The New EuropeThe New Europe

The Council of EuropeThe Council of Europe

Council of EuropeCouncil of Europe created in 1948 created in 1948 European federalists hoped Council European federalists hoped Council

would quickly evolve into a true would quickly evolve into a true European parliament with sovereign European parliament with sovereign rights, but this did not happen.rights, but this did not happen.

Britain, with its empire and its “special Britain, with its empire and its “special relationship” with U.S., opposed giving relationship” with U.S., opposed giving any real political power—any real political power—sovereigntysovereignty—to the council.—to the council.

Cooperation on Coal Cooperation on Coal and Steeland Steel Schuman PlanSchuman Plan, 1950 created the , 1950 created the European European

Coal and Steel CommunityCoal and Steel Community Put forth by French statesman Jean Monnet and Put forth by French statesman Jean Monnet and

Foreign Minister Robert Schuman.Foreign Minister Robert Schuman. Special international organization to control & Special international organization to control &

integrate European steel and coal production.integrate European steel and coal production. West Germany, Italy, Belgium, Netherlands, & West Germany, Italy, Belgium, Netherlands, &

Luxembourg accepted in 1952.Luxembourg accepted in 1952. Britain refused to enter, fearing separation Britain refused to enter, fearing separation

from the Commonwealth from the Commonwealth Immediate economic goal: a single competitive Immediate economic goal: a single competitive

market w/o national tariffs or quotas.market w/o national tariffs or quotas.

"The Six""The Six"

By 1958 coal and steel moved freely By 1958 coal and steel moved freely among six nations of the European among six nations of the European Coal and Steel Community Coal and Steel Community

Far-reaching political goal: bind six Far-reaching political goal: bind six member nations so closely together member nations so closely together economically that war among them economically that war among them would become unthinkable and would become unthinkable and virtually impossible.virtually impossible.

European Economic European Economic Community (EEC)Community (EEC) Treaty of Rome, 1957Treaty of Rome, 1957 Created Created European Economic Community European Economic Community

(EEC) (EEC) or the or the Common MarketCommon Market Signed by same six nations in the Schuman Signed by same six nations in the Schuman

Plan – Plan – “the Six”“the Six” First goal of treaty: Gradual reduction of all First goal of treaty: Gradual reduction of all

tariffs among the Six in order to create a tariffs among the Six in order to create a single market almost as large as the U.S.single market almost as large as the U.S.

Other goals: Other goals: – Free movement of capital and labor.Free movement of capital and labor.– Common economic policies and institutions.Common economic policies and institutions.– Tariffs were rapidly reduced and regions Tariffs were rapidly reduced and regions

specialized in what they did best.specialized in what they did best.

The EEC in the 1960sThe EEC in the 1960s

EEC encouraged hopes of political and EEC encouraged hopes of political and economic union.economic union.

Union frustrated in 1960s by resurgence Union frustrated in 1960s by resurgence of more traditional nationalism.of more traditional nationalism.

EuratomEuratom (European Atomic Energy (European Atomic Energy Agency) also created by agency.Agency) also created by agency.

Communist states responded by Communist states responded by forming their own economic forming their own economic association--association--COMECONCOMECON

De Gaulle and De Gaulle and European UnityEuropean Unity France steps back from European unityFrance steps back from European unity Bitter colonial war in Algeria resulted in Bitter colonial war in Algeria resulted in

the election in 1958 of the election in 1958 of Charles De Charles De GaulleGaulle who established the who established the Fifth Fifth French RepublicFrench Republic and ruled as and ruled as president until 1969.president until 1969.

Withdrew France from "US controlled" Withdrew France from "US controlled" NATO and developed own nuclear NATO and developed own nuclear weapons program.weapons program.

De Gaulle twice vetoed application of De Gaulle twice vetoed application of pro-American British to European Union.pro-American British to European Union.

Britain did not enter until 1973.Britain did not enter until 1973.

Community ExpansionCommunity Expansion

With De Gaulle gone and more With De Gaulle gone and more openness in Britain had the UK openness in Britain had the UK join in 1973 (along with Ireland join in 1973 (along with Ireland and Denmark)and Denmark)

Spain, Portugal and Greece joined Spain, Portugal and Greece joined in the 1980sin the 1980s

Sweden, Finland, and Austria Sweden, Finland, and Austria joined in the 1990s.joined in the 1990s.

The European UnionThe European Union European Union (EU)European Union (EU) went into effect in went into effect in

19931993 European Community (EC) renamed to European Community (EC) renamed to

European Union in 1996European Union in 1996 Chancellor Kohl and President Mitterrand Chancellor Kohl and President Mitterrand

sought to extend the EU to include a single sought to extend the EU to include a single European currency and a common defense European currency and a common defense and foreign policyand foreign policy

British prime minister Margaret Thatcher led British prime minister Margaret Thatcher led opposition until she resigned in November opposition until she resigned in November 1990, replaced by conservative successor 1990, replaced by conservative successor John Major John Major who urged a limited federalism.who urged a limited federalism.

Maastricht Treaty, Maastricht Treaty, 1991 1991 Promised most radical revision of the Promised most radical revision of the

EC since its beginning.EC since its beginning. Euro Euro became the single currency of became the single currency of

the EU in 1999 (went into circulation in the EU in 1999 (went into circulation in 2002) integrating the currency of 11 2002) integrating the currency of 11 western and central European nations.western and central European nations.

Proposals to form common foreign and Proposals to form common foreign and defense policies.defense policies.

Increased use of majority voting.Increased use of majority voting. Greater parliamentary consultation.Greater parliamentary consultation. By 1995 EU had 15 membersBy 1995 EU had 15 members By 2004 it had 25 membersBy 2004 it had 25 members

USSR under Nikita USSR under Nikita Khrushchev Khrushchev Power struggle emerged after Stalin Power struggle emerged after Stalin

died in 1953; Khrushchev emerged a died in 1953; Khrushchev emerged a few years laterfew years later

Stalin’s heirs realized reforms were Stalin’s heirs realized reforms were needed.needed.

Widespread fear and hatred of Stalin’s Widespread fear and hatred of Stalin’s political terror resulted in reduction of political terror resulted in reduction of power of secret police and gradual power of secret police and gradual closure of forced labor camps.closure of forced labor camps.

Agriculture in bad shape.Agriculture in bad shape. Shortages of consumer goods.Shortages of consumer goods. Hard work and initiative in decline due Hard work and initiative in decline due

to poor living conditions.to poor living conditions.

De-StalinizationDe-Stalinization XXth Party Congress, 1956XXth Party Congress, 1956: Khrushchev : Khrushchev

took startling initiative against hard-liners by took startling initiative against hard-liners by denouncing Stalin’s crimes in a closed denouncing Stalin’s crimes in a closed session.session.

Secret anti-Stalin speechSecret anti-Stalin speech probably most probably most influential statement in Russia since Lenin influential statement in Russia since Lenin addressed the crowd on arriving in April addressed the crowd on arriving in April 1917.1917.

