The News Media in Children's Political Socialization

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merican ssociation for Public Opinion Research

The News Media in Children's Political SocializationAuthor(s): M. Margaret Conway, Mikel L. Wyckoff, Eleanor Feldbaum and David AhernSource: The Public Opinion Quarterly, Vol. 45, No. 2 (Summer, 1981), pp. 164-178Published by: Oxford University Press on behalf of the American Association for Public OpinionResearchStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2748789 .Accessed: 24/09/2014 00:46

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The News Media inChildren's Political Socialization

M. MARGARET CONWAY, MIKEL L. WYCKOFF,ELEANOR FELDBAUM, AND DAVID AHERN

MUCH previous research on the development of children's politi-cal orientations has emphasized interpersonal sources of influencesuch as families, peer groups, and schools. Central to this literatureare the active learning concepts of motivation, practice, and achieve-ment. But children also learn through passive experiences, which are

typically effortless, responsive to animated stimuli amenable to arti-ficial aid to relaxation, and characterized by an absence of resistanceto what is learned, thus opening up possibilities that, depending uponone's view, one may welcome or deplore (Krugman and Hartley,1970:184).Many of these passive experiences are provided to children

Abstract The research reported examines the impact of the news media as an agent ofpolitical socialization on children's political knowledge, their attitudes toward politicalparties and electoral systems, and their activities relative to politics. Children's newsmedia use and level of political knowledge unction as primary ources of causal effectsfor each other. They are consistently more important n their effects on the attitudesand types of participation tudied in this research han are the parental and educationalsystem socialization ndicators or the structural variables of grade and gender.

M. Margaret Conway is an Associate Professor of Government and Politics, Univer-

sity of Maryland. Mikel L. Wyckoff s an Associate Study Director with Market Facts,Inc.-Washington. Eleanor Feldbaum s a Senior Scientist with The Analytic SciencesCorporation. David Ahern is an Assistant Professor of Political Science, Universityof Dayton. The authors wish to express their appreciation to the school systemwhich cooperated in collecting the data, and to acknowledge the support for dataanalysis provided by the Computer Science Center and the Department f Governmentand Politics, University of Maryland, he assistance of Anne Marso, Mark Weinberg,and Glenn Gardner n collecting the data, and the help of Mary Lynn Tischer and JoyceKaufman in coding the data. The contributions of our research colleague MarshaGrayson in the design of the research and the data collection are acknowledged andappreciated. The General Research Board of the Graduate School of the University ofMaryland provided research support o the senior author. The comments of an anony-

mous reviewer were very helpful n revising an earlier draft and are gratefully acknowl-edged.

Public Opinion Quarterly Vol. 45:164-178 ? 1981 by The Trustees of Columbia UniversityPublished by Elsevier North-Holland, Inc. 0033-362X81l/0045-164/$2.50

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NEWS MEDIA N CHLDREN'S SOCIALIZATION 165

through the mass media. Children earn when they read newspapersor magzines, when they watch television or films, or when they listento the radio just as surely as when they read textbooks or listen tolectures. And they learn not only information but also attitudes andopinions.

While considerable research has examined the influence of themedia, and especially television violence, in stimulating aggressivebehavior in children, the impact of news media use on children'spolitical information, political participation, and attitudes toward thepolitical regime has received less attention. Such relationships are the

concern of the research reported here.Researchers disagree about the importance of the mass media inpolitical socialization. In their earlier works Klapper (196O} nd Gerb-ner (1960) treat the media as secondary socializing agents whichreinforce existing views through selective exposure. Others argue thatchildren have few political views to be reinforced; hence, directlearning of political attitudes and beliefs can occur (Chaffee et al.,1970).

A number of studies have found that the news media are an important

information source for children (Alper and Leidy, 1970; Atkin, 1977;Atkin et al., 1976; Byrne, 1969; Connell, 1971; Conway et al., 1975;Hawkins et al., 1975; Hirsch, 1971; Hollander, 1971; Rubin, 1976;Tolley, 1973; Torney et al., 1975). Research on the impact of newsmedia use on children's political attitudes has been more limited.However, while the evidence is less plentiful, several studies havesuggested that the news media can influence affective as well ascognitive orientations (Conway et al., 1975; Chaffee et al., 1970;Jackson-Beeck and Chaffee, 1975; Kraus and Davis, 1976).

