The Muslim Educational Needs

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THE MUSLIM EDUCATIONAL NEEDS:

An Exposition of the Fundamental Elements and Objectives of

Islamic Education

By

ANSHARI P. ALI, Ph.D (ISTAC)

Published by:

COLLEGE OF LAW EXTENSION Mindanao State University

General Santos City

2012


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Philippine Copyright, 2011

by

ANSHARI P. ALI, Ph.D Email: [email protected]

H/P#09099475492

ISBN No. 978-971-94531-1-6

No portion of this book may be reproduced inbooks, pamphlets, outline or notes, whether printed,mimeographed, typewritten, copied in differentelectronic devices or in any other form, for distributionor sale, without the written permission of the author.

Any portion of this book without the correspondingnumber and the signature of the author on this page

either proceeds from an illegitimate source or is inpossession of one who has no authority to dispose ofthe same.

ALL RIGHTS RESERVED BY THE AUTHOR

No___________

Printed by: Marbel Gepcars Printing Press

Rizal St., Zone III, Koronadal City Tel. # (083) 228-6586

MARCH 2012


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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Foreword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i

Dedication. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ii

Acknowledgement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .iii

INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1

The Two Positions about Education . . . . . . . . . 9

CHAPTER I

THE ELEMENTS OF ISLAMIC EDUCATION. . .16

The recipient of education.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

The External and Internal senses. . . . . . . . . . 21

The Soul as Khalifah (Vicegerent). . . . . . . . . . 31

CHAPTER II

THE CONTENTS OF ISLAMIC EDUCATION. . 39

The Meaning of Hikhmah (Wisdom). . . . . . . . 48


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FOREWORD

Islamic education has always been a misunderstoodconcept in the minds of many Filipinos, educators included.

The secularization of western education has inculcated into ourmental perspective the acquisition of knowledge that aids thematerial aspirations of society, and in the process, relegatesthe normative development of man to the sideways. As such,western educational systems regard the holistic education of aman as either unnecessary or redundant, and therefore, treathuman spiritual development as a mere collateral concern,

rather than the main focus of education.

This is the typical attitude of someone who thinks that thereformative aspect of worship is exemplified only by religiousactivities and limited solely to religious preaching. It denies thenatural oneness of man' body (jasad) , soul (nafs) and spirit(ruh), and does a disservice to the education of the whole man.It sets an unseen wedge between man's individuality and his

society, and in so doing, produces a human community withtruncated perspectives.

The book of Dr. Anshari P. Ali, The Muslim E ducationalNeeds: An Exposition of the Fundamental Elements andObjectives of Islamic Education, helps clarify the concept andimplementation of Islamic education in the Philippines.According to Dr. Ali another important element of education isthe content which should be inculcated to the aql

(intellect) of a child or person, and while modern andsecular educational institutions gave much attention to themethod than the content of education, Islam provides moreemphasis on the latter.


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The attention given to content in Islamic education ensuresthat education is both divinely-sourced and human-propagated. This acknowledges that the origin of all ilm(knowledge) is God, and man merely propagates the knowledgethat comes from the Divine Source. This likewise expands thescope of knowledge and knowledge acquisition beyond theotherwise secular bounds of western education.

In his latest book, Dr. Ali demystifies Islamic educationby lucidly explaining what will otherwise appear as alienArabic terms to students and practitioners of westerneducation, such as tarbiyah (good breeding), ta'lim(instruction), ta'dib (education), tahdib (refinement) andriyadah (self-discipline); and by elaborating on the Islamic concept of hikmah (wisdom).

Just as education is meant to enlighten, the book of Dr.Ali aims to clear the cobwebs that shroud the mind in itsperception of Islamic education. It opens our eyes andreveals the soul of Islamic education.

ATTY. MEHOL K. SADAIN

Professorial Lecturer College of Law & Institute of Islamic Studies

University of the Philippines September 12, 2011

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DEDICATION

This book is sincerely dedicated to the membersof my family, especially my late parents, my

children and my dear wife whom I promised myheart and love forever

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The Muslim Educational Needs

INTRODUCTION

One of the great challenges for the Muslimscholars in this post-modern era is the challenge ofeducation. It is the concept of education asconceived and disseminated throughout the worldby the Western civilization which is infused with thecharacter and personality of said civilization.

Western civilization means the civilization thathas evolved out of the historical fusion of cultures,philosophies, values and aspiration of ancientGreece and Rome amalgamated with Judaism andChristianity, and developed by the Latin, Germanic,Celtic and Nordic peoples. 1 It derives from AncientGreece the philosophical and

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epistemological elements and the foundations ofeducation and of ethics and aesthetics, fromRome the elements of law, statecraft andgovernment; from Judaism and Christianity theelements of religious faith and from the Latin,Germanic, Celtic and Nordic peoples theirindependent and national spirit and traditionalvalues, and development and

1

Syed Muhammad Naquib Al-Attas, Islam and Secularism. Kuala Lumpur: International Institute of Islamic Thought

and Civilization (ISTAC), 1993, 134, hereafter cited as

Secularism.

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advancement of the natural and physical sciencesand technology which they, together with theSlavic peoples, have pushed to such pinnacles ofpower. 2

Western civilization is guided by the principles ofsecularism. The term secularism is derived from the

Latin word saeculum which conveys a dualconnotation of time and location with reference tothe modern period of the world. 3 It stands incontrast to the sacred making an approach to lifedivorced from the influence of religion, and thusdetermined by temporal or worldly concerns. 4 According to the Western world

2 Ibid.3 This definition was provided by Syed Muhammad Naquib

al-Attas in his book titled Islam and Secularism which isthe earliest and most comprehensive account by a Muslimscholar on the historical and philosophical meaning of the

terms secular, secularization and secularism. For furtherreading, see Syed Muhammad Naquib al-Attas, Islam andSecularism (Kuala Lumpur: Muslim Youth Movement ofMalaysia (ABIM), 1978), 14-49, hereafter cited asSecularism; Also see Anshari P. Ali,The Evolution of Islamic Law in the Philippines. General Santos City: Mindanao State University, 2009, 66-70,hereafter cited as Evolution.

4 See al-Attas, Secularism, 14-46; also see W. L. Reeses,Dictionary of Philosophy and Religion (New Jersey: Humanities Press Inc., 1980), 519; also Malcom B.Hamilton, The Sociology of Religion (London: Routledge,1995), 165, hereafter cited as Hamilton.

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philosophical thought, secularism is an ideologywhich disenchanted nature, desacralized politicsand deconsecrated values. 5 The disenchantmentof nature involves the freeing of nature from itsreligious overtones and the dispelling of animisticspirits, gods and magic from the natural world sothat nature is no longer regarded as divine entity

in which man is free to act upon it. 6 Thedesacralization of politics means the abolition ofsacral basis of political power and authority as aprerequisite of political and social changes in theevolutionary process. 7 The deconsecration ofvalues implies the consideration of all culturalcreations as transient and relative so that every

value system including religion and worldview areopen to change on the basis of evolutionaryprocess. 8

Secularism denotes the disappearance ofreligious symbol of political and social aspects oflife. 9 It was a result of the Western man's

interpretation of biblical faith and the long history

5 Al-Attas, Secularism, 17; for further reading aboutsecularization, see Keith A. Roberts, Religion in SociologicalPerspective (Belmont: Wadsworth Publishing Company, 1990),303-23, herafter cited as Roberts; also Hamilton, 165.6 Al-Attas, Secularism, 16; Roberts, 306; Hamilton, 166.7 Al-Attas, Secularism, 16; Roberts, 306.8 Al-Attas, Secularism, 16; Roberts, 307.

Al-Attas, Secularism, 15; Roberts, 304.

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of philosophical and metaphysical conflict in the

religious and purely rationalistic worldview of the 10

Western scholars. In other words, secularism is aWestern concept whereas secularization is aprocess that is located in the west. 11 The formerarose in the west as a result of the power strugglebetween the church and the state over the swordsof temporal and spiritual authority, both claimedby the Roman Pope and the Holy Roman Empire,whereas the latter involved the movement from asacred to a secular society in the sense ofabandoning any commitment to religious andtraditional values and practices by acceptingchange and founding of actions on a rational andutilitarian basis. 12

Western civilization formulates its vision oftruth and reality not upon revealed knowledgeand religious belief, but upon cultural traditionwhich is reinforced by philosophical premisesbased upon speculation pertaining mainly tosecular life

10 See al-Attas, Secularism,18, Roberts, 305; Hamilton, 166.11 Al-Attas, Secularism, 18; for further reading, see Rudolf

Heredia, Secularism and Secularisation: Nation Buildingin a Multi- Religious Society, in Secularism and Liberation, ed. Rudolf C. Heredia and Edward Mathias (New Delhi:Indian Social Institute, 1995), 11-37, hereafter cited as

Heredia.