Gosplan: Gosplan: Resources shifted from heavy Resources shifted from heavy industry and the military toward consumer industry and the military toward consumer goods and agriculture – Centralized Economic goods and agriculture – Centralized Economic Planning Planning

De-StalinizationDe-Stalinization

Great ferment in the arts (anti-Stalinist Great ferment in the arts (anti-Stalinist views tolerated)views tolerated)

Boris PasternakBoris Pasternak (1890-1960) wrote (1890-1960) wrote Dr. ZhivagoDr. Zhivago in 1956. in 1956.– Story of prerevolutionary intellectual who Story of prerevolutionary intellectual who

rejects brutality of revolution of 1917 & rejects brutality of revolution of 1917 & Stalinism; even as he is destroyed, he Stalinism; even as he is destroyed, he triumphs from his humanity and Christian triumphs from his humanity and Christian spirit.spirit.

Aleksandr SolzenitsynAleksandr Solzenitsyn: : One Day in One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovichthe Life of Ivan Denisovich (1962) (1962)– Portrays in grim detail life in Stalinist Portrays in grim detail life in Stalinist

concentration camp (he had been a concentration camp (he had been a prisoner)prisoner)

Effects of De-Effects of De-StalinizationStalinization De-Stalinization resulted in De-Stalinization resulted in

communist reformers and the communist reformers and the masses seeking greater masses seeking greater liberty and national liberty and national independence.independence.

Poland: March 1956, riots Poland: March 1956, riots resulted in release of more resulted in release of more than 9000 political prisoners, than 9000 political prisoners, including previously purged including previously purged leader leader Wladyslaw GomulkaWladyslaw Gomulka..

Gomulka skillfully managed to Gomulka skillfully managed to win greater autonomy for win greater autonomy for Poland while keeping anti-Poland while keeping anti-Soviet feeling at baySoviet feeling at bay..

Hungarian Uprising, Hungarian Uprising, 1956 1956 Students and workers in Budapest installed a Students and workers in Budapest installed a

liberal Communist reformer, liberal Communist reformer, Imre NagyImre Nagy as new as new chief in October 1956.chief in October 1956.

Hungarian nationalists staged huge Hungarian nationalists staged huge demonstrations demanding non-communist parties demonstrations demanding non-communist parties be legalized; turned into armed rebellion and be legalized; turned into armed rebellion and spread throughout the country.spread throughout the country.

Hoped U.S. would come in and help achieve Hoped U.S. would come in and help achieve Hungarian independenceHungarian independence

Soviet tanks and troops responded by invading Soviet tanks and troops responded by invading Hungary and crushing the national democratic Hungary and crushing the national democratic revolution.revolution.

János KádárJános Kádár installed firm communist rule installed firm communist rule After Hungarian invasion, most eastern Europeans After Hungarian invasion, most eastern Europeans

hoped for small domestic gains while obediently hoped for small domestic gains while obediently following USSR in foreign affairs.following USSR in foreign affairs.

Cold War in the 1950sCold War in the 1950s

Relations between USSR and U.S. improve with Relations between USSR and U.S. improve with ascension to power of ascension to power of Nikita KhrushchevNikita Khrushchev

Seeks Seeks “peaceful coexistence”“peaceful coexistence” with the West in with the West in order to focus on Soviet economyorder to focus on Soviet economy

Austrian IndependenceAustrian Independence: USSR agreed in 1955 : USSR agreed in 1955 to real independence for a neutral Austria after to real independence for a neutral Austria after 10 years of Allied occupation.10 years of Allied occupation.

Resulted in significant reduction in cold war Resulted in significant reduction in cold war tensions between 1955 & 1957.tensions between 1955 & 1957.

Krushchev sought to prove communism was Krushchev sought to prove communism was superior to capitalism and the USSR would be the superior to capitalism and the USSR would be the model communist state in the world; model communist state in the world; "we will "we will bury you.”bury you.”

Krushchev began wooing new nations of Asia and Krushchev began wooing new nations of Asia and Africa with promises and aid, even if they were Africa with promises and aid, even if they were not communist.not communist.

The Berlin WallThe Berlin Wall Berlin Wall Berlin Wall built in 1961built in 1961 2 million East Germans 2 million East Germans

escaped to West Berlin escaped to West Berlin between 1949-1961; Soviets between 1949-1961; Soviets frustratedfrustrated

Khrushchev threatened Khrushchev threatened President Kennedy: USSR President Kennedy: USSR would sign peace treaty with would sign peace treaty with East Germany who would East Germany who would then control access to then control access to Berlin; Soviets would protect Berlin; Soviets would protect East Germany’s right to East Germany’s right to control flow into Berlin.control flow into Berlin.

Berlin Wall built instead of Berlin Wall built instead of enforcing ultimatum to U.S.; enforcing ultimatum to U.S.; ended future crises over ended future crises over Berlin.Berlin.

Fall of Khrushchev, Fall of Khrushchev, 1964 1964 His cold war foreign policies erratic & His cold war foreign policies erratic &

ultimately unsuccessful (Berlin, Cuban ultimately unsuccessful (Berlin, Cuban Missile Crisis)Missile Crisis)

Expensive space and armaments Expensive space and armaments programs postponed any significant programs postponed any significant shift to consumer goods.shift to consumer goods.

Most important reason: agricultural Most important reason: agricultural projects backfiredprojects backfired

Resurgence of conservative Stalinists Resurgence of conservative Stalinists led to quiet removal of Khrushchev in led to quiet removal of Khrushchev in October, 1964October, 1964

Return of the Cold WarReturn of the Cold War

Leonid BrezhnevLeonid Brezhnev became became new General Secretary new General Secretary (1964-1982)(1964-1982)

Beginning in 1964, USSR Beginning in 1964, USSR began a period of stagnation began a period of stagnation and limited re-Stalinizationand limited re-Stalinization

Massive arms buildup started Massive arms buildup started in response to humiliation of in response to humiliation of Cuban Missile Crisis.Cuban Missile Crisis.

USSR avoided direct USSR avoided direct confrontation with the U.S. confrontation with the U.S. and seemed more and seemed more committed to peaceful committed to peaceful coexistence than Khrushchev coexistence than Khrushchev had been.had been.

European Society European Society After the Second After the Second

World WarWorld War

Science and Science and TechnologyTechnology For first time in history, “pure theoretical” For first time in history, “pure theoretical”

science and “practical” technology (”applied science and “practical” technology (”applied science”) effectively joined together on science”) effectively joined together on massive scale during WWII.massive scale during WWII.

British scientists developed British scientists developed radar radar to detect to detect enemy aircraft.enemy aircraft.

