,andit’safascinatingprocessinwhichtotakepart.

TheBrixScaleandRefractometers

TheBrixscaleisnamedforAdolfBrix,aGermanengineerwhodevisedthesystemintheearly1800sforuseinthebeerandwineindustry.DegreesBrix(°Bx)aren’tameasurementinthemselves,butratherascalethatcorrespondstothespecificgravityofasolution.Specificgravityistheratioofthedensityofasolution(suchasasugarsyrup)tothedensityofnormalwater.Themoresugarinthesolution,thehigherthespecificgravity.TheBrixscaletranslatesspecificgravityintodegreeincrements,givingyouanumericalevaluationofaliquid’ssweetness.

Forasenseofthescale:Simplesyrup(1partsugarand1partwaterbyweight)hasameasureof50°Bx,whileadoublesyrup(2partssugarand1partwaterbyweight)hasameasureof66.7°Bx.

YoucanmeasuredegreesBrixwitharefractometer.Sucrose,whendissolvedinasolution,changesthewaywaterrefractslight.ArefractometermeasuresthischangeinangleandcorrelatesittodegreesBrix.WeusearefractometeratNomatokeepclosetabsonourfermentationprojectsandensureconsistencyfrombatchtobatch,butyoushouldn’tfeelobligatedtogooutandbuyone.Youwon’tneedonetoaccomplishanyoftherecipesinthisbook.

Arefractometerdeterminesthesugarcontentofasolutionbymeasuringtherefractionoflight.

AproperlystoredSCOBYcanbeusedtofermentmultiplebatchesoflemonverbenakombucha.

AppleKombuchaMakes2liters2kilogramsunfilteredapplejuice

200gramsunpasteurizedkombucha(ortheliquidthatcomeswithapackagedSCOBY)1SCOBY(seeSources)Juicingyourownappleswillallowyoutouselocalvarietiesandcreateablendtoyourliking,butfeelfreetouseagood-qualitystore-boughtunfilteredapplecider;farmstandsoftensellfresh-pressedciderinseason.Becausethejuiceisnaturallysweet,youwon’tneedtoaddsugartothisrecipe.

Thein-depthinstructionsforLemonVerbenaKombuchaserveasatemplateforallthekombucharecipesinthischapter.Werecommendyoureadthatrecipebeforestartinginonthisone.

Pourtheapplejuiceintothefermentationvessel.Backslopbystirringinthe200gramsunpasteurizedkombucha.Wearinggloves,carefullyplacetheSCOBYintotheliquid.Coverthetopofthefermentationvesselwithcheeseclothorabreathablekitchentowelandsecureitwitharubberband.Labelthekombuchaandsetitinawarmplace.

Leavethekombuchatoferment,trackingitsprogresseachday.MakesurethetopoftheSCOBYdoesn’tdryout;usealadletomoistenitwithsomeoftheliquid,ifnecessary.Onceyou’rehappywiththeflavorofyourkombucha—probablybetween7and10daysfromthestart—transfertheSCOBYtoacontainerforstorageandstrainthekombucha.Consumeimmediatelyorrefrigerate,freeze,orbottleit.

AppleKombucha,day1

Day4

Day7

SuggestedUsesAppleKombuchaHerbTonicBlendingapplekombuchawithfreshherbsinfusestheliquidwithetherealaromaticqualities.InCopenhagen,we’refortunatetobeabletotakeawalkaroundtheneighborhoodandfindyoungDouglasfirbranchestomakeabriskapple-pinetonic.(Whir25gramsfreshfirneedleswith500gramsapplekombuchainablender,strain,andserve.)Butyoucanalsofindplentyofsuitabledancepartnersforapplekombuchaatyourlocalmarket.Useastandblendertowhirhalfabunchofbasilor10gramspickedrosemaryneedleswith500gramsapplekombucha.Strainthroughafine-meshsieveforaninvigoratingpick-me-up.

Apple-VegetableSmoothieBlendingcookedvegetableswithfruitkombuchasisanabsolutelydeliciouswaytogetalittlefiber(andalsoagreatwaytosneakmorevegetablesintoyourkids’diets).Goodmatchesforapplekombuchaincludespinach,sorrel,cabbage,or

bakedbeets(whichalsopairwellwithrosekombucha).Becausethevegetablesaresofulloffiber,theywillthickenupinablendernicely.Aimfora4:1ratioofkombuchatovegetable,andblendforatleastaminutebeforepassingitthroughafine-meshsieveandserving.

Blendingapplekombuchawithherbs(inthiscase,Douglasfirpineneedles)makesabright,refreshingtonic.

ElderflowerkombuchaislikethebottledflavorofScandinaviansummers.

CoffeeKombuchaMakes2liters240gramssugar

1.76kilogramswater

730gramsleftovercoffeegrounds,or200gramsfreshlygroundcoffee200gramsunpasteurizedkombucha(ortheliquidthatcomeswithapackagedSCOBY)1SCOBY(seeSources)Coffeekombuchaoffersasecondlifetousedcoffeegrounds,whichstillhaveplentyofflavortogiveup.Ifyouprefer,youcanusenewgrounds,butnotethatyou’llusemuchlessofthefreshstuff.Lookforcoffeethathasn’tbeenroastedtoodark,whichcanturnitquitebitter—alighterroastwillallowthecomplexfruitinessofagoodcoffeetoshinethrough.

Thein-depthinstructionsforLemonVerbenaKombuchaserveasatemplateforallthekombucharecipesinthischapter.Werecommendyoureadthatrecipebeforestartinginonthisone.

Bringthesugarand240gramsofthewatertoaboilinamediumpot,stirringtodissolvethesugar.Meanwhile,putthecoffeegroundsinanonreactiveheatproofcontainer.Pourthehotsyrupoverthecoffee,thenaddtheremaining1.52kilogramswater.Letthecoffeemixturecooltoroomtem-perature,cover,andtransfertothefridgetoinfuseovernight.

Thefollowingday,strainthecoffeeliquidthroughafine-meshsievelinedwithcheeseclothintothefermentationvessel.Backsloptheinfusionbystirringinthe200gramsunpasteurizedkombucha.Wearinggloves,carefullyplacetheSCOBYintotheliquid.Coverthetopofthefermentationvesselwithcheeseclothorabreathablekitchentowelandsecureitwitharubberband.Labelthekombuchaandsetitinawarmplace.

Leavethekombuchatoferment,trackingitsprogresseachday.MakesurethetopoftheSCOBYdoesn’tdryout;usealadletomoistenitwithsomeoftheliquid,ifnecessary.Onceyou’rehappywiththeflavorofyourkombucha—probablybetween7and10daysfromthestart—transfertheSCOBYtoacontainerforstorageandstrainthekombucha.Consumeimmediatelyorrefrigerate,freeze,orbottleit.

CoffeeKombucha,day1

Day4

Day7

SuggestedUsesCoffee-KombuchaTiramisuThenexttimeyou’rehavingadinnerparty,makeatiramisu,usingcoffeekombuchainplaceofcoffeetosoakyourladyfingers.Tiramisuisquiterichandsweetwithcustard,andthepleasantlyvibrantbiteofcoffeekombuchaactsasaperfectcounterpoint.

ParsnipsGlazedwithCoffeeKombuchaLet’ssayyou’vegotapanofpeeledandquarteredparsnips,caramelizinggentlyinfoamingbutteronthestove.Twominutesbeforeremovingthemfromthepan,throwinasprigeachofsageandthyme,turnuptheheatabit,anddeglazewithabout120milliliterscoffeekombucha.Swirlthepan,payingattentionasthemixturethickensandbeginstosticktotheparsnips.Atthelastminute,addabigspoonfulofbutterandallowittomeltandglazetheparsnips.Removefromthepanandfinishwithasprinklingofsmokedsalt.

Pan-roastparsnipsandglazethemincoffeekombuchaandbutter.

Reducingmaplekombuchatoa(better)syrupbringsthingsfullcircle.

MapleKombuchaMakes2liters360gramspuremaplesyrup

1.64kilogramswater

200gramsunpasteurizedkombucha(ortheliquidthatcomeswithapackagedSCOBY)1SCOBY(seeSources)Useagood-qualitypuremaplesyrup—notthefood-coloredcornsyrupyoufindatmanygrocerystores.Thequalityofyourfinishedkombuchawillonlybeasgoodastheingredientsthatgointoit.

Thein-depthinstructionsforLemonVerbenaKombuchaserveasatemplateforallthekombucharecipesinthischapter.Werecommendyoureadthatrecipebeforestartinginonthisone.

Thesugarinmaplesyrupisalreadydissolved,sothere’snoneedtoapplyheat,butyouwillhavetoaddthewatertodiluteittoasweetnessofabout12°Bx.Pourthemaplesyrup,water,andthe200gramsunpasteurizedkombuchaintoyourfermentationvesselandstir.Wearinggloves,carefullyplacetheSCOBYintotheliquid.Coverthetopofthefermentationvesselwithcheeseclothorabreathablekitchentowelandsecureitwitharubberband.Labelthekombuchaandsetitinawarmplace.

Leavethekombuchatoferment,trackingitsprogresseachday.MakesurethetopoftheSCOBYdoesn’tdryout;usealadletomoistenitwithsomeoftheliquid,ifnecessary.Onceyou’rehappywiththeflavorofyourkombucha—probablybetween7and10daysfromthestart—transfertheSCOBYtoacontainerforstorageandstrainthekombucha.Consumeimmediatelyorrefrigerate,freeze,orbottleit.

MapleKombucha,day1

Day4

Day7

SuggestedUsesQuatreÉpicesCocktailForaChristmas-ybeverage,cold-steep25gramsquatreépicesin500gramsmaplekombuchaforafewdays.Tomakeyourownfour-spiceblend,toast2partswhitepepper,1partcloves,1partgratednutmeg,and1partgroundgingerinadrypanbeforeaddingthemdirectlytothekombucha.Keepcoveredinthefridgeforatleast2daysandstrainbeforeserving.Oncethekidshavebeenputtobed,addasplashofcoffeeliqueurtomakethingsevenmorefestive.

MapleKombuchaSyrupBringmaplekombuchafullcirclebyreducingitbackintoafantasticallysweetandsoursyrup.Heat1litermaplekombuchainasaucepanoverlowheatandreduceitslowlyuntilitcancoatthebackofaspoon.Don’tbetemptedtospeedthingsup—you’lllosemuchofthearomaandnuanceifyouboilit.Onceit’sreduced,allowthesyruptocooltoroomtemperaturebeforestoringitinanairtightcontainerinthefridge.Maplekombuchasyrupisincrediblewith

chocolate.Youcanseeforyourselfbymakingyourfavoritechocolatemousseandglazingitwiththissyrup.

KombuchaBBQSauceAgreatuseformaplekombuchasyrup(oranyotherkombuchasyrup,forthatmatter)isinaclassicbarbecuesauce.Whilemanybarbecuesaucerecipescallforacidityintheformofapplecidervinegar,theystilltendtoleantowardthesweetsideofthings.Byreplacingthesugarwithkombuchasyrup,youstillgettheperceptionofsweetnesswithoutthesugar,plusmoreacidictwangtocutthroughfattieritemslikeribsorchickenlegs.

Cold-infusemaplekombuchawithaclassicblendofquatreépicesforanonalcoholiccocktail.Addasplashofcoffeeliqueurtomakeitanalcoholicone.

Madefromfruitpuree,mangokombuchahasmorebodyandtexturethanotherkombuchas.ThisrecipeusesKentmangoes,buttherearedozensofdifferentcultivarsthatwillallfermentwithuniqueflavors.

MangoKombuchaMakes2liters

170gramssugar

970gramswater

800gramsdicedpeeledripemangoflesh200gramsunpasteurizedkombucha(ortheliquidthatcomeswithapackagedSCOBY)

1SCOBY(seeSources)

Alltheotherkombuchasinthisbookarethinliquidswithaviscositynotsodifferentfromwater.Whiledevelopingdishesforourpop-uprestaurantinTulum,Mexico,wewantedtoaddsometexturetothekombuchasinourjuicepairings—somethingpleasingyetfluidenoughtofermentproperly.Ifthepureesweretoothick,themicrobeswouldgetjammedup,unabletomovearound.Wefoundthatblendingequalpartsmangofleshandwaterforaminuteproducedexactlywhatwewerelookingfor.

Theopacityofthemangopureemeansarefractometerwon’tbeabletomeasurethesugarcontent,soyou’llreallyneedtouseyourtastebudstoinformyourdecisions.Generallyspeaking,thesweeterandriperthemango,thebetter.

Thein-depthinstructionsforLemonVerbenaKombuchaserveasatemplateforallthekombucharecipesinthischapter.Werecommendyoureadthatrecipebeforestartinginonthisone.

Bringthesugarand170gramsofthewatertoaboilinamediumpot,stirringtodissolvethesugar.Removefromtheheatandletcooltoroomtemperature.

Putthemangoandremainingwaterinablenderandprocessuntilyouhaveasmoothpuree,about1minute.Youmayneedtoworkinbatchestofityourblendersize.

Strainthemangopureethroughafine-meshsieveintothefermentationvessel,thenstirinthesimplesyrupandthe200gramsunpasteurizedkombucha.Wearinggloves,carefullyplacetheSCOBYintotheliquid.Coverthetopofthe

fermentationvesselwithcheeseclothorabreathablekitchentowelandsecureitwitharubberband.Labelthekombuchaandsetitinawarmplace.

Leavethekombuchatoferment,trackingitsprogresseachday.Themangopureewilllikelyseparateintoathinliquidwithathickerlayerfloatingaboveit,whichisfine,butitdoesmeanthattheSCOBYmighthaveahardertimegettingtheoxygenitneeds.Toassistyourmicrobialmother,slideacleanspoonbeneaththeSCOBYandstirthepureetogethereachday,beingcarefulnottodisturbtheSCOBYtoomuch.YoucanalsoladlesomeliquidovertheSCOBYtowashofftheheaviermangosolids.

Onceyou’rehappywiththeflavorofyourkombucha—probablybetween7and10daysfromthestart—transfertheSCOBYtoacontainerforstorage,scrapingoffasmuchofthemangopureeaspossible.Strainthekombuchathroughafine-meshsievelinedwithcheesecloth.Consumeimmediatelyorrefrigerate,freeze,orbottleit.

MangoKombucha,day1

Day4

Day7

SuggestedUsesMangoGazpachoKombuchaswithmorebodyandtexturedowellasthefoundationofacoldsoup.Foradifferentspinongazpacho,chop,squeeze,andstrainthejuicefrom3beefsteaktomatoes.Combinethejuicewith500millilitersmangokombuchaandseasonwithsalt.Addamixtureofcookedvegetables—slicedgrilledasparagus,dicedcelery,favabeans,orslicedgrilledscallionscometomind—andaspoonfulofpomegranateseedsforcrunch.Finishitoffwithgrilledparsleyandcilantroleaves.

Mango-LemongrassVinaigrette

Muddlefreshherbswithmangokombuchatocreateabeverage(orcoldsoup)withevenmorecharacter.

Kombuchasmadefrompureesarealittlelessversatilethanthosemadewithtisanesorotherinfusions,butyoucanstillmakegooduseoftheextraviscosityandsweetnessofamangokombucha.Muddleastalkoflemongrassandafistfulofcilantroin500millilitersmangokombucha,andletitsitfor15minutes

beforestraining.Addahealthydrizzleofspicychilioilandseasonwithapinchofseasalt.Usethevinaigretteforwholeroastedfishorgrilledvegetableslikebokchoyoravocados.Orusethesamesaucetoglazearoastporkshoulderorscallopsonthegrill.

4.Vinegar—PerryVinegarPlumVinegarCeleryVinegarButternutSquashVinegarWhiskeyVinegarGammelDanskVinegarElderberryWineBalsamicBlackGarlicBalsamic

VinegarImprovesPracticallyAnythingThroughoutEuropeandprobablytheentireWesternworld,addingasplashofvinegaristheprevailingmethodofinjectingabitoffreshnessintowhateveryou’recooking.Thenexttimeyouhavesomestore-boughtorangemarmalade,addalittlevinegarandapinchofsalttomakeitinstantlymorevibrant.Ifyou’remakingyourownicecream—dependingonthetypeyou’remaking—alittlefruityvinegarwillgiveitanunexpectededge.Andveryfewcookedvegetablesorfruitsaren’timprovedwithahitofvinegar.

WhenNomafirstopened,vinegarwasmoreorlesstheonlytoolwecoulddependontoinstillourfoodwithacidity.We’dpairthelikesof,say,beetsandapples,andfindthattheyneededabridge—somethingfruity,withaciditytolinktheearthinessandsweetnessofthetwomainingredients.Agedapplevinegarswereoftenuptothetask.

Beforewereallyfoundourwaywithlacto-fermentation,mostofthepicklingwedidatNomawaswithvinegar.HereinScandinavia,vinegarpicklesareeverywhere,likelybecausethey’resosimpletomake:Combineonepartwater,onepartvinegar,andalittlesaltandsugar;addyourfruitsorvegetables;andletthemsit.Vinegar-picklingplayslessofaroleatNomanow,butwestilldoalittlebitofitwithingredientslikeshoots,mushrooms,andseasonalflowers.Potentbloomslikeelderflower,rosepetals,colt’sfoot,chamomile,ordandelionflowersarelefttomatureinapplevinegarforatleastafewweeksinthefridge,beforethepickledflowersfindtheirwayintoallsortsofdishes,fromroastedbonemarrowtodesserts.Asahappysideeffect,thevinegartakesontheflowers’hueandfragranceandcanbeusedtobringtartnesstobothsweetandsavorydishes,longafterthepicklesthemselvesaregone.Thesamemethodcanbeappliedtoniceeffectwithfreshfruits.Manyofthefruitvinegarsyoufindatgrocerystoresareproducedbysoakingfruitinneutral-flavoredvinegars.

BerriesandGreensSoakedinVinegarforOneYear,Noma,2016

Thispalate-cleansingcourseincludeslacto-fermentedredgooseberriesandwildcherriesservedwithchanterellesmarinatedinpumpkinvinegar,wildrosepetalsinrosehipvinegar,elderflowerandcolt’sfootinapplevinegar,andblackcurrantshootsinsprucevinegar.

BalancedacidityiscrucialtoamealatNoma,whichiswhywe’vealwaysfoundvinegartobesuchapowerfulingredient.ThewordvinegarcomesfromtheLatinvinumacer—literally“sourwine.”Butofcourse,thatonlyscratchesthesurfaceofwhatvinegarscanbe.Thereareagedvinegars,suchasbalsamic,thathavetextureandsweetness.Thereareverystrongvinegarsthatcutthroughanythingwiththeiracidity.Ontheothersideofthespectrum,therearevinegarswithverylittleacidity(only1%or2%)thatyoucandrinkstraightfromthebottle,oruseassaucesintheirownright.Wemakeavinegarfromleftoverfenneltopsinthesummerthat’saperfectexampleofthelatter.Theloweracidityletstheoriginalflavorshinethrough,bringinganadditionallayerofbrightnesswithoutdetractingfromthefennel.

You’llfinddozensofvarietiesofvinegarinawell-equippedsupermarket,soevenifyoudon’tchoosetomakeyourownvinegar,there’snoreasonyoucan’tbeginexperimentingwiththedifferentapplicationswesuggestinthischapter.Butifyou’rereadytogofurtherdowntherabbithole,readon.

Aceticacidbacteriaarerod-shaped,aerobicbacteria.Whiletheymaynotbeabletoturnwaterintowine,theycanturnwineintospectacularvinegars.

TheAcidTestofTimeVinegarisakitchenpillarthatissoubiquitousandfamiliarthatmanypeopledon’tthinkofitasaproductoffermentation.

Infact,vinegarismadebythefermentationofalcoholintoaceticacidbyalargefamilyofobligateaerobicbacteria(bacteriathatneedairtofunction).Theseaceticacidbacteria(AAB)encompassawidearrayofspecies.Theyareomnipresentandairborneandfoundonsurfacesofmostlivingthings,includingyou.

Aswithkombucha,vinegarisaproductofthecollaborationbetweenyeastandbacteria.First,yeastconvertssugartoalcohol,thenAABconvertthealcoholtoaceticacid.Thedifferenceisthatvinegar-makerswilloftenselectyeastswithacertainmaximumthresholdforalcohol,meaningtheyeastwilldieoffbeforeit’shadthechancetoconsumeallthesugarsinthebaseliquid.(Alternatively,theywillsometimesheatthealcoholtokilltheyeast.)Otherwise,manyyeastsaren’tadaptedtosurviveaceticacidandwillendupdyingoncetheAABtakesover.Thus,whereaskombuchawillcontinuallygrowmoreandmoreacidicuntilallavailablesugarhasbeenconvertedtoalcohol(andsubsequentlyacid),vinegarwillplateauatacertainacidity.

Varietiesofvinegarsaroundtheworldareasdiverseastheculturesthatproducethem,oftenreflectingthealcoholicspiritsnativetotheregion.EasttoWest,wecanfindvinegarsfermentedfromrice,sorghum,millet,barley,kiwi,apple,honey,berries,coconut,andbeyond.Thefermentablesugarsinmostoftheseproductsarereadilyavailable,allowingyeasttogettoworkstraightaway.Withgrainslikericeandbarley,enzymesmustfirstbreakdownthestarchinthegrainintofermentablesugars.(YoucanreadaboutthisinmoredetailintheKojichapter.)

Theearliestvinegarswerederivedfromproductsthathadalreadybeenfermentedintoalcohol,andtheywerealsoalmostcertainlyanaccident.Beforetheadventofmicrobiology,thereasonsalcoholwouldsourintovinegarwereamystery.Assurelyasthesunwouldriseandset,sotoowouldwinebecomevinegarifleftintheopenair.Thecausewasanyone’sguess.

Butthat’snottosaythatpeoplewereunfamiliarwiththeprocessoffermentation.Peoplehavebeenmakingalcoholfromfruitfortheentiredurationofhumancivilization.InIran,shardsofurnsdatingbackto6000BCE—excavatedfromwhatwasoncethekitchenofaNeolithicabodeneartheZagros

Mountains—displayyellowish-redstainsfromwine.Thousandsofyearslater,theancientEgyptianswereproducingalcoholicgrapebeveragesoftheirown.There’sevidencethatasearlyas3000BCE,Egyptiankingswerebeingburiedwithjarsofwineintheirtombs.Archaeologistshaveexaminedthesejarsandalsofoundtheresiduesofvinegar.

Humanshavebeenfermentingwine,andsubsequentlyvinegar,sinceatleast6000BCE.

Whileancientcivilizationsmaynothaveknownexactlywhyfruitturnedtowineorwinetovinegar,theyunderstoodhowitwashappening,asevidencedbyanEgyptianpapyrusfromthePtolemaicperiod,TheInstructionofAnkhsheshonq,whichcontainsanoteonthepreservationofwine:“Winematuresaslongasonedoesnotopenit.”Twomillennialater,thedemystificationofvinegarwasmuchmorethanaculinaryleap—itupendedthewayweunderstoodnature.

AntoineLavoisier:apillarofmodernchemistryandoneofthefirsttounderstandhowwinebecomesvinegar.

Untilmidwaythroughtheeighteenthcentury,theprevailingwisdomwasthateverythingonearthwascomposedfromfourbasicelements:fire,water,earth,andair.AntoineLavoisier,oneofthefoundersofmodernchemistry,wasthefirstpersontosuggestthatairwasnotapure,immutablesubstance,butratheracombinationofcomponents,includingoxygen(atermhecoinedfromtheGreekwordsfor“acidformer”).Throughrigorousexperimentationusingnonmetalssuchassulfurandphosphorous,hecorrectlydeducedthatoxygenwasbeingremovedfromthesurroundingairwhentheelementswereburned.Theproductsofthosereactionswereacids.Byextrapolatingtheseresults,Lavoisiercametotheconclusionthatthetransformationofwineintovinegaroccurredbecauseofoxygenintheair,throughtheprocessof“oxidation”ascarriedoutbyAAB.

ThiscognitiveleapspreadacrossEuropeandledtoadvancementsinvinegarproductionthatexploitedtheideaofoxidation.Vinegar-makerswereabletospeeduptheprocessbyincreasingthesurfaceareaofwine.Germanvinegar-makersdeveloped“thequickprocess”todripwinethroughlooselypackedwoodchipswhilesimultaneouslyblowingtheliquidwithfreshair.Hundredsofyearslater,artisansstillemploythemethod.

WetakeadvantageofthesameideainourownwayatNoma.Usingacommonairpump—thekindyou’llfindintheaquariumsectionofanypetstore—wesendairthroughourwould-bevinegar,providingAABwiththeoxygentheyneedtoworkquickly.Bytreatingourbacteriaasiftheywerepetgoldfish,we

cancutourfermentationtimefromafewmonthstoacoupleofweeks.You’llfindmoredetailsinthein-depthrecipeforPerryVinegar.

TheQuickerQuickProcessAtNoma,wemakeseveralvinegarsthetraditionaltwo-stageway—fermentingalcoholfromarawproduct,thenallowingAABtoproducevinegarfromthealcohol—usingourtakeonthequickmethod.

Fromstarttofinish,atwo-stepvinegarfermentationlookslikethis:

1.Inoculatesweetfruitsorvegetableswithyeast.Allowtofermentfor10to14days,oruntiltheliquidhasanalcoholbyvolume(ABV)of6%to7%.2.Strainthealcoholandheatto70°C/158°Ftokillanyremainingyeast.3.Transfertheliquidtolargemasonjarsandbackslopwithapreviousbatchofvinegar.(FormoreonBackslopping.)4.Runanairpumpattachedtoanairstone(apieceofporousrockormetalthatdiffusesairinsmallbubbles).Fermentfor10to14days,oruntilallthealcoholhasbeenconvertedtoacid.

That’showweproduceexcellentvinegarsfrompears,apples,andplums.However,youcanalsomakecompellingvinegarsfromproductsthatcan’tbefermentedintoalcohol.VegetableslikeceleryorfennelcontaintoolittlesugarforyeasttoproduceenoughalcoholforAABtoworkwith.Eveniftheyeastcouldconvertalltheavailablesugartoalcohol,itwouldtakealongtime,leavingtheliquidvulnerabletoinfectionbyunwantedmicrobes,whichcouldintroduceoff-flavorsorspoilthebatchoutright.

Throughfermentation,ethanol(C2H5OH)turnsinto...

InorderforAABtoproduceavinegarofabout5%acidity,theyneedtoworkinaliquidwithatotalalcoholcontentof6%to8%ABV.Fruitsorvegetableswithasweetnessoflessthan14°Bx(seemoreabouttheBrixscale)willgenerallynothaveenoughsugartoreachtherequiredABVwithenoughleftovertoprovidethesweetnessyouneedforabalancedvinegar.Incaseslikethis,wemakeupthedifferencebyfeedingtheAABwithdistilledethanol.

...aceticacid(CH3OOH).

Ethanol,orethylalcohol,iswhat’sfoundinalcoholicbeverages.Whensoldinitspureform,ethanolissometimesreferredtoasNGS(neutralgrainspirit)or“rectifiedspirit”—adistilledproductwithamaximumABVof96%(withtheother4%beingwater).Thereareafewbrandsofalcoholthatarebottlednearthatpercentage,suchasEverclearandGemClearinNorthAmerica,orPrimaspiritinEurope,allofwhichworkperfectlyforvinegarproduction.Avoid“denaturedethanol”oranythingwithalistedABVof100%.Don’tuseanyproductwithisopropylalcohol,methylethylketone,oranythingotherthanethylalcoholorwaterasaningredient.Suchproductsarenotsafeforconsumption.Ifyoucan’tfindethanol,anotherlow-flavoralcohollikevodkawillwork,althoughyou’llneedmoreofthespiritbyvolumetoyieldthesamestartingalcoholcontent.Forexample,ifarecipecallsfor100gramsof96%ethanol,130gramsof75%(150-proof)vodkaisrequiredtoreachthesamealcoholcontent.(See“IfYouCan’tFindEthanol,UseVodka.”)

Byaddingethanoltofruitorvegetablejuice,vinegarmakingeffectivelybecomesaone-stagefermentation.AABcangettoworkrightway,withouteverneedingyeasttopropagateandcreatealcoholfromthebase.Thesugarinthejuicewillgounfermentedandprovidebalancetothefinalproduct.Bygoingthisroutewe’vemadevinegarsfromseaweedstocks,carrots,cauliflower,beets,squash,andmore.

Perhapsanexistentialquestionmayoccurtoyou:“Whynotjustaddaceticacidtothejuiceandskipthewholefermentationprocess?”

WestriveforcomplexandintriguingflavorsinourfermentsatNoma,andaswithmanycookingprocesses,whatyougaininashortcutleavesmuchonthecutting-roomfloor.Whitevinegarisfermentedfrompureethanolandthendilutedtoanaceticacidcontentofaround5%.It’srelativelyharshandunnuanced,thoughithasitsplaceinsomecuisines.WhenAABfermentvinegar,theycanproducemetabolitesotherthanaceticacid,suchasgluconicacidandascorbicacid,thatbringcharacteranddepthtovinegar.Plus,thereareanynumberofunpredictablesecondaryreactionstakingplaceinthefermentationprocess—someflavorsgetmutedandnewonescomeforth.Thesearethequalitiesofgoodvinegar.It’stheminutiaethatmakethedifference.

SpiritVinegarsAnotherquestionyoumaybeaskingiswhetheryoucantakefreshfruitsandvegetablesoutofthevinegarequationaltogether.Sure,whynot?Youcanalsotransformdistilledspiritsintovinegars,aslongasyoudilutethemfirstorburnoffsomeofthealcohol—high-alcoholcontentswillhinderAAB.

Dilutionisthemoststraightforwardwayofmakingvinegarfromspirits,butyouhavetobecarefulnottowaterthingsdowntothepointofunrecognizability.Bythetimeyou’vewatereddownsomethinglikeamildplumaquavit,youmayaswellbefermentingaflavorlessvodka.Ontheotherhand,considerGammelDansk,theclassicDanishbitters,whichissoheavilyinfusedwithbotanicalsthatdilutingitto8%ABVwillbarelyputadentinitsflavor.

Inordertoretainthecharacterofmoredelicatespiritslikebourbonorschnapps,it’sbettertoremovethealcoholratherthandiluteit.Flambéthespiritinasaucepanoverhighheatuntiltheflamessubside.You’lllosealotoftheliquidintheprocess,butwhatyou’releftwithisanearlyalcohol-freeversionofyouroriginalspirit.Theflavorwillalsobeconcentrated,soyou’llwanttoaddwatertobringthingsbackintobalance.Measurethevolumeoftheliquid,andaddsomeoftheoriginalspirittobringtheABVbackuptotheneighborhoodof8%.Fromthere,proceedasyouwouldwiththesecondstageofanyvinegarfermentation,bybacksloppingwithsomeunpasteurizedvinegar,aeratingthemixture,andwaitingpatiently.

TheAngel’sShareUnlikesimilarfermentationssuchaskombucha,vinegarcanreceiveextensiveupgradestoitstasteandtexturethroughaging.BecauseAABstopproducingacidoncealltheavailablealcoholhasbeenconsumed,vinegarcansitfordecadeswithoutgrowingmoresour.Agingvinegarcaninstilllayersofflavorbywayoftheagingvessel,andviaevaporationandslowMaillardreactionsthatoccuroverthecourseofmonthsandyears.(See“ReallySlowCooking,”formoreaboutMaillardreactions.)

Themostfamousagedvinegarisbalsamicvinegar.Itaccountsforaround35percentofallvinegarsoldaroundtheworld.Butunlessyou’reverywealthyandverydiscerning,mostofthebalsamicyou’veconsumedinyourlifeprobablywasn’ttruebalsamicvinegarbutinsteadtheunagedAcetoBalsamicodiModena,amixtureofredwinevinegar,cookedgrapemust,andcaramel.Asfarasshortcutsgo,thisisaperfectexampleofthetrade-offsofdoingthingstheeasyway.Whilethischeaperversionhitssomeofthenotesoftraditionallyagedbalsamic,muchofitsdistinctivecharacterisabsent:viscosity,complexumami,andtheessenceofwoodenbarrels.Barrel-aginginwoodinfusesnotesofcaramel,vanilla,smoke,leather,andotherdistincttones,dependingonthevarietyofwood.

Agingvinegarinabarrelslowlyreducesitsvolumeovertimethroughevaporation,andintensifiesflavorswhilealsoimpartingnewones.

ThetraditionalmethodforcraftingbalsamicvinegartakesplaceinbothModenaandReggioEmilia,neighboringcitiesinnorthernItaly.Itrequiresfivetoninewoodenbarrelsmadefromdifferentwoods—mulberry,oak,juniper,cherry,ash,andacacia,tonameafew—eachbuilttodifferentcapacities.Thebarrelsdescendinsizefrom66litersto15liters.Attheoutset,grapemustthathasbeencookeddowntocaramelizeandconcentratethesugarsisfermentedintoasweetwinebyaplethoraofdifferentyeasts.Fromthere,it’sacidifiedintovinegarbyAABendemictotheenvironment.Thelargestbarrelsarefilledwiththevinegar,whichisagedforaminimumofoneyearbeforebeingtransferredtothenextsmallestbarrel.Sincewoodisquasi-porous,waterandsomeoftheaceticacidareabletoevaporatethroughthebarrel,whilelargeraromaticcompoundsarenot,leadingtoamilder,moreconcentratedflavor.Theportionthatdisappearsovertimeisknownasthe“angel’sshare”(atermalsousedinwhiskeymaking),buttheheavenlystuffisactuallywhatgetsleftbehind.

Onlyenoughvinegartofillthenextsmallestbarrelistransferred.Whatwasremovedfromthelargebarrelisreplacedwithfreshlyacidifiedgrapemust.Thevinegarcontinuestoproceeddownthelinetosuccessivelysmallerbarrels,andeachbarrelistoppedupwithliquidfromthenextlargerbarrel.ForatraditionalbalsamictobelabeledDOP(DenominationofOriginofProduction,aprotecteddesignationenforcedbytheEuropeanUnion),thevinegarmustbeagedforatleasttwelveyears.Attheendoftwelveyears,asmallportionoffinishedbalsamicvinegarisdrawnfromthesmallestbarrelandfindsitswaytodiscriminatingcustomers.

Balsamicvinegarproductionislaborious,tosaytheleast.Butinaslittleasthreemonths,you’llseemarkedimprovementafteraginganyvinegarinwoodenbarrels.Startingwithavinegarthatalreadyapproximatestherichcaramelflavorsofbalsamicisagoodwayofmakingupthetimedifference.We’vehadgreatsuccessatNomaagingblackgarlicvinegarinwood.Youcanalsogetcreativebyinfusingdriedfigsorplumsintoyourfavoritevinegarforamonthbeforestrainingitandtransferringittoasmallbarreltoageslowly.

HereinDenmark,wehavefewgrapevinesbutplentyofelderberrytrees,sowhenwesetouttoharnessthequalitiesofaproperbalsamicvinegar,wedidsowithwhatwehadonhand.ReadourrecipeforElderberryWineBalsamicforalookatanongoinglong-termprojectatNomaandanideaofhowwetrytolearnfromandadaptthetraditionsoffarawayplaces.

Makingperryvinegarbeginswithfermentingpureedpearsintoalcoholicperry.

PerryVinegarMakesabout2liters4kilogramssweet,ripepears1packet(35milliliters)liquidsaisonyeastUnpasteurizedpearvinegar,oranotherunpasteurizedmildvinegarsuchasapplecidervinegarInordertoprovideyouwithagoodpictureofbothstagesofvinegarfermentation,we’llbeginwitharecipeinwhichwefirstmakealcoholthroughthefermentationofnaturalsugars,thenfermentthatalcoholintoaceticacidwiththehelpofAAB.

First,brewingthealcohol.Perryispearcider—asparkling,lightlyalcoholicbeveragethat’sasdeliciouschilledasitiswarmed.Therearedozensofvarietiesofpear;eachwillyielddifferentperriesandperryvinegars.Inchoosingthekindofpearyoubeginwith,yourguidingprincipleshouldbe,WouldIwanttodrinkthejuicefromthispear?Iftheanswerisyes,thenbyallmeans,roton.

Theskinofthepearshostsenoughwildyeasttofermentthemallontheirown,butwildfermentationisalwaysagamble—youcanneverbesurewhatflavorswillemerge,andthetimelineislesspredictable.Thisismorethanfineinsomecases,butsincetheperrywillcontinueontoasecondaryfermentation,wewantalittlemorecertaintyaboutitsflavorandalcoholcontent,sowe’lldependonayeaststarter.Thevarietiesofyeastavailabletofermentyourperryareasvariedasthepearsthemselves.(Ifyoustartmultiplyingthedifferentvariablesinfermentation,you’llgetasenseofjusthowexpansivetheflavorpossibilitiesare.)Anywell-stockedhome-brewshopwillbeabletoguideyoutoayeastthatwillfarewellwithyourpears.Stayawayfrombaker’syeast,whichwillmakeyourperrytaste,well,bready.HereatNoma,wehaveapenchantforsaisonyeast,whichisactuallyablendoftwodifferentstrainsworkingsidebyside:BrettanomycesandSaccharomyces.Wefinditcreatesagreatbouquetduringfermentation,withnotraceofbitterness.

TheseareConferencepears,butmoreimportantthanthevarietalisthatthefruityouchooseisripeandsweet.

EquipmentNotesForthefirstfermentation,you’llneedafood-safeplasticbucketwithalid,airlock,andrubberstopper.Youcanfinditatanyhome-brewshop.Lookforasizeofbucketthatwillholdtheingredientswithabout15percentofitsvolumetospare.Youwillalsoneedaciderpressorchinoistosqueezeoutthefermentedliquid.Youcanperformthesecondaryfermentationinthesamebucket,oruseasmaller3-literwide-mouthedmasonjar.Eitherway,you’llneedcheeseclothoracleankitchentowel,alongwithrubberbandstosecureittothetopofthevessel.

Ourquickmethodofproducingvinegarrequiresanairpumpandairstone,whichyoucanfindatahome-brewshoporpetstore.Readtherecipeforfulldetails.

Werecommendthatallyourequipmentbethoroughlycleanedandsanitized(seeCleanliness,Pathogens,andSafety).

In-DepthInstructions

Youneedverysweetandripepearstomakeadecentperry.Acrunchyd’Anjoupearmightmakeforanicesnack,butitdoesn’thaveahighenoughsugar-to-fiberratiotoyieldthealcoholcontentwe’reaimingfor.VarietieslikeBoscorConferencepears,whichtendtosweetensignificantlyastheyripen,makeforgreatperry.

Thefirststageofvinegarproductionistouseyeasttoconvertthesugarinfruitintoalcohol.Findabucketthatwillleave15percentofitsvolumeafterthepearsarein.A5-literbucketisperfecthere.

Stemthepears(youcanleavetheseedsin)anddicethemintomanageablepieces.Blendthemintoaroughpureeinafoodprocessor.Itdoesn’thavetobecompletelysmooth;justblenduntilyounolongerseeindividualchunksoffruit.

Placethepearmashintothefermentingbucket.Addtheyeastandmix,foldingthefruitovertoensurethattheyeastiswelldistributed.Snapthebucketlidshut,ensuringthatit’sairtight,thenfilltheairlockwithwaterandinsertitintotherubberstopper.(Ifyou’veneverhome-brewedbeforeandthisishardtovisualize,justasktheclerkatyourhome-brewshoporwatchavideoonline.It’smucheasierthanitsounds.)Movethebuckettoaspotthat’sslightlycoolerthanroomtemperature—about18°C/64°Fisideal.Fermentinginwarmtemperaturescanimpartmurky,mustytonestotheperry.Fermenttheperryfor7to10days,dependingonhowmuchresidualsweetnessyouwant.Lettastebeyourguide.Duringfermentation,openthelideverydayandstirthecontentswithglovedhandsorasterilespoon.Therewon’tbeanyjuiceforyoutotasteintheearlystages,butdippingaspoonintothepearmashwilltellyoueverythingyouneedtoknow.Asthemixtureferments,thelidwillpuffupandtheairlockwilloccasionallygurgle.Thisiscausedbythecarbondioxideproducedbytheyeast,andit’sperfectlynormal.Wedon’tadvisetakingtheperryallthewaytocompletealcoholicfermentation(14to16days),asyouwantsomeresidualsugarstobalancetheflavorofaceticacid.Ifyoufindthatyourperryhas

fermentedtoofar,youcansimplyaddsomefresh,strainedpearjuicetodiluteit.Itwillbeeasiertoadjustthebalanceofsugaratthispointthanlater.

Oncethepearshavefinishedfermenting,you’llneedtopressthemashforitsjuice.AtNoma,wedothiswithaciderpress—basicallyaperforatedmetalorwoodendrumthatsquishesjuicefromthefruitwithahandcrank.Youputthefermentedmashinaclothbagandplacethebaginthedrum.Turnthecrankandoutcomesthejuiceviaaspoutatthebase.

Ifyouaren’tluckyenoughtoownaciderpress,pushingthemashthroughagoodold-fashionedchinoislinedwithcheeseclothwilldothetrick.Somefruitwillpassthroughtotheotherside,sostrainitagainthroughafine-meshsieveorcheesecloth,butnoneedtogetobsessiveaboutstraining.Viscosityisn’tyourenemy.Athickerjuicemakeswonderfulperrywithgreatmouthfeelandbody.

Sonowyou’vegotperry.Andwhilethisisachapteraboutvinegar,youcouldchillthisdownandenjoyitrightaway,orwarmitupandaddsomemullingspices,ortransferittoswing-topbottlesandletitfermentfurtherinthefridgeintosparklingperry.However,thefollowingstepwillmakethelastoptionimpossible,sodecidenowifyouwanttoturnyourperrysour.

Wedon’twantyeastsinterferingwiththeflavorofthevinegarorcontinuingtofermentsugarintoalcohol,sowekillthemoff.Transferthestrainedperrytoapotwithalidandheatittoapproximately70°C/158°F—steamingbutbeneathasimmer.Coverthepotandholditatthattemperaturefor15minutes,stirringoccasionally,thenpullitofftheheatandallowtocooltoroomtemperature.

Ifyouweretopourtheperryintoacoupleofmasonjars,coverthemwithcheesecloth,andleavethemonthecounter,you’deventuallyhavevinegar.We’llcallthatthelongmethod—you’llbewaitingsomewherearound3to4monthsforthejuicetoacidifyproperlythroughwildfermentation.

Tospeedthingsupandgiveusmorecontrol,wedotwothings.First,webackslop:Weightheperry,thenmeasureout20%ofthatweightinunpasteurizedpearvinegar(orasimilarunpasteurizedvinegar).Forexample,ifyouendedupwith1.8kilogramsperry,add360gramsvinegar.

Thesecondstepistoaeratethevinegar.AABneedoxygentofunction,andthelongmethoddoesnothingtofacilitatethat.Beginbyselectingtherightfermentationvessel.Youwantsomethingwithlotsofsurfacearea,butnothingmetal.Youcanusethesamebucketyouusedforfermentingthepears,orswitchtoa3-literjarwithawidemouth.Pourthebacksloppedperryintothevessel.

Wearinggloves,placetheairstoneintotheliquid,makingsureitrestsonthebottomofthecontainer.Snakethehoseoutthetopofthevesseltotheairpumpandcoverthevesselwithcheeseclothorabreathablekitchentowel.Securetheclothwitharubberbandbutbecarefulnottoimpedetheflowofairthroughthehose.However,fruitfliesabsolutelyadorethesmellofvinegar—they’realsoknownas“vinegarflies”insomeregions—soit’simportanttomakesurethesealonyourclothisunbroken.Ifthere’sagapwherethetubeexitsthebucket,useapieceoftapetoshutit.Pluginyourairpumpandleavetheperrytofermentatroomtemperature.