12 Hamilton, 167.

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centered upon man as physical entity and rational

animal setting great store upon man's rationalcapacity alone to unravel the mysteries of his totalenvironment and involvement in existence. 13

Technically, such knowledge disseminatedfrom the Western World is mainly a product ofconfusion and skepticism which has elevated

doubt and conjecture to the scientific rank inmethodology as a valid epistemological tool in thepursuit of truth and reality of things. 14

The dissemination in the Muslim world ofknowledge from the Western world infused with thecharacter and personality of Western culture and

civilization through universities and otherinstitutions of learning has resulted the infiltrationof key concepts from the Western world and theemergence of intellectual confusion. 15

The Intellectual confusion emerged as a result ofchanges and restriction in the meaning of key terms

that project the worldview derived from revelation. The effects of the intellectual confusion areindicated in moral and cultural dislocation,

13 Ibid.14 Ibid.Ibid, 162.

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which is symptomatic of the degeneration ofreligious knowledge, faith and values. 16 Saidconfusion is also manifested in the corruption or changes to the meaning of knowledge, its nature,

17 proper places and purposes.

As a result of the Western colonization andcultural control of vital areas of the Muslim world

beginning in the 17 th century, the West was able toinculcate the projection of its worldview in theMuslim mind and hence to dominate the Muslimsintellectually. 18 The dissemination of the basicessentials of the Western worldview and itsconsolidation in the Muslim mind was graduallyaccomplished through the educational system

based upon a concept of knowledge and itsprinciples that would ultimately bring about thedeislamization of the Muslim mind. 19

The penetration to the Muslim mind of westernknowledge and education has resulted to the loss ofadab (self-discipline) implying the loss of thecapacity for discernment of the right and properplaces of things, the confusion of the order ofnature as arranged according to their grades

16 Ibid.17 Ibid18 Ibid, 104.19 Ibid, 105.

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(maratib) and degrees of rank (darajat) and the undermining of legitimate authority and theinability to recognize and acknowledge rightleadership in all spheres of life. 20

Adab means the knowledge of disciplining the body,mind and soul that preserves man from errors of

judgment. It is the discipline that assures the

recognition and acknowledgement of the reality thatknowledge and being are ordered hierarchicallyaccording to their various grades (maratib) and degreesof rank (darajat), and one's proper place in relation tothat reality and to one's physical, intellectual andspiritual capacities and potentials. 21 Suchacknowledgement means actualization in one self andin society as a whole of what is recognized being amanifestation of justice ('adl).

The Muslims in the Philippines are part of theMuslim world that became victims of thedissemination of Western education andworldviews and its penetration to the Muslimmind as a result

20 Syed Muhammad Naquib al-Attas, The Concept of Education in Islam: A framework for an Islamic Philosophyof Education. Kuala Lumpur: International Institute ofIslamic Thought and Civilization (ISTAC), 1991,35, hereaftercited as Education in Islam. 21 Ibid, 27.

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of the Spanish and American colonization of theMoroland for many centuries and theestablishment of the Philippine seculareducational system in their own communities.

The secularization and intellectual confusionexisting in the mind of some Muslim intellectuals inthe country regarding the proper places and

objectives of education can be remedied throughIslamization of the mind, the learning of IslamicEpistemology of knowledge and education as well asthe adoption of adab and other Islamic key conceptsthat should be incorporated to the curricula of someuniversities within the Muslim areas in the country.

In this regard, the author wishes to make anexposition about the fundamental elements andobjectives of Islamic education with a hope to shedlight about the truth and basic purpose of learningand education on the basis of Islamic Worldview.

However, the author would like to begindiscussion on the subject with a briefpresentation about the two theoretical positionsconcerning the purpose of education.

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The Two Theoretical Positions

Philosophically, there are at least two theoreticalpositions concerning the purpose of education. Thefirst position is called society centered positionwhereby education is conceived primarily as avehicle to produce good citizens whether for variouskinds of democracies, oligarchies or monarchies. 22

The perennial school or cultural transmissionschool associated with Plato and with manymedieval Western scholars as well as a few modernones such as William T. Harris, Robert Hutchinsand Adler in the United States are included in thesociety or state-centered position. 23

The modern social re-constructionist schoolassociated with George S. Count of the UnitedStates, Paulo Freire of Brazil and JurgenHabermas of Germany, as well as the feministswho stress the principle of liberation are includedultimately as

22 Wan Mohd Nor Wan Daud, The Educational Philosophy and Practice of Syed Muhammad Naquib Al-Attas: AnExposition of the Original Concept of Islamization, Kuala Lumpur: International Institute of Islamic Thought andCivilization (ISTAC), 1998, 121, hereafter cited asEducational Philosophy.23 Ibid.

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society-centered position, though at a different

24 point in the spectrum.

The followers of the society centered positionargued that since man is inherently a socialanimal and knowledge is basically sociallyconstrued, education should prepare individuals

to function and adapt successfully in theirrespective society.

For them, the aims and objectives of educationare designed to strengthen the beliefs, attitudes,knowledge and skills accepted and valued by thesocial group. 25 However, since beliefs, attitudes,

knowledge and skills valued and accepted by therespective society are expected to continuallychange, the education of all individuals in thesociety must not only reflect such changes butmust also be prepared for all types of changingcircumstances. 26

In this educational system, the needs andinterests of individual students are located in asecondary position, although not totally neglected. 27 It should be noted that most national

24 Ibid25 Ibid, 12226 Ibid, 122Ibid, 122

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systems of education in the world today

including the Philippines are state centered.

In the Philippines, the basic purpose ofeducation is to prepare students to become goodFilipino citizens committed to uphold theConstitution, the rights and duties of citizenshipand the teachings of patriotism and nationalism.

For instance, the 1987 Constitution states that: 28

All educational institutions shall include the 29

study of the Constitution as part of the curricula.They shall inculcate patriotism and nationalism,

foster love of humanity, respect for human rights,appreciation of the role of national heroes in the

historical development of the country, teach therights and duties of citizenship, strengthen ethicaland spiritual values, develop moral character and

personal discipline, encourage critical and creativethinking, broaden scientific and technologicalknowledge, and promote vocational efficiency. 30

In line with the said constitutional postulate,tertiary education in the country is designed toassist each individual to develop his potential as a

28 The Philippine Constitution, Article 14, Section 3 (1). 29 Bernas, S.J. The 1987 Constitution of the Republic of the

Philippines 2003 Edition, Manila: Rex Book Store,

2003.1231. 30 The Philippine Constitution, Article 14, Section 3(2).

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human being and enhance the quality of citizen

participation in the basic function of the society. 31

There is no doubt, however, that the Philippineeducational system is anchored on the secularprinciple of the state as enshrined in theConstitution separating the religious activities of theChurch from the public affairs of the state. The

constitutional provision prohibiting the use of public money or government fund for the teaching

32 of religion strengthens such principle.

In short the Philippine educational system isbasically designed for the physical and materialwell being of the Filipino citizens, especially the

learning and acquisition of science andtechnology as an instrument for nationaldevelopment and progress, 33 so that they maybecome ultimately good instruments for therealization of the interests of the state.

Technically, however, the teaching of religion or

religious belief has no proper place in thecurricula of the Philippine public schools.Otherwise, such using of public money or

31 The Manual of Regulations for Private Schools, 1992,Article 1, section 10 (a). 32 The Philippine Constitution, Article 6, Section 29(2).33 The Philippine Constitution, Article 2, Section 17.

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government fund for the teaching of religion or

religious belief may contradict the secularprinciple as enshrined in the PhilippineConstitution. This may lead to the conclusionthat the purpose of molding a student in order tobecome a God-fearing or religious (makadius) person is not one of the alleged purposes of thePhilippine educational system.

However, the clamor of the Muslims about theirrelevance of the Philippine educational system tothe educational needs of the Muslim minority inthe country has resulted in the establishment ofsome Islamic studies institutes in the country.

Going back to the second theoretical positionconcerning the purpose of education, the so-called child or person centered position primarilystresses the needs, capacities and interests of thestudents. 34 This position has two major trends;the first trend holds that the primary purpose ofeducation is to prepare the individuals to attain

happiness by achieving maximum socialeconomic success while the second stresses thedevelopment of an intelligent, rich, and well-balanced personality of each child. 35 The personcentered position has

34

Educational Philosophy, 121. 35 Ibid.