Jet Jet aircraft developed by Germanyaircraft developed by Germany Electronic Electronic computers computers further developed; further developed;

had barely come into existence before 1939.had barely come into existence before 1939. Manhattan ProjectManhattan Project: Atomic bomb most : Atomic bomb most

spectacular result of scientific research spectacular result of scientific research during the war; project overseen by during the war; project overseen by J. J. Robert OppenheimerRobert Oppenheimer

Big ScienceBig Science

““Big Science”Big Science” became new model for became new model for science after WWIIscience after WWII

Combined theoretical work with Combined theoretical work with sophisticated engineering in a large, sophisticated engineering in a large, often huge organization.often huge organization.

U.S. emerged as leader in Big Science U.S. emerged as leader in Big Science after WWIIafter WWII

Science not demobilized after WWII Science not demobilized after WWII either in U.S. or USSReither in U.S. or USSR

Large portion of all postwar scientific Large portion of all postwar scientific research went for “defense” (25%!)research went for “defense” (25%!)

The Space RaceThe Space Race

1957, USSR launched 1957, USSR launched SputnikSputnik, , an an orbiting satellite using long-range orbiting satellite using long-range rocketsrockets

US fearful Soviets could now launch US fearful Soviets could now launch a nuclear missile into space and a nuclear missile into space and then down to U.S.then down to U.S.

U.S. countered with creation of U.S. countered with creation of NASA and vastly increased NASA and vastly increased educational funding for science.educational funding for science.

1961, Soviets sent world’s first 1961, Soviets sent world’s first cosmonaut, cosmonaut, Yuri GagarinYuri Gagarin, into , into orbit.orbit.

U.S. President John F. Kennedy U.S. President John F. Kennedy responded by increasing funds for responded by increasing funds for space.space.

1969, 1969, Apollo ProgramApollo Program put first put first man on the moon; 5 more moon man on the moon; 5 more moon landings followed by 1972.landings followed by 1972.

The Brain DrainThe Brain Drain

““Brain Drain”:Brain Drain”: U.S. attracted many of U.S. attracted many of Europe’s best scientists during 1950s Europe’s best scientists during 1950s and 1960s—seen as the and 1960s—seen as the American American ChallengeChallenge

Some Europeans feared Europe was Some Europeans feared Europe was falling behind U.S. in science, technology, falling behind U.S. in science, technology, and most dynamic industrial sectors of and most dynamic industrial sectors of the late 20th century.the late 20th century.

Yet, revitalized Europe pooling resources Yet, revitalized Europe pooling resources on Big Science projects:on Big Science projects:

ConcordeConcorde supersonic passenger airliner supersonic passenger airliner and peaceful uses of atomic energy.and peaceful uses of atomic energy.

Growth of Scientific Growth of Scientific CommunityCommunity Four times as many scientists in Europe Four times as many scientists in Europe

and North America in 1975 as in 1945.and North America in 1975 as in 1945. Highly specialized modern scientists Highly specialized modern scientists

and technologists worked as members and technologists worked as members of a team, which completely changed of a team, which completely changed work and lifestyle of modern scientists.work and lifestyle of modern scientists.

James WatsonJames Watson and and Francis CrickFrancis Crick win win Nobel Prize in 1962 for discovering Nobel Prize in 1962 for discovering structure of structure of DNADNA

Class Structure and Class Structure and Social ReformSocial Reform Rise of the middle-class largely result of Rise of the middle-class largely result of

increased access to increased access to higher educationhigher education European society became more mobile European society became more mobile

and democratic.and democratic. New middle-class, based largely on New middle-class, based largely on

specialized skills and high levels of specialized skills and high levels of education, more open, democratic, and education, more open, democratic, and insecure than old propertied middle insecure than old propertied middle class.class.

Changes in structure of middle class Changes in structure of middle class influential in trend toward less rigid class influential in trend toward less rigid class structure.structure.

Rise of Middle ClassRise of Middle Class

Rapid industrial and technological Rapid industrial and technological expansion created in large expansion created in large corporations and gov’t agencies corporations and gov’t agencies became powerful demand for became powerful demand for technologists and managers.technologists and managers.

Old propertied middle class lost control Old propertied middle class lost control of many family-owned businesses.of many family-owned businesses.

Top managers and ranking civil Top managers and ranking civil servants represented model for new servants represented model for new middle class of salaried specialists; well middle class of salaried specialists; well paid and highly trainedpaid and highly trained

Passed on opportunity for advanced Passed on opportunity for advanced education to their children.education to their children.

Working ClassesWorking Classes Structure of lower classes also became Structure of lower classes also became

more flexible and open.more flexible and open. Mass exodus from farms and countryside.Mass exodus from farms and countryside. Resulted in drastic decline in one of Resulted in drastic decline in one of

Europe’s most traditional and least mobile Europe’s most traditional and least mobile groups.groups.

Industrial working class ceased to expand Industrial working class ceased to expand while job opportunities for white-collar while job opportunities for white-collar and service employees grew rapidly.and service employees grew rapidly.

European governments reduced class European governments reduced class tensions by further expanding social tensions by further expanding social security reforms: health care, family security reforms: health care, family allowances, maternity grants, public allowances, maternity grants, public housing housing

ConsumerismConsumerism

Sparked by rising standard of living Sparked by rising standard of living giving more people disposable income.giving more people disposable income.

European automobile industry European automobile industry expanded phenomenally.expanded phenomenally.

““Gadget revolution”Gadget revolution” Like US, Europeans bought washing Like US, Europeans bought washing

machines, vacuum cleaners, machines, vacuum cleaners, refrigerators, dishwashers, radios, TVs, refrigerators, dishwashers, radios, TVs, and stereos.and stereos.

Purchasing greatly facilitated by Purchasing greatly facilitated by installment purchasing.installment purchasing.

Leisure and recreationLeisure and recreation

Increased social welfare resulted in more Increased social welfare resulted in more disposable income and less need to save for disposable income and less need to save for old age.old age.

Leisure and recreation Leisure and recreation became big business became big business as workers worked fewer hours.as workers worked fewer hours.

Soccer matches, horse races, movies, TV, Soccer matches, horse races, movies, TV, commercialized hobbiescommercialized hobbies

Increased attendance in cultural events: Increased attendance in cultural events: concerts and exhibitions.concerts and exhibitions.

Travel industry mushroomed most dramaticallyTravel industry mushroomed most dramatically Before WWII travel for pleasure or relaxation Before WWII travel for pleasure or relaxation

largely aristocratic.largely aristocratic. Paid vacations required by law in most Paid vacations required by law in most

countriescountries

PhilosophyPhilosophy

ExistentialismExistentialism is a philosophical is a philosophical movement which claims that individual movement which claims that individual human beings have full responsibility human beings have full responsibility for creating the meanings of their own for creating the meanings of their own lives. It is a reaction against more lives. It is a reaction against more traditional philosophies, such as traditional philosophies, such as rationalism and empiricism.rationalism and empiricism.