Certain generalizations concerning children's mass media con-sumption patterns have been established, especially the matter ofgender differences in viewing and reading. For example, girls likemusic and nonconflictual hemes, whereas boys prefer adventure andaction fantasy content (Roberts, 1973). Girls are more likely than boysto acquire information hrough ncidental learning (Hale et al., 1968),and they seek out the reality content of the mass media at an earlierage than do boys (Schramm et al., 1959). However, boys reportviewing more news than do girls (Atkin, 1978; Rubin, 1976).

Age or grade differences also exist in media use. Since radio andtelevision are usually more accessible and understandable, childrengenerally use the electronic media first. Use of print media increasessteadily as children progress through the early school years (Roberts,1973). Older children also report more frequent viewing of televisionspublic affairs content (Atkin, 1978; Rubin, 1978).



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166 CONWAY, WYCKOFF, FELDBAUM, AND AHERN

Older studies suggest that parents have a direct impact on their

children's media use patterns (Himmelweit et al., 1958; Schramm etal., 1961). More recent analyses have questioned the validity of thisdirect effects model. One alternative is that of reverse modeling, inwhich children influence parental television viewing patterns (Clarke,1963). However, children generally report spending more timewatching television than do parents (Chaffee et al., 1971). An oppor-tunity explanation for children's news viewing, for example, childrenwatch television news because that is what their parents are watching,also cannot be discounted, although some research reports low cor-

relations between parental television news viewing and the children'slevel of news viewing (Chaffee et al., 1971; Atkin, 1978). Further-more, patterns of television news viewing by children may be influ-enced by family communications patterns (Chaffee et al., 1971).

Those children who attend more to the news media may be morecognizant of the political system's strengths and weaknesses. Newsprograms provide extensive coverage of the electoral system and therole of political parties in nominating and electing public officials.They also discuss goals and outcomes of public policy programs,

accomplishments and misdeeds of public officials, levels of govern-ment expenditures, and on occasion the misuse of public funds. Thus,exposure to attitude-forming role models and to information aboutcomplex political institutions and processes may result in the devel-opment of favorable attitudes toward some aspects of government andless favorable attitudes toward others.

Methods, Models, and Data

Research dealing with the role of the news media in children'spolitical socialization suggests a developmental model in which cer-tain antecedent variables influence news media use and politicalknowledge, with both antecedent and intervening variables having animpact on additional political attitudes and behaviors. Therefore, theanalysis proceeds in two stages. First, linkages among four antece-dent variables, children's news media use, and political knowledge areexamined. Then, relationships between elements of the initial modeland children's party system support, electoral system support, andpolitical participation are examined.

The analysis is based on data collected in seven elementary schoolslocated in a Middle Atlantic metropolitan area. A paper and pencilquestionnaire was administered o 760 fifth and sixth grade studentsearly in 1973. The schools were located in three distinct types ofsocioeconomic neighborhoods: wo were in working class areas, three



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of lecture, discussion, and reading was used. A non-zero score means

a simulation was used to instruct children in American governmentalprocesses, with a score of one assigned to the most simple simulation(discussion and voting) and higher scores assigned to more complexsimulations. A score of four indicates a very complex simulation,involving use of voter registration ystems, presidential primaries andnominating conventions, debates on issues, campaigns, and an elec-tion.

The knowledge index is a summed score of children's correct re-sponses to 17 questions about political institutions, including political

parties and the electoral process, with correct answers to these ques-tions being assigned a score of one and incorrect answers scoredzero.2 Child's news media use is measured by a summed score basedon the child's answers to three questions about the frequency ofconsuming three different news media: television news, political andpublic affairs news in newspapers, and news magazines such as Timeor Newsweek.3

Does media use precede knowledge, or does knowledge precede

2 The questions focus on the functions and processes of the three branches ofgovernment, the presidential and general electoral systems, and the political partysystem. The index scores range from zero to 14, and the mean score for the totalsample is 5.8.

3 It is theoretically reasonable o combine children's lectronic and print media use ina single indicator of news media consumption or, alternatively, o separate them intodistinct electronic and print media use variables. Both approaches are supported by theoutcomes of the following principal components analyses:

Loadings for Single Loadings for RotatedComponent Solution 2-Component Solution

1 1 2

News magazine reading .70 .91 -.01Newspaper reading .79 .66 .44Television news watching .66 .09 .95

h 2 = 52.0% 72.2%

In an effort to treat electronic and print media use as separate dimensions, we soughtto estimate the following model:

Parental X2 - Y Child's Print NewsPrint News 2 5 Media UseMedia Use Child's TV i

NewsUsey

Parental TV X Y KnowledgeNews Media Use X 6

Instructional AMethod 3

Unfortunately, multi-collinearity mong system variables (a problem frequently en-countered when using two-stage least squares; see Kritzer, 1976) prevented he genera-tion of meaningful path estimates.