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By defining man as rational animal, the term

rational is signified by the term natiq which pointsto an innate faculty of knowing that formulatesmeaning. 43 The term natiq is derived from a rootword that conveys the basic meaning of speech, inthe sense of human speech signifying a certainpower and capacity in man to articulate words in ameaningful pattern. 44 Meaning is an intelligible formwith regard to which a word, an expression, or asymbol is applied to denote it. When that wordexpression or symbol becomes a notion in the mind(aql) , it means understood. 45

In other words, man is a language animal, andthe articulation of linguistic symbol into ameaningful pattern is a visible expression of theinner, unseen reality that is called aql .46 Aqlrefers to the human intellect which is man'shighest faculty of knowledge identified with theeye of the heart (ayn al-qalb) for the heart meansessentially the seat of knowledge or theinstrument for the attainment of knowledge. 47

43 Prolegomena, 121-2244 Education, 14.45 Prolegomena, 123.46 Education, 14.47 Osman Bakar, Tawhid and Science: : IslamicPerspectives on Religion and Science, Selangore Dar al-

Ihsan: Arah Pendidikan SDN BHD, Level 3A, Block B,Peremba Square,

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This means that the seat of knowledge in man

is the aql which is a spiritual substance. Whenthis spiritual substance involves intellection orapprehension, it is called aql (intellect). 57

As for intellect, it performs abstraction ofobjects of the external world and contemplatesthe realities of things, and its functions are

localized in various regions of the brain. 58

When the said spiritual substance deals with thegovernance of the body, it is called nafs (soul).When the same spiritual substance receivesillumination of guidance from God, it is called qalb (heart). 59

When referring to the heart, the first meaningindicates the pine-shaped lump of muscular fleshsituated to the left side of the body and thefountain-head of the subtle vapor that is thevehicle of the physical animal spirit. 60 Throughthis vehicle, the animal spirit rises from its

fountain-head in the heart to the brain throughthe veins to all parts of the body. This spirit is theconveyor of animal life

57 Ibid, 147.58 Ibid, 147-8.59 Ibid, 147.

Ibid

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61

which is common to all animals. When it passesaway, it causes the death of the external sensesinvolving that of the body as a whole. 62 Thisindicates the double aspects of the heart, such asphysical and spiritual.

When the said spiritual substance separates from the body as it reverts to its world of abstract

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reality, it is called ruh (spirit).

In short, Islamic education must pertain tothe reality of man, and not simply to his body andanimal aspect, but his spiritual aspect. 64 Itmeans that such education being exclusive ofman excludes other animals which are not

endowed with aql (intellect).

The External and Internal Senses

In Philosophy, one of the fundamental functionsof the human soul as conceived by the peripatetic philosophers is the capacity to obtain knowledge

65 by virtue of its external and internal senses. Thisis generally known as the acquisition

61 Ibid.62 Ibid. 147.63 Education, 13.64 Ibid, 14.65 Bilal Kuspinar, Isma'il Ankaravi on the Illuminative Philosophy, Kuala Lumpur: International institute of Islamic

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of knowledge which involves two different processes:(1) abstraction (tajrid) and (2) perception (idrak) .66 Both of them operate in a reciprocal interactionbetween the knower, called subject, and the thing tobe known, called object. In such a relation, theknower first abstracts the image of an object in theexternal reality by means of the external senses ofthe soul, and then perceives it as a form by meansof its internal cognitive faculties or internalsenses. 67

For Ibn Sina, there are two main groups of thefaculties of the rational soul. The first group,called external consists of five senses: touch (al- lams), taste (al-dhawq), smell (al-shamm), hearing (al-sam') and sight (al-basar) .68 Touch is a facultywhich is spread over the entire surface of theskin. 6 9 It senses basically four diversecircumstantial states: hot and cold, moist anddry. In addition, it also gives an impression aboutthe following: light and heavy, smooth and rough,soft and hard. 70

Thought and Civilization (ISTAC), 1996, 113, hereafter cited

as Illuminative Philosophy. 66 Ibid67 Ibid.68 Ibid, 120.69 Ibid.70 Ibid, 120.

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Taste sense is located in the nerves spread out

over the tongue. It perceives the taste through themoisture that comes out of the squeezed juice. 71

Smell sense is a faculty which is located in thetwo lobes (za'idatayn) of the front part of the brain.It perceives smells and odors by means of the air. 72

Hearing is a sense located in the nerves dispersedover the surface of the ear cavity. It perceives thesounds by means of the air which enters the ear. 73

Sight is the faculty located in the nerves of thetwo pupils of the eyes. It perceives lights andcolors as images imprinted on the humors of the

eyes. An example of this would be a mirror whichreflects image. 74

Ibn Sina also asserted that the five internalsenses also consist of a hierarchy of five faculties,such as: common sense ( al-hiss al-mustarak) ,faculty of imagination (al-khayaliyyah) , faculty of

idea or thought (al-fikriyyah), faculty of

71 Ibid.72 Ibid.73

Ibid, 120.74 Ibid

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discrimination/estimation (al-wahm), andretentive faculty (al-hafizah). 75 Each of them, likethe external ones, becomes an instrument ofperception for the soul, each occupies a distinctplace, although, unlike others, only in the brain,and each has a separate function in the processof receiving information. 76

For al-Attas, the existence of internal senses isestablished by way of intuition (al-wijdan). 77

The first of these internal senses receives theinformation brought by the external senses andcombines and separates internal images orrepresentations of the external sensible objects. 78

It is the common sense (al-hiss al-mustarak).

Common sense resides in the forepart of thefront ventricle of the brain. 79 This faculty behavesas a sort of pool' into whi ch flow all the sensibleforms transmitted from the external world by thefive external senses. 80 All the forms of objectswhether perceived through touch, smell, hearing,sight or taste are first received by the common

75 Ibid, 120.76 Ibid, 120.77 Al-Attas, Prolegomena, 15078 Ibid 15179 Illuminative Philosophy, 120.80 Ibid.

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sense, which, among the other internal senses, isthe closest to the external ones. 81

In other words, common sense directlyreceives the data of the five external senses. It isnecessary that the external sensible objects befirst present to the external senses before theycan be perceived by the common sense. 82 Itperceives only their individual sensibleparticulars, and not their intelligible universals,and it is able to sense pleasure and pain, both asperceived in the imagination as well as in theexternal sensible objects. 83

However, al-Farabi described common sense as

the ruling element of the external senses and as therecipient of sensed forms, but it is excluded fromboth the external and internal senses. 84

Suhrawardi asserts that common sense alsovisualizes the forms, even in dreams, in a direct andvisible manner without the interference of the

81 Ibid.82 Prolegomena, 151.83 Ibid, 151.84 Osman Bakar, Classification of Knowledge in Islam. Kuala Lumpur: International Institute of Islamic Thoughtand Civilization (ISTAC), IIU, 2006, 52, hereafter cited asClassification of Knowledge.

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imagination. 85 As it combines in itself the imagesof all the transmitted forms, it perceives them bydirect vision. 86

For Ankaravi, common sense perceives theforms, not only in wakefulness but also in sleepor in dream by way of designation whereby theperson who falls asleep can envision an individualform away from its referent in external reality. 87 In other words, he does it, in the absence of thefive external senses, due to his common sense,and not by virtue of his intellect which conceivesonly universal and not particulars. 88

The Common sense receives the data providedby the external senses, gathering together similaras well as dissimilar ones, but does not retainwhat it has received. 89 In other words, thefunction of recording and retaining the images orforms of the external objects received by thecommon sense belongs to the second internalsense called the representative faculty. 90

85 Prolegomena, 151.. 89 Ibid.90 Illuminative Philosophy, 12191 Ibid.89 Prolegomena, 151. 90 Ibid, 151.

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pertaining to its objects as if they were sensibleobjects of the external world. 95

This faculty, due to its close dependency on theparticular meaning and intentions inherent in thesensible objects, is highly inclined to make

judgments which are though seeminglyacceptable and convincing to itself, yet in mostcases, in contradiction to the wise decision ofintellect. 96

In other words, the estimation is where judgments and opinions are formed, and unlessgoverned by intellect, the imaginative powersrelated to it are the sources of errors of

judgment. 97

The estimative faculty presides over judgmentsnot in the analytical way that characterizesintellectual judgment, but in the imaginative waydetermined by memory images through a processof association from past experience, or not bymemory images, but by an instinctiveinterpretation of the image perceived by the soulwithout going through any process of associationfrom past experience. 98

95

Prolegomena, 152.96 Illuminative Philosophy, 120.97 Prolegomena, 152Prolegomena, 152.