Withconstantaeration,you’llbeabletoturnthevinegararoundin10to14days.Starttastingthevinegardailyafterafewdays.Ifthetasteofalcoholisstillnoticeable,thevinegarneedstofermentfurther.YoucoulduseapHmeterorpHstripstotesthowacidicyourvinegaris—apHrangeof3.5to4isusuallyjustright—butinallhonesty,wefindtastetobeabetterguide.Sugar,viscosity,andtheflavorofyourvinegarcanallaffecttheperceptionofacidityonyourtongue.Amechanicalmeasurementmaynotnecessarilyleadtotheproductyouwant.

Oncefinished,strainyourperryvinegarandstoreitincappedbottlesinthefridgetokeeptheflavorsasfreshaspossible,thoughthevinegarisperfectlyshelfstableaslongasit’snotexposedtoair.Ifyounoticeanysedimentatthebottomofthebottle,youcaneithershakethevinegarbeforeusingor,ifyou’dpreferaclearvinegar,gentlypouritoffintoafreshvessel,leavingthesedimentbehind(whatwecall“racking”).

PerryVinegar,day1

Day7

Day14

1.Dicethepearsandblendthemintoacoarsepuree.

2.Placethepearmashintoafermentationvessel,addtheyeast,andcoverwithalidandanairlock.

3.Allowthemixturetofermentfor7to10days.

4.Pressthemashtoharvesttheperry.

5.Transfertheperrytoanewvessel,backslopwithunpasteurizedvinegar,andsetupanairstoneandpump.

6.Fermentuntilsufficientlysoured,10to14days.Strainandbottlethefinishedvinegar,andstoreintherefrigerator.

SuggestedUses

PerryVinaigrettePerryvinegarhasalightanddelicatesweetnessthatyieldsthenicestvinaigretteofanyvinegarinourrepertoire.Whisktogether3partsgoodoliveoil,1partperryvinegar,andasmalldollopofgrainymustard.Seasonwithsalt,andyou’vegotallyouneedtoelevatefreshsaladgreens,blanchedwaxbeans,orlightlysautéedkale.

PearHollandaiseorBéarnaiseBecauseperryvinegardoesn’thavethesameup-frontharshnessofyouraveragewhitewinevinegar,itcanstandaloneasthebaseforsauceslikehollandaiseorbéarnaise,wheremanyclassicrecipescallforwhitewinevinegardilutedwithwhitewine.Measure250millilitersperryvinegarintoasmallpotwithaslicedshallotandadozenpeppercorns.Reducetheliquidbyabouttwo-thirds,thenstrain.Transferthereductiontothetopofadoubleboiler,add3eggyolks,thencookandwhiskuntilthesaucethickensandfallsoffthewhiskinribbons.Seasonwithsaltandabarepinchofcayennepepper.

Todoubledownonthefruitiness,brunoisefirmbutsweetpearsandletthemmaceratein250millilitersperryvinegarforacoupleofhours.Drainthepears,reservingthevinegar.Usethevinegartomakethereductionforthesauce,andfoldthepearbrunoiseintothesauce.It’savibrantandfull-bodiedsaucethatyoucouldjustaseasilyservealongsidegrilledhangersteakaswithabowlofbarelycookedpeas.

ForMoreAccurateSweetness,UseaRefractometer

Ifyouwantmoreprecisioninyourmeasurements,usearefractometer.AsexplainedintheKombuchachapter,arefractometergivesthesweetnessofasolutionindegreesBrixbymeasuringtherefractionoflightaffectedbytheamountofsugarinwater.Astheperryfermentsandtheyeastturnssugartoalcohol,theBrixdecreases.

Togetanaccuratereadingwithyourrefractometer,lightneedstobeabletopassthroughtheliquid.Inasituationlikethis,withchunksoffermentedfruit,you’llneedtosqueezesomefruittogetasmallportionofjuiceandthenstrainitthroughafine-meshsieveorcheesecloth.Whiletheresultingliquidwillstillbeabitcloudy,itwillgiveyouamoreaccuratereading.Takeaninitialreadingofthesugarcontentbeforeyoubegintheferment,thencheckitagaineverydayortwo.Astheperryferments,plugyourmeasurementsintothechartbelow,whichconvertsthedifferenceinBrixintoalcoholbyvolume(ABV).ThechartgivesanapproximateABVforvariouschangesinBrixforfermentsheldatatemperatureof20°C/68°F.You’llbereadytomakevinegaronceyourperryisintheneighborhoodof6%to7%ABV.

7%ABV.

(Notethatbrewersoftenuseadifferentmeasurementcalled“specificgravity,”whichistiedtothechangeindensityofaliquid,totrackthechangeinsugarcontentinaferment.Becauseweendupfermentingproductswithfruitfiberinthem,specificgravityishardertomeasureaccurately.Italsorequiresalargesamplesize,usuallyafewhundredmilliliters,whichisn’tfeasibleforsomeofourferments,especiallyifyouonlywantaquickcheck-in.)

Decreasein°Bxfromstartingpoint Approximate%ABV0 0

0.58 1

1.15 2

1.73 3

2.3 4

2.88 5

3.45 6

4.03 7

4.6 8

4.6 8

5.18 9

5.57 10

6.33 11

6.9 12

7.48 13

8.05 14

8.63 15

9.2 16

9.78 17

10.35 18

10.35 18

10.93 19

11.5 20

Plumwinefermentingintovinegar.

PlumVinegarMakesabout2liters

4kilogramsripeplums,rinsed,pitted,andcutintoeighths1packet(35milliliters)liquidsaisonyeastUnpasteurizedplumvinegaroranotherunpasteurizedmildvinegar,suchasapplecidervinegar

Thisisanothertwo-stagevinegarwhereweconvertthesugarinfruitintoalcohol,thenthealcoholintoaceticacid.Black,purple,ordeepredplumswillyieldtheprettiestvinegars,andamixofvarietieswillcreatemorecomplexflavors.

Thein-depthinstructionsforPerryVinegarserveasatemplateforthisvinegar.Werecommendyoureadthatrecipebeforestartinginonthisone.

Placethecutplumsintothebucket.Addtheyeastandmix,foldingthefruitovertoensurethattheyeastiswelldistributed.Plumshaveahigherwatercontentthanpomefruitslikepearsorapplesandassuchdon’tneedtobepureedintoamashtofermentwell—they’llliquefyontheirown.Snapthebucketlidshut,ensuringthatit’sairtight,thenfilltheairlockwithwaterandinsertitintotherubberstopper.

Fermenttheplumsinacoolroom,stirringthemixtureonceeveryday,foratotalof8to10days,untilthey’renoticeablyalcoholicwithouthavinglostalltheirsweetness.

Presstheplumsusingeitheraciderpressoryourhandsandacheesecloth-linedchinois;thenstrainoncemore.Younowhaveplumwine.Measureandnotetheweightofthewine,thentransferittoapotwithalid.Heatthewineto70°C/158°F—steaming,butbelowasimmer—thencoverthepotandholditatthattemperaturefor15minutes.Pullitofftheheatandallowittocooltoroomtemperature.

Pourthewineintothesecondaryfermentationvessel—eitherthebucketyouusedtofermenttheplumsoran8-literwide-mouthedjar.Backslopwith20%ofthewine’sweightinunpasteurizedvinegar.Placetheairstoneintheliquidsoitrestsonthebottomofthevesselandrunthehoseoutthetoptotheairpump.

Coverthevesselwithcheeseclothorabreathablekitchentowelandsecurewitharubberband.Tapeoverthegapleftbythehoseandturnonthepump.

Fermenttheplumvinegarfor10to14days,tastingfrequentlyduringthehomestretch.Whenallthealcoholicflavorisgoneandthevinegarisnicelyacidicbutstillfruity,strainitthroughcheesecloth.Storeincappedbottlesintherefrigeratortokeeptheflavorsasfreshaspossible,thoughthevinegarisperfectlyshelfstableaslongasit’snotexposedtoair.

PlumVinegar,day1

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SuggestedUsesMarinadeforRoastedorGrilledMeatPlumvinegarworkswellasabaseformeatmarinades.Searafewoxtailsinapanoverhighheattocaramelizetheirexterior.Combineequalpartsvinegar,beefstock,BeefGarum,andoliveoil.Setasideafewspoonfulsofthemarinadeandusetheresttosoakyouroxtailsinaplasticbaginthefridgefor2hours.Transfertheoxtailstoaroastingpanwiththeusualsuspects—aromaticvegetablesandyourfavoriteherbs—covertightlywithfoil,andcookslowlyinalowoven(160°C/320°F)forafewhours.Oncethemeatistender,pullitoffthebone,dresswiththereservedmarinade,andseasontotaste.

Orusethesamecombinationtomarinatebeeforporkspareribs.Grillthemslowlyovermediumheatuntilcrustyontheoutsideandtenderwithin.Themarinadeinfusesthemeatwithtartnessandumami,likegoodbarbecueshouldhave,withoutthestickinessorsweetnessoftraditionalsauces.

ChristmasCabbage

RedcabbageisaubiquitouspresenceonScandinaviantablesinthewinter.Weliketocookitdownveryslowlywithplumvinegarandroastedchickenwinggarum.

InScandinavia,duringthecolddaysaroundChristmas,cabbageisoneveryone’smind.Coreandsliceaheadofredcabbageasthinlyasyoucan,thensautéitinahealthyamountofduckfat(about100gramsforaheadofcabbage).Add200millilitersplumvinegarperheadofcabbage,topwithalid,andsimmerslowlyfor2hours,stirringandscrapingthepanoccasionally.Youdon’twanttheliquidtodryup,butratherreduceandmergewiththesoftenedcabbagetoformarichcompote.Onceyou’rethere,seasonwithsaltandserve.OrgotheextramileandmakeRoastedChickenWingGarum,andaddafewspoonfulstouptheumami.

Celeryjuicefermentsintoasurprisinglyfresh,vegetalvinegar.

CeleryVinegar

CheckthepHofvinegaragainstthelegendthatcomeswiththetestkit.

Makesabout2.5liters

3kilogramscelery,brokenintostalksandrinsedtoremoveanygritUnpasteurizedceleryvinegaroranotherunpasteurizedmildvinegar,suchasapplecidervinegar

96%ethanol(neutralgrainspirit)

Thefirsttimeyoutasteceleryvinegar,you’llwonderhowyou’velivedwithoutit.Theflavorissurprisinglyversatile.Thedelicategreennotesofceleryplay

wellwithvegetablesalads,orasakickeringazpacho,ormixedwithwalnutoiltodressslicedapples.

Thisfermentationmethoddiffersfromthetwo-stagefermentationsweemployforPerryVinegarandPlumVinegar.Ratherthanfermentingourownalcohol,weaddethanoltovegetablejuicetoprovidefuelfortheaceticacidbacteria(AAB).Still,thein-depthinstructionsforPerryVinegarhaveusefulinformationaboutourquickmethodandmaybeworthreadingbeforestartinginonthisone.

EquipmentNotesYou’llneedajuicer,afood-gradeplasticbucketorwide-mouthedjarwithatleasta3-litercapacity,andanairpumpandairstone.You’llalsowantcheeseclothorabreathablekitchentowel,alongwithlargerubberbandstosecureittothetopofyourfermentationvessel.Werecommendthatyouwearsterilegloveswhenworkingwithyourhands,andthatallyourequipmentbethoroughlycleanedandsanitized(seeCleanliness,Pathogens,andSafety).

In-DepthInstructions

Juicethecelery.(Thefibersinceleryhaveatendencytogumuptheblade,soyoumayneedtocleanoutthejuiceronceortwiceduringtheprocess.)Strainthejuicethroughafine-meshsieve.Weighitandpouritintothefermentationvessel.

Backslopthejuicewith20%ofitsweightinunpasteurizedvinegar.Forexample,ifyouendupwith2kilogramsjuice,you’llbackslopwith400gramsunpasteurizedvinegar.

Next,you’llneedtoaddalcoholtofueltheAAB.Todeterminetheamountofalcoholneeded,addtogethertheweightofthejuiceandthevinegarandcalculate8%ofthatweight.Forexample,ifthetotalweightofjuiceandvinegaris2.4kilograms,you’lladd192gramsof96%ethanol.Addtheethanoltothefermentationvessel.

Yourbasemixtureisnowreadyforfermentation,usingthesamesetupasdescribedforperryvinegar.One-stagevinegarslikeceleryvinegarneedtobepushedthroughtheirfermentationasquicklyaspossibletomaintainthequalityofthejuiceandintegrityoftheflavors.Passive,longfermentationisnotanoptionhere.

Placetheairstoneintheliquidsothatitrestsonthebottomofthevesselandrunthehoseoutthetoptotheairpump.Coverthevesselwithcheeseclothorabreathablekitchentowelandsecurewitharubberband.Tapeoverthegapleftbythehoseandturnonthepump.Ifyoufindyourvinegarpushingfoamoutthetopofitscontainer,thepumpislikelyworkingtoohard.Youcanaddasmallplasticvalvetothelineofthehosetoregulateitsflow,orsimplyfermentinabiggervessel.Otherwise,stopthepumpandstirthefoambackintothevinegar

wheneveritbuildsuptoomuch.Eitherway,anexcessoffoamusuallysubsidesafterthefirstfewdays.

IfYouCan’tFindEthanol,UseVodka

Ifyoucan’tfind96%ethanol,useaneutralspiritsuchasvodka.However,sincetheABVofvodkaismuchlower(80proof,or40%,ratherthan96%),you’llhavetoadjusttherecipetoaccountfortheextrawater.First,increasetheamountofvinegarweusetobackslop,adding23.4%byweightratherthan20%.Intheexampleusedintheceleryvinegarrecipe,ifwehave2kilogramsceleryjuice,we’dadd468gramsvinegar.

Next,we’llalsohavetoaddmorealcoholtomakeupforthedifferenceinABV:20%byweightratherthan8%.For2.468kilogramsoftheceleryjuiceandvinegarmixture,we’dadd494gramsvodka.

Keepinmindthataddingallthisadditionalliquiddilutesthejuiceanditsflavor.Thefinalvinegarwillalsobemoredilute,butdefinitelyrecognizableasceleryvinegar.

(Likeallgoodexperimentalists,youmaywanttotryamoreflavorfulalcohol.Feelfree,buttryitthiswayfirst.)

You’llnoticethatthealcoholinaone-stagevinegartastesmorepronouncedthaninatwo-stagefermentation.Pureethanolhasaconspicuousflavorthatlingersuntilit’sbeencompletelyfermentedaway.Neartheendofthefermentation,it’spossiblethatyou’llpickupfaintnotesofvarnishornailpolishremover.Withabitmoretimeandaeration,thosescentswilldissipate.

You’llalsolearnthatthevibrantchlorophyllofgreenvegetablesfadeswhenmakingvinegar,asaceticaciddegradesthepigmentmoleculesandchangesthecolor.Don’tfretaboutthedullolivehueofyourvinegar—thefinishedflavorwillmorethanmakeupforit.

Fermentthevinegarfor10to14days,oruntilalltheflavorofthealcoholhasvanishedandthevinegarhasacidifiedwhileretainingtheflavoroffreshcelery.Strainitthroughcheesecloth.Storeincappedbottlesintherefrigeratortokeeptheflavorsasfreshaspossible,thoughthevinegarisperfectlyshelfstableaslongasit’snotexposedtoair.Ifyounoticesedimentatthebottomofthebottle,justshakebeforeusing;otherwise,youcangentlypourthevinegaroffintoafreshvessel,leavingthesedimentbehind(whatwecall“racking”).

CeleryVinegar,day1

Day7

Day14

SuggestedUses

CucumberSoupCutacoupleofEnglishcucumbersintomanageablepiecesandblendthemuntilsmoothwithapinchofsaltandacoupleofteaspoonsofGrasshopperGarumtoseason,beforepassingthroughafine-meshsieve.Stirinabout150millilitersceleryvinegartolifteverythingwithgreen,piquantacidity.Chillthesoupinanicebathandenjoyasis,ordiceupyourfavoritesummervegetablesandaddthemforarefreshingstarter.

Celery-HerbVinegarwithFreshCheeseCeleryvinegar,withitsbrightvegetalflavor,isaperfectstartingpointtocreateinfusedvinegars.Take500millilitersceleryvinegarandblenditwith100gramsfenneltops,parsleyleaves,orwhateversweetherbyoulike.Letthemixtureinfuseforabout5minutes,thenstrain.You’llhaveavibrantgreen,herbaceousvinegarwiththepureflavoroffreshherbs.Fromthere,youcandressabowloffreshricottaormozzarellawitholiveoil,seasalt,andredpepperflakes,thenfinishwithadrizzleofcelery-herbvinegarjustbeforeserving.

Thelightlysweetjuiceofbutternutsquashdoesn’thaveenoughsugartofermentintotherequiredamountofethanol.Addingneutralgrainspiritallowsittobefermentedintovinegar.

ButternutSquashVinegarMakesabout2liters4kilogramsbutternutsquash

Unpasteurizedbutternutsquashvinegar,oranotherunpasteurizedmildvinegarsuchasapplecidervinegar96%ethanol(neutralgrainspirit)ThisvinegarisbyfarthemostadaptableofallthefermentationrecipesweemployatNoma.Ithasaniceacidickickbutdoesn’tsportanovertsharpness—thebutternutsquash’salmostcreamysweetnessmakesyouthinktheaciditylevelislowerthanitis.Itcanpracticallybeusedasasauceasis.

Thein-depthinstructionsforCeleryVinegarserveasatemplateforthisrecipe,andareworthreadingbeforestartinginonthisone.Youmayalsowanttoreadthein-depthinstructionsforPerryVinegar,whichcontainusefulinformationforallthevinegarrecipesinthischapter.

Washthesquash,cuttheminhalf,seedthem,andcutthemintomanageablepieces,leavingtheskinon.Wearinggloves,putthesquashthroughthejuicer.Strainthejuicethroughafine-meshsieve.Weighitandpouritintothefermentationvessel.

Backslopthejuicewith20%ofitsweightinunpasteurizedvinegar.Calculate8%ofthetotalweightofthejuiceandvinegarandaddthatmuchethanol.(Ifyoucan’tacquirepureethanol,adjustyourrecipetousean80-proofspiritlikevodkaaccordingtotheinstructions.)Placetheairstoneintheliquidsoitrestsonthebottomofthevesselandrunthehoseoutthetoptotheairpump.Coverthevesselwithcheeseclothorabreathablekitchentowelandsecurewitharubberband.Tapeoverthegapleftbythehoseandturnonthepump.

ButternutSquashVinegar,day1

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Fermentthebutternutsquashvinegarfor10to14days,tastingfrequentlyduringthehomestretch.Ifthejuicefoamsduringthefirstfewdays,turnofftheairpumpforabitorstirthefoambackintothejuice.Whenyoucannolongertastethealcoholandthevinegarisenjoyablyacidic,strainitthroughcheesecloth.Storeincappedbottlesintherefrigeratortokeeptheflavorsasfreshaspossible,thoughthevinegarisperfectlyshelfstableaslongasit’snotexposedtoair.Thebrightorangecolorwillfadeovertime.

Otherquickvinegars(juice+ethanol+backsloppedvinegar):• Beet

• Bellpepper• Blackcurrant• Carrot• Cauliflower• Celeriac• Cucumber• Fennel• Jicama

• Kelpandkatsuobushidashi• Quince• Sweetpotato• Whiteasparagus

SuggestedUsesSlow-CookedCarrots

Deglazeslow-roastedcarrotswithbutternutsquashvinegar.

Findsomenicecarrots—notthemonstroushorsecarrotsyoumightuseforstock.Peelandslicethemhoweveryoulike—intothinstripsoronabias—orleavethemwhole.Meltabigknobofbutterinapanoverlowheatandslowlycaramelizethecarrotsinasinglelayer—asin,reallyslowly,withthebuttergentlyfoamingandbubbling.Turnthecarrotsevery6or7minutesforanywherebetween30and50minutes(dependingonwhatyourideaoflowheatis).Ifyou’vedoneitcorrectly,thecarrotsshouldtakeonacaramelizedcolorandtexturereminiscentofgoldenraisins.Whenthey’realmostthere,turntheheatupatinybitandaddatouchofsaltandonespoonfulofsquashvinegarforeverytwoorthreecarrots.Youwantjustenoughliquidtocoatthecarrotslightly,givingthemakickofacidityandanotherdimensionofflavor.Thistechniqueworksgreatforothervegetables,too—parsnips,turnips,rutabaga,pumpkin,oranythingthattakeswelltoslowcooking.

QuickPicklesYoucantrythiswithanycrunchyfruitorvegetableyou’denjoyeatingraw,butlet’suseacucumberasanexample.Slicethecucumberintothin(3-millimeter/⅛-inch)coinsandseasonthesliceslightlywithsalt,lettingthemmarinateinabowlforabout10minutesbeforecoveringwithbutternutsquashvinegar.Stireverythingaroundtoensureevencoverage,addingabitofredpepperflakesforheat,ifyoulike.Dothisaboutanhourbeforedinnerandthey’llbeperfectlypickledbythetimeyou’resittingdowntoeat.

Buttonchanterellemushroomssoakedinbutternutsquashvinegarforaday(orforuptoayear)makeoutstandingpickles.

Oneotherthingwelovetopicklewithbutternutsquashvinegarischanterellemushrooms.Inaskillet,lightlysautécleanedmushroomsinaslittleoilaspossible,makingsurethey’recookedbutnotmushy.Letthemcooldownonaplate,thentransfertoaglassjar.Coverwithtwicetheirvolumeinvinegar(they’llsoakupafairbitofit)andsealthejartightly.They’llbedeliciousbythenextday,butthepickleswilllastseveralmonthsintherefrigerator.Ifyoutakethecanningprocessastepfurtherandprocessthejarsusingtheboilingwaterbathmethod,thepickleswilllastevenlonger—6monthstoayearinacooldarkplace.They’reaperfectcondimentalongsideroastchickenorfishandmakeagreatgift.

SautéedShrimpThenexttimeyou’resautéingpeeledshrimp,addasplashofequalpartsbutternutsquashvinegarandshrimpgarum,justastheshrimpbegintoturnopaque.(Ifyouhaven’tgottenaroundtomakingtheRoseandShrimpGarum,substitutea1:1ratioofWorcestershireandfishsauce.)Theliquidwilldeglazethepanandcoattheshrimpastheycaramelize—deliciousstuff.

Someofthealcoholneedstobeburnedoffbeforewhiskeycanbefermentedintovinegar.

GammelDanskVinegarMakesabout2liters400gramsGammelDansk1.185kilogramswater

350gramsunpasteurizedapplecidervinegarGammelDanskistheclassicherballiqueurofDenmark.AtNoma,we’veuseditindessertsandalwayshaveabottleortwofloatingaroundintheloungeforthosewholikeabracingshotofbittersafterdinner.ThealcoholcontentofGammelDanskislowerthanthatofaspiritlikewhiskey.Assuch,weapproachloweringitsABVtoapercentagesuitableforvinegarproductioninastraightforwardmanner:Wediluteit.Theflavor’ssostrongtobeginwiththatwateringitdowndoesn’tdiminishitseffect.

Thein-depthinstructionsforPerryVinegarcontainusefulinformationforallthevinegarrecipesinthischapter.Werecommendyoureadthatrecipebeforestartinginonthisone.

AddtheGammelDansk,water,andvinegartothefermentationvesselandstirtocombinethemwell.Placetheairstoneintheliquidsoitrestsonthebottomofthevesselandrunthehoseoutthetoptotheairpump.Coverthevesselwithcheeseclothorabreathablekitchentowelandsecurewitharubberband.Tapeoverthegapleftbythehoseandturnonthepump.

FermenttheGammelDanskvinegarfor8to12days,oruntilsufficientlyacidified.There’snoneedtostrainthisvinegar,unlessyounoticesomesediment.Storeincappedbottlesintherefrigeratortokeeptheflavorsasfreshaspossible,thoughthevinegarisperfectlyshelfstableaslongasit’snotexposedtoair.

GammelDanskVinegar,day1

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Day12

SuggestedUseBittersasaBoosterGammelDanskvinegarisaratherintensecharacter,butit’sfuntoplayaroundwithitsbitternessandacidity,asthesetwoattributesworkwelltogetherandtendtosofteneachother’seffect.It’snotavinegarthatyouwanttosetoutasacondimentonthekids’table,butyoucancertainlysneakaspoonfulinhereandthereforanunexpectedboostofcomplexityandedge.Thenexttimeyoumakeboeufbourguignon,forexample,afewsplashesofGammelDanskvinegar—justenoughsothatyoubarelyregisteritonyourpalate—willsubtlyelevateyourstew’ssavoryrichness.Insmallerdoses,thisvinegarcanimproveaWaldorfsalad,orcreamierdressingsmadewithmayonnaiseorcrèmefraîche.

Theadditionoffreshelderberriestoelderflowerwinegivesaboostinflavorfortheyears-longagingprocess.Elderberriesaremildlypoisonousandcanupsetstomachsifeatenraw.Throughcookingorfermentation,they’rerenderedsafeforconsumption.

ElderberryWineBalsamic

Makesabout5liters(beforeaging)

1.15kilogramssugar

1.15+1.7kilogramswater500gramselderflowerblossoms,stemsremoved1packet(35milliliters)liquidsaisonyeast1kilogramunpasteurizedapplecidervinegar600gramsripeelderberries,stemsremoved

TherearefewflavorsmorerepresentativeofScandinaviathanelderflower,andfewingredientsthatplayabiggerpartintheexperienceofworkingatNoma.Picturetwenty-fivecookssituatedaroundlongtablessortingthroughgarbagebagupongarbagebagstuffedwithshrubbybranches,fightingoffallergieswhilepickingtinyfloweraftertinyfloweratanever-acceleratingpacetoprocess60kilosbeforeit’stimetocleanup—tostartitallagainthenextday.

Elderberryvinegarhasbeenastapleinourkitchenforsometime.Thiselderberrywinebalsamic,however,isanongoingexperiment.We’llhavenoideaofthefinalflavorforanothertenyears.Ifyouwanttojoinusinourtrialrun,thisrecipeshowshowwedidit.

EquipmentNotesYou’llneeda5-literfood-safeplasticbucketfittedwithanairtightlid,arubberstopper,andanairlockforthefirst-stagefermentationoftheelderflowerwine.Youcanreusethesamecontainerforthesecondaryfermentation,orusea5-literwide-mouthedjar.You’llalsoneedtoprocurea5-literwoodenbarrelforaging,andmorebarrelsofdecreasingsizeshouldyoudecidetoageyourvinegarforverylongperiodsoftime.Arefractometerisoptional.Werecommendthatyouwearsterilegloveswhenworkingwithyourhands,andthatallyourequipmentbethoroughlycleanedandsanitized(seeCleanliness,Pathogens,andSafety).

Balsamicvinegarisn’tnormallyapartoftheNomapantry,butit’savitalpillarofgastronomyandabelovedingredientinkitchensaroundtheworld.Theprocessofmakingbalsamicvinegartouchesonsomeofthemostfascinatingaspectsoffermentationandaging,sowe’vedevelopedthefollowingrecipeforourownversion.

ElderberryWineBalsamic,day1

Day7

Day14

In-DepthInstructions

Begintheyears-longprocessofproducingbalsamicvinegarbymakingelderflowersyrup.Bringthesugarand1.15kilogramsofthewatertoaboilinalargepot,stirringtodissolvethesugar,thenremovefromtheheat.Whilethesyrupiscomingtoaboil,puttheelderflowersinacleanheatproofcontainer.Pourthesyrupovertheelderflowersandallowtocooltoroomtemperature.Placeacoupleofsheetsofplasticwrapindirectcontactwiththesurfaceoftheliquid—theelderflowershaveatendencytofloatandtheplasticwillhelpkeepthemsubmerged—thentransferthesyruptothefridge,covered,toinfusefor2weeks.

Addliquidsaisonyeasttobeginfermentingthesugarsintheelderflowersyrup.

Strainthesyrupthroughafine-meshsieveintothe5-literbucket,pressingontheelderflowersformaximumextraction.Addtheremaining1.7kilogramswater,whichwillbringthesugarcontentdownto30°Bx(fromastartingpointof50°Bx).Ifyouhavearefractometer,takeanexactmeasurementoftheBrixlevel,whichwillserveasapointofreferenceforhowfaryoutaketheinitialfermentation.Addtheyeasttothedilutedelderflowersyrupandstirwithacleanspoon.Snapthebucketlidshut,ensuringthatit’sairtight,thenfilltheairlockwithwaterandinsertitintotherubberstopper.

Movethebuckettoaspotthat’sslightlycoolerthanroomtemperature—about18°C/64°Fisideal—andallowittofermentfor2to3weeks.Wewantagoodamountofresidualsweetnessleftintheelderberrywine,andanalcohollevelof8%to10%ABV.Ifyou’reusingarefractometerandyou’vetakentheinitialreading,testtheBrixagainafterthefourteenthdayoffermentation.UsethecharttoconvertthedifferenceinyourmeasurementstoABV.

Onceyou’vereachedthedesiredalcoholcontent,backslopwiththeapplecidervinegarandaddthewholeelderberries.Replacethelidandairlockwithapieceofcheeseclothsecurelyfastenedwitharubberband.Leavethewinetofermentatroomtemperaturefor3to4months,stirringeveryfewdayswithacleanspoon,astheberriestendtofloat.Thisisavinegarthatacidifiesverywellataslowpace.Attherestaurant,we’vetraditionallymadeitinthisfashion,butifyou’dliketogetthroughtheacidifyingstagefaster,feelfreetoemployanairpumpandairstoneasdescribedthroughoutthischapter.

Oncethevinegarhasfermentedtoyourliking,strainitthroughafine-meshsieve,pressingtheberriesagainstthesidesformaximumextraction,andthenagainthroughcheesecloth.Usingafunnel,transferthevinegartothebarrelandcapthehole.Leavethebarreltorestinacoolroomorbasement,ideallyaround18°C/64°F.Thehumidityoftheenvironmentwillaffecttherateofevaporationwithinthebarrel.Thedriertheroom,thefasteritwilldissipate.Aswe’reseekingtoagethisvinegarforyears,you’llwanttomediateevaporation,soavoidoverlydryenvironments.

Traditionalbalsamicisagedforaminimumof12years,butyou’llnoticearemarkablechangeinflavorafterjustoneyear.Ifyou’reinitforthelonghaul,you’llwanttodecantthebarrel’scontentsintoasmallerbarrelafter12months.Astimegoesby,thevolumeofvinegarwilldecreasethroughevaporation.Bysteppingdownabarrelsizeeachyear,you’llmaximizetheamountofcontactthe

vinegarhaswiththewood,meaningmoreflavortransfer.Selectbarrelsthatjustfittheamountofvinegaryouhaveremaining.ThisisourplanfortheelderberryvinegaragingatNoma,aswetrytodevelopitsflavorandcomplexityoverthelongrun.

Agingelderberryvinegarinawoodenbarrelwillproducelayersofnuanceandcomplexity.Thelongeritages,thebetter.

ChoosinganAgingBarrel

Sourcingabarrelcanbequiteabitoffun.Toagebalsamicvinegar,you’relookingforawoodenbarrel,astheporousnessofwoodwillallowthevinegartoevaporateovertime.Traditionally,thebarrels’bungholesaren’tpluggedclosed,butrathercoveredwithclothtoexpediteevaporationwithoutlettinganythingin.Theinteriorofawoodenbarrelisusuallycharredwithanopenflame,whichcreatesmanyofthebarrel’sflavorsintheformofvolatilecompoundslikevanillin,alongwithtanninsandterpenes.

Thevarietyofwoodyouchooseisuptoyou—theyallhavetheirownqualities.Startingoffwitha5-literbarrel,it’snotdifficulttofinddecreasingsizesallthewaydownto1liter.

OurelderberrywinebalsamiciscurrentlyaginginusedBruichladdichScotchwhiskybarrelsmadefromoak.Usedbarrelswillimpartanidiosyncraticflavortoyourvinegarandcanincludeanythingfromwinebarrelstobourbonbarrelstosherrycasks.Regardlessofwhetheryou’veacquiredausedorbrand-newbarrel,youshouldfillitwithwaterandletitsoakforonedaytoswellthewoodbeforeaddingyourvinegar.Thiswillensurethatthebarreliswatertight.

BlackGarlicBalsamicMakesabout5liters(beforeaging)500gramsBlackGarlic3.375kilogramswater

1.125kilogramssugar

1packet(40milliliters)ChardonnayyeastUnpasteurizedapplecidervinegarAtNoma,we’reconstantlyseekingwaystousefermentationtoreducefoodwasteofallkinds.Theoriginalversionofthisvinegarwasaresultofanabundanceofblackgarlicskinsleftoverfrommakingasortoffruitleatheroutofblackgarliccloves.We’veadaptedthisrecipetousethewholeheadsofgarlic,skinsandall.Thein-depthinstructionsforElderberryWineBalsamicserveasatemplateforthisvinegaraswell.Werecommendyoureadthatrecipebeforestartinginonthisone.

Cuttheheadsofblackgarlicinhalflaterally,skinsandall,thensliceeachhalfverticallyinto4pieces.Placethewaterandsugarinalargepotandbringthemixturetoasimmer,whiskingtodissolvethesugar.Addthegarlic,thenlowertheheatsothattheliquidisbarelysteaming.Letitsit,covered,onthestovefor1hour,thenremovefromtheheatandallowtocooltoroomtemperature.Oncecooled,transferthecoveredblackgarlicstocktothefridgetocontinuetoinfuseovernight.

Strainthestockthroughachinoisintoabowl,usingaladletoforceoutasmuchliquidaspossiblewithoutpushinganyofthegarlic’sfleshthrough.Passthestrainedstockthroughacheesecloth-linedsieve.Addtheyeasttotheblackgarlicstock,stiritwithacleanspoon,andtransfertothefermentationvessel.Snapthebucketlidshut,ensuringthatit’sairtight,thenfilltheairlockwithwaterandinsertitintotherubberstopper.Allowthestocktofermentinacoolroomfor2to3weeks.Younowhaveblackgarlicwine.Itshouldbenoticeablyalcoholic,whilestillhavingagoodamountofresidualsweetness.

Straintheblackgarlicwinethroughacheesecloth-linedsieveandtransferittothesecondaryfermentationvessel—eitherthesamebucketyouusedtofermentthewineora5-literwide-mouthedjar.Weighthewineandbackslopwith20%ofthewine’sweightinunpasteurizedapplecidervinegar.Placetheairstoneintheliquidsoitrestsonthebottomofthevesselandrunthehoseoutthetoptotheairpump.Coverthevesselwithcheeseclothorabreathablekitchentowelandsecurewitharubberband.Tapeoverthegapleftbythehoseifnecessaryandturnonthepump.

Allowthewinetofermentintovinegaratroomtemperatureforabout14days.Tastethevinegartoensureenoughaceticacidhasbeenproduced.Strainthevinegarandthentransferittothewoodenbarreltoageandreduce.Leavethebarreltorestinacoolroomorbasement,ideallyaround18°C/64°F.Youcanagethisforyearsanditwillcontinuetogrowincharacter.Afterjustoneyear,you’llnoticeatremendousdifference,butshouldyouwanttoleaveitforlonger,decantingitintodecreasingbarrelsizesasyougo,yourpatiencewillberewarded.

BlackGarlicBalsamic,day1

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Day14

SuggestedUsesSubstituteforChineseBlackVinegarBlackgarlicvinegar,whetheryoungorbarrel-aged,canbeusedanywhereyou’duseChineseblackvinegar.Aramekinofblackgarlicvinegar,embellishedwithnothingmorethanadropofsesameoilandasplashofchilioil,makesforanear-perfectdippingsaucefordumplingsorsteamedbuns.Crunchygreenslikebokchoyorgailan,freshlysteamedandstillhot,begtobetossedinasplashofblackgarlicvinegarandseasonedwithfurikake,theJapanesedriedtoppingmadeoftoastedseaweed,katsuobushi,andsesameseeds.

BlackGarlicVinegarandRyesoSauce

Muddleryesowithblackgarlicbalsamicforapotent,umami-richdippingsauceorseasoningpaste.

AnothernominallyAsianuseforblackgarlicvinegarisareinterpretationofChineseblackbeanandgarlicsauce.InplaceofthedriedandfermentedChineseblackbeans(douchi),we’lluseanotherfermentfromthebook:Ryeso.Inamortarandpestle,grind100gramsryesountilalmostsmooth,thenadd50gramsblackgarlicvinegar,continuingtomuddlethemixtureuntilwellincorporated.(Ideally,you’dusebarrel-agedvinegarforitsthickerviscosity,butifyou’reimpatientanddon’thaveayeartokill,youcanjustaseasilyreducefreshvinegarinapanbytwo-thirdsbeforemixingitwiththeryeso.)Seasonwithsaltandfinishwithgratedfreshhorseradish,whichwillstepinforthewarmheatofchilioil.Thisisamuchdifferentbeastthanthesauceyou’reusedto,butitmimicsthesweetmaltednotesoffermentedblackbeansthankstotheslowcaramelizationthatoccursinmakingboththeryesoandtheblackgarlic.Itservesasanamazingaccompanimenttoredmeats,whetherasadiporslathereddirectlyovertop.Ifyoufindyou’remissingthetelltalefunkofthefermentedblackbeans,don’thesitatetoaddafewdropsofSquidGarum.

5.Koji—PearlBarleyKojiCitricBarleyKojiSweetCitricKojiWaterSparklingCitricKojiAmazakeDriedKojiandKojiFlourLactoKojiWaterRoastedKoji“Mole”KojiCure(ShioKoji)

TheMagicMold

Aspergillushyphaespreadintoavisiblewebastheygrow.

“Anysufficientlyadvancedtechnologyisindistinguishablefrommagic,”saidSirArthurC.Clarke.Andsomeofthemostremarkabletechnologiesoneartharebiological—systemsblindlyrefinedbychanceandcircumstance,builtovereons.Thenaturalworldisanendlesssourceofwonder,itsinfinitevariationabottomlesswellofdiscovery.

Wefindkojiindistinguishablefrommagic—thebestkindofmagic,infact,becauseanybodycanwieldit.Toexperiencekoji’sbrillianceforyourself,yousimplyneedtopopsomeinyourmouthandtasteit.

KojiisatermthatcomesfromJapan,whereitreferstoriceorbarleythathasbeeninoculatedwithAspergillusoryzae,aspeciesoffungus—asporulatingmold,tobeexact—thatgrowsoncookedgrainsinwarmandhumidenvironments.(IntheEnglish-speakingworld,weapplythetermkojiinterchange-ablytotheinoculatedgrains,thefungus,andthespores.)

Aspergillusoryzae,themagicmold.

Undertherightconditions,whenthemicroscopicsporesofAspergillusoryzaelandonasuitablesubstratelikecookedbarleyorrice,thesporeswillsprouthyphae—branchingfungalcellsresemblingwispywhiteroots.Asthefungalcellsmultiply,thehyphaedigintothegrains,spreadingtheirtendrilsastheygrowtoformanetworkknownasamycelium.Whatbeginsasafewpatchesofwhitefuzzgrowsoverthecourseoftwodaystoformadensewhitematthatcompletelybindsandencasesthegrains.Theresulting“cake”ofmoldygrainsiskoji.Afterthefirsttwenty-fourhoursitbeginstoreleaseanintoxicatingbouquetofsmells,redolentofpassionfruitandapricots.Afterforty-eight,thekojiissweet,fruity,andfullofumami.

Thechemicalsresponsibleforkoji’sflavorandaromaareenzymesreleasedbythehyphaeastheygrowintothegrains,digestingthesubstrateexternally,andabsorbingthenutrientsinordertofuelitsmetabolism.Thefungusproducesaflightofenzymesthatbreakdownstarches(amylase),proteins(protease),andfats(lipase)intotheirconstituentbuildingblocksofsimplesugars,aminoacids,andfattyacids,respectively.(Youcanidentifyanenzymebythesuffix-ase;theprefixdescribesthesubstanceitworkson.)

Onceyoubeginpokingaroundtheworldoffermentation,you’llstumbleintokojiveryquickly.It’snearlyimpossiblenottoencounterit,likegoingtoParis

andnotseeingtheEiffelTower.YetkojihasonlyreallymadeheadwayintoWesternkitchensinthepastfiveortenyears.AsforusatNoma,atriptoJapanin2010reallyopenedoureyestothepossibilitiesthatkojipresents.

Ajinomoto—acompanyresponsibleformanufacturingallkindsofseasoningproducts,includingmuchoftheworld’sMSG—operatesaresearchfacilityinTokyocalledtheUmamiInformationCenter.Theydoseriousworkthere,researchingumamianditsuses;andwhilewehadalreadybeendabblingwithkojiinCopenhagen,afterourtriptotheCenterwereturnedhomefixatedonfurtheringourumamiwork.Ourtestkitchenandfermentationlabspentweeksnotreallycreatingdishes,butratherexploringwaysofextractingumamifromthingsnativetoourpartoftheworld.Itquicklybecameobviousthatkojiwasgoingtobethekeytounlockingthe“fifthtaste”forus.

Thereareplentyofingredientsthatareexcellentatbeingproductsuntothemselves;manyothersfunctionbetterascookingtools.Onlyahandfularegoodatbeingboth.Eggs,forexample,canbedeliciousintheirownright,butarealsoexceedinglyversatile.Kojibelongsinthiscategoryaswell.

Thankstokoji,we’vemoreorlessstoppedmakinglong-cookedmeatstocksandproducingsaucesviaclassicalreductions.TheconventionalwisdomaboutsaucesinEuropedictatesthatyouboilbones—fishbones,beefbones,porkbones,lobstershells—forhours,thencookdownthestockandmountitwithbutter.Bycookingkojiintoalighterbroth,wecanachievethesamerich,complexflavorswithouttheheavinessofallthatgelatinanddairy.Kojihelpsusfindthefinesseinourrawingredientsandhighlighttheirnaturalbeautywithoutsmotheringit,likeaddingasprayofjusttherightlubricanttoacreakydoorratherthanathicklayerofgrease.

Likeasorcerer’swand,kojitransformsotheringredients,coaxingoutbothsweetandsavoryexpressions.AtNoma,kojiisessentialfortheproductionofourpeamisosandshoyus.Additionally,whilenotessentialtotheproductionofmeatgarumsandfishferments,we’vetakentoaddingit,notjustforitsflavorbutalsotoexploittheenzymesitproduces.Addingkojispeedsupfermentation,breakingdownproteinsandstarchesmoreefficiently.Themoreyouworkwithit,themoreitbecomesanindispensableSwissArmyknife,cominginhandyinallmannerofunexpectedplaces.

UnripeMacadamiaNutsandSpannerCrab,NomaAustralia,2016

Sliversofunripemacadamianutsrestinachilled,clearbrothofAustralianspannercrabseasonedheavilywithlactokojiwaterandroseoil.