In the 1940s and 1950s, French In the 1940s and 1950s, French philosophers such as Jean-Paul Sartre, philosophers such as Jean-Paul Sartre, Simone de Beauvoir, and Albert Camus Simone de Beauvoir, and Albert Camus wrote scholarly and fictional works that wrote scholarly and fictional works that helped to popularize themes helped to popularize themes associated with existentialism: "dread, associated with existentialism: "dread, boredom, alienation, the absurd, boredom, alienation, the absurd, freedom, commitment, and freedom, commitment, and nothingness". nothingness".

Jean-Paul SartreJean-Paul Sartre

The Youth Movement The Youth Movement and Countercultureand Counterculture Counter-CultureCounter-Culture: rebellion against parents, : rebellion against parents,

authority figures and status quoauthority figures and status quo ““Baby boom” after WWII developed Baby boom” after WWII developed

distinctive and international youth culture.distinctive and international youth culture. Many raised in economic prosperity and more Many raised in economic prosperity and more

democratic class structure.democratic class structure. New generation influenced by revival of New generation influenced by revival of

leftist thought created a “counter-culture” leftist thought created a “counter-culture” Youth in America took the lead.Youth in America took the lead. Some youth rebelled against conformity and Some youth rebelled against conformity and

boredom of middle-class suburbs.boredom of middle-class suburbs.

Causes of Youth CulureCauses of Youth Culure

Mass communication and youth travel Mass communication and youth travel linked countries and continents together.linked countries and continents together.

Baby boom meant youth became Baby boom meant youth became unusually large part of population and unusually large part of population and exercised exceptional influence on society exercised exceptional influence on society as a whole.as a whole.

Postwar prosperity and greater equality Postwar prosperity and greater equality gave youth more purchasing power than gave youth more purchasing power than ever before.ever before.

Youth to set mass trends and fads in Youth to set mass trends and fads in everything from music to chemical everything from music to chemical stimulants.stimulants.

Causes of Youth Causes of Youth CultureCulture Common patterns of Common patterns of

consumption and behavior consumption and behavior fostered generational loyalty.fostered generational loyalty.

Good jobs were readily available.Good jobs were readily available. High demand for workers meant High demand for workers meant

youth had little need to fear youth had little need to fear punishment from straight-laced punishment from straight-laced employers for unconventional employers for unconventional behavior. behavior.

Rock music helped tie counter-Rock music helped tie counter-culture togetherculture together

Beatles, British rock band, Beatles, British rock band, became one of biggest pop became one of biggest pop groups in music historygroups in music history

1968 – Student Revolts1968 – Student Revolts

Opposition to U.S. war in Vietnam Opposition to U.S. war in Vietnam triggered revolutionary ferment among triggered revolutionary ferment among youthsyouths

Influenced by Marxist current in French Influenced by Marxist current in French universities after 1945 & new left universities after 1945 & new left thinking in USthinking in US

Believed older generation & US Believed older generation & US fighting immoral & imperialistic war fighting immoral & imperialistic war against Vietnam. against Vietnam.

Students in western Europe shared US Students in western Europe shared US youth's rejection of materialism and youth's rejection of materialism and belief that postwar society was belief that postwar society was repressive and flawed.repressive and flawed.

1968 – Student Revolts1968 – Student Revolts

Problems in higher education: classes Problems in higher education: classes overcrowded; little contact with overcrowded; little contact with professors; competition for grades professors; competition for grades intense; demanded even more practical intense; demanded even more practical areas of study to qualify for high-paying areas of study to qualify for high-paying jobs after collegejobs after college

Some students warned of dangers of Some students warned of dangers of narrowly trained experts ("technocrats") narrowly trained experts ("technocrats") who would serve the establishment to who would serve the establishment to the detriment of working class.the detriment of working class.

1968 - France1968 - France

Students took over the Students took over the university, leading to university, leading to violent clashes with police.violent clashes with police.

Most students demanded Most students demanded changes in curriculum and changes in curriculum and real voice in running the real voice in running the universityuniversity

Appealed to industrial Appealed to industrial workers for help; workers for help; spontaneous general strike spontaneous general strike spread across Francespread across France

To many it seemed the To many it seemed the French Fifth Republic might French Fifth Republic might collapsecollapse

1968 - France1968 - France

De Gaulle called in troops De Gaulle called in troops and called for new and called for new elections (which he won elections (which he won decisively)decisively)

The mini-Revolution The mini-Revolution collapsed.collapsed.

For much of the older For much of the older generation in western generation in western Europe, the student Europe, the student revolution of 1968 signaled revolution of 1968 signaled the end of illusions and the end of illusions and end of an era.end of an era.

1968 - Czechoslovakia1968 - Czechoslovakia

Due to Khrushchev’s reforms in Due to Khrushchev’s reforms in USSR, 1960s brought modest USSR, 1960s brought modest liberalization and more liberalization and more consumer goods to eastern consumer goods to eastern EuropeEurope

1968, reform elements in 1968, reform elements in Czechoslovak Communist party Czechoslovak Communist party gained a majority and voted gained a majority and voted out long-time Stalinist leader.out long-time Stalinist leader.

Alexander DubcekAlexander Dubcek elected elected leader: ushered new period of leader: ushered new period of thaw and rebirth in famous thaw and rebirth in famous “Prague Spring”“Prague Spring” of 1968. of 1968.

1968 - Czechoslovakia1968 - Czechoslovakia

Czech reformers building “socialism with Czech reformers building “socialism with a human face” frightened hard-line a human face” frightened hard-line communists.communists.

Soviet troops brutally invaded Soviet troops brutally invaded Czechoslovakia in August 1968.Czechoslovakia in August 1968.

Czechoslovakia became one of most Czechoslovakia became one of most hard-line communist regimes well into hard-line communist regimes well into 1980s.1980s.

Brezhnev DoctrineBrezhnev Doctrine: Soviet Union and its : Soviet Union and its allies had right to intervene in any allies had right to intervene in any socialist country whenever they saw the socialist country whenever they saw the needneed

Economic CrisisEconomic Crisis

Economic crises of the 1970sEconomic crises of the 1970s Nixon takes U.S. off gold standard: Nixon takes U.S. off gold standard:

effectively ended the “Bretton Woods” effectively ended the “Bretton Woods” system of international currency system of international currency stabilization.stabilization.

Fixed rates of exchange abandoned.Fixed rates of exchange abandoned. Great uncertainty replaced postwar Great uncertainty replaced postwar

predictability in international trade and predictability in international trade and finance.finance.

Energy CrisisEnergy Crisis

Postwar economic boom fueled by cheap Postwar economic boom fueled by cheap oil, especially in western Europe.oil, especially in western Europe.

1973, 1973, OPEC (Organization of OPEC (Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries)Petroleum Exporting Countries) dramatically increased oil prices in Europe dramatically increased oil prices in Europe and U.S. in retaliation for their support of and U.S. in retaliation for their support of Israel in the Israel in the Yom Kippur War Yom Kippur War against against Egypt and Syria.Egypt and Syria.

Second price increase in 1979 during Second price increase in 1979 during Iranian Revolution hurt modest progress Iranian Revolution hurt modest progress since 1976.since 1976.