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The fourth internal sense, called the retentiveand re-collective faculty (al-hafizah and al- dhakirah) , retains meanings and conserves them for the estimative faculty which receives thesemeanings. 99

The retentive faculty is situated in the rearventricle of the brain. Its primary function is torecollect the individual incidents (al-waqa'i) andsituations (al-ahwal).

The retentive faculty, also termed as memoryand recollection, acts as a storehouse forintentions and meanings transmitted from theestimative faculty and retrieves them whenneeded. 100 The retentive faculty retains particularmeanings and memorizes them for closeinspection and appraisal by the perceiver for solong as they remain in it. 101 When they becomeabsent from retention and the perceiver wishes torecall them, then it is called the re-collectivefaculty. 102

The fifth internal sense is the imaginative faculty(al-mutakhayyilah). The imaginative faculty issituated in the middle ventricle of the brain near

99 Prolegomena, 152.100 Illuminative Philosophy, 120..

101 Prolegomena, 153.102 Prolegomena, 153.

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the vermin form process. 103 Its main task is towork on the images and forms stored in thefaculty of representation, and thus separate andcombine them in various ways. 104

In other words, imaginative faculty perceivesforms, then combines and separates them in anact of classification, adds to them and takes awayfrom them so that the soul may perceive theirmeanings and connect them with the forms orimages. 105

The soul uses this faculty for the purpose ofclassification by means of combining andseparating its objects, sometimes through thepractical reasons and sometimes through thetheoretical reason. 106 Its essential nature is toperform the function of combining andseparating, and not of perception. When the souluses it as an intellectual instrument, it is calledcogitative, and when it is used according to itsnatural disposition it is imaginative. 107

The soul perceives what this faculty combinesand separates of the forms through the mediacy of

103 Ibid.104 Ibid.

105 Prolegomena, 153.106 Prolegomena, 153.Prolegomena, 153.

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the common sense as well as through the mediacyof the estimative faculty. 108 In its developed formthis faculty apprehends ideas beyond the spheres ofsense and sensual images. 109 It is a specifically ahuman faculty not found in the lower animals. 110

In short, each of these internal senses orfaculties is invested with a specific function andoccupies a distinct location on its own in thebrain.

The Soul as Khalifah (Vicegerent)

In Theology, the spiritual substance as nafs

(soul) has a very important role in the existence ofa human being. In fact, the soul is the real personas the body is considered as a mere physicalentity occupied by the soul during his lifeexistence in this world. The soul was created byGod, but it becomes immortal. After the creationof the soul but before its appearance on earth,

God summoned such soul in order to testifyabout his acknowledgement of the Lordship ofGod. This can be understood in the verse of theHoly Qur'an in which Allah says:

When thy Lord drew forth from the children ofAdam-from their loins-their descendants, andmade 108 Ibid, 153.109 Ibid.Ibid.

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Being equipped with knowledge, God appointed

the soul as khalifah (vicegerent) on earth. 113 Being akhalifah on earth, the soul was entrusted withamanah (trust) that includes the implementation of

justice and the commandment of God. 114

Therefore, the first trial for man in enforcingamanah and justice is his physical body as calledby Abu Hamid al-Ghazali as micro kingdom wherethe soul is deemed as king being a khalifah orrepresentative of God entrusted to enforce thereinsuch God's commandment. 115

In dealing with the governance of his body as akingdom, the soul has visible armies like the five

external senses, such as the power of seeing,hearing, smelling, tasting and touching. 116

Similarly, the soul-king has invisible armiesotherwise known as internal senses, such as thepower of common sense, power of thought, power ofimagination, power of memory and power of

judgment or discrimination in which the soul is

113 Surah Al-Baqarah, (2:30). 114 Surah al-Nisa', (4:58). 115 Abu Hamid al-Ghazali, Ihya ulum al-Din: The Book of DestructiveEvils, trans. Maulana Fazul Karim Vol 3, Sind Sagar Academy, Pakistan,

5, hereafter cited as Book of Destructive Evil. 116 Ibid, 4.

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empowered to distinguish right from wrong or

good from bad or the truth from falsehood. 117

For al-Ghazali, the five external and internalsenses are, like armies, that are alwayssubservient to the order of the soul-king. Forinstance, when the soul wants to close the eyes,the eyes will automatically close or if the soul

wants to move the hand, the hand willautomatically move. 118

However, in the physical body of man askingdom, there is such desire which may be likenedto a collector of revenue within a kingdom thatusually collects whatever the external and internal

senses have obtained. The desire is also supportedby Anger that Al-Ghazali termed as like a policewithin a kingdom that usually encourages thedesire to pursue its move. 119

The soul, however, is duty bound to enforcepeace and order within the body kingdom that

includes the disciplining of desire and anger byplacing them under the dictates of reason and justice. For instance, desire must be controlled inorder to operate in a moderate way so thatpatience which is the beautiful status of desiremay always

117

Ibid, 5.118 Ibid, 4.119 Ibid, 6.

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be attained whereas greedy which is the worst

status of desire be avoided. 120 It is not possible, ofcourse, for a person to live without desire, butsuch desire needs to be disciplined so that lovemay be reasonable under the shade of justice. Itis also natural for a person to be overwhelmed byanger sometimes, but such anger requiresdisciplinary measure so that it may operatemoderately without transgressing the right ofothers and the limit of the law.

The soul is required to enforce the commandment ofGod over every physical attributes of the body byplacing them in their real status as servant of Godbeing the basic purpose of their existence on earth.

Being the governor of the body kingdomentrusted to enforce therein the commandmentand will of God, the soul is deemed accountable toGod for whatever disobedience committed by anyphysical attribute of the body in which the soulwill be asked in the day of judgment by no less

than his Lord.

The real essence of man originated from theworlds of (al-malakut) dominion and of (al-amr)

120 Ibid.

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command. 121 When man inclines himself towards

the right direction, the divine peace (al-sakinah) willdescend upon it, and the effusion of divine liberalitywill successively be diffused in it until it achievestranquility in the remembrance of God and abidesin the knowledge of His divinity, and soars towardsthe highest levels of the angelic horizon. 122 The HolyQur'an called this state of the soul as al-nafs al -mutma'innah (tranquil soul). For instance, Allahsays:

O (righteous) soul, in complete rest andsatisfaction! Comeback thou to thy Lord, well

pleased (thyself), and well-pleasing unto Him.Enter thou, then among My devotees! Yea, enterthou My heaven .123

Sometimes the soul is drawn towards itsintellectual powers and encounters the intelligiblewhereby their eternal truths cause it to affirm itsloyalty to God, and sometimes its animal powersdrag it down to the lowest foothills of the beastial

121 (Qur'an,:Ya sin, 36:83); al-Mu'minun (23):88.122 Syed Muhammad Naquib al-Attas, Prolegomena to the Metaphysics of Islam: An Exposition of the Fundamentalelements of the Worldview of Islam, Kuala Lumpur: International Institute of Islamic Though and Civilization(ISTAC), 1995, 146, hereafter cited as Prolegomena.Al-Fajr (89):27.

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nature. 124 This vacillation in the state of the soul

is the state of the soul that censures itself whichis called al-nafs al-lawwamah, which is in earneststruggle with its animal powers. In the Qur'an,Allah says: And I do s wear by the self-reproaching soul. 125

By means of knowledge, moral excellence, and

good works, it is possible for man to attain to theangelic nature, and when he does, he no longer hasin common with his fellow man the animal nature inhim except in outward form and fashion. 126 But ifhe falls into the degrading depths of the beastialnature and remains captive in that condition, thenhe is severed from the nature common to humanityand appears as man only in shape andconstruction. 127 This is the state of the soul thatincites to evil. That is also the meaning of whatAllah says: The (human) soul certainly incites evil, unless my Lord do bestow His Mercy. 128

However, the physical body has important

contributions to man's intellectual and spiritualdevelopment as it is through the bodily faculties

124 Prolegomena, 147.125 Al-Qiyamah, (75):2.126 Prolegomena, 147.127 Ibid.Yusuf (12):53.

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that the soul can acquire particular information

and data concerning the world of sense andsensible experience. 129 Through its variousfaculties, the soul will then develop these sense-data into general principles, ideas and beliefs. 130

129 Wan , Philosophy, 54.Ibid.

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CHAPTER II

THE CONTENT OF ISLAMIC EDUCATION

Another important element of education is thecontent which should be inculcated to the aql

(intellect) of a child or person. While modern andsecular educational institutions gave muchattention to the method than the content ofeducation, Islam provides more emphasis on thelatter.

