The Middle Ages: 14th Century

Edward III and the Hundred Year's WarWhen "Sir Gawain and the Green Knight" was

written (circa 1350-1376), Edward III was king of Eng-land (1327 -77). He valued chivalry and pageantry abovealJ else, and established The Order of the Garter to re-ward men who shared his ideals.

Edward III's reign was dominated by the HundredYear's War (1338-1453), which he instigated. Thefighting was not constant, but interrupted by severalyears of truces. Prior to the 14th century, England wasfighting to claim territory, but by the 14th and 15th cen-turies, they were fighting to claim the crown of France.England held an advantage for many years when it be-gan to use the longbow, which lead to crushing victoriesover France in 1346 and l356. Once France began usingsimilar weaponry, England's advantage was lost, and by1377, England's original holdings in southwest Francehad been drastically reduced.

The Black Death brings changeThe Black Death (bubonic plague) devastated Eu-

rope between l348-51, killing 25-40% of the popula-tion. Whole villages, monasteries, and towns were

Many scholars believe that King Arthur's Camelot wasin southern Wales or southwestern England. They alsofeel that Glastonbury may have been the site of Avalon,where Arthur was taken after he died.

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wiped out. The Plague, which originated in China andwas transported by flea-ridden rats on ships to Europe,recurred frequently in England for the next 300 years.

The Plague changed two major sides of English so-ciety. The first was the way the land was farmed. Before the Plague, England was over-populated and feudallords were powerful. Peasants were completely subser-vient. After the Plague, farm workers were a rarecommodity. lflandowners mistreated them, the workerwould move on to be hired by other landowners whowere desperate to hire them, no questions asked. Afterthe Peasant's Revolt in 1381, the feudal lords beganparceling out their farm land and living off the rentrather than supervising the farming of their vast estatesthemselves.

The second change came in people's perception ofGod. Prior to the Plague, God was loving and an objectof devotion, but after the Plague, God was seen as Godof judgment and retribution. There was also dissensionwithin the church. From l309-l377, the Pope resided inAvignon, France, rather than Rome, and in 1378, therewere two popes, one in Avignon and an other in Rome.

The oral traditionMost people in the Middle Ages were illiterate, so

stories of great heroic deeds were passed down throughoral tradition. Middle English literature began about1200. The greatest works in Middle English were theworks of Geoffrey Chaucer and Piers Plowman and SirGawain and the Green Knight. The Romance genre-stories of knights, fighting, adventures, and romanticlove-were developed beginning in the late 12th cen-tury. One ofthe first books printed in England was SirThomas Malory's Morte d'Arthur in 1485.

Arthur and his knights are waiting, like Fionn, inan enchanted sleep within a hill for the time when

their services will be required.1. A. MacCulloch Celtic Mythology

NOTE: Fionn' was a great Irish folk hero, also known as Finn MacCumhal. According to legend, during the first centuries C.E. Finnruled a race of giants called the Fianna, who were sworn to protectIreland against all enemies. Among the Fianna were Conan andOisin, Finn's son. Oisin (also 'Usheen') left the Fianna and Ireland tomarry Niam of the Golden Hair, daughter of the King of Teer -nan-ague, the land beyond time and death. Your students would enjoythe tales of Finn and the Fianna. The legend of Oisin and his tragicreturn from Teer-nan-ogue is one of the most beautiful and touchingstories in any culture.

The Hero's Journey: A Guide to Literature and Life

Christmas in the Middle Ages

The Time of the TwelvesChristmas in Medieval times was known as the

Time of the Twelves. The celebration began on Christ-mas Eve and ended on Twelfth Night (Christmas Day toEpiphany, which fell on January 6). The traditions of theseason were very ritualistic.

A good Christmas feast had at least twelve holidayfoods. Twelve wassails were sung to the health of treesand people. Guests had to pass under the kissing bushtwelve times, and each received and gave twelve gifts.The tables in the feasting hall were set for twelve revel-ers, and twelve candelabra or twelve groups oftwelvecandles provided light. Elaborate decorations of green-ery grouped in twelves were held together by colorfulribbons, bows, and beads. Holly, the most importantgreenery, symbolized eternal life because it remainedgreen all year and bore berries in the dead of winter.Later, these red berries came to represent the redeemingblood of Christ. Holly was also used during the RomanSaturnalia festival which began on December 17 andlasted for seven days. It was a season of goodwill knownfor its extravagant decadence in which masters andslaves met on equal terms.

The Time of the BeeThis time was also known as the Time of the Bee

because bees labored for at least twelve hours each dayall twelve months. The results of their labor, honey, wassweetness and light, which, during pagan times, re-flected the joy of the season. With the emergence ofChristianity, the church compared its life to that of thebee. The church itself was the hive in which its devotedfollowers labored ceaselessly for goodness. The "sweet-ness" was the teachings of Christ and the "light" wasChristianity itself which brought understanding.

