The Nature of Crime and Victimization

Crime is a LabelSome forms of conduct, but not all, are

defined as crimes or violations of lawDefinitions of what conduct is a crime

change over time (e.g., producing, selling and drinking alcohol).Why is that so?

Definitions of crime reflect basic assumptions about the nature of society and social control

How is Crime Defined?Consensus view

Crimes are behaviors harmful to a majority of citizens in society. (social harm)

Society’s social control function is accomplished by prohibiting these behaviors through the criminal law.

How is Crime Defined? (cont.)Conflict view

Crime is the outcome of a class conflict between the rich and the poor.

Groups with political and economic power shape the law to ensure their continued economic domination of society.

How is Crime Defined? (cont.)Interactionist view

The law is structured to reflect the preferences and opinions of people who hold social power in a particular legal jurisdiction.

Moral entrepreneurs wage campaigns to control behaviors they view as wrong (i.e. abortion) or to legalize behaviors they consider harmless (i.e. prostitution).

Making CrimeWhat standards are normally used to define

conduct as criminal?Harm/injury to individuals and society (e.g., murder,

assassination)Undermining of public/social order (e.g., disorderly

conduct, DWI)Offense against prevailing morality (e.g., gay/lesbian

sex)Undermining the capacity of the criminal justice

system (e.g., resisting arrest, perjury)

Deciding What is Serious Crime

How serious is a crime is it? Standards:Level or degree of harm, offensiveness, undermining

of public order, etc.Who determines what crimes are more serious than

others?Legal categories of crime: legislaturesPublic perception of seriousness: opinion surveysOccupational specialists (e.g., police, judges,

scholars)A puzzle: who determined what is a UCR Part I

(serious) and Part II crime (non-serious)?

UCR, Part I: Serious Crime

Why are these the serious crimes? Why are drug crimes, for example, not serious?

How is Crime Measured?Official record data

Uniform Crime ReportsSurvey data

National Crime Victimization SurveySelf Report Studies

Alternative sourcesObservationInterviewsLife Histories

How Good is the Information?How accurate are official crime data?

How accurate are UCR data? What problems lead to inaccuracies?

How accurate are the NCVS data? What problems lead to inaccuracies?

How accurate area drug use data from NIDA (National Institute of Drug Abuse) surveys?

Fear of Crime surveys: what do people fear?

UCRUCR collects data on 8 crimesUCR is published by the FBI UCR is based on reports from other police agenciesProblems with accuracy

Only includes crimes reported by victims or observers to the police (about half of all crimes which are committed are reported)

Depends on voluntary submissions by police agencies of data to the FBI

Does not include federal crimes, including those committed on Indian reservations

Technical differences in defining and counting crimes among law enforcement agencies

NCVSAccuracy problems:Answering questions about crime

depends on memory: can lead to over-reporting and under-reporting

A survey of householdsSampling errorsAsks about any victimization of members of the

household in the last six monthsMemory errorsReluctance to report intra family crime (e.g.,

domestic violence)Not knowing proper legal definitions of crimes

Drug SurveysSelf-reports – how truthful are

respondents?Drug use for hard drugs is rare

Only a few cases will show up in any sample but are extrapolated to national numbers

National numbers are guesses

How Good is the Information from Non-Official Sources?Self report interviews and surveys: what

problems with accuracy?Observation of criminal conduct: what

problems with accuracy?Studying life histories: what problems with

accuracy?

What Information on Crime is Collected?Crime: 3 patterns to look at

The level of crime: how many homicides or burglaries, per capita

The mix of crime: how many property or person crimes; what are the ratios between the two types of crime

Trends in crime over time: how does crime generally, or different types of crime, change over time

Trends in Serious Crime

When reading this figure, look at the overall trends (up, down, level) not the specific numbers

Crime TrendsAfter reaching their peak in the 1990s both

violent and property crimes have shown an overall decline.

These declines were evident in both the Uniform Crime Reporting System and the National Crime Victimization Survey.

Crime Patterns – Who Are the OffendersEcological differences – where they liveGenderRaceSocial classAgeCriminal careers – prior criminal record

Crime Patterns – Who are the VictimsGenderAgeIncomeMarital statusRaceEcological factorsVictim-offender relationshipsRepeat victimization

Explanations for Crime DifferTypes of crimes: keep in mind that no one

explanation works for all types of crimeViolent crimes (e.g., serial killers)Property crimes (e.g., burglary)White collar crimes (e.g. fraud)Drugs, which kind?Morality crime (e.g. sex for sale, gambling)

Causes of Crime and VictimizationChoice theory: All people of their own free

will can choose between conventional or criminal behaviors.For some people, criminal solutions are more

attractive because they require less effort for greater gain.

Weigh benefits and consequences of actions. Punishments threatened by the existing

criminal law are the primary deterrent to crime.

Deterrence effects are limited (calculating future costs and benefits is not easy)

Causes of Crime and Victimization (cont.)Socio-biological theory: Behavior is a

function of the interaction of biochemical, neurological, and genetic factors with environmental stimulus.Bio-chemical factors

E.g., aggressive tendencies caused by exposure to chemicals, such as lead poisoning when young

Neurological problemsGenetic abnormalities

Causes of Crime and Victimization (cont.)Psychological theory: Criminals are driven

by unconscious thought patterns, developed in early childhood, that control behavior.Psychoanalytic ViewSchizophreniaConduct disordersSocial learningPsychopathic personality

Causes of Crime and Victimization (cont.)Social structure theory: A person’s position

in the social structure affects her/his behavior.PovertySocial disorganization StrainCultural deviance

Causes of Crime and Victimization (cont.)Social process theory: Interactions with key

social institutions – family, school, peer group, military service, job – shapes behavior. Social learningSocial controlSocial reaction (labeling)

Causes of Crime and Victimization (cont.)Conflict theory: Human behavior is shaped

by interpersonal conflict. Those who maintain power will use it to further their own needs.Economic and political forces in society as

fundamental causes of criminalityCrimes are defined in a way that meets

needs of ruling class and economic and political elites

Street crime is punished differently from white collar crime

Causes of Crime and Victimization (cont.)Developmental theory (Life course theory)

People begin relationships and behaviors that will determine their adult life course, even as toddlers.

Finishing school, entering workforce, getting married and having children

Disruptions in life’s major transitions can be destructive and promote criminality

As people mature the factors that influence their behavior change.

Theories and PoliciesHow do theories relate to policy? Does “understanding” why crimes are

committed tell you what to do?Take life course theory - what would work

to prevent or deter crime?Take rational choice, that is weighing

consequences of acts – what would work to prevent or deter crime?

Take any of the theories/explanations and figure out what would work

Perspectives and PoliciesTake crime prevention: what do

perspectives tell you?E.g., Crime Control? Do what? Increase

deterrence, incapacitate criminals, more death penalties – so why would that work?

E.g., Restorative Justice? Do what? Stress restitution, reintegration – why would that work?