In his comment about the importance of the

content of education, al-Attas asserted that theteaching and learning of skills alone, howeverscientific it may be or the teaching and learning ofhuman, natural and applied sciences alone do notconstitute education. 131 There is something inknowledge which when not inculcated will notmake its teaching, learning and assimilation as

education. Such something in knowledge has

131 Al-Attas, The Islamic Concept of Education: A Framework for an Islamic Philosophy of Education, Kuala Lumpur: ISTAC, 20, hereafter cited as Education.

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reference to the content of education which shall

be inculcated to the mind of the student. 132

However, al-Attas described the content of e d u ca t i o n a s t h e r e c o g n i t i o n a n dacknowledgement of the proper places of things inthe order of creation, such that it leads to therecognition and acknowledgement of the proper

place of God in the order of being and existence. 133

Such recognition of the proper place of a thingoccurs when the relation of a thing with others inthe system becomes clarified and understood. It isworthy of note that such relation of a thing withothers in a system describes an order. 134

In the said description of content of education, theterm 'proper place pertains to two domains ofapplication. It may refer, on the one hand, to theontological domain which includes man and theworld of empirical things, and, on the other, to thetheological domain which includes the religious and

ethical aspects of human existence.135

Such 'proper place' means 'real' and 'true'

132 Ibid.133 Ibid.134 Ibid, 15.Ibid.68.

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place as denoted by the Arabic term haqq for haqq signifies both reality and truth pertaining to thetwo domains. 136

The world of nature as depicted in the HolyQur'an is composed of symbolic forms (ayat), likewords in a book. Indeed, the world of nature isanother form of Divine revelation analogous to theHoly Qur'an itself, only that the great, open book ofnature is something created as it presents itself inmultiple and diverse forms that partake of symbolicexistence by virtue of being continually articulatedby the creative word of God. 137

In other words, the natural world is a book

containing knowledge, but such knowledge is notevident merely from the physical phenomena forthese are nothing but signs the meaning of whichcan be understood by those who are equippedwith proper knowledge, wisdom and spiritualdiscernment. 138

This is in line with the ayah (verse) of the HolyQur'an in which Allah says:

136

Ibid.

137 Prolegomena, 133.138 Wan, Philosophy, 65.

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Behold! In the creation of the heavens and earth,

and the alternation of night and day, there areindeed signs for men of understanding. They arethose who remember Allah standing, sitting, andlying down on their sides, and contemplate the(wonders of) creation in the heavens and earth(with saying) Our Lord not for naught ha st thoucreated (all) this! Give us salvation from thechastisement of the fire. 139

Some natural objects are obvious as to theirmeaning, just like the clear verses (muhkamat) ofthe Qur'an, while other natural phenomena are likethe ambiguous verses (mutashabihat). Ourunderstanding and interpretation of these signs in

the external world must be based on the samemethod of valid interpretation and understanding ofthe written words of the Qur'an, i.e. through tafsiror direct interpretation and ta'wil or deeper andallegorical interpretation based on the clear anddirect ones. 140

In other worlds, a thing, like a word, is in realitya sign or a symbol, and a sign or a symbol issomething that is apparent but inseparable fromsomething else not equally apparent. When the

139 Surah al-Imran, 3-190-191 .

140 Wan, Philosophy, 65.

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former is perceived, the other, which cannot beperceived becomes known. 141

The meaning of a thing means the rightmeaning of it as determined by the Islamic visionof reality and truth as projected by the Qur'anicconceptual system. 142

The Holy Qur'an itself speaks of its signs andsymbols as consisting partly of those that areclear and established (al-muhkamat), and partly ofthose that are obscure and ambiguous (al- mutashabihat). In correspondence with the signs and symbols of the Holy Qur'an, the world ofphenomena also consists of signs and symbols

which we call 'things' that are clear andestablished in their meanings, and those that areobscure and ambiguous. 143

As the interpretation of those ambiguous textsis to be based upon those that are clear andestablished, the interpretation and explanation of

the obscure and ambiguous aspects of the thingsof the empirical world must be grounded uponwhat is already known and established. 144

141 Ibid, 134.142 Ibid.

143 Ibid, 136.144 Ibid.

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It is worthy of note that everything that exists inthe natural world is a symbol of something in thehigher world. 145 Symbol is the reflection in a lowerorder of existence of a reality belonging to a higherontological status. That higher world which issymbolized by the natural symbols is the spiritualworld. The sun, for instance, symbolizes the DivineIntelligence; a bird symbolizes the soul; a treesymbolizes the grades of being; and watersymbolizes knowledge and rain revelation. 146

For Ibn Sina, scientific facts became transformedinto symbols which were to act as guide posts forthe traveler upon the path of spiritual perfection inhis journey through and beyond the cosmos to theDivine Presence. 147 In other words, nature is also asource of gaining knowledge of Divine wisdom.Above all, everything in the natural world is asymbol or sign for the power and existence of itsAuthor, that is the Almighty God.

Going back to the notion of right or proper placeof a thing, it involves necessity for things in theontological order of creation, are already soarranged according to various levels and degrees

145

Bakar, Osman, Tawhid and Science 66. 146 Ibid, 66.Ibid, 68-9.

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but man out of ignorance of just order pervading all

creation makes alterations and confuses the placesof things such that injustice occurs. 148 For instance,God created man as man, but some men placedthemselves in the place of women. Woman wascreated as woman, but some women put themselvesin the place of men to the extent of havingcommitted injustice against themselves.

The place of a person, a thing or an object ofknowledge does not merely refer to the location orthe specific space occupied by the person, thething or the object of knowledge, but also thenatural position of a person, thing or object ofknowledge that conforms to the nature, both in

the external world and in the imagination and inthe mind as well as the spiritual world. 149

As for a human being, the proper place of a manis that he is to be considered as both spiritual andphysical. He is a living being possessing that innerfaculty of knowing that apprehends the meaning of

the universals. 150 He has the power and capacity toarticulate words or symbolic forms in meaningfulpatterns. 151 He is spirit, soul, heart and

148 Prolegomena, 130.149 Ibid.

150 Ibid, 131 . 151 Ibid .

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intellect manifested in bodily form, and his spirit,

soul, heart and intellect point to one and thesame reality being named by many namesbecause of its many modes in its relations withthe various levels of existence encompassing thespiritual and physical domain. 152

Therefore, the harmonious condition by which a

person or thing is placed in its proper place signifies justice. 153 In other words, Islamic justice does notonly refer to relational situation of harmony andequilibrium existing between one person andanother, or between the society and the state, orbetween the ruler and the ruled, or between theking and his subjects, but also for the harmoniousand rightly balanced relationship existing betweenman and his self. 154

On the other side, injustice, being the opposite of justice, is putting a thing in a place not its own. It isto misplace a thing; it is to misuse or to wrong; it isto exceed or fall short of the mean or limit; it is to

suffer loss; it is deviation from the right course; it isdisbelief of what is true, or lying about what is trueknowing it to be true. 155

152 Prolegomena, 130-31153 Ibid, 66.154 Ibid, 66.155 Ibid, 67.

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Thus, when a man does an act of injustice, it

means that he has wronged his own soul, for hehas put his soul in a place not its own; he hasmisused it; he has made it to exceed or fall shortof its real nature; he has caused it to deviate fromwhat is right and to repudiate the truth and tosuffer loss. 156

The Holy Qur'an stresses the point that man,when he does wrong, is being unjust to himself,and that injustice is a condition brought by manupon himself. For instance, Allah says: VerilyAllah will not deal unjustly with man in aught: it isman who wrongs his own soul. 157

As the harmonious condition of things being intheir right or proper places signifies justice, theknowledge in which a person is able to effect correct

judgment as to the proper places of things meanshikma (wisdom). Wisdom is the knowledge given byGod that enables the recipient to know the rightplace, or to render correct judgment as to the right

place of a thing or an object of knowledge. 158

Al-Attas also asserted that justice impliesknowledge of the right and proper place of a thing,

156 Ibid, 68.157 Al-Nisa, 4:123; Yunus, 10:44.Prolegomena, 129.

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or right as against wrong, or the mean against the

limit, or spiritual gain as against loss or truth asagainst falsity and falsehood. 159 This is whyknowledge occupies a most important position inIslam. In fact, man is bound to do with justice toknowledge, that is, to know its limit of usefulnessand not to exceed or fall short of it, to know itsvarious orders of priority in relation to itsusefulness to one's self; to know where to stop andto know what can be gained and what cannot, whatis true knowledge and what is learned guess andtheory-in sum, to put every datum of knowledge inits right place in relation to the knowing one so thatwhat is known produces harmony in the one whoknows. 160

The Meaning of Hikmah (Wisdom)

Going back to the meaning of hikmah (wisdom),it is a science which is concerned with the realnatures of things as they are, as well as with theappropriate action required. 161 As to the use andbenefit of wisdom, it is to perfect the

159 Ibid, 68.160 Ibid, 68.Bilal Kuspinar, Islmail Ankaravi on the Illuminative Philosophy, Kuala Lumpur: International Institute of Islamic

Thought and civilization (ISTAC), 1996, 70, hereafter citedas Illuminative Philosophy.