OryzaeLovesGrainsManywildmoldsarefairlyopportunistic,takingholdofwhatevertheycanlaytheirsporeson,butAspergillusoryzaeisabitfinicky.AtNoma,we’vetriedgrowingitonavarietyofplantsandfruits—fromcurrantstocarrots—butfewhaveworkedreallywell.A.oryzaelovesgrains.Grainsaretheseedsofgrasses.Inthenaturalworld,reproductivesuccessisoftenaseriesoftrade-offs.Isitbettertoinvestyourtimeandenergyintooneoffspringatatimeortoputyourresourcesintoproducingmanyoffspringandhopethatafewsurvivetomaturity?Avocadotrees,forinstance,takealongtimetoreachmaturityandbearfruitsthatalsorequireconsiderableenergytoproduce.Theirseedsarelargeandrobust—avocadotreespacktheirkidsanicelunchbeforesendingthemintotheworld.Grasses,ontheotherhand,aremorefrugal.Theysupplythebareminimumtogivetheiroffspringakickstart,buttheyalsoproducealotofseeds.Theenergytheypackfortheiroffspringcomesintheformofstarch—long,complexchainsoflinkedsugars—packedinsideprotectivehusksorshells.Oncetheseedofagrasslikebarleygerminates,thebabysproutbeginsproducingamylasetobreakdownthestarchintothesimplersugarmaltose,fuelingitsmetabolismuntilitcanphotosynthesizeitsownfood.

Theanatomyofagrainofbarley.

1.Hullorhusk

1.Hullorhusk

2.Bran

3.Starchyendosperm

4.Germorembryo

TheBabyloniansandEgyptians,theworld’sfirstbeerbrewers,tooknoteofgrain’snaturalabilitytounravelstarchintosugarandharnessedittocreatetheprocessofmalting(fromwhichthedisaccharidemaltosegetsitsname).Maltstersgerminategrainbyexposingittomoisture,thenstopitslifecycleshortbyroastinganddryingthegrain.Fromthere,theymixthemaltwithhotwater,afterwhichyeastcanfermentthenowunlockedsugarsintoalcoholslikebeerormashforwhiskey.A.oryzaeperformsthesamefunctionasmalting.Itcanworkoncookedgrainsthathaveneverbeengerminated,uncoilingandsplittingthestarcheswithin.Butwheremaltingfocusessolelyonthestarchesingrain,kojialsodisassemblesthenutrient-richcoatofproteinthatsurroundsthem.

Proteinismadeupofaminoacids,muchlikestarchiscomposedofchainsofsimplesugars.Onceunbound,manyoftheseaminoacidsregisteronourtongueastheflavorumami.Koji’sabilitytobreakdownprotein(andsmallamountsoffat)isthekeytoitsextraordinaryutility.Afterall,sweetnesscountsforalot,butnoteverything.

BeyondRiceTheItalianpriestandbiologistPierAntonioMichelifirstclassifiedthegenusAspergillusin1729.Tohim,theshapeofthemold’sstalkandsporeswasreminiscentofanaspergillum,thestaffusedforsprinklingholywaterinCatholicceremonies.Thespeciesname,oryzae,isderivedfromtheLatinwordfor“rice.”Butthattellsonlyasmallpartofkoji’sstory.

InancientJapan,ricewasthefoodofthearistocracy.Themajorityofthepopulation,includingpeasantsandfarmers,couldn’taffordtoeatrice,whichtheygrewandsenttofeudallordsastaxpayments.Theirsubsistencedietsleanedmoretowardgrainslikebarley,andasaresult,muchofthekojiinJapanwasgrownongrainsotherthanrice.

Overtime,shiftsintheeconomyandchangesinsocialstratificationmeantproductslikemisomadewithbarleykojifelloutoffashion.InJapantoday,ricekojiisthemorecommonandpreferredcommodity.AtNoma,wegrowkojionpearlbarley.

Barleywasafoundationalcropofancientcivilizationandisourpreferredsubstrateuponwhichtogrowkoji.

Atfirst,thedecisiontousebarleywasbasedonlocale.Wewantedtousethisamazingmold,butapplyittoourregion.GiventherichhistoryofbeerproductioninnorthernEurope,naturallyweturnedtobarley.Yearslater,whenwemovedourentirestafftoJapanforapop-upin2015,wewereexcitedtotrygrowingkojionriceforthefirsttime,butsoonrevertedtobarleybecausewefoundweenjoyeditsflavormore.A.oryzaereactsdifferentlytobeinggrownon

differentgrains,producingdistinctmetabolitesinresponsetothequantitiesofnutrientsavailable.Ricecontainsmorestarchthanbarleydoes,andasaresult,itcangetabittoosweetforourtastes.

Furthermore,whencarriedthroughsecondaryfermentations,aswhenwelacto-fermentkojiforasourwater,theextrasugarfuelsfermentationwithabittoomuchgusto,resultinginoff-flavors.

We’veexperimentedwithinoculatingmanyothergrains,butkeepcomingbacktobarley,thoughthatdoesn’tmeanyoushouldignoreothersubstrates.AtNoma,we’veinoculatedeverythingfrommillettofreshnutswithA.oryzae.RyekojihasacertainmeatinessandflavorsthatremindusofParmigianocheese.Konini(aheritagevarietyofpurplewheat)inoculatedwithkojihasanintensenuttiness.Wheatkoji,aslightbreadinesswithlotsoffloralfruit.

Allthesegrainsrequirepolishingbeforebeingcookedandinoculated.Recallthatthestarchinaseedispackedwithinhusksthatarebuilttobedurableandprotective.Kojicanhaveabitofadifficulttimegettingitshyphaethroughtheouterlayerstoreachthestarch.It’snotanimpossiblefeat,butkojigrowsmuchbetterongrainswiththehusk,bran,andgermremoved.YoucanseethisinthegradingofJapanesesakes.Sakemakerspolishofftheouterlayersofthericebeforeinoculatingitwithkoji—themorethat’spolishedoff,themoreexpensivethesake.WebroughtbackacountertopgrainpolisherfromJapanspecificallytohelpusgettotheinnerlayersofgrainswewantedtoturnintokoji.

Shouldyoudecidetoexperimentwithpolishingandfermentingdifferentgrains,keepinmindthattheproteinsingrainssitontheouterregionofthekernel,justbeneaththebran.Toomuchpolishingcanremovethisproteincoat,whichisthesourceofmuchofkoji’sflavor—aswellastheumamiinsomesecondaryferments.Theseflavorsaremostlyundesirableinsake,butessentialtowhatwe’rechasingwithkojimaking.Inotherwords,youhavetotrytopolishoffthebranwhileleavingtheproteincoatintact.

TheManyFacesofKojiAncientcooksinChinaandJapanwerethefirsttofigureouthowtoharnessandwieldkoji.Morethan2,500yearsago,someboldChineseculinarianmusthavedecidedtotasteabatchofmoldycookedgrainsthathadbeenleftout,anddiscoveredithadbrightnotesoftropicalfruit,withsweetnessaswellasrichness.Ofcourse,thiswasnotassafeorsimpleasitsounds.A.oryzaehasmorethan250fungalrelatives,manyofwhichproducehighlycarcinogenicpoisonscalledaflatoxinsthatcanbelethaltopeoplewithcompromisedimmunesystems.ButA.oryzaeisdifferent.Numerousstudieshaveshownkojitobefreeandclearofaflatoxinsandsafeforconsumption.Still,it’sworthnotingthatAspergillusoryzaeisadescendantofamoreancientblackmold,domesticatedinmuchthesamewaythatdogsweretamedfromwolves.Apotentiallyharmfulorganismwasslowlyandselectivelymadeusefulanddocileovermany,manygenerations.ThefirstmentionofkojiinprintcanbefoundinTheRitesofZhou,aChinesegovernmentaltextfromaround300BCE,whichreferredtothemoldasqu(pronounced“chew”).Overthenextfewcenturies,recordsindicatethatqubecameamajorcommodityinChina.Instructionsforthebrewingofgrain-basedwinesandbeanpastesappearinofficialChinesetextssomethreehundredyearslater,andasteadyproliferationofknowledgefollowed.BytheeighthcenturyCE,kojihadreachedJapan.

Kojiisthekeytoawealthoffermentedfoods,frommisotoricevinegartoshoyutoamazakeandsake.

Fromthere,throughrandommutations,colorvariantsbegancroppingup.Albinomutationswereselectedforandbred.Thekojibreedersfoundthattheycouldisolatekojifromotherwildmoldsbyaddingroughly1percentashtotheirbatchesofcookedriceorbarley.TheashraisesthepHoftherice,creatinganinhospitableenvironmentforothermolds.(A.oryzaeistoleranttoslightlyalkalineenvironments.)Byselectivelybreedingalbinostrains,invaderswereeasilyspottedandremoved,leavinggeneticlinespure.Furthermutationsledtosubspeciesthatproduceddifferentmetabolitesinvaryingquantities.The1,200-year-longbreedingprocessinJapanmirrorsthewildbacterialinoculationofcheesesinthecavesofaffineursinFrance,wherecertaincheesesareassociatedwithspecificbacterialculturessuchasPenicilliumroqueforti(foundinblue-veinedcheeses)orBrevibacteriumlinens(responsiblefortheorangerindofLimburger).

TheJapaneseusedkojitocomeupwithagalaxyofintoxicatingandcaptivatingconcoctionslikemiso,shoyu,amazake,andsake.Throughoutthecenturies,theculturingofkojiwasacloselyguardedsecret.Fewerthantenkojibreedersgrewstrainsofthefungus,selectingforspecificqualitiesspanninggenerationsforclosetoathousandyears.Misomakersandsakebrewerswouldhavetoorderthespores,knownaskojitane,insmallquantitiesfromthesebreeders.Eventually,themarketopenedup,andtodayJapaneseproducersgrowmorethantenthousandspecializedcultivarsofAspergillus.

KojiwasborninChinabutflourishedmostinJapan.

ThemyriadvariantsofA.oryzaeeachhavetheirownqualitiesandcharacters.ThekojiweuseformostofourworkatNomaisanalbinovariantofayellowstrainofkojithatalsogoesintoproducingmostsakes.Wealsouseavariety,Aspergillusluchuensis,thatproducescitricacid.Itveersawayfromtheoverttropicalfruitflavorsoforyzaeandcreateshintsofgreenappleandrawoystermushroom.Luchuensisgrownonriceproducesastraightforwardkoji,withappleflavorsandlemonybrightness.Butwhengrownonbarley,themoldfindsanotherlevelofintrigue,generatingearthinessandapleasantbitternessthat’salmostindistinguishablefromgrapefruit.Aspergillusawamoriisanoldervarietywithveryblackspores.InOkinawa,localsgrowitontheindicasubspeciesofricetoproduceadistilledalcoholicbeveragecalledawamori.LikeA.luchuensis,A.awamoriproducescitricacidasametabolite,makingforapleasantlytartkoji(thoughitshouldbenotedthatcitricaciddoesn’tdistillintothefinishedalcohol,asit’stooheavytoevaporate).AtNoma,barleykojigrownwithA.awamorioffersusnotesofgrapemust,likesaba.

Youcouldspendalifetimeinvestigatingthepermutationsofvariousmoldsgrownononesubstrateversusanother.Eventhen,you’dscarcelyscratchthesurfaceofthespectaculardiversityofkoji.

Themainlogisticalobstaclethatfacesintrepidkojimakerswillbesourcingspecificspores.Koji’spopularityamongamateurenthusiastshasyettobreakintothemainstreamthesamewaythatcraftbeerhas.Butjustbecauseyoudon’tseekojitaneontheshelvesofyourlocalgrocerystoredoesn’tmeanyoucan’tfindit.

AnInternetsearchfor“kojikin,”“kojitane,”or“kojispores”willleadyoutooneofseveralmanufacturersofhome-brewsakekits.ManyofthosecompaniesarelocatedinJapan,althoughthereareafewinNorthAmericathathaveasmallselectionofdifferentspores.(SeeSourcesforalistofrecommendedsuppliers.)AlbinostrainsofAspergillusoryzaehavethebestflavor,especiallyfortheapplicationsthatappearinthisbook.Varietieslikeawamoriandluchuensiscanbefoundonlinewithalittledigging.IfyouspeakJapanese,orhaveafriendwhodoes,thatwillhelpinfiguringoutexactlywhatitisyou’repurchasing.Generallyspeaking,however,Latintaxonomicnameswillbeusedacrosstheboard.

Kojisporesareextremelyresilient.Theyshipwellandcanlastforyearsiftheyremainvacuum-sealedinthefreezer;butevenatroomtemperature,they’llkeepontheshelfforuptosixmonths.

A.awamori,grownonbarleyfor48hours

GreenA.oryzae,48hours

A.luchuensis,42hours

A.luchuensis,48hours

APlaceforKojitoCallHomeAllfermentsarecomplexlivingthingsthatrequireenvironmentssuitedtotheirneedsinordertoflourish,andkojiisoneofthefermentationworld’smorefinickycharacters.Itsoptimalenvironmentisveryspecific,butdon’tletthatstopyoufromgrowingit.Kojimaturesinlessthantwodays.Evenifyoumessupthefirsttime(orthefirstcoupleoftimes),youcangiveitanothergowithoutsacrificingtoomuchtimeoreffort.Andaswithraisingchildren,itgetseasierthesecondtimearound.

Butbeforewestarttalkingaboutsecondorthirdattempts,let’sgivetheprocessafirstlookfromstarttofinish.

1.Rinse,soak,andsteamthepearlbarleyuntilit’sfullycooked.2.Breakupthegrainsandallowthemtocooltoroomtemperature,theninoculatethemwithkojispores.3.Placetheinoculatedgrainsinafermentationchamber,ideallyheldat30°C/86°Fand70%to75%humidity.4.Allowthekojitogrowfor24hours.Useglovedhandstoturnthegrainsandfurrowthemintothreerowsforbetterheatdissipation.5.Givethekojianother18to24hourstofinishgrowing.Itwillcontinuetogrow,butyouwanttoharvestitbeforethefungusgoestospore.

Thefirstthingthatwillprobablyleapouttoyouistheneedtokeepthetemperatureandhumidityatconstantlevels.TheenvironmentyouwanttocreateforthekojiharkensbacktotheworldAspergillusoryzaearosefrom:thewarm,wetclimesofsouthernChina.Thefungusalsoneedsoxygenforcellularrespiration,soairflowisessential.Airflowisalsoimportantbecausekojiproducesafairbitofheatasitgrows,andthatheatneedstogosomewhere.It’snotuncommonforatrayofkojiinacrampedspacetojumptotemperaturesinexcessof42°C/108°F,atwhichpointthemoldwilldieoff.

InJapan,sakemakerstraditionallygrowkojiinacedar-linedroomknownasakojimuro.Theshallowtraysinwhichthekojisitsarealsomadefromuntreatedcedar,whichhasaflavorofitsownaswellasantimicrobialpropertiesthatfacilitatethekoji’sgrowthbyhelpingtoexcludeothermicrobesthatmightfindabedofcookedgrainsinviting.Thetraysareneverwashedand,overtime,Aspergilluscomestoliveinthetraysthemselves,inmuchthesamewaythatuniquestrainsofyeastsliveintheraftersoftheBelgianabbeysfamedfortheirbeers.

Traditionally,kojiisfermentedinacedar-linedroomcalledakojimuro.

WhenwestartedgettingseriousaboutfermentationatNoma,webuiltaseriesoffermentationroomsinsideafewstackedshippingcontainers.It’salmostcertainlyabsurdtoaskyoutodothesameortoconvertaroomofyourhouseintoanurseryformolds,solet’sconsidersomemorepracticaloptions.Thereareplentyofsolutions,rangingfromcustom-madewoodencabinetstounpluggedmini-fridgestopicniccoolerstospeedrackswithavinylcovertolaboratory-gradeenvironmentalholdingchambers.Whetherhomemadeortopoftheline,yourfermentationchamberneedstobeabletodothreethings:Retainheat.Retainmoisture.Allowthekojitobreathe.

Decommissionedrefrigerationequipmentworksfantasticallywell,whetherthat’sanoldchestfreezer,stand-upcooler,ormini-fridge.Theseitemsareallbuiltwithinsulationinmind,andtheycanreallykeepheatandhumidityin.Fridgesandcoolersarealsowaterproofandeasytoclean,whichisnicebecauseatsuchhighrelativehumidity,moisturecancollectinthechamberandruinit,ifyou’renotcareful.CoolersorStyrofoaminsulationboxes,likethekindyou’dtakeonapicnic,willdothejobaswell.Theonethingyou’llneedtoaccountforwithafermentationchambermadefromapieceofrepurposedrefrigerationequipmentisairflow.Youmayneedtodrillafew1-centimeter/⅓-inchholesintothetopofyourfridgeorcooler,thencovertheholeswithascreenorcheeseclothtokeepintrudersout.Styrofoamboxescanhavetheirlidsproppedopenandleftslightlyajar.Alternatively,ifyourcontainerhasanampleamountofspace,occasionallyopeningthedoorwillcycleenoughfreshairin.

ContinuingwithDIYchamberpossibilities,woodencabi-netryworksfantasticallywell.It’sneversoairtightthatthekojican’tbreathe,anditcanbecleanedeasily.Asimpleuprightrectangularboxwithahingeddoorisallyouneed.We’vealsoseenambitioushomefermenterswhomanagedtogrowkojiindehydratorsthathavebeenmodified—albeitagainstthemanufacturer’swarnings—tohavetheirfansstoppedorturneddown.

Asforthekoji-growingtrays,itdoesn’ttakeamajorfeatofcarpentrytobuildyourownwoodentraysfromfiveorsixpiecesofuntreatedcedar.Otherwise,perforatedstainlesssteelhotelpansorbakingtrayswillworkwellwhenlinedwithalightlydampenedtowel.Perforationisimportant,though,ormoisturewillaccumulateanddrownthemold.Whereverkojican’tsprout,somethingundesirablewill.

Thesizeandtypeofchamberyouchooseshouldbeinformedbytheamountofkojiyou’replanningtoproduce.Cultivatingonetrayeverycoupleofmonthswon’tmeritasecondhandsodafridgeinyourbasement,butifyou’reworkinginasmallrestauranttryingtomakekojionaweeklybasis,investinginasmallwarmingcabinet,proofer,orWinstonCVAP(controlledvapor)drawerwillmakeyourfermentinglifeabreeze.CVAPs,digitalproofers,andevenmoreadvancedcombinationovenswillallsupplyyouwithrackspace,alongwithregulatedheatandhumiditywiththepushofjustafewbuttons.Needlesstosay,theyareexpensivepiecesofprofessionalequipmentthatmanykitchenswouldbehardpressedtojustifytyingupfortwostraightdays.

ForDIYsolutions,you’llneedsomemeansofcontrollingtheheatandhumidityinthechamber.ForasmallercontainerlikeaStyrofoambox,agentlerheatsourcelikeaheatingpadplacedonthebottomofthecontainerwilldothejob.Foralargerchamberlikearepurposedfridge,you’llwantsomethinglikeasmallspaceheaterequippedwithafan.Ourbestrecommendationwouldbetopurchaseadigitaltemperaturecontrollerequippedwithaprobeandafemalepowerplugthatyou’lluseasthepowersupplytoaseparateelectricheater.Thecontrollerwillmonitorthetemperatureinsidethechamberandturntheheateronandoffaccordingly.

Asforregulatinghumidity,strategiescanvaryfromplacingasmallpotofhotwaterinsidethecontainertolayingacleandampragoveryourkoji.Thebestsolutionsforsmall-scalechambers,however,aresmallultrasonichumidifiersconnectedtoahumidistat.Neitherpieceofequipmentisprohibitivelyexpensive,andthey’llbesmallenoughtorestinsidemostchambers.Asforwhat70%to

75%relativehumiditylookslikeinthechamber,you’relookingforcondensationtojustbeginpoolingatthebaseofthecontainer.Alightlydampenedragplacedinthecontainershouldn’tdryout,butitalsoshouldn’tgetanywetter.

Forreference,inourfermentationlab,we’vebuiltwaterproofinsulatedroomswithelectriccoilheatersasaheatsource.ThecoilsarehookeduptoPID(proportional-integral-derivative)controllers,whicharecomputerizedthermostatsthatregulatetemperaturebywayofafeedbackalgorithm,astheymeasuretherateofheatingwithathermocoupleandmodulatethepowersupplyaccordingly.PIDcontrollerscanusuallyholdtemperaturesteadytowithinlessthan1°C.Thehumidityisprovidedbyhigh-pressurenozzlesthatprovideafinemistaccordingtowhatahumidistattellsthemtodo.It’saveryelaboratesetup.Italsoworksverywell.Wedon’texpectyoutoconstructsomethingaselaborateaswhatwe’vebuiltatNoma,butitgivesyouanideaofhowtodoitwell,whichisalwaysimportantwhentranslatingthingstoasmallscale.

Seespecificinstructionsonbuildingasmaller-scalefermentationchamber.

AbaloneSchnitzelandBushCondiments,NomaAustralia,2016

Theschnitzelisapieceofblacklipabalonethat’sbeenbraisedinricekojioiltotenderizeitsflesh,thenpoundedandbreadedwithricekojiflourandbreadcrumbsbeforebeingpan-fried.

Useasugarshakertoknockoffsporesfromdriedkojigrainswheninoculatingbarley.

PearlBarleyKojiMakes1.1kilograms

500gramspearlbarley

Kojitane(kojispores;seerecipefordetails)

Kojicanbefinicky.Aspergillusoryzaedemandsspecificconditionstogrow.You’llhavetogotoalittlebitoftroubletocreateanenvironmentthat’sconducivetoitssurvival.

Withthatbeingsaid,kojiisarobustmoldthatwantstoliveandsucceed.Othermolds,likeredyeastrice,cantakeupto7daystogrowbeforethey’rereadytoharvest.Kojimaturesinlessthan2daysinoptimalconditions.Thoseconditionsareveryspecific,butveryachievable,evenathome.

EquipmentNotesYou’llneedtoconstructafermentationchamber,whichyoucanreadaboutintheprecedingsectionorsee“BuildingaFermentationChamber”intheprimerchapter.You’llalsoneedcedarorperforatedplasticormetaltraysthatfitintoyourchamber.Ifyouchoosetousecedar,besuretouseuntreatedwood.Aperforatedhalf-gastro/hotelpan(32×26centimeters/12½×10inches)isidealforthisamountofkoji.Anysmaller,andtherewon’tbeenoughroomforairtocirculatearoundthegrains.Itcanhelptogrowkojioncleancottonkitchentowelsthatwillsoakupexcessmoisture.Andfinally,aswithhandlingmanysensitivemicrobes,wearinglatexornitrilegloveswillhelpkeepthingssanitary.

Onefinalnote:Thisrecipewillworkjustaswellwithjaponica(short-grain)rice,ifyou’dliketomakeamoretraditionalkoji.

ApacketofkojitanefromJapan.

In-DepthInstructions

Kojitaneisavailableastwodifferentproducts:powderedsporesanddriedgrainsofriceorbarleythatarecoveredinspores.Theycanbepurchasedinvariouspackagesizesonlineandfromhome-brewingshops(seeSources).Alittlebitgoesalongway.A100-grambagcontainsenoughsporestoinoculate100kilogramsofgrains.It’salsoaninvestmentyouonlyreallyneedtomakeonce,becauseonceyou’vemadeyourownkoji,youcangrowyourownsporesfromitforfutureuse(see“HarvestingYourOwnSpores”).Bothversionsofkojitanecanbeusedtoinoculatefreshkoji.(Don’tworryaboutinoculatingbarleywithsporesgrownonrice,orviceversa;koji’sanequalopportunityconsumer.)

Tobegin,placethebarleyinalargebowlandfillitwithcoldwater.Agitatethegrainswithyourhand,thenpouroffthecloudywater.Repeatoncemore,thenfillupthebowlwithwaterforathirdtime,bringingthewaterlineabovethebarleybyafewcentimeters.Allowthebarleytosoakforatleast4hoursatroomtemperature,orovernightinthefridge.

Oncethebarleyhassoaked,drainandrinsethegrainsinacolanderuntilthewaterrunsclear.Shakeoffanyexcess.

It’simportanttosoakbarleyuntilwellhydratedbeforecooking.

TheidealmediumforAspergillus’sgrowthisonhydratedbutfullyseparateandrelativelyplumpgrains.Boilingcaneasilyoverhydratethem,leavingthemwetandmushy.Themoldcangrowtooquicklyinthissituation,reachingitsreproductivecyclebeforeproducingtheconcentrationofenzymeswe’reseeking.Ifthegrainsareverywet,thesporeswilleffectivelydrownandneverstartgrowing.Steamingallowsthegrainstofullycookwithouttakingonexcesswater.AtNoma,wehavecombinationovensthatallowyoutoaddsteamtoaconvectioncookingcycle—they’rebrilliantforsteaminggrains—butaclassicsteamerwillalsoworkjustfine,aswillasieveorcolandersetintoapotwithalid.

Ifusingacombinationoven:Steamthebarleyat100°C/212°Ffor45minuteswiththefanspeedsetto80%.

Ifusingaregularsteamer:Cookthegrainsforabout20minutesoversimmeringwater,butbegintestingat15minutes.Biteintoakernel—aproperlycookedoneshouldstillbedensebuteasytochewandshouldnotbehardorwhiteatitscenter.

Whilethebarleyiscooking,readythetrayinwhichyou’llbefermentingthekoji.Ifusingcedar,makesureit’scleanandfreeofdebris;ifit’smetalor

plastic,makesureit’swashedandsanitized.Linethemetalorplastictraywithatowel.Ifit’sakitchentowel,makesureit’sclean(andwaswashedwithoutperfumeddetergent),sanitizedwithsteam,andwrungdry.

Oncethebarleyissteamed,youwanttobreakitupwhileit’sstillwarmsothatanyresidualstarchdoesn’tsetandclumpthegrainstogether.Wearingtwopairsoflatexornitrilegloveswillprotectyourhandsfromtheheat.Rubthegrainsbetweenyourhandsintoyourfermentingtray.Don’tapplysomuchpressurethatitrupturesthegrains;keepingthemwholeisidealforkoji’sgrowth.Spreadthegrainsoutandallowthemtocoolto30°C/86°Fonacoolingrackonthecounter.Feelfreetofanthegrainsifyou’reimpatient(althoughifyou’reimpatient,youprobablyshouldn’tbegrowingkoji).Withthegrainssteamed,separated,andcooled,it’stimetoinoculate.

Ifusingpowderedspores:Putasmallamountofthepowderintoateastrainerandgentlytapitoverthegrains.Thesporesareextremelypotent—1teaspooncontainsmorethanabillionspores,plentytoinoculateonetrayofbarley.Wearinggloves,foldthebarleythoroughly,beingsuretogetintothecorners,andthengiveitanotherpasswiththespores.Turnthegrainsoncemore,andyou’reset.

Ifusingkojitaneondriedgrains:Fillasteelshaker(likeyou’duseforpowderedsugar)halfwaywiththekojigrainsandmakethreepassesratherthanjusttwo,astherewillbefewertotalsporesdeliveredtothegrains.Useglovedhandstofoldthebarleyoverbetweeneachpass,andmakesuretoreloadtheshakerwithmorekojiifyoudon’tseeacloudofsporescomingoutoftheshaker.

BarleyKoji,immediatelyafterinoculation

After30hours

After42hours

After48hours

Spreadtheinoculatedbarleyinanevenlayer,pullingitinfromthesidesofthetraytoavoidcreatinganyspotswithoutaccesstoairflow.Coverwithaclean,barelydampkitchentowel,makingsuretherearenoexposedareas.

Transferthetraytoyourfermentationchamber.Raisethetrayoffthebottomofthechamberwithatrivetorwireracktoallowforairflowallaroundthekoji.Inanychamberthat’ssmallerthanabroomcloset,keepthelidordooropenjustacracktoallowfreshoxygeninandexcessheattoescape.Wesawthemoldsuffocatealltoomanytimesintheearlydaysofourkoji-growingattherestaurant.Insertathermometerprobeintothebedofbarley,andbesureyourhumiditymeterisrunning.

Nomatterwhatsetupyou’reusing,keepingtabsonthetemperatureofthegrainsisparamounttoyourkoji’ssuccess.Atroomtemperature,thekoji’sgrowthwillbeseverelyretardedandtheorganismswillstruggletotakeroot.Butanyhotterthan42°C/108°Fandyou’llcookthemtodeath.Humidityalsohastobemonitoredcarefully.It’seasytodrownthekojiiftheenvironmentgetstoowet.Ontheotherhand,shouldthegrainsdryout,thehyphaewillmeettoomuchresis-tanceandfailtopenetratethestarch.Insertthetemperatureprobeintothegrainsandsetthetemperaturecontrollerfor30°C/86°F.Keepthehumidity

between70%and75%forthedurationoftheferment.Refertotheinstructionsonbuildingafermentationchamber)fortipsonhowtoachievethis.

Assumingallgoeswell,after24hoursyoushouldnoticethefirstinklingsofmoldgrowth:wispy,ill-definedwhitethreadsshouldbegintocoverthebarley,lightlybindingthegrainstogether.Removethekojifromtheincubatorandsetitonacleanrackonacountertop.Againwearinggloves,breakupthegrainsinthesamemanneraswhentheywerefirstcooked.Mixingthegrainsbringskojigrowingatthebottomofthetrayintocontactwithairandbreaksupthemycelium,encouragingfurthergrowthasittriestospreaditsweb.

Afteryou’veturnedthegrainsandbrokenupanyclumps,furrowthegrainsintothreerows,likemoundsinafarmer’sfield.Thiscreatesmoresurfaceareaforcontactwithfreshairandimprovedheatdissipation.

Afterthefirst24hoursofgrowth,koji’smetabolismwillkickintooverdrive.Yourjobistokeepitaliveforthenext24hours.Returnthekojitothefermentationchamber,withthethermometerprobeinthecenterofthemiddlemound.Ifyounoticetheheatspiking,adjustthetemperaturecontroller,andopenthedoororlidfor30minutestoallowthechambertocooldown.Ifyou’reworriedthekojiisstillonthepathtooverheating,breakingitupagainwillhelptolowerthetemperature.

Overthenext12hours,thekoji’smyceliumwillfirmlybindthegrainsofbarleytogether,formingadensecake.Byhour36,thekojiwillbecoveredinalightgreenorwhitefuzz(dependingonthestrainofAspergillusyou’reusing),butfullenzymeproductionandflavorwon’tdevelopuntilhours44to48.Atthatpoint,thesmellofthekojishouldbeintenselyfruity,likeripeapricot.

Toharvestyourkoji,youneedtohaltitsgrowth.Placetheentiretrayinthefridgefor12hourstocooldown.Youcanthenpackitintoairtightcontainerstostoreinthefridgeforacoupleofdaysifyouhaveplanstouseitinthenearfuture.Weactuallyfindthatkoji’sflavorimprovesconsiderablyafteracoupleofdaysinthefridge.It’sperfectlyreadytouseassoonasyouharvestit,buttherefrigeratorwillarrestthekoji’sgrowthwhiletheenzymescontinuetowork,sweeteningthekojievenmoreintheprocess.Ifyoudon’thaveplanstouseitimmediately,kojistoreswellinairtightcontainersinthefreezerforupto3months.

Tocompletethekoji-makingprocess,washyourequipment—includingthefermentationchamber,thetrays(ifnotmadefromwood),andprobes—tokeep

thingssanitary.Ifyou’reusingwoodentrays,simplywipethemcleanwithalightlydampenedtowelandletthemair-dryinawell-ventilatedarea.

1.Barleyandkojispores(kojitane).

2.Rinsethebarleythoroughlyundercoldwater,thensoakfor4hours.

3.Steamthebarleyuntiltenderbutnotfallingapart,20to30minutes.

4.Breakupthebarleywhilestillwarmtoavoidclumping.

5.Letthebarleycooltoatleast30°C/86°F.

6.Inoculatethecooledbarleywithkojispores.

7.After24hours,youshouldbegintoseethesignsofmycelialgrowth.Mixthebarleyandfurrowintothreemounds.

8.After48hours,thekojishouldbefullygrown.

9.Coolthebarleyintherefrigeratortostopthefungus’sgrowth.Packinairtightcontainersandstoreintherefrigeratororfreezer.

HarvestingYourOwnSpores

Ifyou’remakingkojionaregularbasis,atsomepointyoumaywanttoharvestspores.

Makeabatchofkojianduseglovedhandstobreakupthegrainsontoasanitized,nonreactive,nonperforatedtray.Themyceliumwillbeverystrongbyhour48,soyoumayhavetoprythegrainsapart.Doyourbesttoavoidcrushingthebarley.Spreadthegrainsoutinasinglelayertocreatethemaximumamountofsurfaceareaforthekojitosproutitsspores.Coverwithalightlydampenedtowelandreturnthekojitothefermentationchamber.Allowittogrowforanother36hours.Continuetomonitorthetemperatureandhumidity,butyouwon’tneedtodoanymoreturningofthegrains.

After36hours(84total),youshouldseefluffywhite,green,oryellowspores,dependingonwhichstrainofAspergillusyoupurchased.Ifyoutouchthegrains(wearingsterilegloves),yourfingershouldcomeawaycoveredinpowder.Ifagitated,thegrainswillemitaplumeofdustysporeswithastrong,almostmeatyscent.Ifgrownproperly,thesporesshouldbeplentiful.

You’llneedtodrythegrainstokeepthesporesshelf-stableandtopreventthemfrombecominginfectedbyothermicrobes.Removethetowelthatwascoveringthekojiandthehumiditysourcefromyourchamber,anddryoffanymoisturefromthewalls.Crackthelidordooralittlewiderthanwhenyouweregrowingthekoji,in

thewalls.Crackthelidordooralittlewiderthanwhenyouweregrowingthekoji,inordertoincreaseairflowandplacethesporulatedgrainsinthechambertodryuntilcompletelyhard,about2days.

Packthedriedkojiintoanairtightcontainerandstoreinadarkcupboardforupto6monthsorfreezeforlonger-termstorage.

SuggestedUsesCrunchyKojiCroutonsYoucandoalotwithyourfreshcakeofkoji,butit’salsodeliciousonitsown,cutintoslabsandsearedinhotoil.Ifyouwanttotakethingsastepfurther,youcancutthecakeintobite-sizecubesanddeep-frythemintocrisp,goldencroutons.Drainthemonapapertowelandseasonwithsalt.Theyhaveasweetnessanddeepumamithatcombinetoleaveyouthinkingyou’vejusthadadeliciousbiteofhamfat.DoubledownonthiseffectbydrapingathinsliceofIbéricohamoveryourkojicroutonsforanaddictivebite-sizeopen-facedsandwich.OrbrushthefriedkojisquareswithBeefGarumforadditionalsaltinessthatbalancesoutthenaturalsweetnessofthekojicake.

StewsandSoupsCrumblefreshkojicakeintopiecesthesizeofakidneyorfavabeanandaddthemtovegetablesoupsduringthelast10minutesofcooking.Useasmuchasyouwouldofanyothervegetableinyoursoup,tolendanoteofsweetnessandasurprisingtexturethat’sreminiscentofachewydumpling.Whenmakingameatstew,youcanaddthecrumbedkojiinthefinalhour;itwillthickenthebrothbutwillalsoaddanextraelementofsweetnessandrichnesstothewholedish.

WheninoculatedwithAspergillusluchuensis—adifferentspeciesofAspergillus—barleykojidevelopsnotesofcitrus.

CitricBarleyKojiMakes1.1kilograms500gramspearlbarley

AlbinoAspergillusluchuensisspores(seeSources)Aspergillusluchuensisishardertoprocurethanitsmainstreamcounterpart,A.oryzae,butitsflavorisremarkable,reminiscentofgreenappleandlemons.WewerethrilledatNomawhenwecameacrossthisspecialmold,becausethecitricaciditproducesbringsasharplayerofcontrasttotheumami-richflavorofkoji.It’sworthseekingout.JustbewarnedthatA.luchuensishasamelanisticstrainthatispitch-blackwithquitedifferentflavors;youwantthealbinoversion.InoculatingbarleywithA.luchuensisisfunctionallythesameasusingA.oryzae,buttherearesomefinerpointsthatwillneedyourattention.

Werecommendthatyoufirstreadthein-depthinstructionsforPearlBarleyKoji,asitservesasatemplateforthisrecipe.

Rinse,soak,andsteamthebarleyasdirectedforPearlBarleyKoji.Separatethegrainsontoaperforatedtraylinedwithacleantowel.IfusingA.luchuensissporesthatarestillattachedtotheirgrains,inoculatethebarleyusingashaker;ifusingpowderedspores,useateastrainer.ButknowthatthesporesofA.luchuensisarefarmorecopiousthanthoseofA.oryzae.Twopasseswiththeshakerismorethansufficient,andit’sunlikelythatyou’llhavetoreplenishthegrainsbetweenpasses.Ifyou’reusingpowderedspores,1teaspoonshouldbeenoughtoinoculateafulltray.

Transferthekojitraytothefermentationchamber.CitrickojilikesthingsalittlecoolerthanA.oryzae,soaimtokeepthetemperatureat28°C/82°Fratherthan30°C/86°F.Thehumidityisfineat70%to75%.

After24hours,useglovedhandstoturnandfurrowthegrainsintothreerows.Atthispointyoushoulddefinitelybeabletotasteapronouncedsweetnessandtherecognizabletwangofcitricacid.Overthenext24hours,thesweetnessandaciditywillbuildsteadily,bringingoutotherprofilesintheirwake.Athour36,thecitrickojiwillhaveanot-so-subtletasteoflemon,greenapple,andoyster

mushroom.Thisiswhenyouwanttoharvestit,asopposedtolettingitrunforthefull48hoursthatyouwouldforkojiinoculatedwithA.oryzae.Lefttoitsowndevices,A.luchuensiswillbreakdownthebarleymuchmorethoroughlythanitscousin,andaverydiscerniblebitternessbeginstocomethroughafterhour40thatmakesthekojiadeadringerforgrapefruit.Beyondthat,thebitternessintensifieswhilethesweetnessdissipates.(Interestingly,thebitternessisnonexistentwhenA.luchuensisisgrownonrice,thoughitsoverallflavorislessexciting.)Toharvestthekoji,placetheentiretrayinthefridgefor12hourstocooldown.Youcanthenpackitintoairtightcontainerstostoreinthefridgeforacoupleofdaysifyouhaveplanstouseitinthenearfuture,orfreezeitforusefurtherdowntheroad.Kojiwillkeepforupto3monthsinthefreezer.

ToharvestA.luchuensisspores,spreadthegrainsintoasinglelayerandcontinuetoincubatethemforanother36hours.Drythesporulatedkojiaccordingtotheinstructionsandpackintoaresealablebagorairtightcontainersforstorage.

CitricBarleyKoji,immediatelyafterinoculation

After30hours

After36hours

After42hours

SweetCitricKojiWater

Blendcitrickojiwithwater,freeze,andstraintocreateahyper-usefulliquid.

Makesabout1liter

1batchCitricBarleyKoji,harvestedathour42

Inthisrecipe,weextractthetartflavorsproducedbyourcitrickojiintoaliquidthatcanbeusedalmostanywhereyou’dordinarilyusewhitewineforcooking.Amazingly,almostnoneofthebitternessof42-hour-fermentedkojitransferstotheclarifiedliquid,whichitselftasteslikeamixtureofapplejuiceandlemontea,withasubtlehintofearthiness.

Forthisrecipe,you’llmakeabatchofCitricBarleyKoji,butletitgrowforafewadditionalhours.Thecitricacidcontent,whichisthekey,isnoticeablyhigherathour42thanhour36.

Measureouttwicethekoji’sweightinwater(about2.2kilograms)andblendthetwotogetherinablenderathighspeedfor1minute;workinmultiplebatches,ifnecessary.Transfertheblendedmixturetoafreezer-safecontainerwithalidor

heavy-dutyzip-topbags,leavingenoughroomforthemixturetoexpandasitsolidifies.Placeinthefreezer.

Oncethekojimixtureisfrozensolid,transferittoacolanderorsievelinedwithcheeseclothandsetitoveradeepcontainertocatchtheliquidasitthaws.Coverthecolanderwithalid,transfertotherefrigerator,andleaveittothawfor3to4days.Oncealltheicehasmelted,carefullyremovethecolander,discardthesolids,andharvesttheclearyellowliquid.

Store,covered,inthefridgeforupto5days,orinthefreezerifyou’renotplanningtouseitimmediately.

Usecitrickojiwatertosteamfishenpapillote.

SuggestedUseWhiteWineStand-InThinkofsweetcitrickojiwateraswhitewinewithumamiandbody.Useittosteamcocklesortolivenmeatjus.It’salsoperfectformakingfishenpapillote:Addcitrickojiwatertoyourparchmentparcelinplaceofwine,alongwithcitrusyherbslikelemonthymeorpineapplesageandlightvegetableslikebabysummersquash.Bakeintheovenforabout15minutes,thenpeelopenthepapertorevealperfectlycookedfishinfusedwiththesweettartnessofthekojiwater.

Citrickojiamazakedoublesasabeverageandacookingmedium.

SparklingCitricKojiAmazakeMakesabout2liters

2kilograms(1batch)CitricBarleyKoji

2kilogramswater

1packet(40milliliters)Chardonnayyeast½Campdentablet(optional)

AmazakeisaniconicsweetJapanesebeveragemadefromricekoji,rice,andwater.It’ssometimesfermentedandmildlyalcoholic,sometimesnot,sometimespureedorstrained,andothertimesleftchunky.Inmostrecipes,freshlycookedriceismixedwithequalpartsricekojiandwaterandthenheldinaricecookeron“keepwarm”for6to8hours.Thetemperatureisthekeytomakingamazake,astheenzymesthefungusproducesarehighlyeffectiveat60°C/140°F,turningstarchestosugarastheyhopfromonecatalyticreactiontoanother.

AtNoma,ourgreatestsuccessinthisrealmhasbeenaveryunorthodoxversionofamazakemadeofbarleyfermentedwithA.luchuensis.(ThoughifallyoucanfindisgardenvarietyA.oryzae,don’tletthatstopyou.)Theendresultisalittlealcoholic,thoughit’snotbeerandit’snotsake.Truthbetold,we’veneveractuallyserveditattherestaurant,butit’ssodamndeliciousthatwehadtoincludeit.

Combinethekojiandwaterinavacuumbag,sealit,andcookitinacirculatingwaterbathsetto60°C/140°Ffor8hours.Alternatively,youcanplacethemixturedirectlyinaricecookersetto“keepwarm”orintoafermentationchamber.

Straintheliquidthroughafine-meshsievelinedwithcheesecloth,squeezingoutasmuchasyoucanwithoutforcinganysolidmatterthroughthesieve.Discardthemash.

Chardonnayyeastfermentsthesugarincitrickojiintoalcohol.

Allowtheamazaketocooltoroomtemperature,thenstirintheChardonnayyeast.Transferthemixturetoafermentationbucket,carboy,orglassjarandcapitwiththeairlock.(Thisisallstandardbrewingequipmentthatcanbeprocuredatanyhome-brewshop.)Allowthemixturetofermentinacoolbasementorgaragefor4to5days.You’relookingforamildlyalcoholicbeverage,intherealmofalightciderorbeer.Itwillbelightlyeffervescentandafairbitdryerthanwhatyoustartedwith.

Anairlockwillallowtheamazaketoventasitferments.

Aswithkombucha,weneedtostopthefermentationwellshortofhowfaritcouldgo.Amazakehasalotoffermentablesugarandwewanttokeepmuchofitinthefinishedproduct.Bottleanddrinktheamazakesoonafterit’sbrewed.Chillingwillbringthefermentationtoacrawl,butasalivingferment,itssugarcontentwillcontinuetodeclineevenatfridgetemperature.

Ifyouwanttohaltfermentationcompletely,onealternativeistostirina“sterilizer”likeaCampdentablet(madefrompotassiummetabisulphite),whichwillhalttheyeast’sabilitytoreproduce.They’rereadilyavailableathome-brewshopsandonline.Halfatabletshouldsufficefortheamountofamazakethisrecipeyields.Theonlyotheroptionistosterilizetheamazakeinahot-waterbath:Fillafewswing-topbottles85percentfull,capthem,andplacethebottlesinapotofwaterat70°C/158°Ffor15to20minutes.Thisiseffectiveatkilling

theyeast,butitalsokillssomeoftheflavor.Thereisnorealsubstitutefordrinkingthisfresh.

