Lesson Strategy for the Louisiana Purchase Bicentennial Instructor Copy

The Middle Ground: American Indians, European Settlers and Colonial Arkansas Grades: 4-12 Suggested Time Frame: Three, 50-minute time periods Ties to the Arkansas History Guidelines of 1997: 1.1.1., 1.1.4., 1.1.8., 1.1.11., 1.1.13., 1.1.15., 2.1.2., 2.1.4., 2.1.6., 2.1.7., 2.1.8., 3.1.1., 3.1.3., 3.1.4., 3.1.5., 3.1.10., 3.1.12., 3.1.15., 4.1.1., 4.1.2., 4.1.5., 4.1.18., 4.1.9., 4.1.10., 4.1.11., 5.1.1., 5.1.3., 5.1.4., 5.1.5., 5.1.6., 5.1.7., 5.1.13., 5.1.14., 5.1.15., 5.1.16., 5.1.17., 5.1.18., 6.1.3. 6.1.5. ,6.1.6., 6.1.14., 6.1.15. Objectives: • To explore how colonial-era persons (American Indians and Old World) reshaped the Arkansas landscape. • To identify the interdependence and changes among the various ethnic groups in Arkansas prior to 1803. • To recognize the contributions of American Indians to the development and sustenance of European and American settlers in Arkansas prior to 1803. Materials Needed: Poster board or butcher paper Index cards (several colors) Markers, colored pencils or paint Notebooks Polaroid or disposable cameras Film Recommended Reading List and Classroom Resources for Teachers and Students:

(denotes materials for students) Arkansas Archeological Survey. Prehistoric and Historic Native American Information Package (free by writing or calling the AAS at 2475 North Hatch Avenue, Fayetteville, AR 72089;

(501) 575-3556).

Arnold, Morris S. Colonial Arkansas, 1686-1804: A Social and Cultural History (Fayetteville: University of Arkansas Press, 1991). ----------- . The Rumble of a Distant Drum: The Quapaws and Old World Newcomers, 1673-1804 (Fayetteville: University of Arkansas Press, 2000). -----------. Unequal Laws Unto a Savage Race: European Legal Traditions in Arkansas, 1686-1836 (Fayetteville: University of Arkansas Press, 1985). ----------- and Dorothy Jones Core, eds. Arkansas Colonials, 1686-1804 (Gillette: Grand Prairie Historical Society, 1986). Bolton, Charles. Remote and Restless: Arkansas, 1800-1860 (Fayetteville: University of Arkansas Press, 1998). Clayton, Lawrence, Vernon Knight, and Edward Moore, eds. The De Soto Chronicles: the Expedition of Hernando De Soto to North America in 1539 to 1543 (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 1993). Coleman, Roger. The Arkansas Post Story: Arkansas Post National Memorial (Santa Fe: Southwest Cultural Resources Center, 1987). Davis, Hester. Arkansas Before the Americans (Fayetteville: Arkansas Archeological Survey, 1991). Din, Gilbert C. “Arkansas Post in the American Revolution,” Arkansas Historical Quarterly, XL (Spring 1981); pp. 3-30 Dougan, Michael. Arkansas Odyssey: The Saga of Arkansas From Prehistoric Times to the Present (Chapters 1-3) (Little Rock: August House, 1994). Fountain, Sarah M., ed. Authentic Voices: Arkansas Culture, 1541-1860 (Conway: University of Central Arkansas Press, 1986). Hudson, Charles. Knights of Spain, Warriors of the Sun: Hernando de Soto and the South’s Ancient Chiefdoms (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1997). McEwan, Bonnie, ed. Indians of the Greater Southeast: Historical Archeology and Ethnology (Gainesville: University of Florida Press, 2000).

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Sabo, George. Paths of Our Children: Historic Indians of Arkansas (Fayetteville: Arkansas Archeological Survey, revised edition, 2001). Great for all ages!