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human soul with the aid of gnosis. Every heart

attains happiness by wisdom as every problemfinds solution by wisdom. 162

The science of wisdom deals with the mattersproper to its own subject-matter. For instance, thescience of medicine ('ilm al-tib) takes the humanbody as its own subject-matter as the physician

occupies himself with the matters proper to humanbody, like certain diseases attached to the humanbody. 163 In like manner, the subject-matter ofastrology or astronomy ('ilm al- nuzum) is theheavenly bodies, since the astrologer or astronomerdeals with the issues related to the structure ofthese bodies and their observations. 164

Again, the science of Islamic jurisprudence ('ilmal-fiqh) is involved with judicial matters andreligious obligations such as prayer, fasting,almsgiving, pilgrimage and so on. 165 The subject-matter of divine science is absolute Being sincethe sage (hakim) of divine science deals with thematters that are proper to absolute Being. 166

162 Ibid, 71.163 Ibid, 71 . 164 Ibid.165 Ibid.Ibid.

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the intuition of the sages, saints and scientists. 171

The scientific knowledge is based on reason andempirical experience. 172 In other words, thescholars also named these two categories ofknowledge as al-'ilm al-naqliyyah (revealedknowledge) and al-aqliyyah (intellectual) or al-tajribiyyah (empirical knowledge). 173

Revealed knowledge includes those sciencesacquired from the revealed books of God and thoseProphets sent by God. There are at least four (4)books revealed by God, such as the Torah whichwas revealed to Prophet Moses, the Psalm revealedto prophet David, the Gospel revealed to Prophet

Jesus and the Holy Qur'an revealed to the Prophet

Muhammad (peace be upon them all). Each of thesebooks contained knowledge. 174 The Sunnah of theProphet Muhammad (peace be upon him) is alsoconsidered as internal revelation from God. 175 Such knowledge cannot be arrived at either byreason or by experimentation.

171 Ibid.172 Ibid.173 Ibid.174 Surah al-Maidah: 44 and 47. 175 Muhammad Hashim kamali, Principles of Islamic Jurisprudence. Malaysia: Pelanduk Publications (M) Sdn.,

1995, 19, hereafter cited as Principles.

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knowledge would cease to be binding upon the

rest of the community. 180 Other sciencesnecessary for the development of the community,such as agriculture, weaving, politics and evencupping and tailoring are fard kifayah andpraiseworthy too. 181

Going back to sciences which are deemed

blameworthy, it should be noted that basicallyknowledge is not held to be blameworthy in itself,but regarded as such in the eyes of men for one ofthree reasons.

First, when such knowledge leads to any harmwhether the harm should fall on its practitioner or

someone else for which reason the science of magicand talism is held blameworthy. 182 The ProphetMuhammad (peace be upon him) himself was thevictim of magic which caused him to become sickuntil the Angel Gabriel made it known to him andexorcized the evil spirit from underneath a stone inthe bottom of a well. 183

Second, knowledge is blameworthy when it ismostly harmful. Astrology is part of astronomy the

180 Ibid, 37.181 Ibid,182 Al-Gazali, Ihya Ulum al-Din, Kitab al-Ilm trans. Nabih AminFaris. Pakistan: Sh. Muhammad Ashraf, 7, Aibak Road,Lhaore,1991, 73, hereafter cited as Kitab al-Ilm. 183 Ibid.

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gist of which is that future events are indicated bypresent causes. 184 Astrology is an attempt toknow the course of the laws and ordinances ofGod relative to His creatures. Therefore, Shari'ahhas declared it blameworthy. 185

Th e Prophet said, whenever the decrees of Godare mentioned, withhold from discussing them;whenever the stars are mentioned, desist fromany talk; and when my companions arementioned, refrain from any gossip'. 186

Umar ibn al-Khattab (may Allah be pleasedwith him) said: acquire of the science of the stars enough to lead you on land and on sea but nomore. He warned against it for three reasons: First, because it is harmful to most people, sinceif they were told that these results would be theconsequences of the movement of stars, theymight think that it is the stars which influencethe course of events and are also the gods whodirect the world. 187 The second reason is thatastrology is purely guess-work and in the opinionof the average man, the influence of the stars isnot determined

184 Ibid, 74.185 Ibid.186 Ibid,187 Ibid, 75 .

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In view of the human obligation towards it,knowledge is divided into fard'ain (personalobligation) and fard kifayah (social obligation). 195

The basis of fard'ain knowledge is the prophetictradition in which the Prophet Muhammad (peacebe upon him) was reported to have said: talab al - 'ilm faridatun 'ala kulli muslimin wa muslimahwhich means learning of knowledge is anordinance obligatory for every Muslim male andfemale. 196

The scholars, however, disagreed as to whatbranch of knowledge that a man is required tolearn. For instance, the mutakallimun (scholastictheologians) insisted that it is the scholastictheology on the ground that the oneness of Allah,as well as His essence and attributes may beknown through it. 197

The fuqaha (Jurists) held out for fiqh (Islamic jurisprudence) alleging that the acts of worship,the lawful and the unlawful as well as theforbidden and permissible in daily conduct aredetermined

195 Ihya, Kitab al-Ilm, 30-32; Wan, Philosophy, 241.196 Ihya, Kitab al-Ilm, 30 . 197 Abu Hamid al-Ghazali, Ihya ulum al-Din Kitab al - 'ilm,trans. Nabih Amin Faris, Lehore: SH. Muhammad Ashraf,7-Aibak Road, new Anarkali, 1991, 30, hereafter cited asKitab al-'ilm.

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through fiqh. What the ordinary man needs in hiseveryday life is determined through it.

The mufassirun (Qur'anic commentators) andthe muhaddisun (traditionists) are holding that it istafsir and hadith as, through the Qur'an and thesunnah, all sciences are attained as they stood forthe science of the Qur'an and Sunnah. 198

The mutasawwifun (Sufis) pointed out totasawuf (sufism) as the branch of knowledgewhich was intended being the science wherebyman has to realize his position in relation to Godthrough mystical experience. 199 Also, tasawufcomprises the knowledge about sincerity and theaffections of the soul as well as the distinctionbetween the followers of God and the Satan. 200

According to Abu Talib al-Makki, the abovequoted tradition implies the knowledge of thefundamental principles of Islam on the basis ofthe saying of the Prophet Muhammad (peace beupon him) that Islam was built upon five pillarsas it is necessary to know how to fulfill the fivepillars of Islam as ordained by God. 201

198 Ibid.199 Ibid.200 Ibid.201 Ibid, 31.

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for man, not all knowledge of the second or fard kifayah is good for him. 205

However, both kinds of knowledge have to beacquired through conscious 'amal (action) forthere is no useful knowledge without actionresulting from it, and no worthwhile actionwithout knowledge. 206

It is worthy of note that although the revealed,praiseworthy, Shar 'iyah and fard'ain knowledge aresuperior to the intellectual, blameworthy, non-shar'iyah, fard kifayah knowledge, the latter knowledge should not be neglected as they are alsoimportant when placed in their proper places. Alsoreligion cannot be truly explained and elaboratedparticularly in our days without intellectualsciences. The latter without the former will bemisguided and purely sophistical. 207

Al-Attas delineated the basic subjects of fard'ain knowledge, such as (1)the Holy Qur'an: itsrecitation and interpretation, (2)the Sunnah: thelife of the Holy Prophet (peace be upon him), thehistory and message of the Prophets before him;the hadith and its authoritative transmission, (3)the

205 Ibid, 147.206 Ibid.Wan, Philosophy, 253.

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Shari'ah: jurisprudence and law, the principles and practice of Islam (Islam, Iman, and Ihsan), (4)theology (tawhid): God, His Essence, Attributes,Names and Acts, (5)Islamic metaphysics(tasawwuf): psychology, cosmology, and ontology, (6)linguistic sciences: Arabic, its grammar,lexicography and literature. 208 .