SuggestedUse

Citrickojiamazakeisidealforsteamingseafood.

ClamsandCocklesTheamazakehasqualitiesthatridethelinebetweenabeer,acider,andayoungwine.Youcanandshouldabsolutelycookwithit,addingadashtosoupsorstewstoperkthemup,orusingitwhereveryoumightotherwisereachfora

bottleofwhitewine.Theamazakecomplementsbivalvesextremelywell,forinstance.Steamakilo’sworthofclamsorcockleswitholiveoil,acloveofgarlic,acoupleofslicedshallots,andafewglugsofamazake.Oncethebivalveshaveopened,removethemfromthepotandreturntheremainingliquortothestove.Whiskinaknobofbutter,addsomechoppedtarragon,parsley,andchives,thenpouritbackovertheclamsbeforeserving.

Siftdried,milledkojitomakekojiflour.

DriedKojiandKojiFlour

Drycrumbledkojiinadehydratorsetto50°C/122°F.

Makesabout500grams

1kilogramkojiofanyvariety

Dryingkojicompletelytransformsitsusabilityasaningredientinthekitchen.Inyourdrypantry,youendupwithacompletelynewaceintheholethatoccupiesaspacebetweenanexoticsugarandall-purposeflour.

Useyourfingerstobreakupthekojiasfinelyaspossible,andspreaditontoatraylinedwithparchmentpaper.Setyourdehydratorto50°C/122°Fanddrythekojiuntilit’scompletelydesiccated—usually24hours.Atthispoint,youcanpackthedriedkojiintoairtightcontainersandstoreitinthefreezerforuptoafewmonths.

Otherwise,blendthedriedkojiintoafineflourinablenderonhighspeed—45secondsto1minuteshouldsuffice.Toensurethatnocoarsegrainsremain,sift

thepowderthroughafine-meshsieveortamisoveralargebowl,circulatingyourhandthroughthepowdertodrivealltheflourthrough.Anydriedkojithatdoesn’tpassthroughthesievecanbereblendedandsiftedagain.Thekojiflourisfullofsugarandisthereforefairlyhygroscopic(moisture-loving),sobesuretostoreitinanairtightcontaineratroomtemperature.

SuggestedUses

KojiStockBoilkojiinwaterforkojistock.

Boilkojiinwaterforkojistock.

Oneofthebestpossibleusesfordriedkojiisasaflavoringforstock.Boil1literwaterinapotandadd150gramscrumbleddriedkoji(notkojiflour).Turndowntheheatandletthestocksimmerfor10minutes.Strainanddiscardthesolids.Whatyouhaveisaversatile,vegetarianbaseliquidthatcanbeusedforawholeflightofapplications.

Koji-MisoSoupOnceyou’vemadekojistock,youcanuseahandheldblendertoincorporatethestockwithanyofthemisosfromthisbookforamisosoupunlikeanyyou’vehadbefore.Arichmisosoupwillhavesomewhereintheneighborhoodof20percentmiso(200gramsfor1literofkojistock),butallmisosdifferintheirsaltinessandintensity.Rememberthatyoucanalwaysaddmoremiso,butyoucan’ttakeitout.Trystartingwith,say,100gramsofYellowPeasoandworkingyourwayupfromthere.

Koji-BlanchedVegetablesandKojiSoupKojistockisgreatforblanchingvegetables—somethingwepracticeoftenatNoma.Picturearoastbirdfordinner,withaplatteronthesideofyoungcarrots,turnips,andcabbageleaves,eachblanchedinumami-richkojistock,seasonedwithsalt,anddrizzledwitholiveoil.Onceyou’vefinisheddinner,addthebirdcarcassandleftoverpanjuicestotheblanchingpot.Bringthestockbackuptoaboil,droptheheat,andletitsimmerforafewhoursbeforestraining.Finishwithasplashofvinegarandshoyuforanunbelievablysatisfyingsoup.Ifyoulike,youcanboilafewpeeledpotatoesinthebroth,thenuseahandheldblendertomakecreamypotatosoupthatcanbetoppedwithcookednettlesorspinach.Andevenifyouomitthebirdentirely,youcanstillrepurposetheblanchingliquidasadeliciousvegetariansoup.

Koji-InfusedOil

Kojioilissubtlysweetandfruity,andwillhelpbreakdowntoughproteinsifusedasacookingmedium.

Chooseanoilthatdoesn’ttastelikemuch—grapeseed,sunflowerseed,canola,orcornoilwillallwork.Combine250gramsdriedkoji(notkojiflour)and500gramsoilinablenderandblendathighspeedfor6minutes,untilyouhaveasmooth,silkyliquidthatalmosthasthetextureofcream.Transfertoacontainerandcover,allowingtheoiltoinfuseandsettleinthefridgefor24hours.Thefollowingday,straintheoilthroughcheeseclothorafine-meshsieveanddiscardthesediment.

Inkojioil,youhaveaningredientthatcanbecombinedwithcucumberwaterandasquirtoflimejuiceorherbedCeleryVinegarforasublimedressingforthinlyslicedfreshscallops.(Tomakecucumberwater,blendanEnglishcucumbertoapulp,thensqueezethemashthroughacleankitchentoweltoharvesttheliquidinabowl.)KojiOilConfit

Slowcookinginkojioilalsolendsitselfwelltoaconfit.Whenblendedintooil,theenzymesinkojiactasagreattenderizerfortoughercutsofprotein,fromabalonetogooselegs.

KojiMayonnaise

Kojioilmakesanexceptionallysavorymayonnaise.

Orusekojioiltomakemayonnaise.Mostpeopledon’tmaketheirownmayonnaise,buttheyshould.Thedifferenceinflavorandtextureisworththereasonableamountofeffort,especiallyifyouusekojioil.Whisktogether2eggyolks,1teaspoonDijonmustard,andasplashofvinegar.Slowlyincorporateabout150milliliterskojioilinathin,steadystream,whiskingthewholetimetoemulsifythemixtureintoathickmayonnaise.Finishbyseasoningwithsaltandcrackedpepper.Nosandwichwilleverbethesame.

Koji-BreadedFishKojiflourcanstepinasareplacementforregularflourinanumberofinstances.Thenexttimeyoubreadavealcutletforschnitzel,dredgethemeatinkojiflour,thenthroughaneggwash,andtheninyourpreferredbreadcrumbs.Kojiflourbringsasweetnuttinesstothefinishedproductthatregularflourjustdoesn’thave.Itworksequallywellforbreadedfish.Ifyou’repan-fryingathinfilletofsomethinglikesole,flounder,orhalibut,simplydredgeitinkojiflourbeforedroppingitintoapanoffoamingbutter.Onethingtowatchoutforisthatkojiflourcaramelizesfasterthanregularflour.Keeptheheatjustabovemediumsoasnottoscorchthecrustbeforethefishiscooked.

Koji“Marzipan”Kojiflourcanbemadeintoamarzipan-ishproductbywhiskingtogetherequalpartsbyweightofneutraloilandkojiflour,thenadding10%ofthetotalweightinpowderedsugar(i.e.,100gramskojiflour,100gramsgrapeseedoil,and20gramspowderedsugar).Youendupwithapastethatcanbeusedinjustaboutanysituationwhereyou’dlooktousemarzipan,fromcroissantstolayercakes.Orsimplycrumbleupthekojimarzipanoverthetopofvanillaicecreamtocreateakindofnext-levelcookie-doughsundae.

Breadfishinkojiflourbeforepan-frying.

Lacto-fermentationtakeskojitoanentirelydifferent(andsour)place.

RoastedKoji“Mole”

Passkojimolethroughatamisforavelvetysauce.

Makesabout1.5liters500gramsPearlBarleyKoji

500gramsheavycream

500gramswholemilk

Whilethisisn’tamoleinanytraditionalsense,wethinkofitthatway.Ithasdepthandcomplexityandlightsweetnesslikeourfavoritegenuinemoles.Addingasplashofvinegarandsomegroundchilemakesitevenmorelikeitsnamesake.Alternatively,youcanaddafewspoonfulsofthiskojimoletoabraiseforrichnessandumamiaswellasabitofbody.

Useyourfingerstobreakthekojiintosmallpiecesandspreadthemonabakingsheet.Roastintheovenat160°C/320°F,turningandshakingthekojievery10minutestomakesureitcooksevenly.After45to60minutes,thekojishould

smelllikeroastedcoffeeandbedeepbrownincolor.Removethebakingsheetfromtheovenandallowtocooltoroomtemperature.

Weighout375gramsofthecooledroastedkoji(theoriginalweightwillhavechangedwithroasting)andplaceitinasealablecontainer.Pourthecreamoverthetopandleaveitinthefridgetosoakovernight.

Transferthemixturetoablender,addthemilk,andblendeverythingintoasmoothpuree.Itshouldtakeabout6minutesofblending(ifithastroublecatching,justaddalittlemoremilkuntilitspins).Ifyouwanttorefinethetextureevenmore,passthemixturethroughatamiswhileit’sstillwarmfromtheblender.Storeinanairtightcontainerinthefridgeforupto4days,orfreezeforupto6months.

SuggestedUses

KojiMole–GlazedPotatoesNewpotatoesglazedinroastedkojimole.

Kojimoleisafantasticdressingforboilednewpotatoesorfingerlings.Placeacoupleofhandfulsofnewpotatoesinapotofcold,saltedwaterandbringtoaboil.Reducetheheatandsimmeruntiltender,thendrainandreturnthepotatoes

tothepot.Killtheheatonthestoveand,whilethepotatoesarestillhot,addacoupleofspoonfulsofkojimole.Seasonwithsaltand,ifyoucanaffordit,servewithacoupleofspoonfulsofcaviarortroutroe.

NotChocolateRoastedkojiturnsintoamoleanaloguesowellbecauseitisreminiscentofchocolate.Assuch,we’vefounditmakesaverydistinctyetfamiliarversionofhotchocolate.Blend60gramskojimoleinto500gramsmilk,alongwith15gramsmuscovadosugar.Warmitupandenjoyonachillywinter’sday.

KojiCure(ShioKoji)Makesabout800grams400gramskojiofanyvariety400gramswater

40gramsseasalt

ShiokojiisamixtureofsaltandkojiusedwidelyinJapanasacureformeatsandfishaswellasacondiment.Asacure,itsimultaneouslyseasonsandtenderizes,astheproteaseproducedbykojibreaksdownanimalproteins.

Whirthekoji,water,andsalttogetherinablender.Youdon’tneedasmoothpaste,justauniformmixture.Ifyouwanttoreaptheenzymaticbenefitsofkoji,useitimmediatelyasamarinade(seebelow).Butifyouleaveitlonger,themixtureeffectivelyfermentsitself,offeringupdeeperflavors,whilethesalttakesastepback.Therelativelyhighsaltcontentwillallowittokeepwell,covered,inthefridgeforweeks.

SuggestedUsesMarinadeShiokojiisclassicallyusedasamarinade.Itimprovesthetextureandflavorofmeatsthatoftenneedalittleextrahelptoreachtheirtastepotentialbytenderizing,seasoning,andimpartingumamiandfloralsweetness.Wefinditworksex-tremelywellwithgamebirds,butnolesssowiththecommoneverydaychicken.Fora1-kilogram2¼-poundchicken,slatherallofthebird’sskinwithathinlayerofkojicureandletitsitatroomtemperatureforabout3hoursbeforeroasting.Ifthebirdissmaller—say,a500-gram1-poundCornishhen—thencutthecuringtimeinhalf.Alargerbird,suchasaduck,caneasilytake4½hourstocure.Turkey,pork,andflanksteakalsoallbenefitgreatlyfromashiokojirub.Meatiervarietiesoffishlikemonkfish,pike-perch,orblackcodallfarewellwithalittletimeinthecure,whichfirmsuptextureanddrivesseasoningandflavorintotheflesh.Justbecareful:Fisharemoredelicatethanbirdsorredmeatandthusmorediligenceisneededwhencuring.Payattention

tothedetails:Howthickisthefillet?Doesittaper?Ifso,applylessshiokojitothethinnersections.Agood,chunky160-gramportionofblackcodcanspendaslittleas30minutescoveredinathinlayerofcurebeforeitbecomestoosalty.Forthinnerfillets,aimtocutthattimeto15or20minutes.

Finally,beforecookinganythingyoucureinshiokoji,besuretoremoveasmuchofitaspossible.Aspoonorthebackofabutterknifeisausefultoolforscrapingoffthecure,followedbyagentlewipewithapapertowel.

ShioKojiButter

Shiokojiisapasteofwater,salt,andbarleykoji.

Somepeopleenjoyshiokojiasastraight-upspreadonbreadorasaprimerforavocadotoast.Ifthetasteisalittletoostrongforyou,trymixingateaspoonofshiokojiintoacoupleoftablespoonsofsoftenedbuttertoformacompoundbutterthatcantopgrilledcornorbakedpotatoes,orbeusedtofinishporridgesorstews.

CureaCornishheninshiokojitoseasonandtenderizeitatthesametime.

6.MisosandPeaso—YellowPeasoRosePeasoRyesoMaizoMasaHazelnutMisoBreadsoPumpkinSeedMiso

BroadeningOurHorizonsNomaisarestaurantthathasevolvedinstages.Inourearlieststage,whenwehadbarelyopenedourdoors,wewereexploringingredientsandbecomingfamiliarwiththeparticularsofeachseason,lookingfornuggetsofinspirationfromwhichwecouldcreateadishoramenuoranidentity.Asweprogressedandbecamecomfortableinourskin,wefoundourselveswithmoretimeanddesiretolearnnotonlyaboutingredients,butalsotechnique,history,stories,andpeople.

Webegantodigdeepintothecenturies-oldfoodwaysoftheNordicregioninsearchofpillarsaroundwhichwecoulddefineourowncooking.ButaswesiftedthroughthetraditionsofScandinavia,Finland,Greenland,theFaroeIslands,andnorthernGermany,thecuisinewewereseekingremainedfrustratinglyelusive.Inretrospect,itmakessense.Ourstaffcomesfromalargeanddiversesetofbackgrounds—torestrictourgazetotheNordicregionwasnevergoingtobeenough.

Andso,sometimein2009or2010,inordertolearnmoreaboutourselves,webeganlookingfurtherafield.Atfirstwethoughtweshouldfocusoncountriesthatwereclosetoours,likeRussiaorGermany,wherethereareagreatmanysharedfoodtraditions.Butagain,itquicklybecameapparentthatweneededtolookoutsideourcomfortzone.

AfewtripstoJapanopenedoureyestotheincrediblerigorwithwhichJapanesecooksandartisanspursueumami—thehard-to-describeyetdeeplyrecognizableflavorofsavoriness.Therearethousandsofvarietiesofshoyu,koji,andmiso,eachwithdifferentcharacteristicsandapplications.Asaresult,chefsinJapanhavemultitudesofseasoningtoolsattheirdisposal,allofwhichtastedistinctbutalsodistinctlyJapanese.WereturnedtoCopenhagenknowingthatinordertocon-structaflavorthatcoulddefineourrestaurantandpossiblyourentireregion,weneededasimilarpantryofourown.

OurNordicversionofmisoisperhapsthemostsuccessfulattemptwe’vehadatbuildingsuchapantry.Anditbeganitslifeasafailedtofu.

Koji,legumes,andsaltgointoabucketandemergemonthslaterasmiso.

Weweretryingtoseeifwecouldcoagulatemilksqueezedfromlocalyellowpeasintoasortoftofu.Wecommittedweekstotheeffortbeforerealizingthatthishigh-proteinlegumemightactuallybebettersuitedforfermentation.Fromthere,wefollowedtraditionalmiso-makingtechniques—replacingJapaneseinputswithNordicones—andendedupwithyellowpeamiso,akapeaso.

Peasodoesn’ttastelikemiso—atleastwedon’tthinkso.IttastesdistinctlyofDenmark,makingitbothuniquelyoursandstillgreatlyindebtedtoAsia.It’saperfectcollisionofaconceptthatisforeigntothispartoftheworldwithaningredientwithwhichwe’reverywellacquainted.That’showwethinkfoodshouldmoveforward.MostofthebestthingsinScandinavia—andtheworld,forthatmatter—haveasimilarstory:Theygetintroducedtoanewplace,theyadapt,findtheirownlife,andeventuallybecomeoftheplace.It’slikeimmigration.Microbialimmigration.

Sincethatinitialsuccess,we’vemademisofromryebreadandcornandhazelnuts.We’vetrieddifferentlegumes,fromScandinaviaandbeyond,likelupinandblackbeans,anddifferentgrainsaswell.It’sanongoingprojectthatkeepssurprisingandthrillingusateveryturn.Anditbeganbylisteningtostoriesbeyondourown.

LangoustineandDouglasFir,Noma,2018

Thepan-friedheadofaFaroeIslandslangoustineisservedalongsideitstail,whichhasbeengrilledoverpineneedles.Bothareglazedwithpeasotamarireduction.

SoyStoryMisoisafermentedpastemadefromamashofcookedsoybeans,koji,andsalt.Likevinegar,misoisatwo-stagefermentation.First,thefungusAspergillusoryzaeisgrownoneitherriceorbarleytoproducekoji(readtheKojichapter)foradeeperunderstandingofthisprocess).Thenthepowerfulenzymesproducedbykoji,namelyproteaseandamylase,areharnessedtodismantletheproteinandstarchinanothersubstrate(traditionallysoybeans),cleavingthemintoaminoacidsandsimplesugars,respectively.Wildyeast,lacticacidbacteria,andaceticacidbacteriaalsoaddtothefugueofflavorsasthemisoages.

It’sdifficulttofathomthestrokeofcreativegenius—andluck—thatinspiredsomebravesoultocombinemoldyricewithcookedsoybeans,letitsitformonths,andthentasteit.Weareforeverindebtedtothatactofculinaryaudacity,asmisoisbyfarthemostastoundingtransformationintheworldoffermentation.Time,bacteria,andfungusconspiretoconvertone-dimensional,everydaystaplesintoarrestingnewconcoctions.Oneseeminglydefiesthelawsofphysicsbycreatingwhollynewmatteroutofthinair.Ididn’tputbananasornutsinhere!Howcanthistastesostronglyofbananasandnuts!?

Thefullstoryofhowmisocametobeisintertwinedwiththedomesticationofthesacredsoybean,thecomplicatedhistorybetweenChinaandJapan,andthedharmicphilosophyofnonviolence.

First,thesoybean.

Aswithalmosteveryancientcivilization,China’searlyexis-tencehingedonthedomesticationofnutrient-richcrops.WhatmaizewastoMesoamerica,orchickpeastotheMiddleEast,soybeansweretoEastAsia.Thereisnomoreefficientwaytoproduceproteinthantogrowsoy.Ityieldsnearlytwentytimesmoreproteinperhectarethangrazingcattleorusingthelandforgrowingfodder.Ofthetwentyaminoacidsthatourbodiesrequiretofunction,thereareninethatwecan’tproduceonourown.Soybeansareoneofthefewplantfoodsonearththatcontainallnineoftheseessentialaminoacids.

Theearliestevidencepointstothecultivationofsmall,wildsoybeansabout7,600yearsagoinnorthernChina.Theselectivebreedingofsoybeansforincreasedsizebeganatleast5,000yearsagoinChina,butmayalsohavestartedaroundthesametimeinJapan.Regardlessofitstrueorigins,soyhasprovenabsolutelyessentialtotheregion’sfoodways.InChineselore,the“GodFarmer”

Shennong,amythicaldeity,issaidtohaveproclaimedfivecropsassacred:rice,wheat,barley,millet,andsoybeans.

Butnutritivevaluenotwithstanding,itwasn’tuntilsoymetfermentationthatitstrueculinarypotentialwasrealized.

Beforemiso,therewasjiang.Jiangs(translatingroughlyto“pastes”)encompassalargearrayofChinesecondimentsandferments—manythatdon’tcontainfermentedsoybeansatall.Infact,theoldestjiangsweresupposedlymadefromfishormeat,andresembledasortofthickhybridbetweengarum(seethechapteronGarum)andmiso.Aspracticesofanimalhusbandryimprovedthroughtheages,theimperativetopreservethevaluablenutritionofwildmeatseasedbitbybit,causingthemainproteinsourcewithinjiangstoshiftfromanimalstovegetablesovergenerations.Descendantsoftheseancientjiangspersisttodayaswell-knowncondiments,includinghoisin,oystersauce,andfermentedblackbeanpaste.Fermentedblacksoybeans,ordouchi,maybeoneofthefirstfermentedsoyproductstocomeoutofChina,withreferencesdatingasfarbackas90BCE.

Glycinemax,akathesoybean.

China’sclosestlivingrelativetomisoishuangjiang(“yellowpaste”),wheresoybeansaresteamedandmixedwithhalftheirweightinwheatflourbeforebeingpressedintobricksandplacedonreedmatstoundergowildfermentationintheopenair.Afteracoupleofweeks,wildmoldsthathavegrownonthesurfaceofthebricksarebrushedoffandthebricksaremixedwithasalinebrine,furtherfermentingintoaviscous,saltypaste.

WhenChineseBuddhistmonksarrivedinJapaninthesixthcenturyto“enlighten”thepeopleoftheislandnation,theybroughtjiangswiththem.TheJapanesewouldabsorbtheideaoffermentingsoybeansandrunwithit.

Intheseventhcentury,inaccordancewiththerecentlyintroduceddharmicbeliefinnonviolence,theJapaneseemperorTenmubannedtheconsumptionoffarmedanimalmeat.Themandate,whichstayedineffectformorethansixdecades,createdavoidinpeople’sdietsthathadtobefilledbyvegetariansourcesofprotein.Soybeans,intheformoffreshedamame,tofu,andmiso,tookcenterstage,alongwithriceandothergrains.Asmiso’simportancegrew,sotoodiditsutilityandvariety.Forstarters,Japanesemisomakersbroughtgreatercontroltothefermentationprocessbyfirstgrowingmoldongrains,beforeintroducingsoybeanstotheprocess.

Misomakingbecameaspecializedindustry.Earlymiso(hishio)wasmoreagloopymashthanathickpaste.Overcenturies,recipeswererefinedandfracturedintolocalspecialties.InJapantherearedozensupondozensofvarietiesofmiso,madeinmyriadstyles.Thereareanumberofvariablestoplaywithinthemiso-makingprocess,eachcapableofhavingaprofoundeffectontheoutcome:thespecificstrainofAspergillusmoldusedtoinoculatethekoji;thetypeofriceorbarleyuponwhichthekojigrows;themethodofcookingthesoybeans;andthelengthoftimeandconditionsinwhichyouagethemiso.Theresultscanrangefromredandearthyakamiso;torich,chocolaty,saltyhatchomiso;tosweetsaikyomiso.In2015,whentheNomastaffhadthechancetospendseveralmonthstravelingthroughJapanforapop-upstintinTokyo,wefeltutterlyspoiledforchoice.

Andallthisistosaynothingofthesoybean-pastetraditionsinotherpartsofAsia.Korea,forinstance,hasitsownbroadlineageofjangsthatdevelopedcontemporaneouslywithmisos.LikeChinesejiangs,jangisanumbrellatermthatcoversabevyoffermentedproducts—manybutnotallmadefromsoy.Cheonggukjangisaquick-fermented,chunkyanaloguetomiso,madewiththeaidofthebacteriaBacillussubtilis.Doenjang,ontheotherhand,isamorelabor-intensivesoy-basedfermentthatbearsstrikingresemblancetotheancienthuangjangsofChina.Itbeginswithmeju—driedsoybeansthatarecookeduntiltenderandthenpressedinawoodenboxuntiltheyfirmintoabrick.Thebrickisthenremovedandwrappedinricehay,wherebacteriaandmoldsendemictothehay—includingwildAspergillus—furtherfermentthemejubrickfortwomonths.Finally,themejuistransferredtoearthenwarepots,mixedwithasaltwaterbrine,andlefttofermentforayear.Theresultingliquidisakintoa

muchfunkiersoysauce,calledganjang.Thefermentedsolidsaredoenjang,whichisoftenallowedtoageforseveralmoreyearsonitsown.Gochujang,oneofourall-timefavoriteferments,alsobeginswithmeju,butcontainsasizableadditionofchilesandglutinousriceflour.

FermentedbeanpastesalsospreadthroughoutSoutheastAsia.InThailand,wefindtaijiew,muchwetterandfunkierthanmiso.Indonesiahastauco,whichisquitesweetfromtheadditionofpalmsugar.AndVietnamproducesthelessviscoustuong,whichyoumayhaveconsumedasadipwithsummerrolls.ThefactthatthistechniquehasspreadthroughoutAsia—andevenasfaraschillyCopenhagen—speakstoitstremendousappeal.Misoiscontagious.

MejuarecompactedbricksoffermentedsoybeansthatserveasthebasisofseveralKoreanferments.

HistoricalMethodsandHandTasteAtNoma,eventhoughwedoourbesttostayinthevanguardofculinaryinnovation,wefeeladeepresponsibilitytoberespectfullyinformedbyhistory.Wefindthere’stremendousvalueinunderstandingtraditionbeforetoyingwithit.OurteamhaspaidmanyvisitstomisoproducersinJapan,bothlargefactoriesandsmallartisans,gatheringinvaluableexperiencethathashelpedusfindourownway.BeforewegetintotheparticularsofmakingaNordicversionofmiso,let’stakeaganderatwhatmisoproductionlookedlikeformuchofitshistory.

Intheearlydays,almosteverythingusedtomakemisowasbuiltfromwood:spades,trays,largevats,andthebuildingsthemselveswerecraftedfromhardwood,usuallyJapanesecedar.Massiveironcauldronswouldboilthewatertosteamriceandsoybeansheldinstrawbaskets.CooledricewasspreadonalargetableandinoculatedwithafinedustingofAspergillusoryzaespores.Workersusedspadestoturntherice,ensuringthatthesporestookholdevenly,thentransferredittocedartrays,whichwerestackedinawarm,humidroom(akojimuro).

Soybeanswerecookeduntiltenderandcrushedbeneathmen’sfeet.Workerswouldthenmixthepreparedkojiandsaltwiththebeans,thenferrybucketsofthemixtureupstepladderstobeemptiedintohugecedarfermentingvats.Lidsweighteddownwithheavyrockswouldcompactthemixture,removingairandleadingtomoreuniformfermentation.Dependingonthevariety,themisowouldageinitscedarcontainerforanywherefromonetothreeyears.

Massivecedarvatsknownaskiokecanholdthousandsofkilogramsofmisoatatime.

Asthemisofermented,salty,umami-richjuiceswouldflowtothetopandformapuddle.Thisliquidcametobeknownastamari.It’susuallylesssaltyandmoreviscousthanitsdescendant,shoyu.InChinese,it’scalledjiangyou.Youprobablyknowitbestassoysauce.Thevastwoodenwarehousesusedtostorethemisolackedmuchinthewayoftemperaturecontrol.Fermentationwouldslowtoacrawlinthewinterandspeedupagaininthesummer.Notwobatcheswereeveridentical;eachwasaproductofthespecifictimeanduniqueconditionsunderwhichitfermented.

Now,beforeyouwritethisoffasaquaintbutpointlesstaleoftheolddays,considerthewisdomofamannamedEdwardNortonLorenz.LorenzservedasaweatherforecasterintheUSArmyduringtheSecondWorldWarbeforeearningadoctorateinmeteorologyfromMITuponhisreturntotheStates.Hisextensiveworkinthefieldofweatherpredictionmadehimunderstandablywaryoflinearstatisticalmethods—thatis,theideathatfutureoccurrencescouldbedirectextrapolationsofwhat’shappeningnow.Lorenzknewthattheweatheroperatesonverynonlinearphenomena.Inapaperpublishedinameteorologicaljournalin1963,hewrote:“Twostatesdifferingbyimperceptibleamountsmayeventuallyevolveintotwoconsiderablydifferentstates...Shouldtherebeanyerrorinobservation,apredictionofthestateinthedistantfuturemaywellbeimpossible.”

Sensitivedependenceoninitialconditions:themorecomplexasystem,themoreminutevariationsaffecttheoutcome.

Lorenz’sthinkingwouldbecomethefoundationofchaostheory.He’softencreditedwithcoiningtheterm“butterflyeffect,”whichdescribeshowcomplexsystemswithinnumerablepointsofminutedifferentiationcanevolveindramaticallydifferentways,givenenoughtime.Putanotherway,somethingasinsignificantasabutterflyflappingitswingscancreatedisturbancesthatresultinatornadoweekslater.Theworldoffermentationgivesusareal-lifelookatthisprincipleinaction.Whetheryou’reagingwhiskeyorvinegar,brewingsake,ormakingmiso,themorecomplextheprocess,thegreatertheeffectsmalldifferencesattheoutsetoftheprocesswillhave.Andthelongerittakestofermentsomething,themorepronouncedthosedifferencesbecome.

“Handtaste”describesthedistinctcharacterofafermentimpartedbyitsmakerandthetimeandplaceinwhichitwasmade.

Koreanartisansoftenspeakof“handtaste”(son-mat)asanirreplicablequalityimbuedbyindividualcookstotheirfood,aqualityabsentfromfactory-madebatches.Handtaste,inessence,ischaostheoryatwork.Minutedifferencesinhowmisoismadeandaged,thatday’sorhour’spopulationofbacteriaonthemisomaker’sskinandclothes,randomvariationsintemperature,airpressure,orhumidity,havesuchanoutsizeeffectontheferment’sdevelopmentthattheyensurenotwobatcheswilleverbeexactlythesame.It’showcooksandartisansstumbleintonewflavorsandnewcreations.Andit’swhatmakesfermentationunpredictableandthrilling.

MakingOurPeasoNowthatweunderstandtheoutsizeeffectthatminoralterationscanhaveonferments,let’stakeamomenttodetailthemajorstepsofhowwemakeourpeaso:

1.Inoculatesteamedbarleywithkojisporesandallowthemtogrowfor2daysinafermentationchamber(see“BuildingaFermentationChamber”).2.Soak,rinse,andboilyellowpeas.Grindorblendthepeaswiththekojiina3:2ratio(byweight).3.Addsalt(4%byweight);then,ifnecessary,adjustthemoisturecontentofthemixtureusinga4%saltbrine.4.Packthemixturetightlyintoafermentationvesselandsprinklesaltoverthesurfacetopreventunwantedmoldgrowth.Weightthemixturedown,coverthevessel,andleaveittofermentatatemperatureof22°to30°C/72°to86°Fforatleast3months.5.Harvestanytamarithathaspooledontopofthemisoandscrapeawayanysurfacemold.Storethemisoitselfinairtightcontainersintherefrigerator.

Ifyousticktotherecipeoutlined,youshouldbeabletoproducepeasothat’sveryclosetotheonewemakeatNoma.Butifyou’dliketoexperimentwiththerecipeonyourown,it’sgoodtohaveasolidgraspofwhat’shappeninginyourfermentationvesselandthemainfactorsaffectingthefinaloutcome.Havingafirmunderstandingofthefollowingcontrolpointswillallowyoutomakeadjustmentstoyourownpeaso.

Themoreyouunderstandaboutwhatgoesintomakingmisos,themoreyou’llbeabletofine-tunetheiroutcome.Whatseemsdauntingatthestartwillquicklybecomeasetoftoolstousetoyouradvantage,withalittlepractice.

SaltContentSaltcontentisbyfarthemostimportantmeasureinthedirectcontrolofthemiso/peasoprocess.AsillustratedintheLacto-Fermentationchapter,saltcanbeusedtopreventpotentiallymalevolentmicrobesfromgainingafoothold.ButNomaisadecidedlyunsaltyrestaurant,sowetrytokeepoursaltcontentaslowaspossiblewithoutexposingourpeasotorisk.Aftermanytrials,we’vesettledon4percentastheidealbalancebetweenmicrobialactivityandsalinity.(Japanesemisos,attheverylowest,sitat6percent.)Wewouldnotsuggestgoinglowerthan4percentsalt,asthere’snoguaranteethatunwantedmicrobeswon’tpropagateoverthelongagingprocess.

Ahighersaltcontentof8to10percentwillinhibitthegrowthofyeast,aceticacidbacteria,and,toalesserextent,lacticacidbacteria(LAB).Now,youmaywonderifthatleadstoalessinterestingfinishedproduct,givenhowwe’veusedthesemicrobestoproduceflavorsinotherferments.Butthecomplexitylostbylimitingyeastandbacteriaismadeupforbylongagingtimes.Overthecourseofmonthsoryears,extremelyslowMaillardreactionscreatealluringandcomplexflavorswhileslowlybrowningthemiso.(See“ReallySlowCooking,”formoreontheMaillardreaction.)Averysaltymisomaybelessinterestingearlyinitslife,butitchangesandimprovesasitages.

Ifyoueverfindyourselfproducingabatchofpeasothattastesunbalanced,tryuppingthetotalsaltcontentby2or3percent(nootheramountsintherecipewillhavetochange)andagingitforamonthortwolonger.WhileyoumaylosesomeofthecomplexityofferedbyLABandyeast,thepeasowillreachgreaterdeliciousnessdowntheroad.

Just-CookedOctopuswith“Dzikilpak,”NomaMexico,2017

OctopustentaclesthathavebeenbakedundergroundinacrustofmasaareservedwithNoma’stakeondzikilpak,thetraditionalMayansalsa,madeherewithpumpkinseedmiso.

MoistureContentThewetnessofyourpeasoasit’sgoingintothefermentationvesselisextremelyimportant.Ifyoupackpeasoawaytoodry,themixturewon’tbefluidenoughtoallowforbiologicalorchemicalprocessestoworkeffectively,inthesamewaythatfreezinganddehydratinghaltsspoilagebyholdingeverythingtightlyinplace.Ontheotherhand,ifthemixtureistoowet,microbialandenzymaticactivitywillbecomefartoovigorous.Youeffectivelyendupwithmultiplemicrobesrunningamok.AsmallamountofLAB-producedlacticacidaddsapleasantbrightnesstopeaso,buttoomuchcanmakeittastecompletelyoff-kilter.LABareonlymarginallyimpededbysaltcontent,andthusneedtobecorralledbyregulatingmoisture.(Moreaccurately,we’reregulating“wateractivity,”orhowmuchwaterisunboundandfreelyavailable.)

Itmaytakeabitoftrialanderrortounderstandthefullimpactthatwatercontentcanhaveonyourpeaso,butasaheuristicguide,ifyouclenchafistfulofmisomixturethat’sreadytogointothevessel,itshouldformadenseballinyourhand.Ifitoozeslikehummus,it’stoowet.Ifitcrumbles,it’stoodry.

HumidityAgeyourpeasoinanenvironmentwithanambienthumidityof65to75percent.Anylowerandthepeasomaydryout,leadingtotheaforementionedproblemswithmoisturecontent,orbecometoosaltyaswaterevaporatesintotheair.Attheoppositeendofthespectrum,peasoheldinaverydampenvironmentcanalsogoawry.Forinstance,ifthepeasoweretocomeintocontactwithcondensationduetohumidity,itcouldlowerthesalinityofthemixtureandopenthedoorforspoilage.Itwouldrequirealotofmoistureintheenvironmentforthattohappen,butdampbasementsorpoorlyinsulatedstorageareasexposedtopersistentrainfallshouldbeavoided.

AgeofYourKojiIt’scrucialthatthekojiyouuseinyourpeasobehealthyandpotent,withthickmyceliumbindingthegrainstogether.Themorefragrantandsweeterthekoji,thebetteryourpeasowillbe.Duringkoji’sshortlifecycle,thefungusgoesthroughmanydifferentstages.Ifthekojiistooyoung,itwon’thaveproducedtheenzymesneededtobreakdowntheproteinsintheyellowpeas.Akojithatisharvestedtooearlywillalsobelackingsweetnessthatcontributestotheoverallflavorofthepeaso.

Ontheotherhand,fungusthathasbeengrowntoolongandgonetosporewillhaveaconsiderablydifferentflavorfromproperlyharvestedkoji,inthesamewaythatgardengreenschangedramaticallyoncethey’vegonetoseed.Sporulatedkojiusesitsenzymestoconsumesugarsinordertofueltheproductionofitsspores.LesssugarinthekojimeanslesssugarinthemisototakepartintheMaillardreactionresponsibleforthedevelopmentofcomplexflavorsasitages.

Inourexperience,44to48hoursfromthetimeofinitialinoculationisthewindowinwhichyouwanttoharvestkojiforpeaso.Finally,ifyourkojishowsanysignsofbeinginfectedbyunwantedmoldorothermicrobes,don’tuseitforpeaso.Remember,yourfermentedproductsareonlyasgoodastheingredientsthatgointothem.

TemperatureandTimeThewarmeryourpeaso,thefasteritwillferment.Peasoheldinenvironmentscoolerthanroomtemperature,likeacellar,willfermentnoticeablymoreslowly.Maillardreactionswillalsoaccelerateinwarmerenvirons,creatingmoretoastedflavorsinyourfinalmiso.

Theenzymesproducedbykojiarequiteefficientwhencatalyzingbiochemicalreactionswhenheldat60°C/140°F.Chancesare,youwon’tbefermentingyourpeasoinaninsulatedroomheatedtoaconstanttemperatureof60°C/140°F,norwouldyouwantto—itwouldenduptastingburntveryquickly.At28°to30°C/82°to86°F,you’llbeemulatingJapanesesummers,andcanreapthebenefitsoffasterfermentationandmoreprolificMaillardreactions.

However,evenatmoderatetemperatures,overaverylongtime,peasocanbegintodeteriorateorevenburn.Onceitfermentsfor,say,ayear,it’slikelynotgoingtokeepgettingbetter.Tryingtoguesswhensomethingisatitspeakisdifficult.Butwithexperienceyou’llbegintoseethesigns.Ifthepeasobeginstogrowbitter,driesout,ordarkenssignificantly,payheed.It’sprobablynotgoingtoimprovewithageatthispoint.

PressureandExposuretoAirPlacingweightsontopofpeasoforcesoutairpocketsthatwouldotherwisebeidealbreedinggroundsforaceticacidbacteriaormoldtocreateunwantedflavors.Theweightshouldbeatleastequaltohalftheweightofthepeasointhevessel.However,evenwhenpressedbeneathaweight,peasoisn’tsealedoffcompletelyfromair—that’sbydesign.Themicrobesatworkproducegasesthatneedtovent.Ifthepeasoweresealedairtight,thegaseswouldbereabsorbedandtainttheflavor.Abreathableclothlaidoverthetopwillallowyoutoventthesegases,whilekeepingoutlargeragentsofspoilagelikefliesandtheirmaggots.

Ifyourpeasotastessomewhatacrid,acidic,oralcoholic,itmaybethatitwaspackedtootightornotallowedtoventproperly.Thiscanbepartiallyremediedbycookingthepeasoinapanforfiveminutes,stirringoftenwithaspatula.Theunwantedaromaandflavormoleculesarefairlyvolatile,meaningthey’lldissipateonceheated.Unfortunately,there’snowaytogetridoftheseflavorscompletely.Liveandlearn.

AdditionalFlavoringsMisoisanidealreceptacleforscraps.Addingthepulpofajuicedvegetable,seedhusks,orleftoverscanleadtoremarkableflavorsayeardowntheline.Forexample,eachsummer,weharvestwildbeachrosesandblendthemwithaneutraloiltoinfuseitwiththeirflavorandaroma.Thepulpthatremainsafterwepresstheoilstillhastonsofvalue.Weaddsomeofittoourbasicpeasorecipe—5percentofthetotalweight,plusadditionalsalt—andthetransformationisincredible.Crackopenabucketandrobustfloralscentsfilltheroom.Youcreatesomethingprofoundlydeliciousbydivertingawastestream.Don’tbeafraidtoexperiment.Vegetabletops,pineneedles,thestrainedsolidsfromabatchofgarum,fruitpeels—theycanallleadtodelectablediscoveries.

Thatsaid,wedon’tadviseanyingredientadditionsthatexceed20percentofthetotalweightofthepeaso.Thefermentinglegumesthemselvesarewhatmakemisoamazing.Iftherearen’tenoughproteinsavailableduringfermentation,yourmisoadditionswillsimplybecomesaltyandfester.Theymaynotgobad,butwe’restrivingforamazinghere.

YellowpeasoisJapaneseinspirit,Nordicinexecution,andindispensableinourkitchen.

YellowPeasoMakes2.5kilograms

800gramsdriedyellowsplitpeas

1kilogramPearlBarleyKoji100gramsnon-iodizedsalt,plusextraforsprinkling

MisomadewithyellowpeaswasarevelationatNoma.Whenthefirstbatchesof“peaso”madetheirwayaroundthekitchen,manyofthecooksworkingatthetimebecamecompletelyenamoredofthenewconcoction,andfoundanyexcusetouseitwherevertheycould.It’sboundlesslyversatile,andonceyourealizethepotentialofaspoonfulhereorthere,you’llneverbeabletogobacktoatimewhenyoucookedwithoutit.

Makingpeasoisostensiblystraightforward,butbecauseitfermentsforsuchalongtime,you’llneedtopayattentiontotheprocess,becausesmalldetailswillleadtobigdifferencesintheoutcome.Thisrecipecontainsdetailedinstructions,butpleasebesuretoreadaboutthevariouspointsofcontrolexplainedintheprecedingsectionaswell.

EquipmentNotesFirst,you’llneedameansofgrindingthepeasintoacoarsemeal,suchasameatgrinderorfoodprocessor.

Thepeasowillfermentinanonreactive(glass,plastic,ceramic,oruntreatedwood)fermentationvesselofabout5-litercapacity.You’llneedtopressthepeasodownwithweightsandcoveritwithcheeseclothoracleankitchentowel.Wealsorecommendyouwearsterilegloveswhenworkingwithyourhandsandthatallyourequipmentbethoroughlycleanedandsanitized(seeCleanliness,Pathogens,andSafety).

In-DepthInstructions

Thepeasshouldbejustcooked—easilysquishedbetweentwofingersbutnotmushy.

Soakthedriedpeasincoldwaterfor4hoursatroomtemperaturetorehydratethem.Usedoublethepeas’volumeinwaterasthey’llabsorbagoodamountofit;youdon’twantanypeasleftdryabovethewaterline.Oncethepeashavesoaked,drainthem,placetheminalargepot,andcoveragainwithdoubletheirvolumeofcoldwater.Bringthewatertoaboil,thenreducetheheattoabaresimmer,skimmingawayanystarchyfoamthatrisestothesurface.Cookfor45to60minutes,stirringevery10minutesorso,untilthepeasaresoftenoughtocrushbetweenyourthumbandforefingerwithoutapplyingmuchpressure.

Drainthepeasandspreadthemonabakingsheettocooltoroomtemperature.Oncethepeasarecooled,weighthem.Youshouldhavecloseto1.5kilograms,buttheamountofwaterthepeasabsorbinthesoakingandcookingprocesswillalwaysvary.Ifyou’vegotmorethan1.5kilos,youcansettheextrapeasasideforanotheruse.Ifyouhavelessthan1.5kilos(orifyouwanttouseanyexcess),you’llsimplyneedtoadjusttheratiooftheotheringredients.Theamountofkojineededis66.6%oftheweightofthecookedpeas;thesaltis6.6%.If,forinstance,youwindupwith1.3kilogramsofcookedpeas,reducetheamountofkojifrom1kilogramto866grams,andthesaltfrom100gramsto86grams.Theseareexactratiosthatyoushouldadheretoifyouwantyourpeasototurnoutthewaywe’veintended.

Breakupthekojiinafoodprocessor.