Usner, Daniel. American Indians in the Lower Mississippi River Valley: Social and Economic Histories (University of Nebraska Press, 1998). ----------. Indians, Settlers and Slaves in a Frontier Exchange Economy: The Lower Mississippi Valley Before 1783 (Institute of Early American History, 1982). Whayne, Jeannie, ed. Cultural Encounters in the Early South (Fayetteville: University of Arkansas Press, 1995).

—————. Whayne, Jennie, Thomas A. DeBlack, George Sabo III, and Morris Arnold, eds. Arkansas: A Narrative History (Fayetteville: University of Arkansas Press, 2002).

Young, Gloria and Michael Hoffman, eds. The Expedition of Hernando De Soto West of the Mississippi: 1541-1543: Proceedings of the De Soto Symposium, 1988 and 1990 (Fayetteville: Univer-sity of Arkansas Press, 1993). Media Resources:

Arkansas: Crossroads of the Past, I-IV. Slide program, videos and exhibit from the Arkansas Humanities Council, 10816 Executive Center Drive, Little Rock, Arkansas 72211; (501)

221-0091.

Arkansas Post: A Town Site Tour, First Encounter, and Under European Flag. Videos from the Arkansas Education Telecommunications Network, R. Lee Reeves Center for Education

Telecommunications, Donaghey and Sesame Streets, Post Office Box 1250, Conway, Arkansas 72033; (501) 800-662-2386.

First Encounters: Native Americans and Europeans in the Missis-sippi Valley (free CD ROM from the Arkansas Archeological

Survey, 2475 North Hatch Avenue, Fayetteville, Arkansas 72704; (479) 575-3556).

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Vocabulary: (Italicized words in background information) Archeology: scientific study of the material remains of past societies. Archeologist: person who studies cultures and societies, usually those in past centuries and millennia through the study of artifacts and material remains. Arkansas Post: first European settlement in Arkansas, it was founded by Henri de Tonti in 1686 on the lower Arkansas River, near the Mississippi River. It was also known by the name Poste aux Arkansas.

Artifacts: objects made or affected by people, such as tools, weapons, food bones and household garbage. Caddo: American Indian group existing in southwest Arkansas and in adjoining areas of Louisiana, Oklahoma and Texas at the time of European contact. Calumet: long stemmed pipe used in ceremonies with American Indians.

Clan: family units within American Indian villages. Colonists: early European settler of North America before it became part of the United States. Courier de Bois: French trappers and hunters. The term means, “wood runners.” De la Salle, Robert Cavalier: claimed lands in Arkansas for the French king, Louis XIV, in 1682. Delta: a land of rivers in east Arkansas that was formed by large rivers (Mississippi, Arkansas and White Rivers) laying down deep soils of sand, silt and clay to form fertile flat bottomlands. The Delta of east Arkansas contains some of the most fertile farmland in the United States.

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Sketch of Arkansas Post under Spanish rule, ca. 1779. Courtesy of Judge Morris Arnold, Little Rock, AR

De Soto, Hernando: Spaniard who explored Arkansas between 1541 and 1542. De Tonti, Henri: French explorer, frontiersman and ally of Robert Cavalier de la Salle, who established the first Arkansas Post in 1686 from a French land grant. Entrada: Spanish army that accompanied Hernando de Soto on his explorations of North America in the 1500s. France: European country that governed the colony of Louisiana, including Arkansas between 1682 and 1763, later reclaiming the colony from Spain and selling the land to the United States in 1803. Gorget: crescent-shaped armor for protecting the throat. Habitant: French agricultural colonist like those residing at Arkansas Post. Jolliet, Louis: early French explorer and fur trapper who explored the Mississippi River Valley in 1673. Kappa: Quapaw village located along the Mississippi River in the late 1600s, later moved to the Arkansas River. Louisiana: territory west of the Mississippi River . Also known as the colony of Louisiana and named after the French king, Louis XIV. Marquette, Father Jacques: Jesuit priest who accompanied Louis Joliet on his 1673 voyage into the Mississippi River Valley. Natural Landscape: the condition of the land prior to human alterations. Old World: European continent. Osage: American Indian tribe living in the Missouri River Valley and in the Missouri Ozarks at the time of first contact with Europeans. They became important trading partners with French officials in Upper Louisiana (Missour and Illinois) and increasingly raided native and European settlements in Arkansas and the Red River valleys until the 1800s. Osotouy: one of four Quapaw villages visited by French explorers in the late 1600s. It was located on the lower Arkansas River. The earliest Arkansas Post was established near to this village by Henri de Tonti.