Regarding the knowledge the acquisition ofwhich is considered fard kifayah, Abu Hamid al-Ghazali asserted that such necessary duty cannot be distinguished from other duties exceptwhen the different sciences are enumerated. Theyare divided into sacred (shar') and profane (ghayr Shari) sciences. 209 Such sacred sciences are those which have been acquired from the Prophets andare not arrived at either by reason.

However, fard kifayah sciences comprise everyscience which is indispensable for the welfare ofman in this world, such as medicine which isnecessary for the life of the body, arithmetic fordaily transactions and the division of legacies andinheritances, as well as other besides. 210 These arethe sciences which, because of their absence, a

208 Al-Attas, Education, 42.209 Ihya, Kitab al-ilm, 36.210 Ibid.

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community would be reduced to narrow straits. 211

But should one who can practice them rise in thecommunity, it would suffice, and the obligation toacquire their knowledge would cease to be bindingupon the rest of the community. 212

Fard kifayah also includes knowledge on fundamental industries, such as agriculture,weaving, politics, computer, fire extinguishingand even cupping and tailoring as if a town lacksa cupper extinction would overtakes its peopleand they should be driven to expose themselves todestruction. 213

In short, fard kifayah sciences include therational, intellectual and philosophical sciences,especially human sciences, natural sciences,applied science and technological sciences. 214

For Abu Hamid al- Ghazali, to study intellectualsciences, especially medicine, mathematics,administration, agriculture, and the like are fard kifayah as they are leading to the progress of the Muslim community. 215 This is to

211 Ibid.212 Ibid.213 Ibid.214 Ibid, 43. 215 Ihya, Kitab al-Ilm, 37.

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prove that Islam is not anti-progress so long assuch progress does not divert the Muslims fromtheir journey toward hereafter.

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CHAPTER III

THE METHODS OF ISLAMIC EDUCATION

The third fundamental element of education isthe method or system of inculcating knowledge to

the aql of a child. It is worthy of note thatmethodology is the ways or methods by whichman can gain knowledge of reality either in itspartial or total aspects. 216

Methodology also deals with man who is thesubject pole of knowledge, that is to say, the

subject that knows.217

This pole consists of all thefaculties and power of knowing within man whichare hierarchic in nature. 218 It means that man is ca p a b l e o f h a v i n g m u l t i p l e l e v e l o fconsciousness. 219

Methodology also deals with the Universe which

is the objective pole of knowledge, that is to

216 Osman Bakar, Tawhid and Science , 19.217

Ibid.218 Ibid.219 Ibid.

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The verse spiritualizes and de-secularizes theact of learning and education as to the commandfor learning is grounded in the name and pleasureof God. It also clarified that God is the source ofall knowledge and the Teacher of mankind. It alsogives information that man is not alone todiscover anything in the universe, but he stillneeds the guidance and assistance of God beingthe Master of the universe. 225 It also implies thatsince the source of knowledge is the UniversalGod, then knowledge itself when coming from theDivine Source is universal 226

Being part of the integral teachings of the HolyProphet, all knowledge comes from God, and isinterpreted by the soul through its physical andspiritual faculties. Hence, knowledge, withreference to God as being its source of origin, isthe arrival in the soul of the meaning of a thing oran object of knowledge; and with reference to thesoul as being its interpreter, knowledge is thearrival of the soul at the meaning of a thing or anobject of knowledge. 227

Theologically, knowledge is of two kinds, such asthe knowledge gifted by God to man and the one

225 Wan, Philosophy, 317.226 Ibid.227 Prolegomena, 182.

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all. 232 The term also embraces the act of feeding,loving, sheltering and nursing as well ascherishing which parents bestow upon theirchildren. 233 In like manner, it is also used inrelation to the offspring of an animal other thanman, such as cattle farming, stock breeding,chicken farming and poultry husbandry. 234 Thisimplies that tarbiyyah encompasses the processof developing the physical and material aspectsthat are not restricted to man alone since such isextended to animals as well. 235

It should be noted that it was al-Attas whoargued about the inconsistency of taking the termtarbiyyah to convey the meaning of Islamiceducation. His analysis on the meaning oftarbiyyah is part of his argument against those Muslim scholars who used said term to conveythe meaning of an Islamic education. 236 Heargued that those Muslim scholars whoconceptualized tarbiyyah as Islamic educationcoined the term with the Western concept ofeducation as the term tarbiyyah is indeed atransparent translation of education in the

232 Al-Attas, Education, 30. 233 Ibid, 31. 234 Ibid.28235 Ibid, 29.236 Ibid.

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over all process of Islamic education encompassing

the element of tarbiyyah (Good breeding) and ta'lim (instruction). The concept of ta'dib will beexplained later.

Ta'lim (instruction)

Regarding the concept of ta'lim, such term isderived from the Arabic root word allama whichmeans to make someone 'alim or to make himpossess knowledge as it becomes firmly rooted inhis mind. 241

The process of ta'lim (instruction) consists of thethree main components: the learned (al-'alim), thelearner (muta'allim) and the knowledge ('lim). Aslearning is the quest to bring forth the thing frompotentially to actuality in oneself, teaching orinstruction is the action of bringing forth the thingfrom potentiality to actuality in someone else. 242

As 'ilm (knowledge) is defined as knowing thething as it is, ta'lim is the presentation to thelearner by the rational tranquilized soul of therealities of things and their forms. 243 However,knowledge is potentially ingrained in the souls at

241 Asmaa, Five Key Terms, 118.242 Ibid, 120.243 Ibid

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the beginning of their creation, like the seed in the

earth and the gem in the depths of the sea or in theheart of mine. 244 This can be understood in themeaning of verse 172 of the surah al-A'raf , whenGod asked the souls of the children of Adam totestify about the Lordship of God and said soulsacknowledged such testimony implying the fact theyhave already knowledge about it as taught to themby God. In fact, such acknowledgement of the soulsof the children of Adam about the Lordship of Godis deemed as the beginning of human knowledge.Hence, the knowledge about God (ma'rifat Allah) isthe best knowledge for a human being and his firstobligation to acquire during his life on earth.

For Abu Hamid al-Ghazali, ta'lim is the meansfor the acquisition of knowledge through whichmen are elevated from the level of beasts to that ofhuman beings. 245 The usual means of acquiringhuman knowledge is divided into two: such asthrough human teaching and the Divineteaching. 246 While the human teaching is afamiliar method which is easily perceived, theDivine teaching is of two aspects, such asknowledge

244 Ibid.245 Ibid, 119.Ibid.

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attained through learning and the one acquired

through reflection (tafakur). 247

Thus, the process of ta'lim necessarily involvesthe cultivation of knowledge in the rational soul asits recipient, since the first manifestation of its lightis in the brain or intellect that is the source,foundation and fountainhead of knowledge. 248

Knowledge springs from the intellect as the springof the fruit from the tree, the light from the sunand the vision from the eyes. 249

However, al-Attas emphasized that ta'lim (instruction) is distinct from ta'dib (education) sincethe former generally refers to the instruction and

cognitive aspects of education, but the latter alreadyincludes within its conceptual structure theelements of 'ilm (knowledge) and ta'lim (instruction). 250 Also, ta'dib includes both thephysical, emotional, and spiritual aspects ofeducation. 251

247 Ibid,120.248 Ihya, Kitab al-ilm, 221.249 Ibid.250 Al-Attas, education, 34.251 Asmaa, Five Key terms, 122.

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Riyadah (Self-Discipline)

Concerning the Concept of riyadah (self-discipline), the term refers to a substitution of theblameworthy state with the praiseworthy one.