Toblendormashthepeaswiththekoji,thebestoptionistouseaclean,sanitizedmeatgrinder.First,putonapairoflatexornitrilegloves,placethecookedpeasintothehopper,andgrindthemwithamediumdieintoaverylargebowlorcontainer.Next,grindthekojiandaddittothepeas.(Alternatively,youcanuseafoodprocessor,butbecarefulthatyoudon’toverprocessthings.You’renotaimingforapuree—acoarsemealwillsuffice.Asalastresort,ifyoudon’thaveameatgrinderorfoodprocessor,youcanmashthepeasinalargemortarandpestleandcrumblethekojibyhand.)

Peasomixturethatistoodrycrumbleswhensqueezed.

Givethegroundpeasandkojiagoodmixingbyhand,thencheckthetextureandmoisturecontent:Squeezeasmallhandfulofthemixture.Ifiteasilyformsacompactball,you’regood.Ifthemixturecrumbles,it’stoodryandyou’llneedtoaddsomewatertohydrateit.However,it’svitalthatyoumaintainthe4%saltratio,soanyliquidyouaddtothemixtureshouldhavethesamesaltcontent.Makeaquick4%saltbrinebyblending4gramssaltinto100gramswaterwithahandheldblenderorwhiskuntilthesalthascompletelydissolved.Addalittlebitatatimetothepeamixture,untilyou’veachievedthepropertexture.

Peasomixturethatistoowetsquishesandoozeswhensqueezed.

Ifthemixtureoozesoutofyourhandwhensqueezed,it’stoowet;thepeasmayhavebeenovercookedorimproperlydrained.Toowetismoredifficulttocorrectthantoodry,butnotimpossible.Spreadthemixtureonaparchment-linedbakingsheetinathin,evenlayeranddryinanovenoradehydratoratalowtemperature(40°C/104°F),givingitthesqueezetestfrequently,untilitreachesthetextureyou’relookingfor.

Onceyou’rehappywiththetextureofthemixture,addthesaltandmixitthoroughlyoncemore.(Remembertoadjustthequantityofsaltifyourpeasweighedanythingotherthan1.5kilograms.)Nowit’stimetopackawaythepeaso.

AtNomawefermentourpeasoinfood-safeplasticbuckets,althoughaglassorceramicjarwillworkwell,too.Ifyouhaveaccesstoacedarfermentingvat,feelfreetouseit,butbesurethatthewoodisuntreated.

Workingoneglovedhandfulatatime,transferthepeasotothefermentationvesselandpackitastightlyaspossible.Startattheedgesofthecontainer,forcinganyairout,thenworkyourwaytowardthecenter.Punchthemixturedownwithyourfistsaftereachadditiontoensurethatit’swellpacked.Smoothandflattenthetopofthepeasoandlightlysprinklethesurfacewithsalttohelp

preventmoldfromforming.Placeasheetofplasticwrapoverthetop,indirectcontactwiththepeaso,makingsureitreachesallthewaytotheedges.Finally,wipedownthewallsofthecontainerwithacleanpapertowel.

Nowyou’llneedtoweightdownthepeaso.Asthepeasofermentsandyieldstamari,theweightwillkeepthemixturesubmergedinliquidinthesamewaythatalacto-fermentlikesauerkrautrestsbeneathitsjuices.Ifyoulike,youcanpurchasespeciallydesignedfermentationweightsonlinethatwillfitthecircumferenceofyourfermentationvessel.Otherwise,thesimplestmethodistouseaflatdinnerplatethatfitsinsideyourfermentationvesselsnugly.Ifyou’reusingaplate,bearinmindthattheplatewillsinkovertimeandthateventuallyyou’llneedtoremoveit,sobesureitdoesn’tfittoosnuglyoryouwon’tbeabletotakeitout.Placetheplateright-sideupontopofthepeasoandpressitdownwithyourhand.Nowprocurearock,abrick,orafewcansthatweighroughlyhalfasmuchasthepeaso—about1.5kilograms.Placetheweightsinplasticbagstokeepthingssanitaryanddistributethemevenlyovertheplate.

Youcanalsoforgotheplatemethodinfavorofzip-toporvacuumbagsfilledwithatotalof3litersofwater.(Youneedtousemoreweightinthismethodbecausesomeofthepressurewillbespreadoutwardagainstthewallsofthecontainerandnotdirectlydownonthepeaso.)Double-bagthewatertoavoidleakageandlaythebagsoverthepeaso.

Coverthecontainerwithacleankitchentowelorcheeseclothandsecureitwithacoupleoflargerubberbands.

Yourpeasowilldofinefermentingonyourkitchencounteratroomtemperature,butatNomaweageourpeasoinadedicatedroomheldat28°C/82°Fforabout3months.Itshouldagewellineitherscenario,althoughanextramonthmightbenecessaryatroomtemperature,andyoucancertainlyleaveitevenlongerthanthat,ifyoulike.We’verunreallylongpeasoexperimentsatNoma,andtheresultshavebeeninteresting.Itgetsmuchricher,withdarker,earthiertones,thelongeritferments,butwereallyprefertheversatilityof3-month-oldpeaso.

Checkthepeaso’sprogressafter3or4days.Itwon’tlookallthatdifferentfromwhenyoustarted.Ifanything,itwillbeslightlymorearomatic.Ifthat’sthecase,it’sgoingwell.Ifyounoticeitsouringlikealacticferment,withalotoftamaripoolingontop,itmeansyourmixturewastoowetandyou’llhavetostartover.Ifyou’refermentinginaclearcontainer,youmaynoticesmallairpocketsformingthroughoutthepeaso.Thesearepartofthenormalfermentationprocess;theywillsubsideovertime.

Afterthefirstcoupleofweeks,openthepeasoeveryweekortwotocheckitsprogress.Besuretowearglovestoavoidintroducingcontaminants.Atsomepoint,youmayfindwhitemoldgrowingonthesurface.That’stotallyfine.Inourexperience,it’susuallyapatchofkojithathasmanagedtograbafootholdonanexposedportionofthemixture.Butevenifit’sanothermold,ifthemisoispackedtightly,themoldwon’tbeabletopenetratethesurface.Whenyouneedtotastethepeaso,scrapeabitofthemoldtothesidetogetunderneath,butdon’tremoveitcompletelyuntilyouharvestthewholebatch,lestmorecomebackinitsplace.

Thepeasoisfinishedwhenthetexturehassoftenedsignificantly,thetasteofsalthassubsidedslightly,andallmannerofsweet,nuttytoneshaveemerged—usuallysomewherebetween3and4months.Itshouldhaveamildaciditywithoutbeingoverlysour.Thetextureofthepeasowillbeslightlynubby,soifyou’dpreferaverysmoothpaste,blendthepeasoinafoodprocessor—addabitofwatertohelpitspin,ifnecessary—afterwhichyoucanpassitthroughatamisifyou’relookingforatrulyvelvetytexture.

Youcanpackthepeasointoairtightjarsorcontainersandstoretheminthefridgeforusewithinthemonth.Anylongerthanthatandwesuggestyoustoreitinthefreezertokeepitsflavorfreshest;justpullitoutasyouneedit.

YellowPeaso,day1

YellowPeaso,day1

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1.Soak,rinse,andcookpeasinatleastdoubletheirvolumeinwater.

2.Drainandcoolthepeas,thenprocessorgrindthemintoacoarsemeal.

3.Measureout66.6%ofthecookedpeas’weightinkoji,andprocessorgrinditaswell.

4.Thoroughlymixtogetherthepeasandkojiwith4%oftheircombinedweightinsalt.

5.Packthemixturetightlyintoafermentationvessel.

6.Sprinklethetopofthepeasowithsalttohelppreventsurfacemoldgrowth.

7.Coverthesurfacewithalayerofplasticwrap.

8.Weightdownthepeaso.

9.Coverthevesselwithabreathableclothandsecurewitharubberband.

10.Allowthemixturetofermentforaminimumof3months.

11.Scrapeawayanymoldthatmayhaveformedontopofthepeaso.

12.Removethepeasofromthevesselandpackitintocleancontainersandstoreitintherefrigeratororfreezer.

SuggestedUsesPeasoTamariReductionOneofthefirstthingstograbourattentionwhenwebeganmakingpeasowastheincredibletamarithatwouldpoolontopduringthefermentingprocess.Itholdsaperfectsyrupybalanceofumami,saltiness,sweetness,andacidity.Theproblemwas,therewasneverenoughofit,sowedevisedthisworkaround.

Inablender,thoroughlypulse130gramspeasointo860gramswaterandtransferthemixturedirectlytoafreezer-safeplasticcontainer.Capitwithalidandfreezesolidovernight.

Thefollowingday,placethebrickinacheesecloth-linedsieveandsetitoverabowltocatchtheliquidasitthaws.Whenthemasshasnomoreliquidtosurrender,discardthepulpandtransfertheliquidtoasmallpotonthestove.Reducetheliquidslowlyuntilitcancoatthebackofaspoon.Oncecooled,peasotamarireductionwillkeepextremelywell,covered,inthefridge.

Youcancombinethepeasotamarireductionwithfinelymincedherbs,likecilantroorparsley,tomakeanout-of-this-worldherbpastethatisgreatonsteamedvegetables.Oryoucanwhiskittogetherwithanequalquantityofclarifiedbutterforamarinadethatwasbornforbastingporkbelly.TheabsolutefavoritemealintheNomatestkitchenisabowloffreshlysteamedrice,drizzledwithpeasotamariandtoppedwithaspoonfuloftroutroeor,ifyou’refeelingluxurious,afewfattonguesofseaurchin.

Ice-clarifyingablendofpeasoandwaterproducesasavoryliquidthatwilllaterreduceintooneofthemostpotentandvaluableingredientsintheNomakitchen.

Roasted-GarlicOil’sIdealCompanion

Theamplesugarsinmisocaramelizebeautifullyonthegrill,andcombiningitwithaflavorfuloilwillprovidethefatnecessarytoletthosesugarsbubbleandbrownwithoutdryingout.Roasted-garlicoilisaperfectpartnerforpeaso.Tomakeroasted-garlicoil,peelandcrushtheclovesof1headofgarlic,thenplacetheminasmallpot.Coverwithtwicetheirvolumeinneutralvegetableoil.Placethepotoverlowheatandwatchcarefullyuntiltheclovesstartbubblingrapidly.Reducetheheataslowasitwillgoandcookfor1hour,thenremovethepotfromtheheatandlettheoilcooldowntoroomtemperature.Oncecool,transfertheclovesandoiltoacoveredcontainerandrefrigerateovernight.Straintheoil(savingthegarlicclovesforwhateveryourheartdesires).Storetheoilandgarlicclovesinseparateairtightcontainersinthefridge.Theoilwilllastforweeks;theclovesforafewdays.

Garlic-PeasoCabbageToseethepowerfulcombinationofgarlicoilandpeasoinaction,takeitforaspinwithsomecabbageleaves.Brieflyblanchtheleavesinapotofflavored

stock(likeKojiStock),thenshocktheminicewater.Pattheleavesdryandsmearonesidewithathinlayerofblender-smoothedpeaso(seetherecipeforPeasoButterbelowforinstructionsonhowtodothis).Drizzleroasted-garlicoillightlyoverbothsidesandgrilltheleavespeaso-sidedownoververyhighheatuntilthepeasocaramelizesandtheedgesbegintocrisp.Servethegrilledleavesallontheirown,orroughlychopthemforasaladwiththicksourdoughcroutons,SunGoldtomatoes,andanchovies.

Garlic-PeasoGrilledBeefGarlicoilandpeasoalsoplayverynicelywithbeef.Makeamarinadebywhiskingtogether1partroasted-garlicoilwith3partsblender-smoothedpeaso(seePeasoButter,below),byvolume,untilthemixtureemulsifies.Slatherathickslabofyourfavoritecutofbeefwiththemixtureandleaveittomarinateinthefridgeforafewhoursbeforegrilling.(Thickcutsarebest,becausethesaltinthepeasowillactuallybegintocurethebeef.)Don’tevenbothertowipeoffthemarinade,asit’sapowerhouseofflavorandwillhelpformatastycrust.

PeasoButterPeasobutterisoneoftheeasierandmostusefulapplicationsforpeaso.Tomakeit,you’llfirstwanttosmoothoutyourpeaso.Place100gramspeasoinablenderandspinituntilsmooth.Dependingonyourblender,youmayneedtoaddabitofwatertohelpitcatch—butnottoomuchoryou’lldilutetheflavor.

Onceyou’vegotsmoothpeaso,passitthroughatamis.Thisisn’tabsolutelynecessary,perse,butasThomasKelleronceputit,thetamiscreates“thetextureofluxury.”Next,whiskthepeasointo400gramsroom-temperaturebutteruntilfullyincorporated.Fromthere,youcanrollthecompoundbutterintoatightcylinderonasheetofplasticwrapandstoreitinthefridge,soyoucansliceoffapuckwheneveryouneedtobastechickeninacast-ironpan,ormeltsomeoverwhippedpotatopuree.

Slicingpucksofpeasobutter.

RosePeasoMakes2.5kilograms1.5kilogramscookedsplityellowpeas(seeyellowpeasoinstructions)950gramsPearlBarleyKoji125gramswildrosepetals

100gramsnon-iodizedsalt,plusextraforsprinklingAtNoma,makingmisoisoftenawayforustofunnelwhatwouldotherwisebewasteintoanewproduct.Thisrecipewasdesignedtouseupleftoverpulpwehadfromblendingwildrosepetalstomakeroseoil.Wedon’texpectyoutoworkintheoppositedirection,makingacompletelyseparateproductinordertogettheby-product,sowe’veadaptedtherecipetousefreshingredients,whichfunctionjustaswell.

Thein-depthinstructionsforYellowPeasoserveasatemplateforallthemisorecipesinthischapter.Werecommendyoureadthatrecipebeforestartinginonthisone.

Usingaclean,sanitizedmeatgrinderorfoodprocessor,grindthecookedpeasandkojiintoacoarsemeal.Gathertherosepetals,stackandrollthemintoaloosecylinder,thenslicethemintoachiffonadeasyouwouldbasilleaves.Foldtherosesinwiththepeasandkoji,andaddthesalt.Wearinggloves,mixeverythingthoroughly.

Ifnecessary,adjustthetextureandmoisturecontentoftherosepeasomixturebyaddingalittlebitof4%saltbrineatatime,untilyoucansqueezethemixtureintoatightballinyourfist.(Seetheyellowpeasorecipeformoredetailedinstructions.)Packtherosepeasomixturetightlyintothefermentationvessel.Smoothandlevelthetop,wipetheinsidesofthevesselclean,andsprinklethesurfacewithsalt.Weightdownandcoverthepeaso,accordingtothedirectionsoutlinedintheyellowpeasorecipe.Letthepeasofermentatroomtemperaturefor3to4months.Oncethepeasohasfinishedfermenting,youcanblenditwith

abitofwateruntilsmoothandthenpassitthroughatamisforafinertexture.Packthefinishedpeasoinairtightjarsorcontainersandstoreintherefrigeratororfreezer.

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OtherFloralMisosThebasicconceptofthisrecipe—yellowpeasowiththeadditionof5%byweightofafloralingredient—canbeadaptedtocreateawholeslewofamazingflavoredpeasosthatendupbeingsomethingfarbeyondthesimplesumoftheirparts.Thefermentationprocessturnshighlyaromaticflavorsintosomethingcompletelynew.Withoutgoingintothedetailsofeverysingleone,weofferyouasmalllistofour“greatesthits.”• Cacao• Cherryblossom• Douglasfir• Elderflower• Hibiscus• Lemonverbena• Marigold• Meadowsweet• Narcissus• Orangeblossom• Pineappleweed• Pinkpepperleaves• Plumkernel• Rosegeranium• Vanillapod• Yuzurind

SuggestedUses

DressingforSummerFruits

Rosepeasoisaperfectfoilforsummerberries.

Theintensefloralbouquetofrosepeasoplaysremarkablywellwithdarkfruitslikeplums,blackberries,andmulberries.Tryblendingafewbigspoonfulsof

rosepeasoandpassingitthroughatamis.Thinthepeasooutwithjustenoughwatertoachievetheconsistencyofalooseyogurt.Tossberriesorbite-sizepiecesofstonefruitinjustenoughoftherosepeasosaucetocoatthem.Finishwiththelightestsprinklingofflakyseasalt.

MashedRootVegetablesForanidealaccompanimenttowhitefishliketurbotorhalibut,cookabatchofJerusalemartichokesornewpotatoesinapotofsaltedwater.Drain,returnthevegetablestothepot,andsmashthemlightlywithafork.Throwinabigknobofbutteralongwiththesameamountofrosepeaso.Stiruntileverythingbecomescreamy,andseasonwithsalttotaste.

CaramelizedRoseButter

Caramelizingrosepeasoinbutter.

Rosepeasobeginsasanearthyproductwithdelicateovertones,butonceit’scaramelizeditfindsevenmorepotencyasthebaseforawarmvinaigrette.Put40gramsrosepeasoand200gramsbutterinasmallpotovermediumheat.Asthebuttermeltsandbeginstoclarify,stirconstantlywithasiliconespatulaorsmallwhisk—therosepeasowillsitatthebottomandburnifyoudon’tkeepitmoving.Afterabout20minutes,thebuttershouldbeclarifiedandtherosepeaso

willhavesweetenedandbrowned.Removethepotfromthestoveandspoontherosebutteroverjust-cookedcrab,lobster,orshrimp.

RyesomarriesNordicingredientswithJapanesetechniques.

RyesoMakesabout3kilograms

1.8kilogramsDanish-styleryebread

1.2kilogramsPearlBarleyKoji120gramsnon-iodizedsalt,plusextraforsprinkling

IntryingtocomeupwithalocalanalogueforthemightysoybeanfromwhichwecouldmakeauniquelyNordicmiso,ourmindswentinallkindsofoutlandishdirections.Forinstance,ifkojicanbreakdownthestarchesinwholegrains,thenwhynotthestarchesinsomethingmadefromgrains?Likebread?WetestedtheideawiththatmostDanishofbakedgoods,ryebread,andtoourdelight,itworkedspectacularly.Theresultingmiso—or“ryeso,”aswedubbedit—wasanevensharperrepresentationofNoma’sDanishhomethanouryellowpeaso,withallthewarmandsatisfyingnotesoffreshlybakedryebreadstretchedoutacrossasaltyplaneofdeepumamiandtanginess.

Thein-depthinstructionsforYellowPeasoserveasatemplateforallthemisorecipesinthischapter.Werecommendyoureadthatrecipebeforestartinginonthisone.

Youcanpurchasepre-slicedDanishryebread(muchdenserandsourerthanJewishrye)inasmallblock-typepackagefrommanygroceryorhealthfoodstores.Andofcourse,ifyouhaveaccesstoabakerythatmakesfreshDanish-stylerye,byallmeansusethat.

Wearinggloves,cuttheryebreadintopiecesthatwillbeeasyforyourfoodprocessortomanage.Pulsethebreaduntilitcrumblesintoacoarsemealandtransfertoalargesterilizedbowl.Next,blendthekojiinthefoodprocessor.

Addthekojiandthesalttotheryecrumbsandthoroughlymixtheingredientstogetherbyhand.Unlikepeaso,wherethetextureisoftenspot-onfromthestart,drynesscanbeaproblemwhenmakingmisofrombread,andyouwillalmostcertainlyneedtoaddmoisture.Makeaquick4%saltbrinebyblending4gramssaltinto100gramswaterwithahandheldblenderorwhisk,untilthesalthas

completelydissolved.Addthebrinealittlebitatatime,untilyoucansqueezethemixtureintoaballinyourfist.

Packtheryesomixturetightlyintothefermentationvessel.Smoothandlevelthetop,wipetheinsidesofthevesselclean,andsprinklethesurfacewithsalt.WeighttheryesodownaccordingtothedirectionsoutlinedintheYellowPeasoandcover.Lettheryesofermentatroomtemperaturefor3to4months.Packthefinishedryesoinairtightjarsorcontainersandstoreintherefrigeratorforamonthorfreezerforafewmonths.

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SuggestedUsesRyesoCream

Blendedwithsugar,cream,andapinchoflicoricepowder,ryesocanbeturnedintoarich,sweetsauce.

Forasweettakeonryeso,blend70gramsryesowithahandheldblenderuntilsmooth(usingabitofwaterifyouneedtohelpitalong),thenpassitthroughatamis,resultinginasmooth,uniformpaste.Whisktogetherwith70gramssimplesyrup(equalpartsmuscovadosugarandwater,byweight,thathavebeenboiledandcooled),thenadd250gramsdouble(orheavy)creamandapinchoflicoricepowder.Youdon’tneedtowhipit,justwhisktocombine.Ryesocreamcanbepairedwithcakesandconfectionsofallsorts,butattherestaurantweloveitonfreshberriesattheheightoftheseason,dressedintheirownfermentedjuices(seeLactoBlueberries).Ifyou’reable,finishitalloffwithafewmarigoldflowerpetalsandleaves.

RyesoTamariandRyeso-MushroomGlazeLikepeaso,ryesocanyieldadelicioustamarireduction,withcomplex,sweetnotesofmaltinheritedfromtheryebread.FollowtheinstructionsforPeasoTamariReduction,substitutingryesoforpeaso.

Ortakethingsonestepfurther:Ryesotamariconsortsparticularlywellwithdriedmushrooms,andthetwocanbecomeahyper-flavorfulumamibombthat’sbeenamiracleworkeratNomaforyears.Onceyou’vereachedthepointinthetamariprocesswhereyouwouldordinarilyreducethemixture,stoptoinfusethetamariwithmushrooms.Forevery500gramsice-clarifiedryesostock,add10gramseachofdriedcep,morel,andblacktrumpetmushrooms,alongwith25gramsdriedkelp.Bringthemixturetoaboil,thenreducetheheattoabaresimmerandcoverthepottightlywithalid.Leaveitonlowheatfor2hours.Strainoutthemushroomsandseaweed,pressingtoextractasmuchliquidaspossible,thenreturntheryesotamaritothestove.Reducethetamarioverlowheatuntilitcancoatthebackofaspoon.

Theresultingglazeisphenomenalpaintedontotheskinofducks,pheasants,orquailastheycookovercoals.Forvegetarians,grillawholeclusterofhenofthewoodsmushroomswithabitofmeltedbutter,brushingperiodicallywithryeso-mushroomglaze.Thespongyfungiwillsoakuptheflavorandbecomeacrispy-smoky-juicy-meatywonder,capableofsatiatinganycarnivore.

Clarifiedryesostocksimmeredwithmushroomsandkombuleadstoanincrediblysavoryglazeformeatorvegetables.

Maizo

Therearehundredsofvarietalsofdriedcornwaitingtobenixtamalizedandfermented.

Makesabout3kilograms

2kilogramsMasa1.3kilogramsjasminericekoji(below)

130gramsnon-iodizedsalt,plusextraforsprinkling

WedevelopedthisfermentwhilespendingseveralmonthsinTulum,Mexico,buildingandexecutingaNomapop-upinthejunglesoftheYucatán.Theideawastoproduceamisobyswappingingredientsthatplayedasimilarroleindisparatecultures.SoybeansareastapleinJapan,justaspeasareinnorthernEuropeandcornisinMexico.Butcornisn’tsimplyeatenascorninMexico.Byboilingthekernelsinacalciumhydroxidesolution,thengrindingthem,yougetmasa:thebasisfortortillas,tamales,huaraches,sopes,andcountlessothervitalMexicandishes.Thesoakingprocessiscallednixtamalization,anditeffectivelybreaksdownthecelluloseinthecorn’scellwalls,renderingthecornmore

digestiblewhilesimultaneouslyunlockingnutrientsandflavorcompounds.Andso,westartedwithmasaasthebasisforournewferment,astrikingandunexpectedcoming-togetheroftechniquesandtraditionsthatwenowlovinglycall“maizo.”

Theintensesweetnessofmaizomeansitcaramelizesbeautifullyonthegrill,slatheredoverearsofcornorporkchopsorpeaches.We’reexceedinglyproudofthisfermentandhowitcameabout.Wethinkifyoutakethetimetomakeit,you’llseewhy.

Thein-depthinstructionsforYellowPeasoserveasatemplateforallthemisorecipesinthischapter.Werecommendyoureadthatrecipebeforestartinginonthisone.

Ifyoulivesomewhereyoucanbuyfreshmasa,feelfreetouseitinlieuofmakingyourown,butdon’tbetemptedtosubstituteMaseca,abrandofdried,instantmasa.Theflavorisjustnotthesame.Asforthejasminericekoji,ifyou’vemasteredbarleykoji,makingricekojiwillbestraightforward.FollowtheproceduredescribedforPearlBarleyKoji,substitutinganequalweightofriceforbarley.Obviously,ifyou’vealreadymadebarleykojiandhavesomearound,it’llworkjustfine.Wepreferricekoji,butfermentationcanbeflexibleandsocanwe.

Wearinggloves,breakupthemasaintoalargebowl.Putthericekojiinafoodprocessorormeatgrindertobreakitupaswell.Combinethemasa,koji,andsaltandmixuntilthoroughlycombined.

Unlikeothermisosinthischapter,youwon’tneedtoadjustthetextureormoisturecontentofthemaizomixturewithsaltbrine.Themasaholdsalotmorewaterinitsstarchthanpeasorsoybeans.Astheamylaseinthekojibreaksupthelongchainsofstarch,allthatwaterisliberated.Thus,maizoalwaysendsupfarwetterthanwhenitstarts.Thatsaid,don’tworryabouttheflavorgoingawry.ThehighpHofthemasahelpsdeterLABandyeast,leavingthisfermenttoworkprimarilybyenzymesalone.

Packthemaizomixtightlyintothefermentationvessel.Smoothandlevelthetop,wipetheinsidesofthevesselclean,andsprinklethesurfacewithsalt.Weightdownandcoverthemaizo,accordingtothedirectionsoutlinedintheYellowPeaso.Letthemaizofermentatroomtemperatureforalittlelesstimethanyouwouldothermisos—2to2½months.Thefruitinessofthemaizodoesn’tbenefitfromtheearthytonesassociatedwithlongeragingtimes.Pack

thefinishedmaizoinairtightjarsorcontainersandstoreintherefrigeratororfreezer.

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SuggestedUseFishCure

Marinateaflounderfilletinmaizoforanhourbeforeslicingitthinandservingwithherbsandasqueezeoflime.

Thestrongfloralandfruitytonesofmaizomakeitanimpeccablecureforflatwhitefish,likeflukeorflounder.Smearbothsidesofacoupleofthinfilletswithagoodcoatofmaizo—thefishdoesn’tneedtobeburied,buttheentiresurfaceshouldbecovered.Placethefilletsinabakingpanandmarinateinthefridgefor1hour.Whileit’scuring,takethetimetopreparesomeaccompaniments:juliennedscallions,passionfruitseeds,thinsliversofjalapeño,andcoarselychoppedcilantro.Removethefilletsfromthefridgeandscrapeoffthecurewithaspoon,thenwipeoffanythingleftwithadamppapertowel.Slicethefishonthebiasintothinribbons.Placetheslicesonaflatplateandtopwiththepreparedaccompaniments,ahealthydrizzleofoliveoil,someseasalt,andthezestandjuiceofalime.

MasaMakesabout3kilograms1kilogramdriedcorn5gramscalciumhydroxide

CalciumhydroxideisavailableonlineandinMexicanmarkets,sometimesunderthenames“cal”or“picklinglime.”Besuretousecalciumhydroxideandnotcalciumoxide,whichisnotedibleandcanbedangerous.

Placethecornandthecalalongwith5literswaterinalargepotandbringtoaboil,stirringoccasionally.Reducetheheattoalivelysimmerandcookgentlyuntilthecornisaldenteandyoucanbreakthekernelsapartwithyourfingernail,about50minutes.Removethepotfromtheheat,coveritwithcheesecloth,andallowittositoutovernight(orforatleast12hours).Thefollowingday,drainthecornandrinseitgentlyundercoldwaterforaboutaminute.Pulsethewashedcorninafoodprocessoruntilithasthetextureofafinemeal.Reservethemasaintherefrigeratorinanairtightcontaineruntilneeded.

SuggestedUseTostadasIfyouliveinapartoftheworldwhereyoucanbuyfreshtortillas(ortostadas),morepowertoyou.Ifnot,nowyoucanmakeyourown.Usethepalmsofyourhandstopress30-gramballsofmasabetweentwosheetsofplasticuntilyouhavedisksabout2millimeters/1⁄16inchthick.Griddlethetortillasonbothsidesinahot,drypanuntiltheypuffup.Transferthecookedtortillastoabakingsheetandbakethemat140°C/285°Funtilthey’recompletelydryandcrisp,about20minutes.Spreadagenerousspoonfulofmaizoontoeachtostadaandtopwithanythingyourheartdesires:slicesofavocado,grilledoctopuswithsalsaverde,spicedcrickets,oradobo-marinatedchicken,tonameafew.

Hazelnutmisoresultedfromaneedtouseupdefattedhazelnutpulp.

HazelnutMisoMakesabout3kilograms

1.9kilogramsdefattedhazelnutmeal(seeSources)1.2kilogramsPearlBarleyKoji

120gramsnon-iodizedsalt

Nutsseemanobviouscandidateforfermentationasmisos.They’rehighinprotein,starchy,andabundantinnorthernEurope.Buttheycomewithacaveat:fat.Thefirstmanytimeswetriedhazelnutmiso,rancidtonessetinbeforecomplexfermentedflavorsdeveloped.Theranciditystemmedfromthelipidsinthehazelnutbreakingdownasapartofnormalfermentation.A.oryzaeproduceslipase—albeitatfarlowerconcentrationsthanitsothertwoenzymaticworkhorses,amylaseandprotease—whichcleavesfatsapartintotheirconstituentmolecules(fattyacids).

IfYouCan’tCuttheFat,CuttheTime

Ifsourcingdefattedhazelnutmealprovesdifficult,youcansuccessfullymakethismisowithfull-fathazelnutmeal,butitcomeswithatrade-off.Themisohastobefermentedforamuchshortertimethanitnormallywouldtomediatetheriskofanexcessbuildupofdecomposedfats.AswithPumpkinSeedMiso,anagingtimeof3to4weekswillbeplentytobegindevelopinginterestingfermentedflavorswhilekeepingthetasteofrancidityatbay.

Whenfatiswholeandfresh,itsflavorisdeliciousandsatisfying,henceourintensecravingsforandabilitytogorgeonit.Fattyacids,ontheotherhand,canstrikeusasdisgusting,becauseweassociatethemwithdecaying(i.e.,rancid)fat.

Thesolution?Scratchthefat.ShortlyafterwebegantryingtomakehazelnutmisoatNoma,thetestkitchenacquiredanewtoy:anutpress.Nutpressesgrindnutsandseparatethepulpfromtheoilbydrivingthemashthroughaheatedauger.Theteaminthetestkitchenwasafternutoilsforthemenu,butthefermentationlabsawanopportunity:fat-freenutpulp.Itofferedtheperfectopportunitytobuildanutmisowithoutanyoff-puttingfattyacids,anditworkedsplendidly.Fortunately,youdon’tneedtopurchasealargepieceofindustrial

machinerytomakethismiso.Youcanfindlow-fatordefattedhazelnutmealonline.

Thein-depthinstructionsforYellowPeasoserveasatemplateforallthemisorecipesinthischapter.Werecommendyoureadthatrecipebeforestartinginonthisone.

Heattheovento160°C/320°F.Spreadthehazelnutmealontobakingsheetsandtoastintheovenuntillightlybrownedandaromatic,20to25minutes.Stirevery5minutestoensurethatthemealbrownsevenly.Cooltoroomtemperatureonthecounter.Reweighthemeal.Youwanttoendupwith1.8kilograms,butthenutmealwilllosemoisture,andthusweight,duringtoasting,whichiswhywestartwith1.9kilos.

Whilethehazelnutmealistoasting,grindthebarleykojiinafoodprocessoruntilit’swellbrokenup.

Combinethetoastedhazelnutmeal,koji,andsaltinabowl.Wearinggloves,mixeverythingthoroughly.Unlikepeaso,wherethetextureisoftenclosetospot-onfromthestart,drynesscanbeaproblemwithhazelnutmiso.Youwillalmostcertainlyneedtoaddmoisture.Makeaquick4%saltbrinebyblending4gramssaltinto100gramswaterwithahandheldblenderorwhiskuntilthesalthascompletelydissolved.Addalittlebitofthebrineatatime,untilyoucansqueezethemixtureintoaballinyourfist.

Packthemixturetightlyintothefermentationvessel.Smoothandlevelthetop,wipetheinsidesofthevesselclean,andsprinklethesurfacewithsalt.Weightdownandcoverthehazelnutmiso,accordingtothedirectionsoutlinedintheyellowpeasorecipe.Letthehazelnutmisofermentatroomtemperaturefor3to4months.Oncethehazelnutmisoisfermented,youcanblenditwithabitofwateruntilsmoothandthenpassitthroughatamis.Packthefinishedmisoinairtightjarsorcontainersandstoreintherefrigeratorforamonthorfreezerforafewmonths.

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SuggestedUsesOnionSaladPeelandhalvegolfball–sizesweetonionsfromstemtoroot,thentossthemlightlyinabitofoilbeforegrillingthemfacedownoverhotcoals.Oncethefacesoftheonionscaramelizeandblacken,removethemfromthegrillgratesandwraptheminfoil.Setthefoilpacketofftothesideofthegrilltoallowtheonionstocontinuetocookuntiltenderbutstillofferalittlebite,about10minutes.Removetheonionsfromthepacketandshuckthepetalsintoabowl.Tossthemwithabigspoonfulofthehazelnutmiso,pureedandpassedthroughasieve,abitmoreoil,salt,pepper,andpickedthymeandoreganoleaves.It’sagreatsidedishasis,butyoucouldalsotosstheonionpetalswithamixtureofwatercress,dandelion,andarugula.

S’moresOnceyoutasteitforthefirsttime,hazelnutmisowillalmostcertainlyreplaceanynutbutterasyournewfavorite.Andifyouthinkofitasanutbutter,it’s

easytocomeupwithwaystouseit.Foraquickexample,smearaspoonfulofhazelnutmisoontograhamcrackersthenexttimeyou’remakings’moreswith(orwithout)thekids.

Breadsobeganasaprojecttouseupextrabread,butitquicklyprovedtobeanextraordinaryproductinitsownright.

BreadsoMakesabout2.5kilograms3kilogramscrustlesssourdoughbread

Aspergillusoryzaekojitane(seeSources)100gramsnon-iodizedsalt,plusextraforsprinklingAswithRyeso,inthismisowe’llbeusingkojitobreakdownbread.Butunlikeryeso,we’regoingtogrowthekojidirectlyonthebread—norice,nobarley.Whatyou’relookingforisday-oldslicedbread.Weremovethecrustsforthesamereasonsweremovethehusksfromgrains—thekoji’shyphaecanhaveahardtimegettingthrough.Withthisrecipe,andthroughthetransformativepowerofmold,youcanturnleftoversintodeliciousness.

Wearinggloves,useaserratedknifetocutthebreadintoroughly2-centimeter/¾-inchcubes.Runthecubesofbreadthroughafoodprocessoruntiltheycrumbleandballuparounditssides.Steamthecrumbledbreadfor5minutestomoistenitabit.Removethebreadfromthesteamerandletitrestonthecounterfor10minutestocool,whileallowingthewatertimetoseepintothebreadandhydrateitevenly.

FollowtheprocessdescribedinthePearlBarleyKoji:Spreadoutthebread,inoculatewiththekojispores,andincubate.Thekojishouldcovertheblendedbreadquitethoroughlywithin48hours.Oncethebreadkojiisready,weighout3kilogramsandpulseitintoapasteinafoodprocessor.Transfertoabowl,addthesalt,andmixitthoroughlywithglovedhands.

Adjustingthemoisturecontentandtextureofthismisoissomewhatmoredifficultthanothermisos.Thebreadkojiactslikeasponge,andyouwon’tbeabletojudgehowsaturateditisinthesamewayyouwouldwithamisomadeoflegumes.Makeaquick4%saltbrinebyblending4gramssaltinto100gramswaterwithahandheldblenderorwhiskuntilthesalthascompletelydissolved.Addalittlebitofthebrineatatime,untilthebreadkojiismoistenoughthatitcanbesqueezedintoaballthatseemslikeitwantstospringback,butfailstodoso.Itwillbequitethickandpasty,sobesuretomixitwelltoensurethateverythingiswelldistributed.

Packthemixturetightlyintothefermentationvessel.Smoothandlevelthetop,wipetheinsidesofthevesselclean,andsprinklethesurfacewithsalt.Weight

downandcoverthebreadsoaccordingtothedirectionsoutlinedintheyellowpeasorecipe.Letthebreadsofermentatroomtemperaturefor3months.Checkitfrequently,asthismisocanchangecharactercapriciously;itshoulddevelopsweetandsourtwangsofumamiin7to8weeks.Packthefinishedbreadsoinairtightjarsorcontainersandstoreintherefrigeratororfreezer.

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SuggestedUsesBreadsoSoupWhenbreadsowearsasavoryhat,itbringsanumami-richwarmthtoeverythingittouches.Tomakebreadsosoup,fillalargepotwith1kilogramchickenbonesandcoverwithcoldwater.Bringittoasimmer,skimmingawayanyimpurities,thenadd500gramsaromatics:chunksofleekwhites,onion,carrots,celery,andgarlic,alongwithahandfulofthyme,bay,andblackpeppercorns.Allowthestocktosimmergentlyforafewhoursbeforestraining.Useahandheldblendertoincorporate150gramsbreadsoforeachliterofstock.Seasontotastewithsaltandfinishitoffbysimmering1-centimeter/⅓-inchribbonsofsavoycabbageleavesinthesoupforacoupleofminutesjustbeforeserving.

BreadsoSauce

OurfermentedtakeonaclassicEnglishsauce.

ForavariationonaclassicEnglishsauce,followtheprocedureformakingchickenstock,describedintheBreadsoSouprecipebutfirstroastthechickenbonesat200°C/395°Funtilheavilybrownedbeforeaddingthemtothepot.Onceyou’vemadeandstrainedthestock,reduceitinacleanpotto20percent

ofitsoriginalvolume.Forevery100gramsofreduction,whiskin10gramsbutterand25gramsbreadsothat’sbeenblendedandpassedthroughatamisuntilit’ssmoothandhomogeneous.Toputthislip-smackingsaucetogooduse,folditintosautéedmorelmushroomsuntilthey’rewellcoated,thentransferthemixturetoashallowpan.Topwithsourdoughbreadcrumbsandbroiluntilcrispandgoldenbrown.Servewhilestillhotandbubbling.

Breadso-ButteredToastwithBerriesandCreamBreadsoisoneofthosefermentsthatcanjustaseasilybeusedfordessertasitcanfordinner.Trywhiskingtogether2partsbreadsowith1partsoftenedbutterand1partbrownsugar.Spreadthemixtureoverathickslaboffreshsourdoughandsearitfacedowninapanuntilitsizzlesandcaramelizes.Topitwithpreservedapricotsorcherriesandtheirsyrup,andadollopoffreshlywhippedcream.

Whentoasted,pumpkinseedsbecomearomaticandnutty,qualitiesthattransfertothemisoasitferments.

PumpkinSeedMisoMakesabout3kilograms

1.8kilogramsunsaltedrawhulledpumpkinseeds

1.2kilogramsPearlBarleyKoji120gramsnon-iodizedsalt,plusextraforsprinkling

PumpkinseedmisowasakeyingredientduringourtimeworkinginTulum,Mexico,whereweuseditasthebackboneforourtakeonYucatecandzikilpak,athicksauceordipmadefromtoastedpumpkinseeds.BackinCopenhagen,pumpkinsareplentifulinthelatesummerandautumn,andpumpkinseedmiso’smildrichnessanddeepumamicontinuestoserveuswell,bothatNomaandonthemenuofoursisterrestaurant,108.

Heattheovento160°C/320°F.Spreadthepumpkinseedsevenlyontoafewbakingsheetsandtoastthemintheovenuntilnuttyandbrowned,45to60minutes.Stirandtosstheseedsandrotatethebakingsheetsevery10minutesorsotoensureevencoloration.Allowtheseedstocoolfullytoroomtemperature.

Pulsetheseedsinafoodprocessoruntiltheyhavethetextureofafinemeal,thentransfertoalargebowl.Placethekojiinthefoodprocessorandprocesstobreakitupaswell.Addthekojitothegroundpumpkinseeds.Addthesaltandmixeverythingthoroughlywithglovedhands.

Makeaquick4%saltbrinebyblending4gramssaltinto100gramswaterwithahandheldblenderorwhiskuntilthesalthascompletelydissolved.Addalittlebitofthebrineatatimeuntilthemixtureiswetenoughtoformapackedandfirmballinyourfistwithoutoozingoutliquidorcrumblingfrombeingtoodry.You’llneedtoaddafairbitofthebrinetothismisotogetitwetenoughtofacilitateaproperfermentation.Butpumpkinseedsareabitoily,sotoomuchwaterwillspeedupallfacetsoffermentation,includingthebreakdownoffatsintofattyacids.Thiscanleadtorancidtastes(seetheHazelnutMisorecipe,foranexplanation).

Packthemixturetightlyintothefermentationvessel.Smoothandlevelthetop,wipetheinsidesofthevesselclean,andsprinklethesurfacewithsalt.Weight

thepumpkinseedmisodownandcover,accordingtothedirectionsoutlinedintheYellowPeaso.Letthemisofermentatroomtemperaturefor3to4weeks.Anylongerthanthat,andtheunwantedflavorsoffattyacidswillstarttocomethrough.Packthefinishedmisoinairtightjarsorcontainersandstoreintherefrigeratororfreezer.

PumpkinSeedMiso,day1

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SuggestedUsesDzikilpakEventhoughweoriginallydevelopedpumpkinseedmisoinchillyCopenhagen,wejumpedattheopportunitytoemployitonthemenuofourpop-upinTulum,Mexico.There,wewereintroducedtodzikilpak—atraditionalMexicansalsamadefromtoastedpumpkinseeds.Thedotspracticallyconnectedthemselves.TheactualrecipeforthesaucewemadeinMexicohasclosetotwodozeningredients,soherewe’llofferasimplerbutnolessdeliciousversion.

Cut250gramstomatoesintochunks.Dice1whiteonion,1habanero,and4clovesgarlic.Heatamediumsautépanovermediumheatandcoatwithvegetableoil.Whentheoilisbeginningtosmoke,addthevegetablesandallowthemtosearandsizzleuntiltheliquidfromthetomatoesbeginstofloodthepanandbubble.Transferthepantoa160°C/320°Fovenandallowthemixturetocookdownintoathickpaste,about30minutes,stirringevery5to10minutes.Transferthemixturetoablenderandadd150gramspumpkinseedmiso,ahandfulofcilantrowiththestems,andthegratedzestof2limes.Blendthemixtureuntilitallcomestogetherasasmoothpaste(youmayneedtoaddabitofwatertohelptheblenderspin).SeasontotastewithafewspoonfulsofBeefGarumorsoysauce.Thefinishedsaucewillberich,spicy,thick,andfantasticwithgrilledseafoodorintacosofanykind.

GrilledLettucesIfyou’relookingforalessinvolvedwaytoputthisfermenttouse,tryblendingitwithwateruntilit’sthinenoughtobebrushedlikealacquer.QuarteryoungromaineorGemlettuceheartsandcoatwiththeblendedmiso,allowingittoworkitswayintothecracksbetweentheleaves.Drizzlethewedgeswithabitofoliveoilandseasonwithsaltbeforegrillingfacedownoveraveryhotgrill.Charthelettuceslightlyonallsidesbeforepullingthemoffthegrillandtransferringthemtoaplate.TopwithcrumbledryecroutonsandshavingsoffirmcheeselikesmokedGruyèreorGouda.