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Protohistoric Period: period of time between 1542 and 1686 in which there were no witnesses to the formation of the modern American Indian tribes in Arkansas. Quapaw: indigenous American Indian tribe found in Arkansas at the time of European settle-ment. Spain: European country that possessed the colony of Louisiana, including Arkansas between 1766 and 1803. Background Information: Reviewed by Dr. Ann Early, State Archeologist and Dr. George Sabo, III Arkansas Archeological Survey, University of Arkansas – Fayetteville American Indian Influence Prior to 1541: Before the arrival of Europeans in 1541, American Indians inhabited Arkansas. Some of these people are believed to be the early ancestors of the historic Indians of Arkansas (Quapaw, Caddo and Osage). Between this first appearance and the establishment of Arkansas Post in 1686, there were no European witnesses to the events that brought about the formation of modern Indian tribes in Arkansas. This episode of silence is called the protohistoric period by archeologists. Many forces acted on protohistoric societies in Arkansas. The first European explorers were responsible for food shortages, unexpected deaths and social disruption. Not long after they left, many years of drought may have brought about serious food shortages, and communicable diseases from the Old World may have spread from one community to another across this

region. Archeology helps us to understand the relationship between American Indians. Indians in Arkansas lived in organized villages, identified with clans or family units, celebrated the changing seasons and relied on natural resources for their existence. About 1,000 years ago, they began to practice agriculture and their activities increasingly altered the natural landscape of Arkansas. In 1541, the Spanish encountered an Arkansas landscape that was affected by over 10,000 years of human occupa-tion. The Europeans, beginning with the Spanish, altered the landscape and trading habits with the introduction of

domestic animals, cattle, horses and other Old World animals and plants.

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Contemporary view of Hernando De Soto arriving in Arkansas. Courtesy of the Department of Arkansas Heritage.

The Europeans made contact with American Indians in Arkansas in 1541. Hernando de Soto and his Spanish entrada included soldiers, priests, horses, war dogs and pigs. They brought war and European diseases to American Indian populations that had no resistance to smallpox, measles or influenza. After De Soto’s army left in 1542, 130 years passed before the next European visitors arrived. Archeological evidence suggests that severe environmental changes occurred during this time and affected American Indian agriculture and hunting practices. But, animal populations remained high in some areas during this period. Buffalo thrived in the canebrakes and other animals lived on the secondary vegetation left at deserted American Indian settlements. Despite the effects of climate changes, American Indians shaped the landscape of Arkansas prior to and after European contact in 1541. Near the end of the 1600s, the French came to Arkansas as part of a larger plan to establish a trading empire in North America. Their arrival began a 100-year presence in the Mississippi Valley. During this time, colonists and Indians developed a “middle ground” relationship in which each group assisted the other through economic and social cooperation. Examples of the “middle ground” included:

• intermarriage between colonists and American Indians. • trading goods and food for services and money. • living together or next to one another in multi-ethnic and multi-racial communities. • relying on each other for military support against enemies (the Osage, British and • Chickasaw raided Arkansas settlements and threatened travelers periodically in the 18th

century). • applying European law in American Indian communities.