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NEWS MEDI IN CHLDEN'S SOCILIZATION 169

media use? It can be argued that knowledge must precede media use;in this view, one does not consume the media's news content until onehas the capacity to understand he meaning of what is viewed or read.An alternative argument holds that children consume the news con-tent because it is available to them, and thus increased knowledgecomes from this pattern of either incidental or deliberately soughtexposure to the news.

Discarding the notion that these two positions must be mutuallyexclusive, a developmental process can be suggested in which bothendogenous variables have causal effects. Therefore, rather than re-jecting one of these positions on a priori grounds, we propose analternative nonrecursive model in which political knowledge andmedia use are conceived as mutually dependent variables. In Figure1, this situation of reciprocal influence is denoted by paths P65 and

P56.The estimation of nonrecursive paths presents a number of meth-

odological problems not encountered with recursive systems. First,because a situation of reciprocal causation is specified, it cannot beassumed that explanatory variables are uncorrelated with model dis-

turbance terms. As a result, ordinary east squares estimators are notappropriate. The method of two-stage least squares provides a solu-tion to this problem.

A more serious problem encountered with nonrecursive systems isthe problem of identification. In order to generate unique path coeffi-cients, certain conditions must be met. The order condition for iden-tification requires that the number of model paths to be estimated belimited so that the number of variables effectively excluded from eachof the model's equations be at least as great as the number of

equations in the model less one (Johnston, 1972:348).4This conditionis met for the model specified in Figure 1 by eliminating causal pathsP61 and Pm. That is, the effect exerted on child's political knowledge(Y6) by parental news media use (X1) is assumed to be exclusivelyindirect and mediated by child's news media use (Y5). Similarly,instructional method (X4) is assumed to have no direct effect onchild's news media use (Y5).5

4 A necessary and sufficient condition for identification, he rank condition, is more

difficult to establish. In general, establishment of the order condition is considered anadequate basis for assuming identification.S While the validity of this specification must be determined on a priori rather than

empirical grounds, some readers may wish to note the following partial correlations:r16 = .27, r16.5 = .14, p - .001r45 .11, r45.6 = .01, n.s.

The correlation between X4 and Y4 does drop out, but the relationship between X1 andY6remains significant. However, with a partial correlation of only .14, the amount ofvariance explained attributable olely to X1 is a mere 2 percent.



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The paths specified in Figure 1 have been estimated through themethod of two-stage least squares. Paths which are insignificant at pS .05 have been discarded and the remaining paths reestimated. Theoutcomes of this procedure are presented in Figure 2.

Research Results

Figure 2 presents the initial model with insignificant paths elimi-nated. The relationships between parent's and child's news media useand between instructional method and level of political knowledge arepositive and significant. Grade in school is marginally related to levelof political knowledge, but unrelated to news media use. Gender isnot significantly related to either news media use or level of politicalknowledge.

Most important, the hypothesized nonrecursive relationship be-tween child's news media use and level of political knowledge isconfirmed. The influence of child's news media use on politicalknowledge is slightly larger than the effect of knowledge on newsmedia use.

To test further the conclusion that differences in gender have nosignificant mpact on relationships within the system, the estimationof unstandardized oefficients has been done separately for boys andgirls.6 The unstandardized path coefficients for the two subgroups arequite similar, as Table 1 indicates, except for the path from level of

Parents' NewsMedia Use .2ediaUse .25 VYChild's News

x j Media Use

0 ~~~~~~~~~~~~.6246Ine

Method Knowledge

Figure 2. Estimated Model with Insignificant Paths Eliminated(Standardized Coefficients)

6 Unstandardized ath coefficients must be used for this comparison; f standardizedpath coefficients were compared, he differences n magnitudes of the path coefficientsmight be due to differences in sample variances rather than differences in effects(Schoenberg, 1972).



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NEWS MEDIA IN CHILDREN'S SOCIALIZATION 171

Table 1. Estimated Path Coefficientsa (Unstandardized)

Total Sample Boys GirlsP51 .23 .22 .27P64 .31 .32 .31P63 .64 .61 .69P65 .69 .70 .63P56 .41 .46 .27 (n.s.)

a Significant at p =.05 or less, unless otherwise indicated by n.s.

knowledge to news media use (P56); for girls this is small and insignifi-

cant. Thus, knowledge may be a more important nfluence on newsmedia use for boys than for girls.Until now we have examined only the process involved in the

development of predispositions oward news media use and the acqui-sition of political knowledge. The second stage of our analysis treatsthese variables as intervening actors in the development of electoralsystem support, political party support, and political participation.7The four independent variables of parent's media use score, in-structional method used in the classroom, grade, and sex are againincluded in the analysis.