Economic DeclineEconomic Decline Price revolution in energy, coupled with upheaval Price revolution in energy, coupled with upheaval

in international monetary system, plunged world in international monetary system, plunged world into worst economic decline since 1930s.into worst economic decline since 1930s.

"Stagflation""Stagflation" hit in the mid 1970s: increased hit in the mid 1970s: increased prices and increased unemployment; rareprices and increased unemployment; rare

Debts and deficits piled up quickly in the 1970s Debts and deficits piled up quickly in the 1970s and 1980sand 1980s

Social consequences of the 1970s economic crisisSocial consequences of the 1970s economic crisis Created condition for collapse of communism in Created condition for collapse of communism in

late 1980s.late 1980s. Pessimism replaced optimism in society in Pessimism replaced optimism in society in

generalgeneral Welfare system created in postwar era prevented Welfare system created in postwar era prevented

mass suffering and degradation.mass suffering and degradation. Total government spending in most countries Total government spending in most countries

rose during 1970s and 1980srose during 1970s and 1980s

Conservative Conservative Resurgence Resurgence Conservative resurgence in late Conservative resurgence in late

1970s and early 1980s: 1970s and early 1980s: Thatcher, Reagan, MitterandThatcher, Reagan, Mitterand

By late 1970s, powerful reaction By late 1970s, powerful reaction against increased governments’ against increased governments’ role resulted in austerity role resulted in austerity measures to slow growth of measures to slow growth of public spending and the welfare public spending and the welfare state.state.

Margaret ThatcherMargaret Thatcher in Great in Great BritainBritain

Ronald Reagan Ronald Reagan in U.S.in U.S.

Conservative Conservative ResurgenceResurgence

France in early 1980s attempted to France in early 1980s attempted to increase gov’t role but failedincrease gov’t role but failed

Francois MitterandFrancois Mitterand led his led his Socialist party and Communist allies Socialist party and Communist allies in launching a vast program of in launching a vast program of nationalization and public nationalization and public investment designed to spend investment designed to spend France out of economic stagnation. France out of economic stagnation. (Keynesian)(Keynesian)

By 1983, this policy failed and By 1983, this policy failed and Mitterand was forced to impose Mitterand was forced to impose wide variety of austerity measures wide variety of austerity measures for the remainder of the decade.for the remainder of the decade.

Reduction in spending for “Big Reduction in spending for “Big Science” (except cold war related Science” (except cold war related spending)spending)

Europeans and North Americans Europeans and North Americans developed a leaner, tougher lifestyledeveloped a leaner, tougher lifestyle

WomenWomen

Second wave of women’s movement first Second wave of women’s movement first assumed real significance in the late 1960s, assumed real significance in the late 1960s, gathered strength in the 1970s, and won gathered strength in the 1970s, and won major victories in the 1970s and 1980s.major victories in the 1970s and 1980s.

Marriage and MotherhoodMarriage and Motherhood– In the postwar era, women continued to marry In the postwar era, women continued to marry

earlier.earlier.– Typical woman in Europe, U.S. and Canada had Typical woman in Europe, U.S. and Canada had

children quickly after marrying.children quickly after marrying.– Average of only 2 children per familyAverage of only 2 children per family– Motherhood occupied a much smaller portion of a Motherhood occupied a much smaller portion of a

women’s life than at the turn of the century.women’s life than at the turn of the century.– Birth control use increased with oral contraceptives Birth control use increased with oral contraceptives

and intrauterine devices.and intrauterine devices.

Women in the Women in the WorkplaceWorkplace In 20th century, especially after WWII, In 20th century, especially after WWII,

opportunities for women of modest means to opportunities for women of modest means to earn cash income at home practically earn cash income at home practically disappeared.disappeared.

Thus, sharp increase across Europe and Thus, sharp increase across Europe and North America in number of married women North America in number of married women who became full-time and part-time wage who became full-time and part-time wage earners outside the home.earners outside the home.

Rising employment of married women Rising employment of married women became a powerful force in drive for became a powerful force in drive for women’s equality and emancipation.women’s equality and emancipation.

Rising employment for married women Rising employment for married women became a factor in decline of the birthrate.became a factor in decline of the birthrate.

Women’s Rights Women’s Rights MovementMovement Goals of women's rights movementsGoals of women's rights movements New statutes in the workplace: laws against New statutes in the workplace: laws against

discrimination, “equal pay for equal work,” discrimination, “equal pay for equal work,” and maternal leave and affordable day care.and maternal leave and affordable day care.

Gender and family questions: right to divorce Gender and family questions: right to divorce (in some Catholic countries), legalized (in some Catholic countries), legalized abortion, needs of single parents I (usually abortion, needs of single parents I (usually women) and protection from rape and women) and protection from rape and physical violence.physical violence.

In almost every country, effort to legalize In almost every country, effort to legalize abortion became catalyst for mobilizing an abortion became catalyst for mobilizing an effective women’s movement.effective women’s movement.

Cold War in the 1970’sCold War in the 1970’s OstpolitikOstpolitik:: Willy BrandtWilly Brandt: "eastern initiative" -- : "eastern initiative" --

West German chancellor, began to West German chancellor, began to improve relations with Eastern Europeimprove relations with Eastern Europe

Brandt sought a comprehensive Brandt sought a comprehensive peace settlement for central Europe peace settlement for central Europe and a new resolution of the and a new resolution of the “German “German Question.”Question.”

Negotiated treaties with USSR, Negotiated treaties with USSR, Poland, and Czechoslovakia that Poland, and Czechoslovakia that formally accepted existing state formally accepted existing state boundaries and the loss of German boundaries and the loss of German territory to Poland and USSR in return territory to Poland and USSR in return for mutual renunciation of force or for mutual renunciation of force or threat of force.threat of force.

OstpolitikOstpolitik

Brandt’s gov’t broke with past and entered Brandt’s gov’t broke with past and entered into direct relations with East Germany.into direct relations with East Germany.

Aimed for modest practical improvements Aimed for modest practical improvements rather than reunification,rather than reunification,

Brandt brought Germany’s Social Democrats Brandt brought Germany’s Social Democrats to national power for first time since 1920s.to national power for first time since 1920s.

Demonstrated two-party political democracy Demonstrated two-party political democracy had taken firm hold.had taken firm hold.

Result: West Germany’s eastern peace Result: West Germany’s eastern peace settlement contributed to great reduction in settlement contributed to great reduction in East-West tensions; Germany assumed a East-West tensions; Germany assumed a leadership role in Europe.       leadership role in Europe.       

East-West DétenteEast-West Détente

U.S. Secretary of State U.S. Secretary of State Henry KissingerHenry Kissinger and and President NixonPresident Nixon tried to place tried to place Brandt’s eastern initiatives in broader, Brandt’s eastern initiatives in broader, American-led framework of reducing East-American-led framework of reducing East-West tensions in early 1970s.West tensions in early 1970s.