This system of cooperation between the French and American Indians resulted in the survival of both tribal members and settlers in Arkansas – in some areas the two groups became indistinguishable. Although this process is best illustrated at Arkansas Post in the Delta, the French also cul-tivated relationships with the Caddo in southwest Arkansas. Unfortu-nately, these systems of cooperation broke down in the early 19th century when Americans took over Arkansas. They did not understand the impor-tant relationships between the Ameri-can Indians and colonists and did not wish to maintain relations with

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Father Jacques Marquette with American Indians. Courtesy of Marquette University.

local native groups. Instead, the American government wished to settle Americans in the terri-tory of Louisiana. As a result, the remaining American Indians in Arkansas were treated poorly and eventually were forced to leave the area for land in the Indian Territory. An Example of the “Middle Ground”: The French and Quapaw Alliance The French came into contact with the Quapaw Indians in 1673 when Father Jacques Marquette and the trader, Louis Jolliet, visited their village of Kappa on the Mississippi River. This visit was brief, but it helped to establish the friendly relationship that would develop between the two groups a decade later. In the 1680s, Robert Sieur Cavalier de la Salle and his companions were once again welcomed with ceremonies and feasts by the Quapaw at Kappa – a marathon event that wore the visitors out. The French were brought inside a circle of important persons in the Qua-paw tribe, while lesser villagers stood on the outside of the circle to observe the festivities. This was an important welcoming gesture offered to esteemed guests. The French also liked the Quapaw and one visitor called them “very gentle and very brave…they exhibit a courage without reproach.” To cultivate an enduring relationship between the two, the French and Quapaw exchanged gifts of food and they shared the calumet. The calumet cere-mony and the presentation of gifts like medals, gorgets and patents symbolized the formation of an alliance between the Quapaw and the French in Arkansas, as well as to the Spanish in the late 1700s. Other gifts from the French to the Quapaw included guns for defense, powder and ball, as well as utensils, beads and rings. In the mid-18th century, the French provided the Quapaw with blankets, wool ribbon, shoes and cloth. In return, the Quapaw brought meat, tallow, hides and other products collected from the region to the French trading house called Arkansas Post to conduct business (however, this never proved to be lucrative for the French). This trade sup-ported a military alliance that enabled the Quapaw and French in the community to defend themselves against the Chickasaw and other threats. Throughout the colonial wars of the mid-18th century, the Quapaw remained allies with the French. By the late 1700s, however, Quapaw allegiances were being cultivated by English set-tlers who were beginning to move into the area – a situation that made the

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Depiction of a Quapaw village. Courtesy of the Arkansas Archeological Survey.

French, and later the Spanish, very uncomfortable. All three nations vied for the Quapaw alli-ance through gifts, medals and ceremonies. Hunting provided goods that were in constant demand throughout the contests for Quapaw allegiance. Buffalo, deer and bear meat, skins and tallow brought money at markets and there were plenty to be had in Arkansas. Quapaw and French voyageurs remained busy supplying meat to people in Arkansas and elsewhere in Louisiana. The Quapaw and French could make money from hides, meat and tallow or oil that were brought in for sale at markets in New Orleans. As a result of these close relations, several generations of Quapaws intermingled with the French and Spanish in the century before the Louisiana Purchase. Consequently, many residents of the area were of mixed blood and spoke a Quapaw-French Creole language. Each culture became changed by the other. Misunderstandings of these colonial relationships by 19th century American settlers brought about the decline and removal of American Indian tribes from Arkansas, thus ending a century of interdependence between colonial settlers and the native people of the area. Conclusion: It is wrong to say that the Europeans existed alone in Arkansas or that American Indians were environmentalists who lived in perfect harmony with nature until they were invaded by Old World cultures. The reality of life in colonial Arkansas is much more complicated. Archeology and historical research is beginning to show 21st century historians that American Indians, as well as the various ethnic and racial groups that inhabited colonial Arkansas, dramatically changed the landscape during all these periods of time. In order to survive in a new world order brought on by European settlement, all of these groups had to coexist with one another, and they did so through the development of a “middle ground” society where land, war, food and many societal institutions were shared. Suggested Activities for Teachers: 1. Create a flexible timeline (vertical or horizontal) for the settlement of Arkansas from 1541