PumpkinSeedMiso“IceCream”

PumpkinseedmisogivesYucatecandzikilpakafermentedtwist.

PumpkinseedmisoissoversatilethatithasevenpoppedupasanicecreamofsortsatNoma.Toast200gramspumpkinseedsina160°C/320°Fovenuntilnuttyandgoldenbrown.Placethetoastedseedsinablenderwith200gramspumpkinseedmiso,750gramswater,and140gramsgood-qualityhoney.Blenduntilthemixtureisverysmooth,thenpassitthroughafinechinois.Transferthemixturetoanicecreammakerandchurnaccordingtothemanufacturer’sinstructions.Freezeuntilfirm,thenservewithtoastedcoconutoralmondfinanciers.

7.Shoyu—YellowPeaShoyuDryad’sSaddleShoyuCepShoyuCoffeeShoyu

TheWorld’sMostPopularFermentedFlavor

Shoyumakerslearnedthatfermentingsoybeansandwheatinbrineledtogreateryields.

Thefirstshoyuwas,inalllikelihood,ahappyaccident.SomeChinesecooksfermentingabatchofbeanpastenoticedadarkliquidpoolingatthetopofthecontainer.Theytasteditandwerenodoubtblownawaybywhattheyfound.Ittakesaspecialunderstandingofdeliciousnesstolookatonepartofawholeandthink,Hey,thisisdamngoodinitsownright!Butthat’sexactlywhathappened.Shoyu—orsoysauce,asmostoftheWesternworldknowsit—beganasaby-productandgrewovercenturiesintooneoftheworld’smostpopularsauces.

Soysaucewasoriginallyknownasjiangyou—theChinesetermforthe“oil”(you)thatpooledontopof“fermentedbeanpaste”(jiang).Thatliquidrunoff(whichisactuallymostlywaterandnotoil)appearsfortworeasons.First,jiangsaresaltedferments.Thesaltdrawsmoistureoutofthecookedlegumesthroughosmosisuntilthesalinityreachesequilibriumthroughoutthemixture.Weseethissameeffectoccurinlacto-fermentsoverthecourseofacoupleofdays,butittakesmoretimefortheeffectsofosmosistobecomeapparentinathickerfermentlikejiangormiso.

Thesecondfactoratplayisenzymaticaction.Soybeanscontainstarchesthatsoakupandretainwaterwhencooked.Oncethelegumesaremixedwithkoji—

thatis,grainsinoculatedwiththemoldAspergillusoryzae—theenzymeamylaseproducedbythemoldworkstocleaveapartthestarch.Asstarchesbreakdownintosugars,theylosetheirabilitytogelwithwater,andthemixturebecomeslessviscous.Andbecausejiangsweretraditionallyweighteddowntokeepairout,theliquidfreedthroughosmosisandenzymaticactioninevitablypooledandcollectedontop.

Theterminologysurroundingsoysaucecanbeabitmurky,solet’sclarifyabitbeforeweproceedanyfurther.WhenChinesemonksbroughtjiangstoJapaninthesixthcentury,jiangsevolvedintomisos,andtheliquidthatpooledontopofmisobecameknownastamari.We’llcontinuetorefertoitthatway.

Oncewordgotoutabouttamarianddemandskyrocketed,Japaneseartisansdevisedwaysofproducingitingreaterquantitiesthatdidn’tinvolvefirstmakingmiso.Werefertothatproductasshoyu,theJapanesepronunciationofthewordsjiangyou.(ChineseandJapanesesharemanywrittenwords,butsoundverydifferent.)

TheEnglishphilosopherJohnLockefirstmentioned“saio”inajournalentryin1679.Soonafter,theGermanscientistandtravelerEngelbertKaempferwroteofshoyuinhisHistoryofJapan,declaringJapanese“sooja”moredeliciousthananyChinesesauceofsimilarstyle.TheseWesterngarblingsofthewordshoyuweresomeofthefirstrecordedinstancesofwhatwouldbecomethewordsoya.Inafunnyetymologicaltwist,inmanylanguages,thewordfor“soybeans”actuallycomesfromthesemispronunciationsof“shoyu.”Laterpublicationswouldrefertothebeanfromwhich“soyasauce”ismadeas“soybeans.”

KojiandMiso:Shoyu’sForebears

Manyofthetechnicalaspectsofproducingshoyuflowdirectlyfrom,orarecloselylinkedto,thoseofkojiandmisoproduction.Ifyou’reflippingthroughthebook,thischapterwillgiveyouathoroughunderstandingofwhatshoyuisandhowit’smade,butwestronglyencourageyoutoreadtheprecedingchapterstobetterunderstandthisone.

HowShoyuGetsMadeTheearliestChinesejiangsblurredthelinebetweenwhatwewouldnowconsidertheseparaterealmsofmiso,garum,andshoyu.Theyoftencontainedmeatorseafood,andjiangyouwasoriginallyachunky,murkyliquid—fardifferentfromanysoysauceweknowtoday.Similarly,theearliestmisosofJapanwereaveryroughversionoftoday’sproducts.Theycontainedallthesameingredients,buthishio(akaproto-miso)wasmorelikeacrossbetweenamisoandasoysauce.

Overtime,hishiobecamemorerefined,eventuallybecomingthethickpasteweknowasmisotoday.Atfirst,tamariremainedaby-product,butasdemandincreased,peoplebeganmakingadjustmentstotraditionalmisorecipesinordertoharvestmoretamari.Newstylesoffermentingvatsweremanufacturedwithperforatedtroughsthatledtospouts.Recipeswithhigherratiosofwaterwereimplemented.Butitwasn’tuntiltheseventeenthcenturythatthemethodforproducingsoysauceevolvedintothefirstversionemployedtoday.

We’lldetailthatmethodhere,butfirst,letitbenotedthatshoyuisyetanotherexampleofamiraculousfoodstuffcreatedthroughthebiochemicaltoolkithousedwithinAspergillusoryzae.Itsproductionbearssimilaritiestokojiand,ofcourse,miso,butthereareacoupleoffundamentaldifferencesintheshoyu-makingprocess.Tomakemiso,youcombineAspergillus-inoculatedriceorbarleywithsoybeansandallowthemtofermenttogether.Withshoyu,themoldisgrowndirectlyonablendofboiledsoybeansandtoasted,crackedwheat.Whenyou’remakingaconventionalkoji,youwouldideallysteam—ratherthanboil—thericeorbarleysoasnottooversaturateordrowntheAspergillus.Butlegumeslikesoybeansdon’tcookproperlyifthey’resteamed;theyneedtobesubmergedinwater.Thewheatistheretomediatetheextramoisture.(Thisiswhytamariisfreeofgluten,butsoysauceisnot.)

Whereasintheproductionofsomethinglikesake,wherekojiisharnessedtounlocksimplesugarstiedupinstarch,inshoyu,theaimistouseAspergillustobreakdownvegetableproteinsintotheaminoacidsthatmakeupsoysauce’srichmedleyofumamiflavors.(Inmanysoysaucefactories,AspergillussojaeisthepreferredstrainofAspergillus,asit’sbeenbredspecificallyforstrongerproteaseactivity.)BygrowingtheAspergillusdirectlyonthebeansandwheat,theproteaseproducedbythefungusgetstoworkdirectlyontheproteinsinthosesubstrates.

Onceinoculated,thesoybean-wheatkojigoesintoabrineof20%to23%salinity.Differentrecipescallfordifferentratiosofsaltbrinetokoji,butideallythetotalmixtureshouldhaveasalinityof15%to16%.Thenutrient-richfluidisleftopentotheair,andthehighsaltcontentpreventsunwantedmicrobesfromtakinghold.Beneficialhalotolerant(salt-tolerant)microbesaddamildalcoholcontentandrichbouquetofcomplexacidstothebestbottlesofartisanalshoyu.

Overtime,whatbeginsasaheterogeneoussoupofbeansandbitsofwheat(knownasmoromi—atermsharedwithananalogousstepinsakebrewing)slowlytransformsintoagloopymasswiththeviscoustextureofbabyfood.Aswithmiso,theenzymesproducedbythekojislowlysnipproteinsintoaminoacids,leadingsoysaucetobechock-fullofglutamicacid,amongotherdeliciousorganicbuildingblocks.Theenzymesworkmuchmoreefficientlyinafluidmediumthaninaviscousonelikemiso.

Largebatchesofmoromiarestirredingiantcedarvatscalledkioke.

Traditionally,shoyuproductionwouldtakeplaceinmassivecedarvatscalledkioke,measuringaround2metersacrossandalmost3metersdeep.Likemiso,shoyuwouldbestartedinthewintermonthsaftertheharvest,avoidinghighsummertemperaturesthatcouldadverselyspeedupenzymaticandmicrobialactivity.Themixturewouldbestirredeverydayforthefirstfewweeks,thenlefttofermentforuptothreeyears.Onceready,themoromiwouldbeladledonto

multiplesheetsofclothandstackedinalargerectangularwoodenpress.Ahugeleverwoulddriveawoodenplatedownward,pressingtheliquidoutofthemoromi.Oncealltheshoyuhadbeenextractedfromthemoromi,theremainingsedimentwouldbeasstiffanddryascardboard.Itwasoftenhandedofftofarmersasanimalfeed.Thestrainedshoyuwouldbelefttosettle,strainedoncemore,heat-treated,andbottled.

Shoyu,ThenandNowAroundtheturnoftheseventeenthcentury,EuropeanmerchantswerebecomingmoreandmoreinterestedinAsia.EnglandandHollandsetuplimitedliabilitycorporationstoscourtheplanetwithsmallfleetsofshipsinsearchoftradeopportunities.That’showtheWesternworldcametolearnofthedeliciousnessofshoyu.Itsaddictiveflavorandconve-nientshelfstabilitymadeitacovetedcondiment.

SoysaucefaredwellonthelongvoyagebacktoEurope,liveningupblandfoodalongtheway.IteventuallybecameanimportantingredientinEuropeanfermentssuchasWorcestershiresauce,andchefsinFrancethoughtitanastonishingadditiontothemosttraditionalofdishes.Nicolas-AugustePaillieux,aFrenchindustrialistandhorticulturistinthe1800s,declaredthat“whenacordon-bleucookuses[soysauce],hiscuisineistransformed,becomingmuchbetter,yetwithoutanyonenoticingthathehasusedmoderatedosesofthiscelebratedsauce.”

WhilesoysaucewasgrowingininfluenceinEuropeandeventuallyNorthAmerica,itwasalsocementingitsholdoverAsia.Today,theaverageJapanesecitizenconsumestenlitersofshoyueachyear.Therearelargemultinationalcorporationsproducingsoysauceforthemasses,aswellasartisanaloutfitsmakingsmallbatchesofotherworldlystuff.Meanwhile,soysaucealsohascousinsalloverSoutheastAsia.Kecapmanis,anIndonesianoffshoot,isprobablythemostfamousofsoysauce’skin.It’smadewithaniseandcloveandalargeadditionofpalmsugar,andreduceduntilit’ssweetandsyrupy.InVietnam,wefindtuong,whichhailsfromthenorthandisprobablyacloserrelativetotheoriginalChinesejiangsinitsconsistencyandflavor.It’smadebytoastingsoybeans—whereaswithshoyu,youwouldtoastthewheatandsteamthebeans—thenlacto-fermentingtheminwater,andfinallyinoculatingthemwithAspergillus.Thesauceisgroundintoasmooth,thickpasteratherthanbeingstrainedorpressedforitsliquidlikeothersoysauces.

Otherverynontraditionalmethodsofshoyuproductionhavecroppedupaswell.AcidhydrolysisisachemicalprocessdevelopedbyJuliusMaggiofSwitzerland’sMaggiCompany.Itextractsfreeaminoacidsfromtheproteinsinvegetableswithoutanyfermentation,byusinghydrochloricacidandwarmtemperaturestobreakdownthevegetalmatter,thenneutralizingthemixturewithsodiumcarbonate.Thisneutralizingreactionyieldssalt,organicsedimentcalledhumin,andhydrolyzedvegetableprotein,orHVP,intheformofabrown

liquid.HVPhasflavorsakintorichmeatbroths,thankstotheaminoacidthreonine.

Intheearly1900s,theJapanesechemistKikunaeIkedausedacidhydrolysistoextracttheaminoacidsfromsoybeans.(Ikedaisalsothemanwhocoinedthetermumami—aportmanteauoftheJapanesewordsumai,“delicious,”andmi,“taste.”)HethenmixedthesoybeanHVPwithsoysaucemadefromasecondsteepingoftraditionalmoromi.TheresultingHVPsoysaucetookdays,notyears,toproduceandcostafractionoftheprice.It’sneverbeenconsideredasgoodastherealthing,butwhencompaniesfirststartedbottlingsoysauceintheUnitedStates,HVPsoy(alsoknownaschemicalsoy)wasapopularmeansofproduction.Somemanufacturersstilluseit.Lookfor“hydrolyzedsoy[orvegetable]protein”onthelabel.

KikunaeIkedadefined“umami”andfoundedtheAjinomotoGroup.

NordicShoyuOurjourneywithshoyuatNomafollowedasimilarpathtothehistoryofsoysauceitself.WhenwefirststartedmakingYellowPeaso—ourversionofmiso—weimmediatelyfellinlovewiththetamarithatrosetothetopofthecontainers.Wecouldn’tgetenough.We’dmakebatchesofpeasojustsowecouldhavemoreoftheliquid.Truthbetold,it’sprobablybecomethesinglemostvaluableflavorcomponentinourkitchen.

Weweremakingandusingalotofpeasointhepursuitoftamari,asithadfounditswayalloverthemenu.Butbecauseourpeasoshavearelativelylowsaltcontent(4%byweight)comparedtoclassicalJapanesemisos,wecouldn’tsimplyaddmorewatertoourpeasostoextractmoretamarithewaythatJapanesemisomakersdidathousandyearsago.Ifourpeasogetstoowet,there’snotenoughsalttopreventunwantedbacteriafromsouringthewholebatch.

Eventually,wedeterminedthatifwewantedmoretamari,theonlysolutionwastofollowthelogicofourpredecessorsandlearntomakeshoyuonitsown.WefollowedclassicalJapanesemethods,substitutingNordicingredientsfortraditionalones,justaswehadwithourpeaso.Butwhatweendedupwithwas...shoyu.Itdidn’ttastethesameasthetamariwe’dbeenharvestingfromourpeaso.Itwasbeautiful—complex,salty,andrich—butitwasalsobasicallyindistinguishablefromagood-qualityJapanesesoysauce.

Soyisnotaflavorprofilethatwe’vemasteredinthispartoftheworld.Ofcourse,athomeweputshoyuinourchickenbrothandonoureggsinthemorning.We’vewitnessedandmarveledatitsculinarypotentialthroughoutAsia.We’rehugefans.ButatNoma,ourgoalistocreateandnurtureourdiners’senseofplace.Wewantthemtodrawaconnectionbetweenthefoodthey’reeatingandthemomentandplace.Wheneverwe’vetriedaddingshoyutoadishinthetestkitchen,itthreatenstotakeyououtofthemomentandtransportyoutoadistantmemoryofabowloframeninJapanoraclaypotofbraisedporkinShanghai.

Somepeoplemightnotnoticealittledropofshoyuhereandthere,butotherswoulddetectitimmediately.Eventhoughourshoyuismadeentirelyoutoflocalingredients,ittastestoomuchlikesomethingyourbrainassociateswithotherplaces.It’satestamenttothepowerofassociation.WemadeNordicshoyu,andwe’reproudofit,butittasteslikeJapaneseshoyu.Forus,that’sadifficultobstacletoovercome.Ultimately,wedecidedthatratherthanproducingshoyu,

wewould“hack”ourownfermentsinordertogeneratemoretamari.(YoucanreadaboutourPeasoTamariReduction.)

Allthatbeingsaid,shoyuremainsaremarkablyversatileingredient.Youwouldbehard-pressedtofindakitchen—commercialorotherwise—thatisn’tholdingabottleofsoysauce.Marinades,sauces,stocks,andbrothsareallobviousdestinationsforshoyu,butitalsobringsgreatvaluetoglazes,vinaigrettes,andevensweetapplicationssuchascaramelandbutterscotch.

Unpackingwhatgoesintosoysauceandlearningtomakeityourselfisaworthwhileendeavor.Eventhoughwe’veyettofigureouthowtoincorporateitseamlesslyintoourmenu,wecontinuetoexperimentwithshoyuandlearnfromeacheffort.

Let’squicklybreakdownthemethodologyformakingNoma’syellowpeashoyu:

1.Inoculateamixtureofroughly2partsboiledyellowpeasand1partroastedandcrackedwheatwithAspergillussojaespores.Growthekojiinafermentationchamberfor2days.

2.Placethekojiintoafermentationvesselandcoverwithbrine.Coverthecontainerwithabreathableclothorlidandplaceitinacoolroomtofermentfor3to4months.

3.Replaceanywaterlosttoevaporationandpressthemashtoharvesttheliquid.

OurprimaryshoyuismadewithyellowpeasandKoniniwheat.Koniniisanancientvariety,purpleincolorandcomplexinflavoronceit’sroasted.Koninicanbeabithardtosource,butanygood-qualitywhole-grainwheatwilldo.We’vealsohadgreatsuccesswithryeandbarley.

Thischapteralsoincludesshoyuvariationsmadewithingredientssuchasdriedcepsorcoffee.Onceagain,whilewehaven’tfoundawaytointegrateshoyufullyintothediningexperienceatNoma,wecontinuetoexperiment.Someoftheserecipesdon’tfitsnuglyintothedefinitionofshoyu;somehavejustasmuchincommonwithgarums.(Wecontinuetocallthemshoyus,becauseunlikegarums,theydon’tcontainanyanimalflesh.)Ourmostsuccessfulconcoctionofthisilkisourdryad’ssaddleshoyu.Dryad’ssaddleisatypeofmushroom,onwhichit’salmostimpossibletogrowkojibyitself,soweblenditwithfinishedbarleykojiandsoakitinasaltbrine.It’saverydifferentliquid

fromourbasicshoyu—fruity,sour,salty,withapleasantmust.It’srichinumamiaswell,whichmakesitanice,well-roundedcondimentonitsown,andanexcellentboostertoothersauces.

Dryad’sSaddleShoyuMakesabout1.5liters

2kilogramsfreshdryad’ssaddlemushrooms400gramsPearlBarleyKoji600gramswater

150gramsnon-iodizedsalt

Thisisfarfromastraightforwardshoyu,andmuchmoreofahybridconcoction,poweredbylacticfermentation.Butasshownthroughoutthehistoryoffermentation,sometimesblurringcategoriesisthebestwaytocreatenewones.Theforest-yflavorofthishighlyunconventionalshoyuisastellarseasoningforpastadishes—whetherBologneseoraglioeolio—andchoppedsalads,searedsteaks,roastbirds,pansauces,blanchedbroccoli,oranything,really.

Dryad’ssaddles(Polyporussquamosus)arelargefan-shapedmushroomsthatgrowonfelledtreesindampforestsinthelatespring,fromMaytoJune.Theysmellalmostlikewatermelonrind,andthemottledbrownscalesontheirsurfaceevoketheplumageoffallgamebirds,hencetheirsometimesbeingreferredtoaspheasant-backmushrooms.Inthecompanyofanexperiencedforager,they’rerelativelyeasytoidentifyinthewild,andweencourageyoutogooutandfindsome.Lookforspecimensthatarefirmtothetouch,andavoidanywherewormshaveburrowedintotheflesh.Understandably,wildmushroomsarehighlydependentontheseasonandregion,sodryad’ssaddlemightnotbeavailablewhereyouare.We’vealsohadsuccesswithshoyumadefromchickenofthewoodsandbeefsteakmushrooms;butifyou’renotupforforaging,tryhenofthewoods(maitake)mushroomsinstead.

Brushanyloosedirtanddebrisfromthemushrooms;useadamptoweltowipethemcleanifthey’reespeciallydirty.Chopthemintopiecesthatwillfiteasilyintoafoodprocessor,thenpulsethemintoacoarsemeal.Transfertoanonreactivefermentationvessel.Usethefoodprocessortobreakupthekojiaswell,thenaddittothemushrooms,alongwiththewaterandsalt.Stirwellwithacleanspoontocreateathick,uniformmash.

Placeapieceofplasticwrapdirectlyonthesurfaceofthemash,ensuringthatitreachesallthewaytotheedgesofthevessel.Weightdownthemashwithsomelightfermentationweightsoracoupleoflargezip-topbagspartiallyfilledwithwater.(Doubleuponthebagsasasafeguardagainstleaks.)Ifthebagsbegintosinkintothemash,removesomewatertolightenthem.Coverthecontainer,butleavethelidslightlyajartoallowgastovent.

Lettheshoyufermentfor3to4weeksatroomtemperature,stirringitwithacleanspoononceaweek.Thesolidmatterwillseparateandbubbleasthemixtureferments.After4weeks,theliquidshouldtasteearthy,salty,andsourfromlacticfermentation.

Toharvesttheshoyu,straintheliquidfromthesolidsusingaciderpress,orbysqueezingthepulpthroughacleantowel.Oncetheshoyuisextracted,strainitagainthroughcheeseclothtoensurethatallthesmallparticleshavebeenremoved.Storethefinishedshoyuintherefrigeratorinairtightcontainersorbottles.Youcanalsofreezeitforlongerstorage.Ifyouintendtomakefuturebatchesofthisshoyu,savesomeofthespentpulpaswelltouseasbackslopataratioof10%byweight.

Dryad’sSaddleShoyu,day1

Day7

Day30

SuggestedUseDryad’sSaddleandRoastedKojiSauceIfyou’vemadedryad’ssaddleshoyu,thenit’ssafetosayyou’vealsomasteredgrowingkoji,whichmeansyou’vegoteverythingittakestomakethissauce.Crumble250gramskojiontoabakingsheetandroastitintheovenat160°C/320°Ffor45minutes.Thesugarswillbrowndeeplyandthemoldygrainswilldevelopflavorsreminiscentofchocolate.Transfertheroastedkojitoablenderwith500gramswaterandblendathighspeedfor5minutes.Transferthemixturetoacontainertoinfuseatroomtemperaturefor1hour.Strainthemixturethroughafine-meshsievelinedwithcheesecloth.Shouldyousmellthearomaoftheroastedkojiwater,you’llswearthere’scoffeeinthere.Tocompletethesauce,mix100gramsdryad’ssaddleshoyuwith100gramsroastedkojiwaterinasmallsaucepanandbringituptoasimmeronthestove.Usingahandheldblender,emulsify75gramssoftenedbutterintothesaucetocreatealoose,buttery,saltysaucethat’sbrilliantonlightlywiltedlettuce,steamedBrusselssprouts,roastedscallops,orcurlsofpan-searedsquid.True,ittakessomeheavy-dutyfermentationtogettothispoint—youcouldalsotryitwithstore-boughtshoyuandkoji—butonceyou’vemadeit,youwon’tlookback.

CoffeeShoyuMakesabout1liter800gramsPearlBarleyKoji200gramsleftovercoffeegroundsor100gramsfreshlygroundcoffee1kilogramwater

80gramsnon-iodizedsalt

Thefirstthingyou’llnoticeaboutthisshoyurecipeisthatitdoesn’tincludeanylegumes—nosoybeans,noyellowpeas.Weinitiallydevelopedthisrecipeasaninterestingwaytoutilizeleftovercoffeegrounds,andtobehonest,itdoesn’tfitneatlyintotheshoyuboxoranyofthefermentsinthisbook.Ratherthanfermentingatroomtemperature,wekeepcoffeeshoyuinafermentationchamberaswedowithourgarums,tobringoutmoreroastedflavorsandspeedupenzymaticaction.However,it’smodeledaftershoyu,sowecallitcoffeeshoyu.

Pulsethekojiinafoodprocessoruntilit’sthoroughlybrokenupintosmallgrains.Transfertoalargebowlandaddthecoffeegrounds,water,andsalt.

Transferthemixturetoafermentationvessel(afood-safeplasticbucketor4-literglassjarwithalid).Youcanalsofermentthemixturedirectlyinthebowlofaricecookersetto“keepwarm.”Becausewefermentthisshoyuatahightemperature,60°C/140°F,evaporationismoreofanissuethanitiswithothershoyus.Topreventmoistureloss,double-wrapthefermentationvesselwithplastic,evenifithasalid.Putthevesselintoyourfermentationchamber;ifusingaricecooker,wrapthelidofthecookerinplasticwrapaswell.

Letthecoffeeshoyufermentfor4weeks,stirringandtastingonceaweek.Youshouldfindthefinishedshoyubittersweet,withaflightofroastedfruitflavors.Onceyou’resatisfied,straintheshoyuthroughafine-meshsieveandthenre-strainthroughasievelinedwithcheesecloth.Thefinishedshoyucanbestoredintherefrigeratorinairtightcontainersorbottlesformonths.Youcanalsofreezeitforlongerstorage.

CoffeeShoyu,day1

Day7

Day28

SuggestedUsesFishGlazeYoucanreducecoffeeshoyuinapan—slowlyandcarefully,lestitburn—intoadelicioussyrup.Ateaspoonofthissyrupaddedtothepan20secondsbeforeyoufinishpan-fryingafewfilletsoffishwillcoatthemwithaprofoundsweet-saltiness.

CoffeeShoyuButterscotchHere’sabitofaquirkysuggestionforcoffeeshoyu:Mixitintobutterscotch.You’veprobablytastedsaltedcaramelorsaltybutterscotch.Inthiscase,thesaltinesscomeswiththeaddedcomplexityoffermentation.Plus,it’snotterriblycomplicatedtomakeyourownbutterscotch,andit’sreally,reallygood.Inamediumpotovermedium-lowheat,melt60gramsbutter,thenadd100gramsdarkbrownsugar,125gramsheavycream,and60gramscoffeeshoyu.Boilthemixturefor4to5minutes,thenaddtheseedsofhalfavanillabean.Stirandremovefromtheheat.

Allowittocoolandrefrigerate,covered,touseasasauceforcakes,pies,oranyconfectionofyourchoosing.

OvernightChickenBrothThisisasuper-simplewaytostartyourdaywithawholesome,straightforwardmeal.Placethecarcassofawholeroastchickenintoapot,coveritwithwater,addafewaromatics,andletitbubbleawayoverlowheatforanevening.Beforeyougotobed,turnofftheheat,coverthepotwithalid,andleaveitonthestoveuntilmorning.Thenextmorning,strainthebrothandseasonwithcoffeeshoyu—oranyshoyu,really.Addnoodles,rice,orvegetablesforanevenbetterstarttotheday.

Slowlyreducecoffeeshoyuintoasyrupyglaze,thenuseittolacquerfilletsofsole.

8.Garum—BeefGarumRoseandShrimpGarumSquidGarumRoastedChickenWingGarumGrasshopperGarumBeePollenGarumYeastGarum

GottoHavetheFunk

ThomasFrebel,formerheadofNoma’stestkitchen,firstsuggestedwemakegarumfrommeatratherthanfish.

Alittlebitgoesalongway,whenitcomestocertainthings:honesty,kindness,axlegrease...andfishsauce.

Garums—thelargerfamilytowhichfishsaucebelongs—arealargelyforgotteningredientintheWest.OnceamainstayofEuropeancuisine,they’veallbutdisappearedfromtherecipesoftoday.Initspurestform,garumisachunkyblendoffish,salt,andwaterthat’sallowedtobreakdownandputrefy(inacontrolledmanner,ofcourse).WeusethetermgarumsomewhatmorebroadlyatNoma,andexpandtheingredientstoincludealotmorethanjustfish.

ThomasFrebel,theformerheadofourtestkitchen,wasthefirsttosuggestwetrymakinggarumswithmeatratherthanfish.Atthetime,we’dbeenstrugglingwithhowwecouldmakeancienttraditionslikegarumfeelnewanddistinctlyours.Thomas’ssuggestionprovedtobeabrilliantone.

Garumsarerelativelyeasytoproduce,anditturnsoutthattheprocessworksjustaswellwithmeatasitdoeswithfish.Wealsofoundthatifyouaddkojitotheequation,youcanreducethetimeittakestomakegarumbymorethanhalf.(Withoutthekoji,manyofthegarumswemakearetechnicallynotproductsoffermentation,butratherautolysis.Moreonthislater.)

Afteragoodamountoftrialanderror,wecansaywithconfidencethatthewaythatwemakegarumatNoma—fermentinganimalproteininwarmconditionswithsalt,water,andkoji—isanoveltwistonthetraditionalmethodology.Theresultinggarumsarequicklybecomingamongthehandiestingredientsinourarsenal.Theydon’tplayastarringrole,butthey’rethereunderthesurface,imbuingdisheswithanintangiblemagic,focusingandenliveningnaturalflavors.Ifyou’llforgiveusforinventingwords,theygivethingsintricity,whichistheportmanteauwe’vecomeupwithtocapturetheintensityandelectricitythatfermentsbringtocooking.There’ssimplynootherwaywecanthinkoftodescribetheeffectofaddingateaspoonofsquidgarumtoabigpotofsteamedpotatoestossedwithmeltedbutterandafistfulofchoppedparsley.Theflavorscometoapoint—theyhavedepthandumami,andtastelikeenhancedversionsofthemselves.

Alittlegarumgoesalongway.

Themostexcitingthingisthatwe’reonlybeginningtounderstandthepotentialofgarums.Ratherthanreachingforapinchofsaltinarecipe,we’llsometimeskilltwobirdswithonestonebyusinggarumtobringbothsalinityandumami.AndatarestaurantlikeNoma,wheremeatdoesn’tplayahugeroleinthemenuformostoftheyear,garumscangiveyouthesatisfactionofhavingeatenapieceofbeeforchickenwithouttheheaviness.Whenwedoservemeat,we’lloftenuseacorrespondinggarumtouptheintensity,whetherthatmeansafewdropsofbeefgarumonstripsofrawbeef,orsquidgarumtoenhancepiecesofsquidcuredbetweensheetsofkelp.

Inaway,garumshaveallowedustoreversetheroleofanimalsandvegetablesatNoma,someatbecomestheseasoningandvegetablesarethestars.Asplashofgarumcanelevateanunassumingcabbageleaftoasatisfyingandmemorablebite.It’sreallyhowweshouldallbeeating,anyway.Beforemeatwasacommodity,itwasaluxury.Whenyoucouldgetyourhandsonit,youhadtomakeitlast.TheearliestChinesejiangsweremixturesofmeat,soybeans,andAspergillus,andtheyoccupiedasimilarplaceasgarumsinthelocalcuisine.AndinScandinavia,peoplehavebeencuringherringforcenturies,andusingthe

liquidrunoffasaseasoning.Theydidn’tcallit“garum,”buttheyrecognizeditsusefulness.It’sallaboutstretchingtheresourcesyou’vegot—apracticethatoftenleadstodeliciousinnovations.

CarthaginianFishSauce

AncientCarthaginiangarumfactorieswerecarvedoutoflimestoneinportsalongtheMediterraneanSea.

Garum’sstorybeginsinNorthAfrica2,500yearsago,whenthewalledPhoenicianmetropolisofCarthagewasaboomingportinwhatispresent-dayTunisia.Withinthecitywalls,surplusesoffishharvestedfromtheflourishingwatersoftheMediterraneanSea—tuna,mackerel,anchovies,sardines—wereslicedfinely,scales,heads,guts,andall,thenlayeredwithsaltinlimestonevatsandlefttoferment.Netsdrapedoverthevatswouldkeeplargeranimalsandfliesout.Theheatofthesunwouldeffectivelycookthefish,whilethesalinitywouldactasasafeguardagainstthepropagationofharmfulmicrobes.Mostimportant,thegutsofthefishcontainedenzymesthatfueledthetransformationfromvatoffishpartstopotentseasoning.

TheCarthaginiansenjoyedareignovertheMediterraneanforclosetofivehundredyears,untilthecityfelltotheRomanEmpireintheSecondPunicWars.Tothevictorgothespoils,andasCarthagechangedhands,sodiditsculinarypractices.ThoughtheproductoriginatedinNorthAfrica,theRomansaretheonescreditedwiththedisseminationofgarum—aLatinwordderivedfromthenameofaspecificfishspecies.Sicily,withitsproximitytoCarthage,waslikelywherethegospeloffishsaucefirstspread,anditservedasthecenterofgarumproductionintheancientRomanEmpire.

InmuchthesamewaythatnuocmamisusedinVietnamesecuisineasbothadippingsauceandaseasoning,garumswouldhavebeenservedatthetablebutalsokeptinthekitchentobeusedwithwineasacookingsaucecalled

oenogarum.GarumsservedtheRomanarmywell,too.Soldierscouldcarrytheconcentratedsaltyliquidinaflaskanddiluteitwhileinthefield.AftertheThirdPunicWarsandtheRomanannexationofIberia,garumsspreadwest.InsouthernSpain,ruinsofgarumfactoriescarvedoutoflimestonearestillstandingtothisday.

Asgarumgrew,specializedclassificationsemerged.Thesedimentleftoverafterstrainingabatchofgarumwasknownasallec.Itwasdeemedundesirablebyelitesandlefttothecommoners.Muriawasgarummadefromfishthatwereguttedandhadtheirheadsremoved,whichwouldhaverenderedthefinishedsaucelesspungent.Haimation,afermentedproductthatconsistedofnothingbutthegutsandbloodoffish,wasmadefromtheby-productsoffisheries.Itsdarkcoloralsoledittobedubbed“blackgarum.”Liquamenwasonceatermdistinctfromgarum,asitwasusedconcurrentlyinearlyRomantimes,thoughitisn’tentirelyclearwhatthedifferencewas.Somebelieveittobeasecondsteepingoftheallecinanattempttoextractmoreyieldfromthefermentedfish.Othersexplainitasgarummadespecificallywithwholefish,whereasgarumisanumbrellatermforthelargerfamilyofrelatedsauces.

What’sevenlesscleariswhygarumfelloutoffashionintheWest.ThelastvestigeofgaruminEuropeisarareItaliansaucecalledcolaturadialici,traditionallymadeinthesmallfishingvillageofCetara.ItsrecipewasrecoveredbymonksintheMiddleAgesfrommucholderRomantexts.Meanwhile,fishsauceremainsabedrockofSoutheastAsiancuisineandaningredientthatmanyofusarefarmorefamiliarwith.Theprocessofmakingitisremarkablysimilar.AnchoviesfishedfromtheGulfofThailandareplacedintolargewoodenvats,layeredwithsaltinaratiooftwoorthreepartsfishtoonepartsalt.Thesaltedfisharepressedbeneathabamboomatweighteddownwithrocksandleftinthetropicalsunfor9to12months,beforebeingpressedandstrainedfortheirjuices.Mostofthefishsauceyou’vetastedinyourlifeismadethisway.

ThecuriousthingaboutAsianfishsaucesisthattherearen’tmanyreferencestotheminhistoricaldocumentsfromtheregionbeforetheseventhcentury.CulturalexchangebetweentheRomanEmpireandAsiawasestablishedlongbeforethen.Givengarum’svaluetoancientRomansanditsportability,it’stemptingtodrawaconnectionbetweenThaifishsauceandgarum,asopposedtoassumingbothproductsweredevelopedindependently.It’sfuntoimagineadirectlinebetweenthevastlydisparatecookingstylesofSoutheastAsiaandtheMediterranean,butwe’llleavethatformorequalifiedpartiestodecide.

FishDigestingFish

Autolysisisthetermusedtodescribeanorganismdigestingitself.

Thefactthatfishsaucestinksisnothingnewtoanyonewho’severcookedwithit.Butfishsaucedoesn’tactuallysmellfishy—atleast,notifit’smadewell.Fishinessisaresultoffishfleshandfatsbeingspoiledbybacteria.Ifthefishinagarumisn’tfresh,thefinishedgarumwillsufferforit.Fishinnards—themaincatalystsresponsibleformakinggarum—haveapungencythat’squitedifferent,earthierandlessoffensivethanrottingfish.

Thetraditionalmethodofmakinggarumcombineswildfermentationwithautolysis.Anautolyticprocessisoneinwhichanorganism’stissueorcellsarebrokendownbyenzymesproducedbytheorganismitself.Inotherwords,tomakegarum,youturnananimal’snormaldigestiveprocessonitself.

Thefleshofallanimalscontainsproteolytic(protein-dismantling)enzymesthatcontributetoautolysis.Ifyou’rewonderingwhyyou’renotdigestingyourselfrightnow,it’sbecausethoseenzymesarepresentinextremelysmallquantities,andinanorganism’shealthycells,theyaresequesteredwithinanorganelleknownasalysosome.Butonceananimaldies,itsenzymesactuponitsfleshindiscriminately.Takedry-agedmeat,forexample:Whenacutofbeefisleftonashelfinthefridge,theenzymesitcontainswillslowlybreakdownitsconnectivetissueandmuscle,tenderizingthemeatandmakingitmoredeliciousastheproteinsaresnippedintotheirconstituentaminoacids.

Makinggarumisessentiallythesamethingasdry-agingbeef,onlywetter,faster,andmoreintense.Ratherthanharnessingtheenzymesinananimal’s

flesh,garumsdependontheenzymesinthegastrointestinaltract,whichareevenmoreconcentratedandpotent.Anessentialpartofmakinggarumsthetraditionalwayistochopupthewholefish—guts,flesh,andall.Asthefishsitsinvatswithsalt,thedigestivejuices(bothstomachacidsandintestinalenzymesalike)comeintocontactwiththefleshofthefishthey’renormallykeptseparatefrom.Thejuicesgotoworkonthefishflesh,breakingdownproteinsintotheirconstituentaminoacids,andfatsintofattyacids.Thesaltdoesdoubleduty,expeditingautolysiswhilesimultaneouslysafeguardingthemixtureagainstharmfulmicrobes.Thatsaid,thereareahandfulofhalotolerant(salt-tolerant)microbesthatliveinamashofsalinefish,addingtothegarum’sbouquetofvolatilearomasinmuchthesamewaythatshoyu’scommunityofbeneficialmicrobesdoes.

Enzymesneedtobesuspendedinaliquidmediumtofunctionefficiently;otherwisetheywon’tbeabletofloatfromoneproteinchaintoanother,snippingthemintoaminoacidsastheygo.Saltdrawsmoistureoutofthefishintoitssurroundingenvironmentthroughosmosis,creatingasoupyenvironmentforenzymestotravelthrough.Asthefish’smusclesbreakdown,thesalthasaneveneasiertimedrawingoutmorewater.Theprocesssnowballs,liquefyingsolidfishintogarum.(Heatalsoprecipitatesenzymaticreactions,whichexplainswhygarumsweretraditionallyfermentedunderthehotMediterraneansun.Temperatureshoveredaround30°C/86°FinthesummerinancientCarthage;agarumwouldnearcompletionin6to9monthsinthatkindofheat.)

Salt/Water

Whensurroundedbyasaltsolution,thewaterincellstravelsoutwardtoareasofhigherionicconcentration.Asaresult,thecellshrivelsanddies.

Salt’sotherroleinavatofgarumistopreventspoilage.Asmentionedmanytimesinthisbook,thereareplentyofhalotolerantspoilagebacteriathathavenoproblemlivinginmildlysalineenvironments.Butthereisalimit,andgarum’ssalinitysitsoverthatlimit.Highlysaltedsolutionssafeguardagainstspoilageviatwomechanisms—osmosis,whichyou’vealreadyreadabout,andanotherpropertycalledwateractivity,whichextendstoalltypesoffermentation.

Wateractivityisnotameasureofhowmuchwateriswithinaproduct,butratherhowtightlyboundthewateristothatproduct.It’sameasureofhowmuchwatervaporasamplegivesoff,expressedasaratio.Distilledwaterhasawateractivityof1,whileatotallydrysubstance—forinstance,sandthat’sbeenbakedinanovensothatanywaterinsideithasevaporated—hasawateractivityof0.Driedfruithasawateractivityofabout0.6;rawmeat,about0.99.Mostbacterianeedanenvironmentwithawateractivityabove0.9togrow;fungi,above0.7.(Freezing,bywayoflockingwatermoleculesintoarigidlattice,alsoeffectivelylowerswateractivity,andisthereasonit’ssuchaneffectivemethodofpreservation.)

Inabatchofgarum,saltlowersthewateractivityofamixturebybindingtoindividualwatermolecules,effectivelyremovingthemfromthesolution.Becausethewatermoleculesaresequesteredbysaltions,theyareunavailabletothemicrobe’snormallifeprocesses.Thisworksinconcertwithosmosis,whichactsthesamewayonmicrobialcellsasitdoesonmeatorfish.Thesaltdraws

wateroutofthemicrobe’scells,collapsingthemsotheyshrivelanddie.Thismechanismstavesoffspoilageinallsufficientlysaltedproducts,notjustingarums,butalsoagedcheeses,curedmeats,misos,shoyus,andlacticferments.

BetterLivingThroughKoji

Glutamate(C5H8NO4)isthedelicioustasteofumamiinmolecularform.

Theflavormoleculemostresponsibleforgarum’sdeliciousnessisglutamicacid.Glutamicacidisanaminoacidthatispresentinalmostallproteins.Initsfreeform(justhangingout,notpartofaproteinchain),itcanbefoundinespeciallyhighconcentrationsinmeats,cheeses,tomatoes,seaweed,andwheat.Whentheproteolyticenzymesinavatofgarumcleaveaparttheproteinsinfishormeat,itfreesmoleculesofglutamicacid,whichthengiveupafreepositivechargetobecomeglutamate.Glutamate,inturn,bindstomineralionslikesodiumtoformmonosodiumglutamate(MSG).

Asidefrombeingawell-knownpowderedfoodadditive,MSGisnaturallyresponsibleforsomeoftheworld’smostdeliciousfoods,fromramentorisotto.Itregistersonthetonguenotasaflavor,perse,butasthesensationofumami—the“fifthelement”oftaste,oftenthoughtofastheessenceofsavoriness,firstpostulatedintheearly1900sbytheJapanesechemistKikunaeIkeda.Perhapsthebestdescriptorofitsflavoris“moreish”—asin,whenyoutasteit,youwantmore.Glutamatescanevenevokethephysiologicalreactionofsalivation,literallymakingyourmouthwater.

We’reprimedforumamifrombirth—humanbreastmilkcontainstentimesasmuchfreeglutamateascow’smilk.Duringbreastfeeding,theglutamatecontentinmilkrisessteadilyasinfantsnurse,tothepointwhereitcanaccountforasmuchas50percentofthetotalfreeaminoacids.Weevenhaveglutamatereceptorsinourgutthatsignalourbrainsaswebegineatingsomethingrichin

umami:Ourappetiteimmediatelyincreases,butwefeelsatedsoonerandforlongerthanwhenweeatalow-umamimeal.We’rehardwiredtofindumamisatisfying,andweseekitoutasaresult.

Whilethemostpronouncedfeatureofgarumsandfishsaucesisthepowerfulfunkgeneratedbyautolysisandfermentation,thesmellisactuallymisleading.Thestinkinessissomethingyoucometoappreciate,buttheglutamatesarethefoundationofgarum’sappeal,elevatingallthattheytouch.Now,sayyouwantedtomitigategarum’saromawhilemaintainingitscomplexityandglutamiccontent.Youcouldomitthegutsresponsibleforautolysis,butyou’dneedsomeothertooltobreakdownproteinintoaminoacids.Andinkoji,onceagain,wefindafriend.