Feared Germany might become neutral Feared Germany might become neutral thus weakening NATO & US influence in thus weakening NATO & US influence in EuropeEurope

Nixon hoped to gain Soviet aid in Nixon hoped to gain Soviet aid in pressuring North Vietnam into peacepressuring North Vietnam into peace

RealpolitikRealpolitik

Nixon & Kissinger believed Nixon & Kissinger believed U.S. should pursue policies U.S. should pursue policies and make alliances based on and make alliances based on its national interests rather its national interests rather than on any particular view of than on any particular view of the world.the world.

Sought to play USSR and Sought to play USSR and China off each otherChina off each other

Nixon visited China in 1972: Nixon visited China in 1972: Soviets concerned China & Soviets concerned China & U.S. might draw closerU.S. might draw closer

Nixon visited Moscow, 1972: Nixon visited Moscow, 1972: ushered in an era known as ushered in an era known as dètente.dètente.

Sought to establish rules to Sought to establish rules to govern the rivalry between US govern the rivalry between US and USSR and China.and USSR and China.

Cold War ThawCold War Thaw

SALT ISALT I: Brezhnev and Nixon signed treaty to stop : Brezhnev and Nixon signed treaty to stop making nuclear ballistic missiles and to reduce the making nuclear ballistic missiles and to reduce the number of antiballistic missiles to 200 for each number of antiballistic missiles to 200 for each power.power.

MIRVs made SALT I obsolete (multiple warheads on MIRVs made SALT I obsolete (multiple warheads on one missile)one missile)

Helsinki ConferenceHelsinki Conference, 1975 , 1975 Final Act: Final Act: Officially ended World War II by finally Officially ended World War II by finally

legitimizing the Soviet-dictated boundaries of Poland legitimizing the Soviet-dictated boundaries of Poland and other East European countries.and other East European countries.

In return, Soviets guaranteed more liberal exchanges In return, Soviets guaranteed more liberal exchanges of people and information between East and West of people and information between East and West and the protection of certain basic “human rights.”and the protection of certain basic “human rights.”

Yet, Moscow continued to squelch human rights in Yet, Moscow continued to squelch human rights in Eastern Europe.Eastern Europe.

End of End of DétenteDétente

Soviet invasion of Soviet invasion of AfghanistanAfghanistan led to U.S. led to U.S. refusal to ratify SALT II treaty (reducing refusal to ratify SALT II treaty (reducing nuclear armaments) and led to President nuclear armaments) and led to President Carter boycotting 1980 Olympics in MoscowCarter boycotting 1980 Olympics in Moscow

US stopped shipments of grain and certain US stopped shipments of grain and certain advanced technology to the Soviet Union.advanced technology to the Soviet Union.

Only Britain stood behind U.S. in its Only Britain stood behind U.S. in its sanctions.sanctions.

France, Italy and especially West Germany France, Italy and especially West Germany argued that Soviet’s deplorable action should argued that Soviet’s deplorable action should not be turned into an East-West not be turned into an East-West confrontation.confrontation.

Soviet Bloc since 1968Soviet Bloc since 1968

1968 invasion of Czechoslovakia was the 1968 invasion of Czechoslovakia was the crucial event of the Brezhnev era.crucial event of the Brezhnev era.

Intense conservatism of Soviet ruling elite Intense conservatism of Soviet ruling elite determined to maintain status quo in Soviet determined to maintain status quo in Soviet bloc.bloc.

Re-Stalinization of USSR resulted, to a degreeRe-Stalinization of USSR resulted, to a degree Dictatorship was collective rather than Dictatorship was collective rather than

personal—through the personal—through the PolitburoPolitburo.. Celebrated nonconformists as Celebrated nonconformists as Alksandr Alksandr

SolzhenitsynSolzhenitsyn permanently expelled from permanently expelled from country.country.

““Solidarity” in PolandSolidarity” in Poland Polish cardinal elected Polish cardinal elected Pope Pope

John Paul IIJohn Paul II in 1979: traveled in 1979: traveled through Poland preaching love of through Poland preaching love of Christ and country and Christ and country and “inalienable rights of man.”“inalienable rights of man.”

Popular movement of working Popular movement of working people organized a massive union people organized a massive union called “Solidarity.”called “Solidarity.”

Led by Led by Lech WalesaLech Walesa Demands included right to form Demands included right to form

free trade unions, right to strike, free trade unions, right to strike, freedom of speech, release of freedom of speech, release of political prisoners and economic political prisoners and economic reforms.reforms.

““Solidarity” in PolandSolidarity” in Poland

1981, Polish gov’t led by 1981, Polish gov’t led by Communist party leader, Communist party leader, General JaruzelskiGeneral Jaruzelski imposed martial law imposed martial law after being warned by after being warned by Soviets if the Polish Soviets if the Polish gov’t could not keep gov’t could not keep order, Soviets would.order, Soviets would.

Solidarity was outlawed Solidarity was outlawed and driven underground and driven underground but remained active.but remained active.

Cold War in the 1980sCold War in the 1980s

The The Atlantic AllianceAtlantic Alliance revitalized revitalized itself in the 1980s under the itself in the 1980s under the leadership of Ronald Reagan in the leadership of Ronald Reagan in the U.S., U.S., Margaret ThatcherMargaret Thatcher in UK, in UK, and and Helmut KohlHelmut Kohl (b. 1930) of (b. 1930) of Germany.Germany.

In 1980s, all three nations believed In 1980s, all three nations believed USSR remained a dangerous threat USSR remained a dangerous threat (e.g. Afghanistan)(e.g. Afghanistan)

Margaret ThatcherMargaret Thatcher became became prime minister in 1979.prime minister in 1979.

Came to power after a year of Came to power after a year of bitter strikes had eroded support bitter strikes had eroded support for the ruling socialist Labour party.for the ruling socialist Labour party.

Advocated hard-line military Advocated hard-line military positions (as Reagan)positions (as Reagan)

Cold War in the 1980sCold War in the 1980s

Falklands WarFalklands War (1982) (1982) Argentine forces invaded and occupied Argentine forces invaded and occupied

Falkland (or Malvinas) Islands, 500 Falkland (or Malvinas) Islands, 500 miles off coast of Argentina.miles off coast of Argentina.

Thatcher sent fleet to retake the Thatcher sent fleet to retake the islands; gained enormous popularity--islands; gained enormous popularity--reelectedreelected

Helmut KohlHelmut Kohl, distinctly pro-American, , distinctly pro-American, came to power with conservative came to power with conservative Christian Democrats in 1982.Christian Democrats in 1982.

Atlantic Alliance gave indirect support Atlantic Alliance gave indirect support to ongoing efforts to liberalize to ongoing efforts to liberalize authoritarian communist states in authoritarian communist states in eastern Europe.eastern Europe.

Despite repeated defeats, the Despite repeated defeats, the revolutions of 1989 ended Communist revolutions of 1989 ended Communist domination.domination.