to 1836 on butcher paper. Orient the students to events in Arkansas by discussing the background information in this lesson and information on exploration and colonial Ar-kansas from the textbook. Include other events that took place at the same time as those occurring in Arkansas (ex: U.S., North America, Central America, South America, Asia and Europe). Timelines help students understand the relationships between events and other factors that influenced history.

a) Allow for multiple tiers and branches. b) Challenge students by asking them to research events at other places in the Missis-

sippi River Valley, the United States, North America (British Canada, French Canada, Mexico), Central America, South America, Europe, Asia, the Pacific Ocean and Africa.

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c) Illustrate the timeline with photos, images and words as they study colonial Arkan-sas.

2. Visit a colonial Arkansas site and keep a journal of the visit:

a) Why is this site significant? b) How is the site the same or different as when it was used between the 1600s and

1804? c) What did you do at the site? d) How did you feel when visiting the site of Arkansas history? e) Illustrate or sketch what the site looks like today. f) Take photographs or pictures and include with your journal entry. g) Make a map of the site. h) Give a class presentation about your visit to the site.

3. Suggested colonial Arkansas sites to visit (some have no specific colonial exhibits, but contain contextual information on protohistory and early Arkansas):

o Arkansas Museum of Prehistory and History, Russellville, Arkansas o Arkansas Post National Memorial, Gillette, Arkansas o Arkansas Post National Memorial State Park, Gillette, Arkansas o Delta Cultural Center, Helena, Arkansas o Fort Smith National Historic Site, Fort Smith, Arkansas o Historic Arkansas Museum, Little Rock, Arkansas o Hot Springs National Park, Hot Springs, Arkansas o Louisiana Purchase State Park, south of Brinkley, Arkansas o Museum of Natural Resources, Smackover, Arkansas o Old Davidsonville State Park, Pocahontas, Arkansas o Old Washington State Park, Washington, Arkansas o Parkin Archeological State Park, Parkin, Arkansas o Toltec Mounds Archeological State Park, Scott, Arkansas o Texarkana Museums System, Texarkana, Arkansas o University of Arkansas Museum, Fayetteville, Arkansas

Evaluation:

1. Create a subjective or objective test about life in colonial Arkansas. Include the following questions as essays, short answers or matching:

a) Describe the American Indian groups that lived in Arkansas when the Europeans

arrived and their characteristics and life ways. b) List the resources most important to the survival of residents in Arkansas during

the colonial period.

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c) Discuss the interaction of settlements in the Mississippi River Valley that inter-acted with Arkansas residents.

d) Illustrate the ways that American Indians and Europeans created a “middle ground” for survival.

e) What were the effects on American Indians of European expansion into Ar-kansas?

Extension Activities:

1. Design, plan, research and produce an exhibit or project on colonial Arkansas for your school, community, library, museum or business window.

2. Invite an American Indian representative to your school to discuss the impact of Euro-

pean settlement on his/her tribes (Quapaw, Caddo or Osage).

3. Invite a member of the Arkansas Archeological Survey to your school to discuss the profession of archeology, the story of sites and artifacts in Arkansas that help us to un-derstand the relationships between American Indians and European settlers.

4. Invite a historian to class to discuss colonial life in Arkansas and what forces outside of

the area affected societies in the area (suggestion: use the Louisiana Purchase Speakers Bureau list).