For al-Ghazali, riyadah is a training of the soulfrom a trivial to an intense struggle throughgentle and gradual effort until difficult states andpractices become plain and simple. 252 Forinstance, a man who wishes to acquire the qualityof generosity must perform generous actscontinuously struggling with his soul in givingaway some particular possessions until his natureconform to it. Thus, the action will be developedas one of his traits and part of his nature that willbecome easy and habitual. 253

A good character can be possessed throughDivine gift as some persons are born gifted, butthere is common means of achieving it throughself-mortification and self-discipline effort ofperforming good traits until they become habitualand pleasant. 254

252 Ibid, 114.253 Ibid, 115Ibid, 115; Also Ihya, Kitab al-Ilm, 3, 54

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Such a good character implies the harmonious

relationship of the tree faculties of the soul, namelythe faculty of reason (aql), the faculty of anger(gadhab ) and the faculty of desire (al- shahwah). 255

When all faculties of the soul remain in order,it implies equilibrium. The observance of theequilibrium result in the fundamental traits of

character: such as virtues of wisdom , courage,temperance and justice. Wisdom is a state of thesoul that enables man to distinguish betweenright and wrong beliefs, between true and falsestatements and between good and evil actions. 256

Courage is a state of the soul in which the

faculty of anger is always obedient to wisdom andtemperance is a state of the soul in which thefaculty of desire is disciplined as being put underthe commands of reason and Shari'ah. 257

As for justice, it is the state and power of thesoul in which the faculties of anger and desire are

controlled under the dictates of wisdom that isguided by reason and Shari'ah 258

255 Asmaa, Five Key Terms, 114.256 Ibid, 117.257 Ibid, 118 . 258 Ihya, Kitab al-Ilm, 3:54; Asmaa, Five Key Terms, 118.

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The real purpose of riyadah (self-discipline) isto attain self-purification from spiritual impuritiesby subjecting the faculty of anger and desireunder the authority of reason and Shari'ah whichultimately leads towards the refinement ofcharacter reflected in outward actions anddeeds. 259

Self discipline is a prerequisite for theharmonious balance and equilibrium of thecharacter which is a spiritual health. 260 Thus, theaim of self-discipline and mortification is to bringback the soul to its primordial state of equilibrium,for it constitutes the health of the soul whiledeviation from it constitutes its sickness. 261

In relation to the child education, riyadah isthe most important term to denote thesignificance of character formation in the earlyphase of childhood particularly during the age ofdiscernment before they can discern good fromevil. 262

Character formation is, in fact, of an utmostimportance during this period due to theimmaturity of their reasoning faculty at a time

259 Asmaa, Five Key Terms, 115.260 Ibid, 117.261 Ibid.262 Ibid.

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sound faculty of intellect and justice are able tocontrol the faculty of desire through arousinganger against it, and lessening the rage of angerthrough arousing a strong desire against it sothat both desire and anger become submissive toreason and Shari'ah. 267

Such mujahadah (self-mortification) and riyadahal-nafs (self-disciple) ultimately lead towards the equilibrium of the rational faculty and theperfection of wisdom as well as spiritualtransformation from base attributes to thevirtuous. 268

According to al-Ghazali, if a child is purelytaught up through the process of refinement, hewill genuinely understand the reason and wisdomunderlying this disciplinary process (riyadah) when he approaches puberty that represents hismature age or reasoning (kamal al-'aql). At thisstage, he will understand at the rational level, the

concept of life and death, as well as theaccountability underlying every act in this worldand in character.

267 Ibid.Ibid, 126-127.

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Ta'dib (Education)

Ta'dib seems to be the most important method of Islamic education. In fact, al-Attas argued thatta'dib encompasses within its conceptual structurethe elements of tarbiyyah (good breeding), 'ilm (knowledge), ta'lim (instruction) and riyadah (self-discipline). 269 It conclusively reveals the person-centered aim of Islamic education and the totaldevelopment of a well-balanced personality throughthe actualization of inner potential faculties andquality of the soul. 270

Invoking the original meaning of adab as derivedfrom a hadith reported by Ibn Mas'ud that theQur'an is a God's banquet on earth (Ma'dabat Allahu fi al-ardh), al-Attas asserted that adab is the inviting to a banquet. 271 The idea of a banquetimplies that the host is a man of honor andprestige, and that many people are present. Thepeople, who are present, are those who, in thehost's estimation are deserving of honor of theinvitation, as they are people of refined qualities andupbringing who are expected to behave as befitstheir station, in speech, conduct and

269 Al-Attas, Education, 22.270 Al-Attas, Education, 22.Al-Attas, Secularism, 149

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etiquette. 272 In the same sense that the enjoyment of

fine food in a banquet is greatly enhanced by nobleand gracious company, and that the food bepartaken of in accordance with the rules of refinedconduct, behavior and etiquette, is knowledge to beextolled and enjoyed, and approached by means ofconduct as befits lofty nature. 273

As the Holy Qur'an is God's invitation to aspiritual banquet on earth, we are exhorted topartake of it by means of acquiring realknowledge of it. Ultimately, real knowledge of it isthe tasting of its true flavor. 274 It should be notedthat knowledge found in the Qur'an is life andfood of the soul.

Going back to the meaning of ta'dib , it involvesthe inculcation of adab which is a discipline ofbody, mind and soul that assures the recognitionand acknowledgement of one's proper place inrelation to his physical intellectual and spiritualcapacities and potentials. 275 It is the method of

acquiring good qualities and attributes of

272 Ibid, 149.273 Ibid.274 Ibid.275 Ibid.

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mind and soul that preserves man from

committing errors in making judgment andaction. 276

For al-Ghazali, adab is the process of bringingout (istikhraj) the inner faculty and latent charactertrait into action by actualizing the good naturaldisposition which is solely a Divine gift. 277

This implies the two aspects of adab , such asthe divinely gifted origin of the innate naturaldisposition and the acquisition of human actionthrough righteous practice and self-discipline. 278 As for the first aspect, every child is born inequilibrium and natural disposition (mu'tadilan

sahih al-fitra). The said concept is derived from the hadith in

which the Prophet said: Every child is born withsound natural disposition (al-fitrah), it is only hisparents who make him a Jew, Christian or aZoroast rian. 279

Al-fitrah refers to the natural inclination in man to assent to the existence of God. This idea is inlinewith the verse of the Qur'an So set thou face

276 Ibid, 25.277

Asmaa, Five Key Terms, 107.278 Ibid.279 Sahih al-Bukhari, Kitab al-Janazah.

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truly to the religion being upright, the nature in

which Allah has made mankind 280 Some childrenare born gifted with perfect innate disposition,(kamal fitri), possessing sound intellect and good character. They are inherently inclined to begenerous, truthful and courageous, particularly inthe case of the prophets, saints, and sages.

Regarding the second aspect of adab, goodcharacter can be acquired through associationwith those who possess the noble traits andeducation. 281 Thus, parents are the main socialfactor for molding a child's good character andwho are the first to exercise and implement adab (education) through ta'lim (instruction) and al- I'tiyad (habituation). 282

For al- Ghazali, although the soul and the bodyare two distinct entities, they interactively affecteach other and mutually determine theircourses. 283 As bodily action influences the soul,the soul influences the physical performance too.

When the quality of the soul is established,relevant bodily action necessarily proceeds fromit. The established state or quality of the soul iscalled al-

280 Surah al-Rum; 30.

281 Asmaa, Five Key Terms, 108.282 Al-Gazali, Ihya, 3:78.283 Asmaa, Five Key Terms, 110.

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khuluq (character) that can be considered good ifit is disposed towards the production ofpraiseworthy deeds acknowledged by al- aql waal-shar (the intellect and the religious law). 284

This process involves mujahada (spiritualstruggle) and riyadah (discipline), leading towardspurification of the soul and tahdib al-akhlaq (refinement of the character). 285 In other word, goodcharacter is the ultimate refresh of ta'dib and thehighest form of which is the adab in religion,especially in al-salah (prayer). In fact, the prayer isthe best activity where the real meaning of adab canbe manifested while a man is completely andhumbly submitting himself to his Lord Who is thecreator of the Universe and the owner of his soul.

The perfect outcome of this Divine educationalcurriculum is the Holy Prophet (peace be uponhim) Himself as the exemplary model, as heacknowledged in his hadith : My Lord educated me(addabani) , and so made my education (ta'dib)most excellent 286

The Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him)was the first beneficiary and recipient of the

284 Ibid.285 Al-Gazali, Ihya, 3: 126.Al-Attas, Education, 26

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Qur'anic educational content (al-ta'dihat fi al- Qur'an). He was the first being who was educated bythe Lord Himself through His Divine Speech untilhis character and personality became equivalent tothe Qur'an. In one of his ahadith , the Prophet (peacebe upon him) acknowledged: I am raised upon t oaccomplish noble character 287

Adab contains the meaning of 'ilm wa al-amal (knowledge and action), the activities of the bodyand soul, of physical and spiritual, as well as thevertical and horizontal relationship of mankindwith God and fellow human beings.

Al-Attas gives several examples of how the

notion of adab is manifested in the varioushuman existence. Adah towards one's self inwhich one acknowledges his dual nature of bodyand soul thereby his rational soul subdues theanimal soul and renders it submissive to God.

The one's displaying of sincere humility, love,respect, care, and charity to his parents, elders,children, neighbors, and c

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