The New Arms RaceThe New Arms Race

Dealt with Soviets from position of Dealt with Soviets from position of strength by embarking on massive strength by embarking on massive military buildup.military buildup.

Reagan believed US could better bear Reagan believed US could better bear burden of the expense while the Soviets burden of the expense while the Soviets couldn’t.couldn’t.

Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI)Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI) – – “Star Wars”“Star Wars”: :

1983, Reagan announced his intention to 1983, Reagan announced his intention to pursue a high-technology missile-defense pursue a high-technology missile-defense systemsystem

Reagan’s dramatic increase in defense Reagan’s dramatic increase in defense spending placed enormous pressures on spending placed enormous pressures on the Soviet economy.the Soviet economy.

When Soviets shot down KAL007, Reagan When Soviets shot down KAL007, Reagan called Soviets the called Soviets the “Evil Empire”“Evil Empire”

End of the Cold WarEnd of the Cold War

Mikhail GorbachevMikhail Gorbachev assumed control of assumed control of Soviet Union in 1985 and sought reformsSoviet Union in 1985 and sought reforms

PerestroikaPerestroika: (“restructuring”) Aimed to : (“restructuring”) Aimed to revive the sagging Soviet economy by revive the sagging Soviet economy by adopting many of the free-market adopting many of the free-market practices of the West.practices of the West.

By 1987, program had clearly failedBy 1987, program had clearly failed GlasnostGlasnost: Aimed to open Soviet society : Aimed to open Soviet society

by introducing free speech and some by introducing free speech and some political liberty, while ending party political liberty, while ending party censorship; more successful than censorship; more successful than perestroikaperestroika

DemokratiztsiyaDemokratiztsiya: Began as an attack : Began as an attack on corruption in Communist party and as on corruption in Communist party and as an attempt to bring class of educated an attempt to bring class of educated experts into decision making process.experts into decision making process.

End of the Cold WarEnd of the Cold War

March 1989: first free elections since 1917.March 1989: first free elections since 1917. Gorbachev sought to reduce East-West Gorbachev sought to reduce East-West

tensions.tensions. Withdrew Soviet troops from Afghanistan.Withdrew Soviet troops from Afghanistan. Encouraged reform movements in Poland and Encouraged reform movements in Poland and

HungaryHungary Repudiated Brezhnev Doctrine by pledging to Repudiated Brezhnev Doctrine by pledging to

respect political choices of peoples of eastern respect political choices of peoples of eastern Europe.Europe.

INF TreatyINF Treaty signed by Gorbachev and Reagan signed by Gorbachev and Reagan in Washington, D.C. in December 1987.in Washington, D.C. in December 1987.

All intermediate-range nuclear missiles from All intermediate-range nuclear missiles from Europe banned. Europe banned.

Revolutions of 1989Revolutions of 1989 Costs of maintaining satellite countries for USSR Costs of maintaining satellite countries for USSR

both politically and economically, were too both politically and economically, were too much of a burden for the Soviets too handle.much of a burden for the Soviets too handle.

Poland:Poland: Solidarity legalized again and free Solidarity legalized again and free elections promised in June 1989.elections promised in June 1989.

First noncommunist leader in eastern Europe First noncommunist leader in eastern Europe since the Stalin erasince the Stalin era

Triggered a wave of freedom in eastern EuropeTriggered a wave of freedom in eastern Europe Lech WalesaLech Walesa became president in 1990 but became president in 1990 but

Solidarity Solidarity later broke up into factionslater broke up into factions HungaryHungary: October 23, Hungarian leaders : October 23, Hungarian leaders

proclaimed independent republicproclaimed independent republic

Revolutions of 1989Revolutions of 1989

Berlin WallBerlin Wall comes down in comes down in November; East German gov't fallsNovember; East German gov't falls

Germany reunified in 1990Germany reunified in 1990 Conservative-liberal “alliance for Conservative-liberal “alliance for

Germany,” tied to West German Germany,” tied to West German chancellor Helmut Kohl’s Christian chancellor Helmut Kohl’s Christian Democrats, defeated East German Democrats, defeated East German Social Democrats.Social Democrats.

July 1990, East and West German July 1990, East and West German economies merged.economies merged.

Soviets opposed unified Germany Soviets opposed unified Germany in NATO but eventually acquiesced in NATO but eventually acquiesced when West Germany provided when West Germany provided massive economic aid to Soviet massive economic aid to Soviet Union.Union.

Revolutions of 1989Revolutions of 1989

CzechoslovakiaCzechoslovakia – the “ – the “Velvet Velvet Revolution”Revolution”

Vaclav HavelVaclav Havel, the dissident , the dissident playwright, becomes presidentplaywright, becomes president

RomaniaRomania – – Nicolai CeausescuNicolai Ceausescu overthrown and assassinatedoverthrown and assassinated

Cutbacks in ICBMsCutbacks in ICBMs STARTSTART II treaty signed in 1990 treaty signed in 1990

between Gorbachev and between Gorbachev and President George BushPresident George Bush

Would cut 10% of U.S. nuclear Would cut 10% of U.S. nuclear weapons and 25% of Soviet weapons and 25% of Soviet nukes and limit ICBM warheads nukes and limit ICBM warheads

Fall of the Soviet Fall of the Soviet UnionUnion Coup in MoscowCoup in Moscow, 1991: , 1991:

communist hard-liners, frustrated communist hard-liners, frustrated by loss of Soviet power and by loss of Soviet power and prestige, attempted to overthrow prestige, attempted to overthrow GorbachevGorbachev

Coup failed when military refused Coup failed when military refused to crush popular resistanceto crush popular resistance

Boris YeltsinBoris Yeltsin, leader of Russia, , leader of Russia, defied tanks and became a hero.defied tanks and became a hero.

Coup fatally weakened Gorbachev Coup fatally weakened Gorbachev and spelled doom for the Soviet and spelled doom for the Soviet Union.Union.

Fall of the Soviet Fall of the Soviet UnionUnion

Yeltsin and his liberal allies Yeltsin and his liberal allies declared Russia independent declared Russia independent and withdrew from the Soviet and withdrew from the Soviet union—all other republics union—all other republics followed.followed.

December 25, 1991, Soviet December 25, 1991, Soviet Union dissolved into 15 Union dissolved into 15 separate republicsseparate republics

Republics remained Republics remained economically connected for a economically connected for a time via time via Commonwealth of Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS)Independent States (CIS)

Russia assumed the Soviet Russia assumed the Soviet Union's seat in the United Union's seat in the United Nations Security Council.Nations Security Council.

Russian struggleRussian struggle

Yeltsin failed to significantly improve Yeltsin failed to significantly improve the Russian economythe Russian economy

1993, Yeltsin became embroiled in a 1993, Yeltsin became embroiled in a power struggle with a conservative power struggle with a conservative parliamentparliament

Parliament’s leaders, holed up in the Parliament’s leaders, holed up in the White House (the parliament tower in White House (the parliament tower in Moscow), unleashed a crowd to assault Moscow), unleashed a crowd to assault the Kremlin and the television center.the Kremlin and the television center.