Kojiproducesenzymescalledproteases,whichweuseatNomatobreakdowntheproteinsinbeef,squid,mackerel,clams,andotherproteinsources.Putsimply,kojistepsinanddoesthejobofthedigestiveenzymesinthegutsoffish,yieldingafinishedproductwithasmuchumamiasthetraditionalmethod,butafarmorepleasantsmell.

Inordertoproduceafastergarum,wealsofermentoursinaroomheldat60°C/140°F.Whilethistemperatureprecludesmicrobialactivity,itacceleratesenzymaticactivitytoamaxi-mumwhilesimultaneouslyfacilitatingMaillardreactionsthatimbuethesaucewiththeflavorofroastedmeat.Atthistemperature,wecantypicallygofromabucketofmeattofullyfinishedgarumin10to12weeks.You’llnoticedistinctivechangesintheproductasthoseweeksgoby.Atfirst,ittasteslikeamurkystock,butafterthefirstweekorso,theenzymaticactiontakesoffandyoucansensetheumamibuilding.Afteraboutamonth,morecaramelizedflavorssteptothefront.Bytheend,everythingsitsindeliciousharmony.

It’spossiblethatyoufindsomethinginherentlyworrisomeaboutplacingrawfleshintosaltwaterwithmoldygrainsandlettingthemsitformonths,butrestassured,garumsarebyfarthemostpreciseandsafefermentswemakeatNoma.Thehighsaltcontent(about12%byweight),coupledwiththehightemperature,createsanenvironmentthatnearlyallfood-bornepathogenscan’ttolerate.

Meanwhile,we’recontinuallytryingtodissectgarumandrebuilditindifferentways.We’veexperimentedwithavariationthatomitswater,andendedupwithamuchthickermixturethatresemblesThaishrimppaste.We’vemadegarumswithprotein-richplantmatter,likepeas,thatworkwellbutshouldn’tbeleftintheheatforaslongasanimalprotein.We’vealsotriedgarumswithmore

unconventionalsourcesofprotein,likebeepollen,grasshoppers,mothlarvae,andpig’sblood.There’splentymoretoexploreinthisvein.Fortheadventurousspiritsoutthere,takealookatpineappleandpapaya.They’rebothfruitsheavywithproteolyticenzymes,andyoumightbeabletoconjureupatropicalgarum.Wedon’tgetmanypineappleshereinDenmark,butit’sanidea.

Deep-SeaSnowCrabandCuredEggYolk,NomaAustralia,2016

Steamedcrabisdressedwithasaucemadefromeggyolkscuredinkangarooandbeefgarums.

Garumwastraditionallyasaucemadefromdecomposingfish,butatNomawebeginwithgroundbeef.

BeefGarumMakes1.5liters

1kilogramfreshlygroundleanbeef

225gramsPearlBarleyKoji800gramswater

240gramsnon-iodizedsalt

BeefgarumtrulytookoffatNomaaroundthetimewewereservingbeefribsonthemenu,andtherewerealotofbeefscrapsaround.Withanyferment,youringredientsmustbefreshandpristinetoavoidthethreatofspoilageormold.Thisholdsespeciallytruewhenitcomestomeat-orseafood-basedferments,anditremainsthecaseevenifyou’reusingmeatscrapsthatmightotherwisebethrownaway.Ifit’snotfreshenoughtoeat,it’snotfreshenoughtoferment.Forthisrecipe,youcangrindthebeefyourselforaskabutchertodoitforyou,butavoidgroundbeefthatwasn’tgroundfreshthesamedayyoustartyourgarum.

Finally,Aspergillusoryzae–inoculatedkojiworksfineforthisprocess(it’swhatweuseattherestaurant),butAspergillussojae,mentionedintheShoyuchapter,isespeciallywelltailoredforgarumfermentation.A.sojaeproduceshigherlevelsofproteasethanotherstrains,soitmoreeffectivelybreaksdownthebeef,producinghigherlevelsofglutamateandthusmoreumami.

EquipmentNotesOurgarumisfermentedat60°C/140°F,soitwillrequireafermentationchamber(see“BuildingaFermentationChamber”)orlarge-capacityelectricricecookerorslowcooker.(Forthosewhoaredevotedtohistoricalauthenticity,see“ClassicalGarum,”forinstructionsonfermentinggarumatroomtemperature.)Otherwise,garumonlyneedsafood-safecontainertoholdit.Weuse30-literbrewer’sbucketsforthelargequantitiesweproduceattherestaurant,butforthisrecipe,youonlyneeda3-litercontainer.Glassjarsandclassicceramicfermentingcrocksworkgreat,too.

In-DepthInstructions

Placethebeef,koji,water,andsaltintothefermentationvesselofyourchoosing.Useahandheldblenderorglovedhandstomixeverythingthoroughly.Scrapedowntheinnersidesofthecontainer,thencoverthesurfaceofthegarumwithasheetofplasticwrap,makingsureitcomesintocontactwiththeliquidandthesidesofthecontainertocreateanairtightbarrier.Coverthecontainerwithalid,andscrewitonslightlylessthancompletelytightifit’sascrewcaporleaveitslightlyajarinonecornerifit’sasnaplidtoallowabitofgastoescape.

Movethegarumintothefermentationchamberandsetthetemperatureto60°C/140°F.Ifyou’reusinganelectricricecookerorslowcooker,useasushimatorwirerackasabufferbetweenthebottomofthebowlandthefermentationvessel;setitto“keepwarm.”(Ifthebowlofyourslowcookerorricecookerhasacapacitythat’sclosetothetotalvolumeofthegarummixture,youcanforgothefermentationvesselandfermentthegarumdirectlyinthebowlofthecooker.)

Allowthegarumtofermentfor10weeks.Itwillseparateasitages,withthegroundmeatfloatingtothetoplikearaftandtheliquidsittingatthebottom.Thesaltandheatshouldkeepmalevolentmicrobesaway,butthebeeffatwillbegintodegradeintofreefattyacidsthatcantakeonmustyflavors,whichcancomeacrossasrancid.Asacountermeasure,severaltimesduringthefirstweekremovethelidandplasticwrapanduseacleanspoonorladletoscoopoffasmuchfataspossible.Stirthegarumandreplacethecoverings.Afterthefirstweek,you’llonlyneedtoskimandstirthemixtureweekly.After10weeks,thebeefgarumshouldbedarkbrownwitharoasted,nuttyaromaanddeep,meaty,richflavor.

Strainthegarumthroughafine-meshsieve,pressingoutasmuchliquidaspossiblewithoutallowinganysolidstopassthrough.Thenstraintheliquidagainthroughasievelinedwithcheesecloth.Thesolidscanbereservedandaddedtomisosorusedasaseasoning.

Ifthere’sanyfatrestingontopoftheliquid,skimitoffusingaladleorspoon.Pourtheliquidintobottlesoranothercoveredcontainer.Thegarumisverystableandwillkeepwellinthefridgeforatleastamonth.Youcanalsofreezeitforlongerstoragewithoutanynegativeeffects,butnotethatbecauseofthehighsaltcontent,itprobablywon’tfreezecompletelysolid.

BeefGarum,day1

Day7

Day30

Day75

1.Freshlygroundleanbeef,water,koji,andsalt.

2.Mixalltheingredientsinthefermentationvesselbyhandorwithahandheldblender.

3.Coverthegarumwithplasticwrapandalidandfermentat60°C/140°F.

4.Skimthefatfromthegarumseveraltimesduringthefirstweek,stirringeachtimeandthencoveringtheliquidandvesselagain.

5.Fermentfor9weeksmore,skimmingandstirringonceaweek.

6.Strainthegarumandstore,covered,intherefrigeratororfreezer.

SuggestedUsesClassicalGarumThein-depthrecipedescribesthewayweproducegarumatNoma,butit’snottheonlywaytodoit.AncientCarthaginiansandRomans(alongwithmostoftheproducersinSoutheastAsiatoday)fermentedtheirgarumsatambienttemperature.Theyalsodependedonproteolyticenzymeswithinthegutsoffish,ratherthanthepowerofkoji.Herewe’lloutlinetwotraditionalmethods.

Tomakebeefgarumatroomtemperature(withoutafermentationchamber):Increasethesaltto365grams(18%byweight)topreventspoilage.Placeinafood-safeglass,ceramic,orplasticcontainerandtopthesurfacewithplasticwrap.Fermentthegarumfor8to9months,coveredbutnotsealedairtight.Stiroftenforevenfermentationandmoldprevention.Ifyouseemoldonthesurface,removeitimmediately.Thefinishedliquidwillbereddishtoambercoloredandsmellslightlymustyandsweaty,butwilltasteextremelyclean,withdeeplayersofumamiandasubtlebeefiness.Usethisadjustmentonanygaruminthischapter.

Tomakegarumwithoutkoji,you’llneedanothersourceofprotease.ToavoidE.colicontamination,don’tusetheinnardsofacow.Instead,opttomakeafishgarum,usingwholemackerel,smelt,orsardines(withguts).Cutthefishintochunks—heads,fins,meat,bones,guts,andall—andblendinafoodprocessororblender.Forfermentationat60°C/140°F,add12%ofthefish’sweightinsalt.Forroom-temperaturefermentation,add18%.Thismethodismuchclosertoatraditionalgarum—itwillsmellmuchstronger,butitwillstillbejustastasty.

EggYolkSauce

Eggyolkscuringinbeefgarum.

Beefgarumformsthebackboneofoneofthemostpopulardisheswe’veeverservedatNoma—crabwitheggyolk—andit’sonlyfittingthatwesharethesecrethere.Tous,thissimplecombinationistheperfectsauce,anditsusesaremyriad.Startbyseparating4eggsandplacingtheyolksinabowl.(Ifyou’resqueamishaboutraweggyolks,youcansoft-boiltheeggsbeforeharvestingtheyolks.)Whiskin15gramsstrainedbeefgarum.That’sit.Boilaheadofcauliflowerandcutitintosmallflorets.Dresseachservingwithacoupleofgenerousspoonfulsoftheeggyolksauce,andseasonwithalittleextrasalt,choppedparsley,andlotsoffreshlycrackedblackpepper.Ordressaroastedsweetpotatowithadollopofbutter,ateaspoonofhoney,andchoppedchivesandservewiththeeggyolksauceforahearty(mostly)vegetarianmeal.Or,youcouldjustasprofitablyservethesamesauceasanaccompanimenttosteakwithsomegreensontheside.Ahandfuloftendergreensandafewgoodcrunchy-softcroutonsdressedineggyolksaucewouldmakeafulllunch.Finally,tryservingitasadipforaplateofspicy,crunchyradishesattheheightofthesummer,pairedwithaglassofChampagneorbeer.

PastawithEggYolkSauceOnemorewonderfulusefortheeggyolksauceisaquickpasta.Whisk2heapingspoonfulsoffinelygratedParmigianointothesauce.Cook225gramsofyourfavoritepastashapeuntilaldente.Whilethepastaisstillsteaminghot,mixintheeggyolksauce.Atthispoint,it’sreadytoeat,butyoucouldalsogiveitagenerousdoseoffreshlycrackedblackpepper,oraddaheapofchoppedtomatoesorfreshbasil.It’saperfectweeknightdinnerthatkidswilllove,too.

Burgers,Broths,andBeyondHamburgersaregreatlyimprovedbyincorporatingaspoonfulofbeefgarumintothemeatbeforeshapingitintopatties.(Oryoucouldaddtheleftoversolidsfromthegarumtogreateffect.)Really,youshouldthinkofgarumasameatierversionofsoysauce.Justaboutanybrothorsoupyou’devercookcouldbenefitfromashotofbeefgarum.Thesamegoesforstir-friesandsauces.

BeefGarumEmulsionAsmentioned,theleftoversolidsarestillchock-fullofflavorandneednotbethrownaway.Inafryingpanovermediumheat,slowlyrenderandpan-roast250gramsofthestrainedbeefgarumsolids.Asthesolidscaramelizeandcrispup,they’llbegintoreleasefat.Keepcookinguntilthey’vecrispeduplikelardons,withoutrenderingallthewaythrough;then,whilestillwarm,transferthemtoabarblenderandbegintoblendonhighspeed.Slowlydrizzleinanequalamountofneutraloil,asifmakingmayonnaise.Themixturewillthickenandemulsify.Finishbybrighteningthemixturewithlemonjuice,lactocepjuice,orblackgarlicvinegar.Usetheemulsionasasublimedressingordipforcookedorrawvegetables,toppedwithagratingoffreshhorseradish.

Inthisgarum,thepungencyoffermentedshrimpisoffsetbythefloralperfumeofwildroses.

RoseandShrimpGarumMakesabout3liters

1kilogramfreshhead-on,shell-onsmallnorthernshrimp1kilogramwater500gramswildrosepetals

450gramsnon-iodizedsalt

Thisrecipeismuchclosertoaclassicalgarum,asitusesnokoji,meaningtheshrimpareallowedtotrulyautolyzeastheirgutsgetblendedalongwitheverythingelse.Theshrimpweuseforthisgarumaretinyandeasilyblendedwhole.Forthemostpart,thisfermentalsotakesplaceatambienttemperature,ratherthaninahotfermentationchamber,inordertoretaintherose’sfloralnotes.Theflower’ssweetaromaisaperfectfoiltothefishyfunkofthefermentedshrimp.

Thein-depthinstructionsforBeefGarumserveasatemplateforallthegarumrecipesinthischapter.Werecommendyoureadthatrecipebeforestartinginonthisone.

Ifyoucan’tsourcesmallnorthernshrimp,otherlocallyavailableshrimpvarietieswillwork;justbesuretousewild,notfarmed,shrimp.

Inafoodprocessororblender,blendalltheingredientstogetheruntilyouhaveasmoothpaste.Transfertothebowlofaricecookerorslowcooker,cover,andsetto“keepwarm.”Ifyourappliancelacksarubbersealandalatch,wrapthewholeapplianceinplasticwraptopreventmoistureloss.

Allowthemixturetofermentinthecookerfor24hours,thentransfertothefermentationvesselofyourchoice(besureithasaminimumcapacityof3liters).Scrapedowntheinnersidesofthecontainerwithglovedhandsorarubberspatulaandlayasheetofplasticwrapdirectlyonthesurfaceoftheliquid.Coverthevessellooselywithalid,leavingatleastacornerslightlyajar.Allowthegarumtofermentatroomtemperaturefor2to3months,stirringonceaweek.Thiswillbeadeeplystinkyferment,butstinkyinagoodway—thewaytrufflesareoff-puttingandenticingatthesametime.

Toharvest,strainthegarumthroughafine-meshsievelinedwithcheesecloth.Reservethesolidstouseasaseasoningpasteofsorts.Youmaywanttoblenditevenfinerandthenpassitthroughafine-meshsievetoimprovethetexture.UseitasyouwouldaThaishrimppastetostartcurries,addingittothepotasyou’resweatingyouraromatics;oraddatinypinchtospicydippingsaucesmadeofricevinegar,shoyu,andchilioil.

Pourthegarumintobottlesoranothercoveredcontainer.Thegarumisverystableandwillkeepwellinthefridgeformonths.Youcanalsofreezeitforlongerstoragewithoutanynegativeeffects,butnotethatbecauseofthehighsaltcontent,itprobablywon’tfreezecompletelysolid.

RoseandShrimpGarum,day1

Day7

Day75

SuggestedUsesSeafoodAccompanimentInthebestpossibleway,roseandshrimpgarumtasteslikeagreatlyreducedshellfishbrothwithatinybittoomuchsalt.Useitthesamewayyouwouldafishsauce,indisheswhereyou’restrivingtoaddcharacterbutalittlelessfunkinessthansomethinglikesquidgarum,whichcansometimeshavenotesofstrongcheese.Welovethisgarumasacomplementforseafood,combinedwithnothingmorethananequalportionofgoodoliveoil.It’sgreatonraw,steamed,orgrilledshrimp.Orthenexttimeyou’resteamingclamsormakingclamchowder,addateaspoonofshrimpgarumtoeachservinginplaceofsalt.

ButternutSquashSoupIntheearlyfall,whentheweatherturnsandwintergourdsareattheirbest,butternutsquashsoupstartstoshowupinrestaurantsandhomekitchensaroundtheworld.It’sdelicious,butpredictable.Takeitinacompletelydifferentdirectionbyaddingroseandshrimpgarum,whichwillsimultaneouslyechoandcontrasttheflavorprofilesatwork.Simmerchunksofpeeledandseededsquashinenoughvegetableorchickenstocktocover.Oncethesquashiscompletelysoftened,pureeitinablenderwiththestock.Withtheblenderstillwhirring,addateaspoonofgarumperserving;you’llimmediatelybehitwithaninimitablearoma.Finishthesoupwithadollopofwhippedcrèmefraîcheandalightgratingoflimezest.

NorthSeasquidproduceanintenselyaromaticandflavorfulgarum.

SquidGarumMakes2liters

1kilogramwholesquid,includinginnardsandink,butwiththebeakandcuttleboneremoved

225gramsPearlBarleyKoji800gramswater

240gramsnon-iodizedsalt

Arecurringthemeinourfermentationprojectsisfindingasecondlifeforwaste.Atonepoint,wewereservingthetenderportionsoflargeNorthSeasquidonthemenu,leavinguswithalotofguts,tentacles,andtoughends.Thisgarum,madefromthoseleftovers,wasoneofthefirstweproducedatNoma,andit’sstillamongthemostsuccessfulthingstocomeoutofthefermentationlab.It’suniqueinthatit’stheonlygarumweproducethatusesbothnaturalenzymesfromtheanimals’digestivetractandthoseproducedbykojitobreakdownthesquid’sproteins.

Thein-depthinstructionsforBeefGarumserveasatemplateforallthegarumrecipesinthischapter.Werecommendyoureadthatrecipebeforestartinginonthisone.

Usingameatgrinder,foodprocessor,orblender,grindthesquidintoaroughpuree.Ameatgrinderisthebestoptionforthis,butifyoudon’thaveone,chopthesquidintomanageablepiecesbeforepulsingitinafoodprocessororblender.Transferthepureedsquidtoa3-literfood-safefermentationvessel.

Next,grind(orblend)thebarleykojiandaddittothevessel,alongwiththewaterandsalt.Stirtheingredientswithacleanspoonandscrapedowntheinnersidesofthecontainerwithglovedhandsorarubberspatula.Layasheetofplasticwrapdirectlyonthesurfaceoftheliquidandcoverthevessellooselywithalid,leavingatleastacornerslightlyajar.Fermentthegaruminafermentationchamberat60°C/140°Forinanelectricricecookeron“keepwarm”for8to10weeks,stirringonceaweek.

Bythetimeit’sdonefermenting,thefleshofthesquidshouldbealmostcompletelybrokendown.Itwillsmelllikeapleasantlystickymarriageoftheearthandthesea,anditshouldhaveasalty,umamitastethatgripsyourtastebuds.

Tofinish,youcandooneoftwothings:(1)Lineafine-meshsievewithcheesecloth,pourinthegarum,andsetitoverabowlfor24hourstocatchtheliquid;or(2)pureethegarumintoathickpaste.Ifyouchoosetheformeroption,you’llendupwithtwoseparateproducts—liquidgarumandleftoversolids—thatcanbeusedinterchangeably;thepastewillbebettersuitedtobeingbrushedoverthingslikeblanchedasparagus,whereastheliquidwilleasilydissolveintostocksorbroths.

Pourthegarumintobottlesoranothercoveredcontainer.Thegarumisverystableandwillkeepwellinthefridgeformonths.Youcanalsofreezeitforlongerstoragewithoutanynegativeeffects,butnotethatbecauseofthehighsaltcontent,itprobablywon’tfreezecompletelysolid.

SquidGarum,day1

Day7

Day75

SuggestedUsesPissaladière

Asplashofsquidgarumenrichescaramelizedonionsforapissaladière.

Squidgarumaccentuatesalreadyfishyflavorsinareallyelegantway,anditssalinefunkisexcellentatstringingtogethersugarysweetnesswithearthiertastes.Inotherwords,it’sanidealadditiontopissaladière,afavoriterusticdishofmanyNomachefswhohavetraveledthroughFrance.Pissaladièreisapâtebriséebakedlikeapizzaandcoatedwithcaramelizedonionstoppedwithblackolivesandanchovies.ThestraightforwardNiçoiseclassicishelpedgreatlybyaddingatablespoonofsquidgarumtotheonionsjustasthey’vefinishedcaramelizinginthepan.

CruditésSquidgarumscanhelptransformrawvegetablesintoacompletedish.Dressaplateofcrudités—Romanesco,carrots,andradishes,perhaps—witholiveoil,seasalt,apinchofredpepperflakes,andaverylightdrizzleofsquidgarumforanappetizerthatisfunkyandrefreshingatthesametime.

Ourgoalforroastedchickenwinggarumwastoseewhatwouldhappenifwefermentedameatproductthatwasalreadyattheheightofitsdeliciousness.

RoastedChickenWingGarumMakesabout1.5liters

2kilogramschickenbones

3kilogramschickenwings

450gramsPearlBarleyKoji

480gramsnon-iodizedsalt

Roastingbringsalotofrich,fullydevelopedflavortothisgarum,meaningitneedsonlyaboutamonthoffermentationtocoaxoutmoreumami.Ifweweretofermentthischickengarumaslongaswedobeeforsquidgarum,itwouldloseitssubtletyandcomplexity.

Thein-depthinstructionsforBeefGarumserveasatemplateforallthegarumrecipesinthischapter.Werecommendyoureadthatrecipebeforestartinginonthisone.

Placethebonesinalargepotandfillwithwaterjusttocover—about3liters.Bringthewatertoaboil,skimmingawayanyimpuritiesthatfloattothesurfaceasitcomestotemperature.Onceitreachesaboil,reducetheheattoasimmerandcookthestockfor3hours.

Inthemeantime,heattheovento180°C/355°F.Lineabakingsheetwithparchmentpaper.Placethechickenwingsonthelinedsheetandroastthemfor40to50minutes,tossingseveraltimeswhilecookingtoensurethattheygetaneven,darkbrowning.

Removethewingsfromtheovenandletthemcooldown.Weighout2kilogramsoftheroastedwingsanduseacleavertochopthemintosmallpieces.(Ifyouhaveanyextrawings,well,thenhaveyourselfasnack.)

Strainthechickenstockthroughafine-meshsieveandallowittocool.

Pulsethekojiinafoodprocessortobreakitupintosmallpieces.Putthechoppedchickenwings,koji,salt,and1.6kilogramsofthechickenstockina3-

literfermentationvesselofyourchoiceandstirtocombinethoroughly.Scrapedowntheinnersidesofthecontainerwithglovedhandsorarubberspatulaandlayasheetofplasticwrapdirectlyonthesurfaceoftheliquid.Coverthecontainerwithalid;screwitonslightlylessthancompletelytightifit’sascrewcaporleaveitslightlyajarinonecornerifit’sasnaplid.Fermentthegaruminafermentationchamberat60°C/140°Forinanelectricricecookeron“keepwarm”for4weeks.

Everydayforthefirstweek,useacleanspoonorladletoskimoffasmuchfatasyoucan,thenstirthegarumandcoveragain.Afterthefirstweek,skimandstironceaweek.

Toharvest,passthegarumthroughafine-meshsieve,andthenagainthroughasievelinedwithcheesecloth.Allowtheliquidtosettleandskimoffanyfatthatfloatstothesurface.

Pourthegarumintobottlesoranothercoveredcontainer.Thegarumisverystableandwillkeepwellinthefridgeformonths.Youcanalsofreezeitforlongerstoragewithoutanynegativeeffects,butnotethatbecauseofthehighsaltcontent,itprobablywon’tfreezecompletelysolid.

RoastedChickenWingGarum,day1

Day7

Day30

SuggestedUsesRamenBrothWhenfirsttastingroastedchickenwinggarum,almosteveryNomachefmuttersthesameword:“Ramen.”It’strue,thisgarumpossessessomeofthesamedeep,meatytonesofagreatbowloframen.Asplashpouredintoabasickombuandkatsuobushidashimakesforaconvincingcheat.Andifyou’vemadeamoreproperramenbroth,atouchofgarumwillhelpkicktheflavoruptoeleven.

RoastedCashews

Tosspan-roastednutsinchickenwinggarumforanindescribablydelicioussnack.

Coatcashews(oranynutofyourchoice)withmeltedbutterandspreadontoabakingsheetoroven-safepan.Roastina160°C/320°Fovenuntiltheybecomegoldenbrownandfragrant.Removethemfromtheovenandmixinacoupleoftablespoonsofchickenwinggarum.Don’taddsomuchgarumthattheliquidpoolsonthepan.Allthegarumshouldbeabsorbedbythenutsandevaporatedbytheheat.Youdon’twantthecashewstobecomesoggy.Oncetheycool,theyshouldstillbecrunchy,withasavory,saltycrust.

GrasshoppergarumisacontinuationofyearsofcookingwithinsectsatNoma.

GrasshopperGarumMakesabout2liters

600gramsgrasshoppersorcrickets(liveordead)

400gramswaxmothlarvae

225gramsPearlBarleyKoji800gramswater

240gramsnon-iodizedsalt

Grasshoppergarumisbyfarthemostmagicalfermentinthisbook,notleastbecauseitwillinstantaneouslyremoveanymentalblockyouhaveaboutcookingwithoreatinginsects.We’realmostreluctanttouseitwhenwe’redevelopingrecipesbecauseit’ssogood,italmostfeelslikeacrutch.

Grasshopperscanbepurchasedthroughpetstoresoredible-insectcompanies.Thewaxmothlarvaecalledformaybemoredifficulttoprocure,inwhichcaseyoucanomitthemandreplacetheirweightwithmoregrasshoppers;thefinishedproductwillbeslightlylessrichbutnolessdelicious.(Ifyoucan’tfindgrasshoppers,cricketswillworktoo.)

Thein-depthinstructionsforBeefGarumserveasatemplateforallthegarumrecipesinthischapter.Werecommendyoureadthatrecipebeforestartinginonthisone.

Blendthegrasshoppersandlarvaeintoapasteandtransfertoabowl.Pulsethekojiinafoodprocessor,tobreakitupintosmallpieces.Foldtogethertheinsects,koji,water,andsalt,thentransferthemixturetoa3-literfermentationvesselofyourchoice.Scrapedowntheinnersidesofthecontainerwithglovedhandsorarubberspatulaandlayasheetofplasticwrapdirectlyonthesurfaceoftheliquid.Coverthecontainerwithalid;screwitonslightlylessthancompletelytightifit’sascrewcaporleaveitslightlyajarinonecornerifit’sasnaplid.

Fermentthegaruminafermentationchamberat60°C/140°Forinanelectricricecookeron“keepwarm”for10weeks,stirringonceaweek.It’sfinishedoncethemixturetastesnutty,toasty,andpackedwithumami.

Toharvest,pureethegarumintoafinepasteandpassitthroughafine-meshsieveortamis.Pourthegarumintobottlesoranothercoveredcontainer.Thegarumisverystableandwillkeepwellinthefridgeforamonth.Youcanalsofreezeitforlongerstoragewithoutanynegativeeffects.

GrasshopperGarum,day1

Day7

Day75

SuggestedUsesGrasshopperButterBringastickofbuttertoroomtemperature,thenwhiskittogetherwith20%grasshoppergarumbyweight.Transfertoanairtightcontainerandstoreinthefridge.Youcanusegrasshopperbutterinanysavoryapplicationthatcallsforregularbutter:roastingvegetables,bastingmeatsorfish,evencookingpancakes.Speakingofwhich...

SavoryPancakesOmitthesugarfromyourfavoritepancakerecipeandcookthemingrasshopperbutter.Brushthefinishedpancakeswithabitofgrasshoppergarum,thenfoldthemoverandfillthemwithchoppedredonions,adollopofcrèmefraîche,andaspoonfulofgood-qualitycaviarorfishroe.(Whenitcomestofisheggs,it’sallaboutthequalityandnotnecessarilythetype.Fresh,high-qualitylumpfish,salmon,ortroutroeismuchpreferabletomediocrecaviar.)Finishwithfreshchives.Peoplewillgonuts.

Beepollenisanincrediblycomplexingredient,withflavorsthatderivefromtheflowersnearthebees’hive.

BeePollenGarumMakesabout1.5liters

1kilogramfreshorfrozenbeepollen200gramsPearlBarleyKoji300to600gramswater

60gramsnon-iodizedsalt

Onceagain,weturnourattentiontotheunderappreciatededibleinsectkingdom.Beepollenisextremelycomplex,chemicallyspeaking,housingdozensofspeciesoffungiandbacteria.It’sextremelysweet,andcansometimescomprisemorethan50percentprotein.Thecompositionandflavorofthepollencanvarywildly,though,dependingonwhatflowersthebeeshavebeenharvestingfrom.It’salsomorereadilyavailablethanyoumightthink,asbeepollenisoftensoldasanutritionalsupplementandcanbeorderedthroughhealthfoodsuppliers(seeSources).

Thein-depthinstructionsforBeefGarumserveasatemplateforallthegarumrecipesinthischapter.Werecommendyoureadthatrecipebeforestartinginonthisone.

Ifthepollenyouprocuredisdried,firstpuree700gramsofitinablenderwith300gramswatertoachievethesamemoisturecontentasfreshbeepollen.

Inablender,combinethepollen(orpollenpuree),koji,300gramswater,andsaltandblenduntilsmooth,thentransferthemixturetoa3-literfermentationvesselofyourchoice.Scrapedowntheinnersidesofthecontainerwithglovedhandsorarubberspatulaandlayasheetofplasticwrapdirectlyonthesurfaceoftheliquid.Coverthevesseltightlywithalidormoreplasticwrap.

Fermentthegaruminafermentationchamberat60°C/140°Ffor3weeks,stirringonceaweek.Theamountofsugarinthepollenmeansitwillbrownandcaramelizemuchfasterthanothergarums,andthereforedoesn’trequireasmuchtimeintheheat.

Toharvest,pureethegarumintoafinepasteandpassitthroughafine-meshsieve.Pourthegarumintojarsoranothercoveredcontainer.Thegarumisvery

stableandwillkeepwellinthefridgeforamonth.Youcanalsofreezeitforlongerstoragewithoutanynegativeeffects.

BeePollenGarum,day1

Day7

Day21

SuggestedUsesPollenOilWhenwewerefirsttryingtounderstandtheapplicationsofbeepollengaruminthefermentationlab,alittleresearchtaughtusaboutbeepollen’ssolubilityinfat.Thatnuggetofknowledgeledtoaratherdeliciousexperiment.Place250gramsbeepollengaruminablenderwith500gramsneutralvegetableoil—rapeseedandgrapeseedoilbothworkwell.Blendthetwotogetherfor6minutes,thentransfertoacontainerandrefrigerateovernighttoinfuse.Thefollowingday,aftertheheaviersedimenthassettledatthebottomofthecontainer,gentlypourtheoilthroughasievelinedwithcheesecloth.Thesedimentthatremainsatthebottomofthecontainerisstillextremelydeliciousandshouldbesavedforotheruses.Thefloral,deepmustard-coloredoilissubtlypowerful,onlybecomingmoreflavorfulthelongeritrestsonyourtongue.It’sanexcellentreplacementfortheoliveoilyou’dusetodressbeeftartare,oryoucanemulsifyitwitheggyolksforaverydifferentbutoutstandingmayonnaise.

Orsimplytossroastedrootvegetables,likeceleryrootorsweetpotatoes,inabitofbeepollenoilastheycomeoutoftheoven.

BeePollenRisottoBeepollengarumisprobablytheonlyonewemakeatNomathatismildenoughtoeatbythespoonful.Awhileback,whenMichelinthree-starchefMassimilianoAlajmoofLeCalandreinSarmeoladiRubano,Italy,wasvisitingtherestaurantasaguestchef,hemadearisottowithbeepollengaruminplaceofcheesethatourguestsfellcompletelyinlovewith.Youcandothesameathomebycookingaclassicrisottowithonions,whitewine,andchickenstock,thenfinishingitwithabout2tablespoonsofbeepollengarumperportion.Thegarumtakesthedishinawildlydifferentbutsomehowfamiliardirection.

RoastedTomatoesInthelatesummer,whenthetomatoescan’tgetanybetter,takeabasketoffloralandfragrantcherrytomatoes—SunGoldsareareallyspectacularcultivar—andtossthemintoascorching-hotpancoatedwitholiveoil.Tossthemaroundforafewsecondsbeforeslidingthepanontothetoprackoftheoventofinishcookingbeneaththehotbroiler.Letthetomatoesbubbleandburstandcaramelizeuntilyouseetheirjuicesthickeningatthebottomofthepan,about10minutes.Pullthepanfromtheoven,throwinacoupleofsprigsoflemonthyme,andaddahealthyspoonfulofbeepollengarum.Stirthemixturearoundquickly,thenremovethelemonthymesprigsandfinishitoffwithtornleavesofopalbasil.Serveitwithcrustygrilledbread,orstrewnthroughdressedsaladgreenswithsautéedchanterellesforasmashingwarmsummersalad.

YeastGarumMakesabout2.5liters

300gramsfreshbaker’syeast

725gramsnutritionalyeast

250gramsYellowPeaso225gramsPearlBarleyKoji1kilogramwater

200gramsnon-iodizedsalt

Alltheothergarumsinthischapterhavebeenmadewithanimalproteins,butanimalsarenottheonlyprotein-richorganisms.Yeast,whichwemostlyuseasanagentoffermentation,canalsobefermenteditselfintoadeliciousvegangarum.Freshbaker’syeastcanbefoundintherefrigeratedsectionofgoodgrocerystoresoronline,andisalsosometimessoldas“compressedyeast”or“cakeyeast.”Andifyouhaven’tmadetheYellowPeasothisrecipecallsfor,youcansubstitutestore-boughtmiso;aimforalightervarietylikeokasanorshiromiso.

Thein-depthinstructionsforBeefGarumserveasatemplateforallthegarumrecipesinthischapter.Werecommendyoureadthatrecipebeforestartinginonthisone.

Heattheovento160°C/320°F.Lineabakingsheetwithparchmentpaper.Crumblethebaker’syeastontothelinedbakingsheetandroastituntilitturnsdeepbrownandsmellsnuttyandmeaty,about1hour.Removetheyeastfromtheovenandallowittocool.

Thebaker’syeastwilllosealotofweightintheoven;measure75gramsofitandcombinewiththerestoftheingredientsinablender.Blendalltheingredientstogetheruntilyouhaveasmoothpaste,about45seconds.Transfertoa3-literfermentationvesselofyourchoice.Scrapedowntheinnersidesofthecontainerwithglovedhandsorarubberspatulaandlayasheetofplasticwrap

directlyonthesurfaceoftheliquid.Coverthevesseltightlywithalidormoreplasticwrap.Fermentthegaruminafermentationchamberat60°C/140°Forinanelectricricecookeron“keepwarm”for4weeks,stirringonceaweek.Oncefinished,thegarumshouldbemeaty,rich,sour,andfullofumami,withagorgeous,shiny,deepbrownhue.

Toharvest,pureethegarumintoafinepasteandpassitthroughafine-meshsievelinedwithcheesecloth.Spoonthethickgarumintojarsoranothercoveredcontainer.Thegarumisverystableandwillkeepwellinthefridgeformonths.Youcanalsofreezeitforlongerstoragewithoutanynegativeeffects.

YeastGarum,day1

Day7

Day30

SuggestedUseSmokedHummusWhileNoma’sseconditerationwasunderconstructionontheoutskirtsofCopenhagen’sChristianianeighborhood,weheldaseriesofcasualpop-updinnersbythecanalinthecenterofthecity.OurLebanesechefdepartie,TarekAlameddine,madethisincrediblehummusforgueststosnackonwhilesittingatthewinebar.First,cold-smokethechickpeaswithhay(standardwoodchipswillwork,too)forabout1hour.Fromthere,it’saprettystraightforwardhummusrecipe:Blend500gramssmokedchickpeaswith75gramstahini,75gramsyeastgarum,acloveofgarlic,andahealthysplashofoliveoil.Allowthemachinetorunforagood5minutesinordertoyieldareallysmoothhummus.Finishitoffwiththezestandjuiceof1lemon.

9.

BlackFruitsandVegetables—BlackGarlicBlackApplesBlackChestnutsBlackHazelnutsWaxedBlackShallots

Soft-BoiledEggandBlackGarlic,Noma,2012

Asoft-boiledeggisdressedwithnasturtiumleavesandservedinabowlpaintedwithapasteofblackgarlicblendedwithfermentedhoney,peas,andkoji.

ReallySlowCookingBlackfruitsandvegetableshavebeenpartoftheWesterncookingrepertoireforonlyabouttwodecadesnow.AtNoma,wegotourfirsttasteofblackgarlic—theprototypicalblackenedvegetable—aboutfifteenyearsago,butwe’veonlyrecentlybeguntoexperimentwiththeprocessofblackeningotherfruits,vegetables,andnuts.

Tobeclear,blackeningisnotfermentation.Itisinlargepartanenzymaticprocess,andwhileallfermentationprocessesareenzymatic,notallenzymaticprocessesarefermentationprocesses.Still,webelievethatblackeninghasaplaceinthisbookbecauseitsharesthesametransformativemagicasmicrobialfermentation,andbecausetheproductsitcreateshaveasimilarplaceinourpantry.

Theactualprocessofblackeningisasighttobehold.Vegetablesslowlymorphintoripefruits,assharpflavorsmellowandhardtexturesendupputty-likeandmalleable.Takeblackgarlic,forinstance.Aswithsomanyferments,there’sawiderangeofqualityinblackgarlics—somevarietiescantastetoorawandarenotparticularlyenjoyable—butatitsbest,it’sliketheperfectgrown-upcandy,sweetandleatheryandfullofcomplexity.

Tomakeblackgarlic,allyouhavetodoisplaceaheadofgarlicinasealedcontainerandkeepitataconstanttemperatureof60°C/140°Ffor6to8weeks.That’sthewholeprocedure—atleastatthebroadestlevel.

Temperatureisthereasonwhyblackeningisnotafermentativeprocess.Thefungiandbacteriathatweharnessforfermentationcan’tsurviveat60°C/140°F,sointheabsenceofmicrobialactivity,we’releftwithonlychemicalprocesses.

Perhapstheeasiestwaytodescribeblackeningisasveryslow,verydarkbrowning.ManyreadersofthisbookmaybefamiliarwiththeMaillardreaction—thephenomenonresponsibleforcrustysteaks,brownedonions,toast,coffee,andinnumerableotherpillarsofcuisine.TheMaillardreactionisoneofseveralformsofbrowningatworkinblackfruitsandvegetables.There’salsocaramelization,whichisthepyrolysisofsugar.Asheatisappliedtoorganiccompoundsintheabsenceofoxygen,theythermallydecompose.That’spyrolysis.Caramelizationproducesaflightofvolatileflavorsandaromas,aswellasthelovelyrangeofcolorswetendtoassociatewithdeliciousthings.

Temperatureisanaverageofthekineticenergyofcountlessmoleculesmovingatdifferentspeeds.

We’reaccustomedtotheMaillardreaction,pyrolysis,andcaramelizationtakingplaceoverashorttimeathighheat—usually170°C/340°Forhigher.Buthighheatisnotexplicitlynecessaryforanyofthesereactionstotakeplace,ifyou’repatient.Thepointofblackeningistostretchouttheprocessoverweeks.Thisispossiblebecausethetemperatureofanobjectisactuallytheaverageofbillionsofbillionsofmoleculesmovingaroundatdifferentspeeds.Inacloveofgarlicheldat60°C/140°F,99.9999percentofthemoleculesmightverywellbemovingtooslowlytoinspireapyrolyticorMaillardreaction.Butoccasionally,onemoleculeoutofabillionmightbemovingfastenoughtosparkoneoftheseenergeticchemicalreactions.Fromthere,theseisolated,sparsereactionscascade.

Aspyrolysisbreaksdownlargersugarsintosmallerparts,itliberatesmoremolecules,whicharethenavailabletotakepartinfurtherreactions.Overthecourseofweeks,theproductsoftheserareandirreversiblechemicalreactionsaccumulate,producingthedarksweetnessweassociatewithblackgarlic.Infact,leftlongatthistemperature,thegarlicwilleventuallyburn.

Pyrolysis,caramelization,andtheMaillardreactionarenon-enzymaticbrowningreactions.Enzymaticbrowning,ontheotherhand,iswhathappenstofruitsandvegetablesastheyripenandageovertime.Theenzymepolyphenoloxidaseisimportanttoaplant’shealthasitgrows,butonceafruit’sorvegetable’sfleshisexposedtooxygen,theenzymebeginsalteringphenoliccompoundsintheplant’stissueandproducingmelanins,whichareresponsibleforfruitturning

brown.(Phenolsarealargegroupofcompounds,someofwhichgivethefleshandfruitskinsofmanyplantstheircolor,andsomeplayabigroleintheirflavorandaromaaswell.)Inahealthyplant,thecreationofmelaninsatthesiteofabruiseortraumahelpstowardoffinfection,asmelaninshaveantibacterialproperties.Intheblackeningprocess,theyservetofurtherdarkenthefruitorvegetable.

Whenyoublackenfruit,bothenzymaticandnon-enzymaticreactionsaretakingplace.It’sunclearwhofirstfusedthesevariousprocessestoblackenfood,thoughmostsignspointtothestoriedfermentingcultureofKorea,wherecenturiesagopeoplewereagingwholeheadsofgarlicinearthenwarepotsduringthehotsummermonths.Asforthemodernhistoryofblackfruitsandvegetables,weagainlooktoKorea,intheyear2004.ThecontemporarypopularizationofblackgarliciscreditedtoamannamedScottKim,whodevisedasimplemethodformakingblackgarlicusingheat-andhumidity-controlledagingchambers.WeusetheexactsamemethodsatNomatomaintainanenvironmentthatleadstoacascadeofslowchemicalreactions,completelytransformingordinaryingredientsoverthecourseofweeksormonths.

RedoxRedux

IntheVinegarchapter,wemetAntoineLavoisier,thefatherofmodernchemistryandthemanresponsibleforidentifyingoxygenasthereagentresponsibleforcombustion.However,hewasn’tactuallythefirstpersontopublishresearchontheisolationofoxygenmolecules.TheEnglishchemistJosephPriestly,acollaboratorofLavoisier’s,actuallytakesthecreditforthat.Priestlyheatedametalliccompound—mercuryoxide,thenknownas“redcalx”—andobservedthatastheairintheflaskwasbecomingmoreflammable,thecalxitselfwasreducinginweight.WhatPriestlywitnessedwasareducingreaction(namedbecauseofthecalx’sreductioninweight).Onceheated,themercuryoxide(HgO)separatedintoitstwoconstituentelements,releasingitsoxygenandrenderingtheairmorecombustible.

What’shappeningonthemolecularlevelisanexchange:Whenmercuryandoxygenfirstjointoformmercuryoxide,twoatomsofmercuryaresurrenderinganelectroneachtotheoxygen.Whenthecompounddecomposes,theprocessisreversed.Theelectronsgobacktotheiroriginalowners,andgaseousoxygenisreleasedintotheair.Scientistsinitiallybelievedthatsuchreactionsdealtexclusivelywithoxygen,andso,tothisday,theactofamoleculeoratombeingstrippedofanelectronisknownas“oxidation.”InPriestly’sexperiment,themercuryisbeingoxidized,andthemercuryisreducingtheoxygen.Parallelchemicalreactionslikethisareknownasredoxreactions.Manyoftheminvolveoxygen,butthereareplentyofotherelementsandcompoundsthatcantakepart

inredoxreactions.However,onethingtonoteaboutredoxreactionsisthattheyareatwo-waystreet.Thereisnooxidationwithoutsimultaneousreduction,andviceversa.Anytimeyouhearaboutsomethingbeingoxidized,youcanbesurethatsomethingelseisbeingreduced.