Additional Field Resources: Arkansas Archeological Survey 2475 North Hatch Avenue Fayetteville, Arkansas 72089 (479) 575-3556 mkwas@uark.edu www.uark/edu/campus-resources/archinfo/index.html ** There are ten regional field offices for the AAS. Please note their addresses on the web site listed above.** Arkansas Humanities Council, 10816 Executive Center Drive Little Rock, Arkansas 72211 (501) 221-0091 www.arkhums.org

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Arkansas Museum of History and Prehistory Arkansas Tech University Tucker Hall Russellville, Arkansas 72801 (479) 964-0826 (call for hours) www.atu.edu Arkansas Museum of Natural Resources Post Office Box 7 Smackover, Arkansas 71762 (870) 725-2877 armuseumnr@arkansas.org www.arkansasstateparks.com Arkansas State University Museum Post Office Box 490 State University, Arkansas 72467 (870) 972-2074 www.museum.astate.edu Arkansas Post National Memorial National Park Service 1741 Old Post Road Gillett, Arkansas 72055 (870) 548-2207 ARPO_Historian@nps.gov Arkansas Post Museum State Park Arkansas State Parks 5530 Highway 165 South Gillett, Arkansas 72055 (870) 548-2634 arkpost@arkansas.com Caddo Nation of Oklahoma Post Office Box 487 Binger, Oklahoma 73009 (405) 656-2344 www.CaddoNation.com

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Delta Cultural Center, a museum of the Department of Arkansas Heritage 95 Missouri Street Helena, Arkansas 72342 (870) 338-4350 info@deltaculturalcenter.org www.deltaculturalcenter.com Department of Arkansas Heritage Louisiana Purchase Bicentennial Attn: Education Coordinator 1500 Tower Building, 323 Center Street Little Rock, Arkansas 72201 (501) 324-9150 info@arkansasheritage.org www.arkansasheritage.com www.lapurchase.org Historic Arkansas Museum, a museum of the Department of Arkansas Heritage 200 East Third Street Little Rock, Arkansas 72201 (501) 324-9351 info@arkansashistory.org www.arkansashistory.com Hot Springs National Park Post Office Box 1860 Hot Springs, Arkansas 71902 (501) 624-3383 www.nps.gov/hosp Louisiana Purchase State Park Highway 49 South to Arkansas 362 South of Brinkley, Arkansas (870) 238-2188 www.arkansasstateparks.com Old Davidsonville State Park 7953 Highway 166 South Pocahontas, Arkansas 72455 (870) 892-4708 olddavidson@arkansas.org www.arkansasstateparks.com

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Old Washington State Park Post Office Box 98 Washington, Arkansas 71862 (870) 983-2684 owashington@arkansas.org www.arkansasstateparks.com Osage Tribe of Oklahoma Tribal Administration Building 627 Grandview Pawhuska, Oklahoma 74056 (918) 287-2495 www.osagetribe.com Parkin Archeological State Park Post Office Box 1110 Parkin, Arkansas 72373-1110 (870) 755-2500 www.cast.uark.edu/~shelley/html/parkin/parkinmoundpg.html Quapaw Nation of Oklahoma Post Office Box 765 Quapaw, Oklahoma 74363-0769 (918) 542-1853 www.geocities.com/Athens/Aegean/1388

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For more information on the Louisiana Purchase Bicentennial, contact:

Education Coordinator

Department of Arkansas Heritage 1500 Tower Building, 323 Center Street

Little Rock, AR 72201

(501) 324-9150 (phone) (501) 324-9154 (fax)

info@arkansasheritage.org www.arkansasheritage.com

www.lapurchase.org

This lesson is made possible by the Department of Arkansas Heritage and the Arkansas Natural and Cultural Resources Council for the Louisiana Purchase Bicentennial. Background information reviewed by Dr. Ann Early and Dr. George Sabo III, of the Arkansas Archeological Survey, University of Arkansas at Fayetteville. Curricula, activities and format by Lea Flowers Baker, Education Coordinator, Department of Arkansas Heritage. Additional review by Melissa Whitfield, Communications Director, Department of Arkansas Heritage.