Yeltsin sent tanks against the White Yeltsin sent tanks against the White House; 120 killed and top floors of House; 120 killed and top floors of tower shelled and burned.tower shelled and burned.

Moscow had not seen such violence Moscow had not seen such violence since 1905.since 1905.

On New Year's Day, 2000, Yeltsin On New Year's Day, 2000, Yeltsin resigned due to poor health and lack of resigned due to poor health and lack of popularitypopularity

Succeeded by former KGB colonel Succeeded by former KGB colonel Vladimir PutinVladimir Putin

Eastern EuropeEastern Europe

Shift to market economy was difficultShift to market economy was difficult No precedents existed to guide transition and No precedents existed to guide transition and

legal, institutional, and cultural legal, institutional, and cultural underpinnings were missing.underpinnings were missing.

In short run, economic activity declined by In short run, economic activity declined by 1/3.1/3.

Poland most successful: by 1993, GDP grew Poland most successful: by 1993, GDP grew over 4%, & 5% in 1995; the fastest in Europe.over 4%, & 5% in 1995; the fastest in Europe.

Czechoslovakia adopted world’s first mass Czechoslovakia adopted world’s first mass privatization schemeprivatization scheme

Hungary’s economy was the freest in Eastern Hungary’s economy was the freest in Eastern Europe but changed more slowly.Europe but changed more slowly.

Well-established private sector attractive to Well-established private sector attractive to foreign lenders; attracted nearly half of foreign lenders; attracted nearly half of Eastern Europe’s foreign investment.Eastern Europe’s foreign investment.

Eastern EuropeEastern Europe

By 1995, Poland, Czechoslovakia, and By 1995, Poland, Czechoslovakia, and Hungary were doing well enough to be Hungary were doing well enough to be taken seriously as potential European taken seriously as potential European Union (EU) members by the year 2000.Union (EU) members by the year 2000.

Continuing problemsContinuing problems– Unemployment figures about 15% Unemployment figures about 15%

throughout most of regionthroughout most of region– Inflation remained dangerously high in Inflation remained dangerously high in

some countriessome countries– Governments ran large deficitsGovernments ran large deficits

Political challenges Political challenges

Old ethnic hatreds of pre-1914 Central Europe Old ethnic hatreds of pre-1914 Central Europe resurfacedresurfaced

Slovaks seceded from Czechoslovakia on Slovaks seceded from Czechoslovakia on January 1, 1993; January 1, 1993; SlovakiaSlovakia much slower in much slower in drive toward democracy and the marketdrive toward democracy and the market

Yugoslavia broke into civil war in early 1990s Yugoslavia broke into civil war in early 1990s (see below)(see below)

Former Communist parties returned to Former Communist parties returned to majorities in freely elected parliaments in majorities in freely elected parliaments in Lithuania (1992), Poland (September 1993), Lithuania (1992), Poland (September 1993), and Hungary (spring 1994).and Hungary (spring 1994).

Walesa defeated in Polish presidential Walesa defeated in Polish presidential elections in 1995 by former Communist official.elections in 1995 by former Communist official.

But ex-Communists were now converted to But ex-Communists were now converted to democracy and the market.democracy and the market.

Reunification of Reunification of GermanyGermany German unity changed German unity changed

face of European politics: face of European politics: Germany now an Germany now an economic powerhouseeconomic powerhouse

““Ossies” (East Germans) Ossies” (East Germans) came to feel like 2nd-came to feel like 2nd-class citizens in the face class citizens in the face of economic difficultiesof economic difficulties

Meanwhile, “Wessies” Meanwhile, “Wessies” (West Germans) resented (West Germans) resented years of heavy taxation to years of heavy taxation to rebuild the east.rebuild the east.

Breakup of YugoslaviaBreakup of Yugoslavia

Cause: 1990 Cause: 1990 President Slobodan MilosevicPresident Slobodan Milosevic began giving concrete form to his greater began giving concrete form to his greater Serbian nationalism; established tighter central Serbian nationalism; established tighter central control over previously autonomous regionscontrol over previously autonomous regions

In response In response CroatiaCroatia & & SloveniaSlovenia declared declared independence and each fought Serbia in the independence and each fought Serbia in the processprocess

Bosnia declared its independence in March Bosnia declared its independence in March 1992 and the civil war spread there.1992 and the civil war spread there.

Bosnian Serbs (about 30% of pop.) refused to Bosnian Serbs (about 30% of pop.) refused to live in a Muslim-dominated state and began live in a Muslim-dominated state and began military operations assisted by Serbia and the military operations assisted by Serbia and the Yugoslav federal army; Sarajevo under attackYugoslav federal army; Sarajevo under attack

Breakup of YugoslaviaBreakup of Yugoslavia

Ethnic cleansing: Ethnic cleansing: Bosnian Serbs tried to Bosnian Serbs tried to liquidate or remove Muslims byliquidate or remove Muslims by shelling shelling cities, confiscating or destroying of houses, cities, confiscating or destroying of houses, gang rape, expulsion, and murder.gang rape, expulsion, and murder.

Several hundred thousand Bosnians killedSeveral hundred thousand Bosnians killed Dayton Agreements,Dayton Agreements, 1995 1995:: Agreed to Agreed to

divide Bosnia between Muslims and Serbsdivide Bosnia between Muslims and Serbs Bosnian Serb aspirations to join a Greater Bosnian Serb aspirations to join a Greater

Serbia frustrated by U.S. President Bill Serbia frustrated by U.S. President Bill Clinton and other NATO troops sent to Clinton and other NATO troops sent to enforce the Dayton agreements.enforce the Dayton agreements.

Indictment for war crimes of 7 Croats and 45 Indictment for war crimes of 7 Croats and 45 Bosnian Serbs; not enforced. Millosovic later Bosnian Serbs; not enforced. Millosovic later brought to trial.brought to trial.

Breakup of YugoslaviaBreakup of Yugoslavia

Kosovo crisisKosovo crisis, 1999: , 1999: Milosevic attempted to Milosevic attempted to

ethnically cleanse Kosovo ethnically cleanse Kosovo (province of Serbia) of (province of Serbia) of ethnic-Albanians ethnic-Albanians

NATONATO, led by U.S.,, led by U.S., bombed Serbia in order to bombed Serbia in order to stop the ethnic cleansingstop the ethnic cleansing

Europe in the 21Europe in the 21stst CenturyCentury The integration of Europe continues The integration of Europe continues

through the expansion of the European through the expansion of the European Union.Union.

Questions exist as to the future of Questions exist as to the future of European unity.European unity.

9/11 had significant impact on outlook.9/11 had significant impact on outlook.– NATO support in AfghanistanNATO support in Afghanistan– Terror attacks in Europe (Madrid, London)Terror attacks in Europe (Madrid, London)– Debate and disunity over Iraq invasion.Debate and disunity over Iraq invasion.