All possible recursive paths between the six variables in the initialmodel and the three additional dependent variables were estimatedinitially. Paths which are insignificant at p S .05 have been discardedand the remaining paths re-estimated. In order to accomplish this taskwhile adhering o the order condition for identification, the new mod-els are treated as bloc-recursive systems.8

The direct, indirect, and total effects of antecedent and interveningvariables on electoral system support, party system support, andpolitical participation are presented in Table 2 and Figures 3, 4, and 5.Direct effects are simply the standardized oefficients associated witheach independent-dependent ariable path. Indirect and total effectsare computed using the method explicated by Lewis-Beck and Mohr(1976).

The data in Table 2 and Figure 3 indicate that political knowledgehas a much greater direct impact on electoral system support thandoes news media use. However, because the indirect effects of news

7 A political participation ndex was created from the students' responses to ques-tions about participation n various kinds of political activity. Questions used to mea-sure party system support and electoral system support are based on items reported nother studies. The two attitudinal cales used as dependent variables were developedthrough principal components analyses with varimax rotation. (See the Appendix or alist of items used in the party system support and electoral system support scales andthe political participation ndex.)

8 For a discussion of bloc-recursive models see Duncan (1975:85).



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Table 2. Summary of Effects on Three Dependent Variables

Parent's Instruc- Child'sMedia tional Media

Use Grade Method Sex Use Knowledge R2

Electoral system supportDirect .11 .20 .14 .31Indirect .12 .06 .10 .33 .21 .20Total .12 .06 .21 .20 .47 .52

Party system supportDirect -.09 -.09 -.12 - -.25Indirect -.05 -.04 -.06 - -.22 -.10 .10Total -.05 -.13 -.15 -.12 -.22 -.35

Political participationDirect .08 .09 .19 .33 .20Indirect .16 .06 .09 .30 .29 .31Total .24 .15 .28 .63 .49

media use are substantial, the total effects associated with theseintervening variables are very similar and they are clearly the mostimportant explanatory variables in the analysis. The total effectsattributable o method of instruction are considerably smaller and areequally the result of-irect and indirect influence. On the other hand,the effects of gender on electoral system support are entirely direct.This suggests that boys tend to evaluate electoral politics more fa-vorably than girls regardless of news media use patterns and levels ofpolitical knowledge. Finally, parental news media use and grade inschool have only weak and indirect effects on electoral system sup-port.

Turning to the analysis of party system support (Figure 4), a quitedifferent pattern is found. First, the signs of all paths leading to the

dependent variable are negative. Child's media use has only an indi-

Parents' News ChildIs NewsMedia Use Media Use

.C Insrcinl = 1 P 256 Knwldg Inex

.ir 3.EX Sts

0RD Y7 ELECTORALGRADE .62 .46

~SYSTEM31 SUPPORT

Insrut2oalR 2 .20Method-Y4 Y6 ~~~~~~Knowledgendex

Figure 3. Electoral System Support Model (Standardized Coefficients)