The Christmas Threshold and Yule LightWhen guests entered the hall, they passed ceremo-

niously beneath the "kissing bush," which was deco-rated with mistletoe and ever greenery. While the guestsgave and received kisses, they were careful not to crossthe "Christmas threshold," a green line drawn near thehigh table. No one could cross the threshold until "FirstFoot" or "Lucky Bird" leaped over it. Before the feastbegan, a man called the "surveyor" cried out, "Wassail!"The guests then sat quietly while the surveyor asked themost honored guest seated at the high table whether thefeast could begin. The guest replied, "No! Not until FirstFoot crosses the Christmas threshold!"* Immediately adark-haired man dressed in green and wearing bells

The Hero's Journey: A Guide to Literature and Life

around his ankles entered the hail. He skipped anddanced his way to the high table carrying an evergreenbough. His joyful leap over the threshold symbolizedletting in the joy of Christmas. As a result, everyonepresent enjoyed good luck all the year long.

After First Foot leaped over the Christmas thresh-old, a fanfare sounded and the Yule Candle was lit.Typically, this was an enormous candle of differentcolors, including some of the wax from the previousyear's candle. It took twelve months to make and wasdecorated with twelve thin, metal ornaments. Its basewas decorated with holly in bunches of twelve. If a sin-gle candle wasn't used, twelve tapers were bound to-gether and placed in a shallow dish and decorated.

Once the Yule Candle was lit, the Yule Log, a gi-gantic log that would burn for twelve days, was placedin the hearth and lit. A small piece of the log was savedto burn the following year. The tradition of passing onthe light of the Yule Candle and Yule Log served as areminder that the spirit of Christmas lasted throughoutthe year and was merely rekindled during the twelvedays of Christmas.

Traditional foodsA fanfare announced the arrival ofjrumenty, a

sweet dish of egg, wheat, boiled milk, honey, andspices. Also popular was posset, a thicker version ofour eggnog. Yule dolls, gingerbread people, were eatenwith pear wine called perry. Also popular were plumpudding, mince pie, roasted peacock, and humble pie.Humble pie was made from tripe and enjoyed by richand poor alike, which is why it was called "humble"pie. Today, of course, eating "humble pie" has an en-tirely different meaning.

Another popular food was roast wild pig. Theboar's head, which was roasted separately, was pre-sented with great ceremony during the feast, placed ona tray decorated with greenery, with an apple, orange,or lemon in its mouth. The boar's head carol was sungas the tray was marched throughout the feasting hall.

Traditional gamesBetween courses, guests sang wassails, enjoyed

mummers, or they played games. Some of the mostpopular were Bee in the Middle, Blind Man's Buff, andHunt the Slipper. Bee in the Middle was actually a vari-ation of a pagan animal sacrifice called Bull in the Mid-dle in which the sacrifice of this sacred animal ensuredthat strength and goodness endured on earth.* This description adapted from Medieval Holidays and Festivals: ACalendar of Celebrations by Madeleine Pelner Cosman.

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King Arthur and the Knights of the Round TableKing Arthur

Like many mythical heroes, King Arthur's originsare mysterious. First mentioned by name in the 9th cen-tury by Nennius, he is described as the leader of severalkings who fought against the Saxons. Twelve times theychose Arthur as their leader, and together they foughttwelve battles. Their final battle was at Mount Badon,where Arthur single-handedly killed 900 men.

Geoffrey of Monmouth (1100-54) relates the leg-end of Arthur as it was known in South Wales, which isgenerally how his legend is told today. Arthur's parentswere Uther Pendragon and Igema (Igraine). Geoffreydescribes Arthur's victories carrying Pridwen, hisshield, and Calibumus (Excalibur), his sword, whichwas crafted in Avalon. He writes of Arthur's battleswith Mordred the Usurper, and of his death and trans-port to Avalon, after which Constantine became king.Arthur's wife, Guanhumara (Gwenhwyfar, Guinevere)spent the remainder of her days in a nunnery. (Stories ofSir Lancelot did not emerge until Anglo-Norman writersin the late 12th and early l3th centuries developed theArthurian Romances.)

The Knights of the Round TableThe Round Table was a gift to Arthur from Merlin,

his mentor, on the day of Arthur's wedding to Guinev-ere. Merlin led Arthur, Guinevere, and the lords and la-dies of the court into a beautiful pavilion decorated withgilded walls and lovely paintings of saints and angels.In the center of the pavilion was a magnificent RoundTable with seats for fifty people. * At each place was agold chalice of wine and a gold plate with a slice ofwhite bread.

Merlin pointed to a high seat that was beautifullywrought and gilded. Merlin called it the Seat Royal,which was to be considered the center of the Round Ta-ble. This was to be Arthur's seat, and as Merlin ex-plained this, "Arthur, King" appeared in golden lettersupon the back of the seat.

Arthur was very moved by this wondrous gift andasked Merlin to search out enough worthy knights to fillevery seat at the table. Merlin warned Arthur to be pa-tient because when all of the seats of the Round Tablewere filled, the kingdom and Arthur's rule would reachits peak and then fall into decline. Arthur accepted thisas the natural way of things, thus proving to Merlin thathe was indeed a worthy king.