TheFrenchphysicianLouisCamilleMaillardfirstunlockedthesecretsofbrowning.Maillardreactionsareredoxreactionsthatcantakeplacebetweenreducingsugars(foundinstarches)as

wellasaminoacids(foundinproteins).

TheMaillardreactionisagenreofredoxreactionthatismostfrequentlyobservedwhencookingfoodsathightemperatures.ItowesitsnametoLouisCamilleMaillard,whowasayoungFrenchphysicianwhenhediscoveredtheprocessintheearly1900sattheUniversityofParis.

Asmentionedabove,therearemanyotherelementsandcompoundsbesidesoxygenthatcanparticipateinaredoxreaction.Thisincludesaminoacids.Whenfoodisheated,sugarslikefructoseorglucoseorthoseboundupinstarchtakepartinredoxreactionswithfreeaminoacidsorthoseboundinproteinchains.Thereactionsleadtohighlyunstableintermediaryproductsthatthenfurtherbreakdowninavarietyofways,creatingflavorcompoundsresponsibleforthecoloranddelicioustasteofbrownedfood.Thecrustofbread,thesearedsurfaceofascallop,brownbutter—alltheseareproductsoftheMaillardreaction.(Itwon’tnecessarilycomeinhandyhere,butthereactionisexpeditedbyalkalineenvironments,asobservedinthecrustofpretzels,whicharesoakedinadilutelyesolutionbeforebaking.)Differentflavorswilldevelopdependingonwhich

aminoacidsarepresent.Theartificial-flavorindustryaccomplishesalotofitsworkbychoosingspecificaminoacidstoundergoredoxreactions.

MostMaillardreactionstakeplaceattemperatureswellinexcessof115°C/239°F,whenthereisenoughkineticenergytoforcethereagentstointeract.Waterissogoodatabsorbingheatenergythatregardlessofhowmuchthermalenergyyouadd,mixturescontainingwaterdon’ttendtoriseabovewater’sboilingpointof100°C/212°Funtilmostofthewaterhasboiledaway.Therefore,inwateryenvironments,ittakesmuchlongerforaMaillardreactiontotakeplace.(Beyondthisthermaleffect,watercanalsoinhibittheformationofcertainproductsoftheMaillardreaction.)ButasmentionedearlierinthischapterandintheMisochapter,givenenoughtime,theMaillardreactionwilloccur,evenatlowtemperaturesandinwetenvironments.

Thatmightbealotofchemistrytotakein,butcookingischemistry.Everytimeyoulightyourbarbecue,bakeacake,orcureaham,you’recarryingoutmultiplechemicalreactions.Browning(andblackening)foodiscertainlyallaboutchemistry.TheMaillardreactionisonlyoneofthechemicalprocessesatworkinablackeningchamber.Asalways,it’sworthhavingagrasponthesciencetohelpyoumakeadjustmentsorimprovementsdowntheroad.

PearandRoastedKelpIceCream,Noma,2018

Blackpearsareblendedintoapasteanddriedintofruitleatherbeforebeingmoldedintoimitationmusselshellsandfilledwithkelpicecreamandlicorice.

RunningYourOwnBlackeningExperimentsThetruthis,we’restilllearninghowtoputblackenedfruitsandvegetablestofulluseatNoma.We’veonlyscratchedthesurfaceofallthedifferentproductsthatcanbemadebyblackening.Butthesuccesseswe’vehadsofarhavebeenencouraging.Blackenedapplesareamazing,forinstance,especiallyafteryoudrythem.Thejuicethatleachesoutoftheapplesastheyblackenisbeautifulaswell—youcandrinkitallonitsown,orfermentitintoblackcider.Attherestaurant,we’veservedaninvigoratingfirstcourseoffreshapplesmarinatedinapasteofblackapplesfromthepreviousyearthatreallyhighlightsthecontrastbetweenblackenedandfreshfruit.

It’snotclearwhatotheringredientsmightbenefitfromblackening,butsuchisthebeautyofexploration.It’safieldthathasnotbeenstudiedverymuchatall.ThepersonwhohaspushedusthemostinthisrealmisMattOrlandoofAmassrestaurantinCopenhagen.He’sexperimentedalotwithblackening,andit’sbeenveryinspiringtofollowhim—he’swayaheadofthecurve.

Ofcourse,there’sanentireplanetofingredientsthatremainunblackened,waitingforyoutogivethemawhirl.Inourfermentationlab,we’veputalotofdifferentfruitsandvegetablesthroughthisprocess,fromcabbage(notsogood)tocorn(so-so)tochestnuts(so,sogood!).Trialanderrorhasedgedustowardasetofparametersthatseemtodictatewhetheraparticularfruitorvegetablemakesforaworthyblackeningcandidate.Garlic,thequintessentialblackenedvegetable,actuallyshedsalotoflightonthissubject.Eachofthefollowingfactorsexplainswhygarlicisparticularlywellsuitedforblackening,andwhatyoushouldlookforinotherthingsyouwanttoblacken.

MoistureContentandRetentionMoistureisimportanttotheenzymaticbrowningofvegetablesandfruits—that’swhydehydrationissuchaneffectivemeansofpreservation.Ifaningredientistoodry,itwon’tblacken.Garlicisn’tanespeciallywetingredient,butit’sgoodatretainingwhatmoistureithas.Themultiplelayersofskinmakeforastrongguardagainstrapidmoistureloss,andwhilethegarlicneverdriesoutcompletely,itdriesenoughtofacilitatetheMaillardreaction.

Fruitsorvegetablesthatcontainlargeamountsofwaterwillblacken,butyou’llfaceadifferentchallenge:Forthemostpart,thethinskinsoffruitslikeapplesandpearswillgiveoutandtheirfleshwilldisintegrate.Theylosetheirshapelongbeforeanyinterestingflavorsshowup.Thisproblemcanbemitigated,asyou’llseeinBlackApples,butsomethinglikegarlicnaturallyhastherightwatercontentanddefenseagainstmoisturelosstodeliverafinalproductthathastonsofcharacterandholdsontoitsform.

SugarContentIfyou’veevercrushedacloveofgarlicwiththebroadsideofaknife,you’refamiliarwiththesticky,tackypasteyougetasaresult.Thishappensbecausegarlic,likemanyothermembersofthealliumfamily,containsgreatstoresofsugar.Becauseofitspungency,youmightnotthinkofrawgarlicassweet,butitsplentifulsugarsarenecessaryfortheslowMaillardreactionandcaramelizationthattakeplaceduringblackening.Ingredientslackinginsugar—takekohlrabi,forinstance,somethingwethoughtwouldbepromisingasablackenedvegetable—tasteprettyhorriblewhenheat-treated.WithouttheharmoniousflavorbackbonecreatedbytheMaillardreaction,blackeningcancreateheavy,acridnotesfrompyrolysis,withnosweetnesstotemperthem.

PungencyNothingcomesoutoftheblackeningchambertastingthesame.Sometimesthat’sagoodthing,butothertimestheprolongedheatcanmuteordestroysubtleandvolatilearomas.Rawgarlic’spungencytransformsduringitstwo-month-longheatbath,butitstaysrecognizable.Thesubtletyof,say,arootofsalsifyiscompletelylostonceit’sblackened.Thoughtherootismoistenough,hasthickenoughskin,andisalsosweetenough,blacksalsifycomesoutdeliciousbutindistinct.Itendsuptastingmoreambiguousthanotherroots.Themorepotenttheflavoroftherawingredient,themoreinterestingtheoutcomewillbe.

Sweet,pungentblackgarlichasgrowninpopularityandprevalenceinWesternkitchensoverthepastfewdecades.

BlackGarlicMakes10heads10headsveryfreshgarlic

Blackgarlicisoneoftheeasiestrecipesinthisbook.Theprocessrunsitself,andwhileit’sgoodtocheckontheprogressasyougo,thereisn’tmuch,ifany,tendingtobedone.Yourbiggestchallengewillbefindingorcreatingafermentationchamberthatcanholdasteadytemperatureof60°C/140°Fforweeks—that’stheonlywaytospuralltheredox,Maillard,enzymaticbrowning,pyrolytic,andotherreactionsyouneedtoturnfruitandvegetablesdeliciouslyblack.

EquipmentNotesSlow,consistentheatisthekeytoblackeninggarlic.Inarestaurant,awarmingcabinetisgreatforthis.Ahomemadefermentationchamber(see“BuildingaFermentationChamber,”aswellastheinstructionsintheKojichapter)willworkwell,too.Thesimplestsolution,however,isanelectricricecookeroraslowcooker.The“keepwarm”settinghoversrightintheneighborhoodof60°C/140°F.They’renot100percentaccurate,buttheyshouldbeadequateforsmall-batchblackening.However,notallelectriccookerswillstayonindefinitely.Makesureyourcookerdoesn’thaveanauto-offfeaturebeforejumpingintotherecipe.

In-DepthInstructions

Setupyourfermentationchamber,whichwillneedtomaintainasteadytemperatureof60°C/140°Fforseveralweeks.Ifusinganelectriccooker,beawarethattheheatingelementsinmanycookerscomeintodirectcontactwiththemetalcookingbowl,whichcancausethegarlictoscorch,soplaceasmallwirerack,plate,orbamboomatinthebowltoactasabuffer.

Usefreshlyharvestedsummergarlic,whichwillhaveagoodamountofmoisturefortheblackeningprocessandwon’thaveasulfurousflavor.Stayawayfromgarlicthathasbeguntosproutanddisplaygreenshoots,butalsobesurethecloveshavefullydeveloped,becausetheskinonverynewgarliccanbetoopapery.AvoidindustriallyproducedwhitegarlicfromChina,whichcanbe

acridandsulfurouswithverylittlesweetness.Elephantgarlicistoomildtodowellwiththisprocesseither.

Peeloffanydustygarlicskinsandinspecttheheadstomakesurethereisnomoldhidingbetweenthelayers;ifthereis,peelawaymoreskinandwipeitoff.You’llnowneedtowrapthegarlictokeepitsmoisturein.Industrialmanufacturersusehermeticallysealedroomswherethehumidityisregulated.Onasmallscale,simplydouble-wrappingtheheadsintwolargesheetsoffoilwillbefine—besuretheheadssitinasinglelayer.(Ifyou’reblackeningyourgarlicinafermentationchamber,liketheonessuggestedforkojibutwiththeheatcrankedwayup,placethefoil-wrappedheadsofgarlicinalargerairtightcontainer,suchasalargezip-topbagoraplasticsnap-lidcontainer.)Alternatively,youcouldsealtheheadsinavacuumbagwiththesealerat50%suction(lestthebaggetpuncturedbythegarlicstems)orusetwoheavy-dutyzip-topplasticbagswithasmuchairsqueezedoutaspossible.

Placethewrappedgarlicinthefermentationchamberandcloseit,orplaceinthecookerandsealthelid.Ifthelidhasarubbersealwithalatch,that’sfantastic,asitwillretainmoisturewell.Ifnot,doyourbesttosealitsomeotherway.Whilenotexactlypretty,wrappingthetopofthecookerinplasticwrapdoesthetrick.Turnthecookeronto“keepwarm,”andawayyougo.

Checkthegarlicafteraweektoassessitsprogress.Theoutsideoftheskinsshouldbestartingtoturntanandlookdampastheyabsorbmoisturefromthecloveswithin.Ifall’swellandthegarlichasn’tbecomeoverlydry,continue.Ifthey’vestartedtoscorchorburnonthebottom,orifthey’vebecomeextremelydry,unfortunately,you’llneedtostartagain.

Thetotalamountoftimewillrangefrom6to8weeksforfulldevelopmentofflavor.Whenthey’reready,theclovesshouldbeblack,slightlyshrunkenawayfromtheirskins,tackytothetouch,andeasilysquishedbetweenyourthumbandforefinger.Theflavorshouldbesweet,earthy,slightlyfruity,andreminiscentofroastedgarlic.

Letthewholeheadsrestonthecounteratroomtemperatureforadaytoshedsomeoftheresidualmoisture,thenbagthemorpacktheminacoveredcontainerandstoretheminthefridgeorfreezer.BlackgarlichaslessmoistureandapHwellbelowthatoffreshgarlic,butit’snotperfectlyshelfstable,soitneedstoberefrigeratedorfrozen.Itwillkeepwellforaweekinthefridge;otherwise,freezeitforlongerstorage.

BlackGarlic,day1

Day7

Day30

Day60

1.Vacuum-sealthegarlicinvacuumbags.

2.Alternatively,wrapthegarlicintwolayersoffoil.

3.Garlicreadyforblackening.

4.Placethegarlicintoyourricecookerorfermentationchamber.

5.Closethechamberandsetitto60°C/140°F,orsealthecookerandsetto“keepwarm.”

6.Thegarlicwilltake6to8weekstoblacken.

SuggestedUsesBlackGarlicIceCream

Crushblackgarlicwithamortarandpestle,thenstiritintoicecreamforanunexpectedlywell-matchedcombination.

matchedcombination.

Blackgarliccanbeemployedinanypartofamenu,fromtheverybeginningtodessert.Buyormakeagood-qualityvanillaorchocolateicecream,andfoldaspoonfulofchoppedblackgarlicintoeachserving.Chocolateicecreamisfurtherimprovedbythesmallestdrizzleofoliveoil,too.

BlackGarlicSkinBrothWhenyou’veharvestedallthefleshfromyourblackgarlic,don’tthrowawaytheskins.Savethemtoaddbythefistfultochickenbroth—oranybroth,forthatmatter—duringthelasthourofcookingforextrarichness,depthofflavor,andadeliciousfruitiness.Infact,ifyou’replanningtoaddblackgarlicskinstoyourbroth,don’tevenbotherusingothervegetablesatthebeginning.Theskinswillhavemorethanenoughflavortocomplementthechickenontheirown.WelovetodothisatNomaforstaffmeal,especiallyatbreakfastwithafewdropsofchilioilandmaybesomericeornoodlesontheside.

BlackGarlicPasteCrushpeeledblackgarlicwithamortarandpestleandabitofwateroroiluntilyouhaveathickpastewithplentyofpossibleuses.Forstarters,itmakesafineaccompanimenttoslicedhardcheeses,justlikequincepaste.(Ifyoufindtheblackgarlicpasteabitlackinginsweetness,addadropofhoney.)Shouldyoumixequalquantitiesofblackgarlicandolivetapenade,you’llwindupwithadelicioustoppingforaslabofcrunchy-softbreadthat’sbeentoastedwithplentyofoliveoil.Lastbutnotleast,whenblackgarlicfindsitswayintopesto(aboutateaspoonperserving)andthatpestofindsitswayintoyourpasta,youwillnotbedisappointed.

Thetartnessofagoodapplesitsinpleasantcontrasttothedeepsweetnessproducedbyblackening.

BlackApplesMakes10apples

10apples

Applestendtofallapartwhenexposedtomoistheat,whichposesaproblemfortheblackeningprocessweuseforgarlic.Asaworkaround,wecarefullyblackentheapples,thenremovethemoistureafterwardwithadehydrator.Thistechniqueworksequallywellwithpears,quince,andotherpomefruits.Theblackenedresultsaredeeplyflavorful,sweet,andchewyliketoffee.

Thein-depthinstructionsforBlackGarlicserveasatemplateforalltheblackenedfruitandvegetablerecipesinthischapter.Whilethemethoddifferssomewhathere,werecommendyoureadthatrecipebeforestartinginonthisone.

Peeltheapplesandarrangetheminalargevacuumbagsothey’renottouching.Theappleswillneedtositflatinyourfermentationchamber,soifitlookslikeyourchambermightbetoosmall,removeafewapples.Sealthebagonmaximumsuction.Youcanalsousealargezip-topbagandsqueezealltheairoutbyplacingtheapplesintothebag,thenslowlyloweringitintoatubofwater,stoppingafewcentimetersfromthetop(youmayneedtopullfromthebottomofthebagtocounteractthefruit’sbuoyancy).Thepressureofthewaterwillforcetheairout.Sealitshutandyou’llhaveaneffective,albeitimperfect,vacuum.

Placetheapplesinthefermentationchamber.Ifyou’reusinganelectricricecookerorslowcooker,remembertoraisethefruitoffthebottomwithaplate,wirerack,orbamboomat.Closethechamberandsetitto60°C/140°F,orsealthecookerandturnittothe“keepwarm”setting.

Withinthefirstfewdays,theappleswillturnlightbrownandbegintoleachtheirjuices,whichwillcollectatthebottomofthebag.Thebestpossiblethingyoucando?Don’tdisturbthem!Afterthefirstcoupleofweeks,thefleshwillhavedegradedsomuchthatevenalittlejostlingmaywrecktheapples’structure.Leavethemaloneforatotalof8weeks,bywhichpointtheywillhaveblackenedquiteabit.

Theappleswillbeextremelyfragileatthispoint,socarefullyremovethebagfromthefermentationchamberandcutitopen,drainingandreservingtheliquid.Usingaspoonorspatula,transfertheapplestoadehydratortrayorbakingsheetlinedwithparchmentpaper.Dehydratetheapplesat40°C/104°Forinaverylowoven;theyshouldtake24to36hourstodrytotheproperdoneness.Rotatetheapplesacoupleoftimesthroughouttheprocesssotheydryevenly.They’redonewhentheirtextureischewyliketoffee.Oncedried,theycanbestoredcoveredinthefridgeforaweek,orfrozenforlongerstorage.

BlackApples,day1

Day7

Day60

SuggestedUsesBlackAppleLeatherLikedriedapricots,driedblackapplestakeonatexturesimilartoachewytoffee.Oncedried,theapplesmakeadelightfulsnackontheirown.Youcoulddrytheappleswholeforacoupleofdaysinadehydrator,butifyouwantthingstomovemorequicklyandyoudon’tmindlosingtheappleshape,pureethefruitwithoutitsjuice,thenspreadthepureeintoalayer3millimeters/⅛inchthickonanonstickmatbeforedryingintosheets.Chewyblackapples(orblackappleleather)areprimedtodressintheMexicanwayofeatingfruit,bysqueezingalittlebitoflimeorlemonjuiceoverthetopandsprinklingwithchilesalt.

Chocolate-CoveredBlackApples

Driedblackapplesdippedinchocolate.

Beginbyslicingthecheeksofthedriedappleawayfromthecore(ifyouusedasmallervarietyofapple,leavethemwhole).Temperagood-qualitydarkchocolate—atleast70%cacao—thendiptheappleslicesintothechocolate.Allowtocoolonarackorparchmentpapersothatthechocolatecoatingbecomesacrunchycontrasttotherich,creamytextureoftheappleinside.

BrandiedBlackApples

Blackapplesimparttheirflavortobrandy(whileabsorbingsomeofthebrandy’sflavorthemselves).

Thismakesforafungift,providedyouplanwellinadvance.PlacewholeorhalvedblackapplesinaglassjarandcoverwithgoodbrandyorCalvados.Sealandstoreinacoolplace—thelonger,thebetter.Attherestaurant,we’vesometimesletfruitsitinaboozybathforuptotwoyears.Oncethealcoholhasturnedsweetandsyrupyandthefruitissoftandalcoholic,it’stimetobreakoutthevanillaicecream.

Findfreshchestnutsintheearlyautumn,thentransformthemthroughblackening.

BlackChestnutsMakes1kilogram

1kilogramfreshchestnutsintheshell

Fresh,sweetchestnutsareattheirpeakintheearlyfall.Theycontainafairamountofwater,andalthoughtheyhaveashelltokeepthatmoisturein,likegarlic,theyshouldbewrappedinfoilorplasticformoremoistureretention.AtNoma,we’vefoundthatchestnutstastefarmoreinterestingwhenthey’renotfullyblackened.Heldat60°C/140°F,thechestnutstakeabout4weekstomaturetotheidealpoint.Theflavorisakintograpemust,withnotesofplumsanddriedfruit.Anychalkinessyoumightassociatewithrawchestnutsgiveswaytoapleasantlymeatytexturewithabitofsnap.Pastthefourthweek,deepcarameltonessetinbuttheflavorbecomesabitone-dimensional.

Thein-depthinstructionsforBlackGarlicserveasatemplateforalltheblackenedfruitandvegetablerecipesinthischapter.Werecommendyoureadthatrecipebeforestartinginonthisone.

Arrangethechestnutsinasinglelayerinavacuumbag.They’llneedtositflatinyourfermentationchamber,soifitlookslikeyourchambermightbetoosmall,removeafewchestnuts.Sealthebagonmaximumsuction.Youcanalsousealargezip-topbagandsqueezealltheairoutbyplacingthechestnutsinthebag,thenslowlyloweringitintoalargetubofwater,stoppingafewcentimetersfromthetop(youmayneedtopullfromthebottomofthebagtocounteractthechestnuts’buoyancy).Thepressureofthewaterwillforcetheairout.Sealitshutandyou’llhaveaneffective,albeitimperfect,vacuum.

Placethechestnutsinthefermentationchamber.Ifyou’reusinganelectricricecookerorslowcooker,remembertoraisethechestnutsoffthebottomwithaplate,wirerack,orbamboomat.Closethechamberandsetitto60°C/140°F,orsealthecookerandturnittothe“keepwarm”setting.

Leavethechestnutsinthechamberorcookerfor4weeks.Slitoneopentotasteanddecidewhetheryouwanttogoalittlelonger.Oncethey’veblackenedtoyourliking,keepthemintheshelluntilyouwanttousethem.Storeinasealed

containerinthefridgeifyouplantousethemwithinaweek,orfreezeforlongerstorage.

BlackChestnuts,day1

Day14

Day30

SuggestedUseStuffedPasta

Pureeblackchestnutswithabitofchickenstockforarichandnuancedpastafilling.

Withverylittlemodification,blackchestnutscanbeturnedintoanunbelievablefillingforpasta.Startbychopping350gramspeeledblackchestnutsintothinslivers.Inamediumsautépan,heat100gramsbutteruntilitbeginstofoam.Throwthechestnutsinandsautéforafewminutesbeforeadding250gramsgoodchickenstock.Cookatasimmerbeneatharoundofparchmentpaperuntilthechestnutsarefairlytender.Atthatpoint,transferthecontentsofthepottoablenderandpureethemixtureuntilit’ssilkysmooth(dependingonyourblender,itmayneedatouchofwatertohelpitspin).Seasonthepureewithsaltandmaceornutmeg.Pipeitontofreshpastaandformyourpreferredstuffedshape:cappelletti,agnolotti,tortellini,ravioli.Andtotakethingstoanentirely

newdimension,glazeyourpastawiththeLactoKojiButterSauceafterit’scooked.

Freshhazelnutstakeonatoasty,chocolatyflavorwhenexposedtoprolongedheat

BlackHazelnutsMakes1kilogram

1kilogramfreshhazelnutsintheshell

Freshhazelnuts(alsocalledcobnutsorfilberts,dependingonthecultivarorregion)canbereadytoharvestasearlyasJuly,butdefinitelybyAugustandearlySeptember.Butbeware:Ahazelnutinitsshellisnotnecessarilyafreshhazelnut—infact,itprobablyisn’t.IntheNorthernHemisphere,hazelnutsareharvestedoncethey’vefallenfromthetreeandareoftencellaredforawhilebeforereachingtheconsumer.Thisdriesthenutsoutcompletely,leavinginadequatemoisturetofacilitateblackening.Whenpickedstraightfromthetree,thefleshofhazelnutsiswhiteandtender,withasnappybite.Thefreshnessandripenessofyourhazelnuts—theyshouldbemature,nottooyoung—isthebiggestfactorinmakinggoodblackhazelnuts,soyou’llprobablyneedtofindanobliginggrowerorhopeyougetluckyatthefarmers’market.

Thein-depthinstructionsforBlackGarlicserveasatemplateforalltheblackenedfruitandvegetablerecipesinthischapter.Werecommendyoureadthatrecipebeforestartinginonthisone.

Arrangethehazelnutsinasinglelayerinavacuumbag.They’llneedtositflatinyourfermentationchamber,soifitlookslikeyourchambermightbetoosmall,removeafewhazelnuts.Sealthebagonmaximumsuction.Youcanalsousealargezip-topbagandsqueezealltheairoutbyplacingthehazelnutsinthebag,thenslowlyloweringitintoalargetubofwater,stoppingafewcentimetersfromthetop(youmayneedtopullfromthebottomofthebagtocounteractthehazelnuts’buoyancy).Thepressureofthewaterwillforcetheairout.Sealitshutandyou’llhaveaneffective,albeitimperfect,vacuum.

Eitherway,thesharptipsofthehazelnutscanpotentiallypuncturethebagonceplacedinthefermentationchamber,soit’sagoodideatodouble-bagthem.

Placethehazelnutsinthefermentationchamber.Ifyou’reusinganelectricricecookerorslowcooker,remembertoraisethechestnutsoffthebottomwithaplate,wirerack,orbamboomat.Closethechamberandsetitto60°C/140°F,orsealthecookerandturnittothe“keepwarm”setting.

Leavethehazelnutsinthechamberorcookerfor4to6weeks,duringwhichtimetheirfleshwillshrinkalittle.Crackoneopenandhavealook.Itshouldhaveadeepgoldentodarkbrowncolor.Thetasteissomethingremarkable,likeacupofhotchocolatewithaspoonfulofNutellainit.Thetexturewillnolongersnapasitdidwhenfresh,butwillhaveapleasantchewiness.Useimmediatelyorstorethem,sealed,inthefreezersotheydon’tdryout,whichaffectstheirtastedramatically.

BlackHazelnuts,day1

Day7

Day30

SuggestedUsesSoleàlaGrenobloiseBlackhazelnutstasteremarkablylikehotchocolate,andtheirsweet,deeplyroastedflavormakesthemextremelyfuntocookwith.They’reaperfectunexpectedcompaniontodisheslikesoleàlagrenobloise.Startbycrackingblackhazelnutsoutoftheirshellsandchoppingthemintoacoarsemeal—you’llneedabout30grams.Dredgeskinlesssolefilletsinregularflour,thenfrytheminahotpanwithagoodamountofoliveoiluntilgoldenbrown,about90secondsoneachside.Whilethefishiscooking,put30gramsbutterinasmallersaucepanandletitsizzleandbrown,thenthrowintheblackhazelnutsandstiruntiltheybecomearomatic.Add30gramschoppedcapers,10gramschoppedparsley,andthejuiceof1lemon,andswirlthepantoformaquicksauce.DrownthebrownedfilletsofsoleinthenuttyGrenobloiseandserveimmediately.

BlackHazelnutMilk

Pureethenutsandwater,thenstrainthroughasievetoharvestthemilk.

Pureethenutsandwater,thenstrainthroughasievetoharvestthemilk.

Nutmilkisabeveragethat’sgrowinginpopularity,andblackhazelnutsmakeanespeciallyamazingnutmilk.Crackahandfulofnutsoutoftheirshellsandcoverwithtwicetheirweightinwater.Allowthenutstosoakinthefridgeovernight.Thefollowingday,blendtheminablenderuntilcompletelysmooth,about3minutes.Strainthemixturethroughasieveorchinoislinedwithacoupleoflayersofcheesecloth,pressingdownonthepulpwithaladletoextractasmuchmilkaspossible.Fromthere,useyourblackhazelnutmilktomakehotchocolateorhorchata(replacingthewaterormilkwithhazelnutmilk),orgarnishitwithasplashofhazelnutoilanduseitasasauceforsearedscallops.

Coatingshallotsinwaxbeforeblackeningsealsinmoistureandimpartsapleasanthoneyflavor.

WaxedBlackShallotsMakes1kilogram

500gramsbeeswax

1kilogramfreshshallots

We’veseenhowtoblackeningredientsinimpermeablebagsandfoil,butthesearen’ttheonlymethods.Plasticisusefulforsmallproductslikenuts,butforlargeritemslikeshallots,encasingtheminwaxisaninterestingalternativethatimpartsitsownflavortothefinalblackenedproduct.Lookforanorganicfood-gradebeeswax(availableonline).

Theslimmarginbetweentheidealblackeningtemperature(60°C/140°F)andthetemperatureatwhichthebeeswax(whichcoverstheshallots)willmelt(64°C/147°F)canmakethedifferencebetweenbeautifullyblackenedshallotsandaterriblemess.Aricecookersetto“keepwarm”maynotbepreciseenoughtopullthisoff.Therefore,you’llneedafermentationchamberwithmoreprecisetemperaturecontrol.(See“BuildingaFermentationChamber”.)

Inaverysmallpotovermediumheat,meltthebeeswax.Thewaxshouldonlyjustbemelted;don’theatitupmorethanneededtokeepitfluid.You’llwantthewaxasdeepaspossibleinordertofullyimmersetheshallots,sothesmallerthepot’sdiameterandthetalleritswalls,thebetter.

Peeltheshallots,keepingtherootintact.Makesuretheshallotsaremoistanddon’thaveanyvisiblemoldonthem.Workingoneatatime,pickupashallotbypiercingitinitsrootendwithaskewerortweezers.Diptheshallotintothewaxbrieflyandpullitout,lettingtheexcessdripbackintothepot.Holditintheopenairuntilthewaxturnsopaqueandsolidifies;itwon’ttakelong,asbeeswaxhasameltingpointof64°C/147°F.Quicklydiptheshallotbackintothefluidwaxandrepeattheprocessuntilyou’vebuiltupfivelayers.

Oncethefifthlayerhasdried,removetheskeweranddiptherootendintothewaxtosealtheholeandcoattheentireshallot.Allowthewaxtodryonelasttime,thensettheshallotasideonatray.Repeattheprocessuntilyou’vecoatedalltheshallots.

Carefullyplacethewax-coatedshallotsonatrayinthefermentationchamberandagethemfor8to10weeks.It’simportanttoensurethattheholdingtemperatureofyourfermentationchamberisbothaccurateandstable.Thisiswheretheheatingmatsandtemperaturecontrollerswediscussintheprimerchaptercanbequiteuseful(see“BuildingaFermentationChamber”).Ifyou’reusingsucharig,trytokeeptheheatsourceawayfromtheshallots,sotherearenohotspotsthatcouldpotentiallymeltthewax.

Asanexample,ifyou’vemadeyourfermentationchamberoutofadecommissionedchestfreezer,offsettheheatingsupplytoonesideandplacetheshallotsonatrayontheotherside,raisedoffthefreezerbottom.Atemperaturecontrollerwillkeepthetemperatureinthefreezersteadytowithinadegreeandallowthebeeswaxtoremainsolid.Forevenbetterresults,placeasmallfaninthechestfreezeraswelltoallowforbetteraircirculation.

Whenitcomestimetoharvest,allowtheshallotstocooltoroomtemperature,thenslicethewaxopenwithaknife.They’llhavethetextureofawholeroastedshallotthatyoumightfindatthebottomofapanofroastchicken.Theshallotscanalsobestoredinthewaxinthefridgeorfreezeruntilyou’rereadytousethem.

BlackShallots,day1

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SuggestedUseOnionSoup

Thinlysliceblackshallotsforuseinsoup(oranywhereelseyou’dusecaramelizedonions).

Thinkingofblackshallotsasthemostdeeplycaramelizedonionsimaginablewillhelpyoucookmorecreativelywiththem.Andwhat’soneofthefirstthingsthatcomestomindwhenyouthinkofcaramelizedonions?Onionsoup.Withasharpknife,julienne250gramsblackshallotsandcookthemwithenoughrichbeefstocktocover,alongwithasplashoffortifiedwine.AdjusttheseasoningwithsaltandblackpepperbeforetransferringthebrothintosoupbowlsandtoppingthemwithslabsofcrustybreadandlotsofgratedSwisscheese.Broil

untilthecheeseisbrownedandstringy.Whenyourfriendsandfamilymarvelatthesoup,tellthemyoustartedcookingittwoandahalfmonthsago.

EquipmentThereareamultitudeofdifferentwaystogoaboutfermentation,andthusthereisnosinglesetof“correct”equipment.Somefermenterswillswearbytheirgrandmother’sheirloomceramiccrock,whileothersmakedowithrepurposedpicklejars.We’llstopshortofsuggestingspecificitems,lestwemakeyoufeellikeyoucan’tcarryoutafermentationprojectunlessyouhaveexactlywhatwehave.Buthere’ssomebasicinformationforreference,

shouldyoubewonderingwhattobuyonlineorfromyourlocalfermentationstore.

AirlocksAnindispensabletoolwhenbrewingalcohol,andusefulforlacto-fermentationaswell,anairlockconsistsofawater-filledS-shapedventpluggedintoarubberstopper.Aircannotenterthroughtheairlock,butasmicrobescreategasinsidethefermentationvessel,pressurebuildsuntilitisexpelledthroughthevent.

AirPumpandAirStoneCommondevicesusedtoaeratevinegarsandsupplyoxygentotheaerobicbacteriafermentingit,airpumpscanbefoundatbothpetstoresandhome-brewshops.Manycomewithstoneaerators(airstones),butifyounoticethemdeterioratingovertime,youcanalsofindmetalaerators.

CeramicCrocksCeramiccrocksaretriedandtruevesselsforfermentedfoods.They’reopaque,solightcan’tenter(seesidebar),whichpreventsUVraysfromdamagingmicrobialcells.Manycrockscomewiththeaddedfeatureofasmallmoatinwhichthelidsits.Whenfilledwithwater,itactsasanairlock.

CiderPressNormallyusedtopressthemashoffermentedfruitthroughamuslinbag,aciderpresscanalsobeusedtoharvestshoyuorthejuiceoflacto-fermentedfruitsandvegetables.

DehydratorThiscountertopapplianceblowswarmairovertraysofingredients,dryingthemslowly.Dehydratorsaregreatformakinguseofarangeoffermentedgoods,fromlacto-fermentedfruitstoblackvegetables.

FermentationWeightsOftenincludedwithfermentingcrocks,glassorceramicfermentationweightsareusedtopressingredientsdownbeneathawaterlineandoutofcontactwiththeair.They’reespeciallyusefulformakingmiso,andwhenlacto-fermentingsturdierproducts.

GlassJars(DifferentShapesandSizes)Glassisagreatmediumforfermentingkombuchasandlacto-fermentsbecauseitisinertandallowsyoutotrackyourprogressvisually(seesidebar).Swing-toporscrew-onlidsareequallyacceptable.

GrainPolisherUsedinJapantoremovetheendocarp(outerlayer)ofricebywhirringthegrainsagainstanabrasivesurface,makingiteasierforkojitotakehold.Agrainpolisherwillworkequallywellwithlesser-knowngrains,likeemmerorkonini.

HumidifierAsmallhumidifierisnecessaryforincubatingkoji.Thesecomeinmanyshapesandtypes.Someoperatewithanultrasonic

platethatcreatesanultrafinemist,whileothersdispersewaterintotheairthroughevaporation.Eitherwillwork,butingeneral,smallerisbetter.

JuicerIndispensableforextractingfruitandvegetablejuicesforvinegarsandkombuchas,juicerscomeinmanyshapesandstyles.

KiokeFlared,open-topbarrelstraditionallyusedinJapantofermentsake,miso,andshoyu,kiokeareusuallymadeofcedar,whichimpartsadistinctflavortotheferment.Theopentopallowsthemixturetobestirredorpresseddownwithweights.

KojiShakerYou’relookingforanicing/powderedsugarshaker:asimplemetalcylinderoutfittedwithawirescreenlid.AshakerallowsyoutodistributeAspergillussporesontotraysofsteamedriceorbarley.

MuslinorCheeseclothUsefulforstrainingmashesandice-clarifyingbrothsandstocks,thesearemadeofeithervinylorcottonandcanbereusedwithathoroughwashing.

NylonMeshStrainerAlsocalledafishnet,thisisawireorplasticringfittedwithfinenylonmeshusedtostrainliquidsandsiftflours.Afine-meshsievelinedwithcheeseclothservesthesamepurpose.

PerforatedSteelTrayAperforatedstainless-steeltrayallowskojitogrowonasanitarysurfacewithaccesstooxygen.

pHMeterThishandheldtoolprovidesanaccurate,digitalmeasurementofaliquid’spH.

pHTestStripsThesechemicallyreactivestripsofpaperchangecolordependingonthepHofasolution.Youdipthestripsintoaliquid,thenvisuallycomparethecolortoakey.

PlasticBucketFood-gradeplasticbucketsareidealvesselsforlargerbatchesoffermentslikekombucha,miso,garum,vinegar,andalcohol(whenequippedwithanairlock).Notethatplasticdoeshaveatendencytoabsorbflavors,soit’sbestnottousethesamebucketfordifferentpurposes.

PotandSteamerAsimplethree-piecesetup(pot,lid,andperforatedsteamerinsert)isusedtocookgrains.

RefractometerAnoptionalbutextremelyhandytool,arefractometerallowsyoutodeterminethesugarcontentofaliquidbymeasuringtherefractionoflight.(Themoresugardissolvedinwater,thegreatertherefractiveindex.)

RiceCookerAlargericecookersetto“keepwarm”canserveasafermentationchamberforproductsthatneedtobeheldathighertemperatures,suchasgarumsandblackfruitsandvegetables.Besuretofindaricecookerthatdoesnotcomeequippedwithanauto-offfeature.

SpaceHeaterorHeatingMatEitherofthesedevicescanbeusedtoheatawell-insulatedfermentationchamber.(Heatingmats—normallyusedtogerminateseedsorheatreptileterrariums—arebettersuitedforsmallerchambers.)Whilemanyheatersareequippedwithmanualrheostats,they’rebestwhencombinedwithatemperaturecontroller.

StyrofoamCoolerWaterproof,well-insulated,cheap,andeasilycleaned,Styrofoamcoolersmakeidealfermentationchambers.Seestyrofoamcoolerforinstructions.

TemperatureControllerAnelectronicdeviceforregulatingthetemperatureofafermentationchamber,iteffectivelyfunctionsasathermostatthatcanbeprogrammedtocontrolaheatsourceofyourchoosing.Somemodelscanalsoswitchovertoacoolingfunctionshouldthetemperaturegettoohot.

VacuumSealerandVacuumBagsAcountertopvacuumsealerisextremelyusefulforlacto-fermentationandstorageofallyourfermentsoncecomplete.Clearvacuumbagsallowyoutoseewhat’shappeningduringfermentationandcaneasilybecutopentoventgasandresealed.

WoodenBarrelBarrelsimpartuniqueflavorsandallowforveryslowevaporationoftheliquidstheyhold.Alcoholsandvinegarsarethemostcommonbarrel-agedferments,butgarumsandshoyusalsobenefitfromaginginwood.

WoodenKojiTrayTypicallymadefromuntreatedplanksofcedar,kojitraysarethetraditionalvesselforgrowingAspergillusoryzaeonriceorbarley.Ifallgoeswell,there’snoneedtowashthetraysbetweenbatchesofkoji,asthefunguscomestoliveinthetraysthemselves.

SourcesAnorganicfarmers’marketorgrocerystoreisyourbestsourcefortherawingredientscalledforinthisbook.Forfermentation-specificitems,awell-stockedhome-breworfermentationshopwillhavealmosteverythingyouneed.Beyondthat,therearesomethingsyoucan’tfindonline.Hereareafewsourceswe’veusedtoprocurespecializedproducts.

BeePollenbee-pollen.co.uk911honey.comrawliving.eu

Brewer’sYeasthopt-shop.dkthemaltmiller.co.ukyeastman.com

DefattedorLow-FatHazelnutMealbobsredmill.comoelmanufaktur-rilli.depaleo-paradies.de

GrasshoppersandWaxMothLarvaedelibugs.nlspeedyworm.comtopinsect.net

KojiSporesakita-konno.co.jpamericanbrewmaster.comgemcultures.comorganic-cultures.com

KombuchaSCOBYculturesforhealth.comfairment.dehappykombucha.co.ukhjemmeriet.comkombuchakamp.com

Acknowledgments

Foralltheiterationsthisbookhastakenonitswindingpathtobecomingwhatitis,bothauthorswouldliketothankthemanyindividualswhoeitherhelpeditalongitswayoraffordedusthetimetowriteit,amongthem,ThomasFrebel,MetteBrinkSoberg,BenjaminPaulIng,JunichiTakahashi,JasonWhite,MattOrlando,PaulaTroxler,EvanSung,JasonLoucas,LauraandAndrejaLajh,LizzieEllison,AralynBeaumont,PaulD’Avino,DiegoGutierrez,PhilHickman,AlexPetrician,AdrianoBruzzese,AnneCatherinePreißer,PriyancaPatel,FionaStrouts,andAlessioMarcato,inadditiontotheentireNomafamily,everyoneatAtelierDyakova,andtheentireteamatArtisanBooks.

Wewouldalsoliketothankauthorswhoseamazingbodiesofworkinspiredustodelvedeeperintothepractice,history,andscienceoffermentationatall.WilliamShurtleffandAkikoAoyagi,HaroldMcGeeandSandorKatz.

Notleast,veryspecialthanksareinordertotheteamofamazingeditorswhohelpedshapethewordsofthisbookintoavolumethatisasenjoyabletoreadasitwastowrite:ChrisYing,MarthaHolmberg,Dr.ArielleJohnson,andourpublisher,LiaRonnen.

RR&DZ

AbouttheAuthors

RenéRedzepiisthechefandco-ownerofNomainCopenhagen,fourtimesrecognizedastheworld’sbestbytheWorld’s50BestRestaurants.RedzepihastwiceappearedonthecoverofTimemagazine(andbeennamedoneofTime’s100MostInfluentialPeopleintheWorld);beenfeaturedinpublicationsfromtheNewYorkTimestoWired;andbeenprofiledintwofeature-lengthdocumentariesandcountlessnationalandinternationalmediaoutlets.Hisfirstbook,Noma:TimeandPlaceinNordicCuisine,wasanIACPandJamesBeardAwardwinner.HeisalsotheauthorofAWorkinProgress.Heliveswithhiswife,NadineLevyRedzepi,andtheirthreechildren.FindhimonInstagram@reneredzepinomaand@nomacph.

DavidZilberisachefandphotographerwhohailsfromToronto,Canada.HehascookedfromcoasttocoastacrossNorthAmerica,mostnotablyasasous-chefatHawksworthRestaurantinVancouver.HehasworkedatNomasince2014andhasservedasdirectorofitsfermentationlabsince2016.HeenjoysJamaicanpattiesandquantumphysics.FindhimonInstagram@david_zilber.

IndexNOTE:Pagenumbershavebeenremovedfromtheindexforthiselectronicedition.Tolocateanyofthefollowingterms,pleaseusethesearchfeatureofyoure-bookreader.

A|B|C|D|E|FG|H|I|J|K|LM|N|O|P|Q|RS|T|U|V|W|Y

Aaceticacidbacteria(AAB)acidsAjinomotoGroupAmazake,SparklingCitricKojiapplesAppleKombuchaBlackApples

ascorbicacidAsparagus,LactoWhiteAspergillusluchuensisCitricBarleyKoji

Aspergillusoryzaeharvestingyourownsporesinmisovariantsofseealsokojiautolysis

BbacksloppingBacon-CepVinaigrettebacteriaaceticacid(AAB)ClostridiumbotulinumEscherichiacolilacticacid(LAB)Salmonella

SCOBY

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moldsAspergillusluchuensisAspergillusoryzae,seeAspergillusoryzaepathogenic

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peaso,seemisosandpeasopH(potentialofhydrogen)phenolspicklescucumberQuickPicklesTomato-WaterPickles

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VvegetablesApple-VegetableSmoothiechoosingCruditésKoji-BlanchedVegetablesMashedRootVegetables

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Wwateractivityweights,fermentationweightsandmeasuresbaker’spercentagessaltand

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YyeastsBrettanomycesinkombuchaSaccharomycescerevisiae

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yellowpeasYellowPeaShoyuYellowPeasoseealsomisosandpeaso

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