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e95

Parents' News Child's NewsMedia Use Media Use/ 1 / ~~~ ~ ~~~~5 le7

SE .42 . 6 195

o09 -

~~~~~~~~Y7 PARTY SYSTEMU'~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~7

.2


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cate that girls are less supportive of the political parties and that sixth

grade children are less supportive than fifth graders.In the political participation analysis (Figure 5 and Table 2), yetanother pattern is found. In contrast to the previous two models,gender is not a significant variable. However, all other variables haveboth direct and indirect effects. Child's media use has the largestimpact through both direct and indirect effects, with level of knowl-edge also having substantial total effects. Compared to instructionalmethod and parental news media use, teaching method has a strongerdirect effect on children's political participation.

Conclusions and Discussion

To explore the potential impact of the news media vis-a-vis otheragents of socialization on preadolescents' political orientations, asystem of six variables thought to contribute to such orientations,including ndicators of mass media, school, and family influences, hasbeen analyzed using causal modeling techniques. Grade in school andinstructional method have statistically significant, but moderate tomarginal effects on children's political knowledge, while parentalnews media use has moderate and statistically significant effects onchildren's news media use. On the other hand, gender differences arenot found to have significant additive effects on either politicalknowledge or news media use.

More important, the analysis indicates that children's news mediause and level of political knowledge function as primary sources ofcausal effects for one another. However, upon dividing the sample onthe basis of sex and reestimating the model for the resulting sub-samples, knowledge appears to be a more important influence onnews media use for boys than for girls.

A plausible interpretation of these findings is that knowledge ofpolitics and attention to political affairs through news media use arerelated in a developmental process which may be initially stimulatedor partially reinforced by the primary aspects of socialization butwhich also seems capable of independently building and maintaining

its own momentum once engaged. In the absence of longitudinal datathis interpretation accounts for our results in a theoretically reason-able fashion.

Furthermore, our findings indicate that children's news media useand level of knowledge about American political processes are con-sistently more important n determining evel of political participation,support for the political parties, and support for the electoral process



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than are instructional method, parental news media use, or thestructural variables of grade and gender. In general, only

marginaleffects on the dependent yariables can be credited to grade in schooland to gender differences. An exception occurs with electoral systemsupport, where gender differences are moderately associated with thedependent variable despite the fact that male-female differences inlevels of political knowledge and news media use are not discernible.

Among the socialization agent variables, parental news media usedisplays largely indirect effects on the attitude and behavior variablesand emerges as a relatively important nfluence-only with regard to

political participation. nstructional method operates both directly andindirectly to produce moderate effects on all three dependent vari-ables. The use of increasingly elaborate election campaign simulationsseems to be particularly influential in encouraging high levels ofpolitical participation.

But contrasting the overall effects produced by the antecedentvariables on each of the dependent variables, the superior explanatorypower of children's news media use and political knowledge is appar-ent. In most instances, the total effects associated with the latter twoare nearly twice as large as those attributable o the remaining vari-ables. In short, the analysis indicates that news media use, alone andin conjunction with knowledge of the American political process, is asignificant determinant of children's political attitudes and patterns ofpolitical participation.

As a final note, the value of the relatively elaborate statisticalmodels used in the analysis must be emphasized. Important compo-nents of the total effects attributed o many of the variables (and mostnotably child's news media use) derive indirectly from complex de-velopmental sequences and nonrecursive relationships. Given thelikelihood that such complex relationships do exist in the realworld, using less elaborate models, and particularly he simple linearmodel which underlies basic regression analysis, would almost cer-tainly produce misleading results.

As a case in point, had we simply regressed party system supporton the six antecedent variables, the resulting standardized regressioncoefficient derived for child's media use would be zero. Obviously,that outcome would lead to the conclusion that news media have littleinfluence on children's orientations to the party system.

Alternatively, the analysis presented here suggests that the newsmedia function as primary sources of children's political knowledgeand information and, as a result, exert an important ndirect influenceon attitudes and behaviors even though direct linkages may be weakor nonexistent. Thus, in our analysis of children's support for the



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176 CONWAY, WYCKOFF, ELDBAUM, ND AHERN

party system, news media use emerged as an important independent

variable.In conclusion, in order to treat adequately the processes involved inpolitical socialization, socialization theory and research should de-velop models which reflect the complexities of those processes.Based on a model which provides for developmental sequences andnonrecursive relationships among system variables, the analyses pre-sented here support the argument that the role of the mass media inpolitical socialization has not received adequate attention. Whilemedia effects have frequently been perceived as reinforcing rather

than creating individual attitudes and beliefs, our analysis suggests thatthe explanation of within- and between-generation differences inpolitical orientations requires greater attention to the creative effectsof observation and vicarious experience made possible through thenews media.

Appendix: Dependent Variable Scale and Index Items Used

(Agree /Disagree /Don't Know Questions) LoadingsTHE ELECTORAL SYSTEM SUPPORT SCALE

Most election campaigns are silly or ridiculous. .460Many primary elections aren't mportant enough to vote in. .458If the Democrats and Republicans can't agree on important

things, it would be bad for the country. -.417It isn't so important to vote when you know your party

doesn't have a chance to win anyway. .641My family has no effect upon what the government does. .410So many other people vote in national elections that it does

not matter whether a person votes or not. .551THE PARTY SYSTEM SUPPORT SCALE

It is good to stick with your party through thick and thin. .495A congressman should follow his party leaders even if he

doesn't want to. .546Lower taxes should be allowed for people who give money

to the political party of their choice. .525The most important thing to consider when voting is the

political party to which each person belongs. .478A total of 12 components were extracted from a set of 43 attitude tems, all

with eigenvalues of 1.0 or more; the total variance explained by the 12compo-nents was 46 percent.

PARTICIPATION INDEX ITEMS1. Did you work at the voting places on election day?2. Did you wear a button for a real national or local candidate?3. Did you talk to your friends about Nixon and McGovern?4. Did you help other members of your family with work they were doing in the

real election?5. Did you watch any of the national political conventions on TV?



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