Across from the Seat Royal was the Seat Perilous,which was the last seat to be filled. It would remainempty, waiting for the one man who was worthy to sit

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there, and, at the time of Arthur's wedding, that manhad not yet been born. It was called the Seat Perilousbecause, if anyone who was unworthy sat in the chair,he would die or suffer a terrible misfortune. This seatbecame Sir Galahad's, Lancelot's son.

There were 32 original members of the Round Ta-ble chosen by Merlin that day. Among them were KingPellinore, Sir Gawain, Sir Ewaine, Sir Pellias, Sir Kay,and Sir Bedevere. (See page 144 in The Story of KingArthur and his Knights by Howard Pyle for an account-ing of all 32 knights, and the remainder ofthe book forbeautiful illustrations and stories.) As each knight waschosen, his name appeared in gold on the back of hisseat. Arthur noticed that the seat on his right hand re-mained empty. Merlin explained that soon a knightwould come who would surpass all men in strength,beauty, and grace. That knight was Sir Lancelot.

After al1-32 knights were seated, their squires stoodbehind them holding each knight's coat of arms. All ofthe knights rose as one and each held the cross of thehilt of his sword as he spoke the covenant of the Knight-hood of the Round Table.

Repeating after Arthur, they swore

"That they would be gentle unto the weak; thatthey would be courageous unto the strong; thatthey would be terrible unto the wicked and theevil-doer; that they would defend the helpless whoshould call upon them for aid; that all womenshould be held unto them sacred; that they wouldstand unto the defense of one another whensoeversuch defense should be required; that they wouldbe merciful unto all men; that they would be gentleof deed, true in friendship, and faithful in love. "(The Story of King Arthur and his Knights byHoward Pyle, page. 146)

Each man kissed the hilt of his sword and raised hisvoice in exultation. Then they all sat down to breakbread, drink wine, and give thanks. And so it was thatThe Ancient and Honorable Companions of the RoundTable was established.Celtic echoes in Author's legend

In many ways the legend of Arthur parallels earlierlegends of Celtic heroes, in particular Finn Mac CumhalofIreland, leader of the Fianna (see note on page 56).

* Stories of the Grail and the Round Table did not appear until 1155in Wace's Brut, which says that Arthur asked that the Round Tablebe built to prevent quarrels of precedence among his knights.Layamon, circa 1200, says that the Round Table seated 1600.

The Hero's Journey: A Guide to Literature and Life

Sir Gawain NotesGawain was the greatest of King Arthur's knights.

He had the most adventures and never returned from aquest without completing it. He was the best horseman,spoke eloquently, and was the most gracious towardguests and strangers.

Many of Sir Lancelot's adventures were originallyattributed to Gawain. In fact, originally Gawain wasprobably Guinevere's lover. He was also the originalhero of the quest for the Holy Grail before that honorpassed on to Perceval, then Lancelot, and finally SirGalahad.

Gawain was the king's nephew, son of King Lot ofOrkney and Arthur's half sister, Morgause. Mordred theUsurper was his half brother. It is believed that Gawainand Mordred could have been Arthur's sons by Mor-gause. Whether this is so, it is certain that Gawain washeir to the throne, and held in the highest regard by Ar-thur. In some stories, Arthur even gave his belovedsword, Excalibur, to Gawain.

When Sir Lancelot was developed (late 12th toearly 13th centuries), he and Gawain were great friends.When Guinevere was abducted by Meiwas, both Lance-lot and Gawain set out to rescue her. The earliest ac-counts of this tale have Gawain rescuing the queen, butin later stories, it is Lancelot.

However, Gawain's relationship with Lancelotsoured after Lancelot's betrayal with Guinevere. Severalof the Knights of the Round Table broke away from Ar-thur to follow Lancelot when he was banished. Gawain'sanger, inflamed by Mordred, drove him to challengeLancelot repeatedly. Legend has it that they foughtfiercely for hours. Arthur, who loved them both, was tooheartsick to watch. Finally, Gawain fell, but Lancelot re-fused to kill him. Gawain vowed to return to continuethe duel when his wounds healed. Over and over Gawainreturned to challenge Lancelot, and each time Lancelotstruck him down, but refused to kill him. Lancelot tookto pacing the ramparts all day long as he waited forGawain to heal and return to reissue his challenge.

One day, Arthur and his knights abandoned theirsiege, broke camp, and left. Lancelot was startled by thisuncharacteristic behavior. When he discovered that Ar-thur and Gawain had left because Mordred was chal-lenging the throne, Lancelot and his knights rode to theiraid.

Eventually Gawain and Lancelot reconciled, but itwas too late. Arthur had fallen at Camlan and theKnights of the Round Table were together no more.

NOTE: Two other stories about Gawain which youor your students might enjoy are "Gawain and the WhiteHart" and "Gawain and the Magic Chess Board."

The Hero's Journey: A Guide to Literature and Life 59