PENGUINBOOKS

THEMEDITERRANEANINTHEANCIENTWORLD

FernandBraudelwasbornin1902inLumeville,north-westernLorraine,France.Thesonofateacher,hetookhisdegreeinhistoryattheSorbonnein1923.HespentmuchofthewarasaprisonerinGermany,wherehewrotemostofhisMediterraneanthesis.In1949itwaspublishedasTheMediterraneanandtheMediterraneanWorldintheAgeofPhilipII;ithasbecomerecognizedasoneofthetwentiethcentury’sgreatestbooks.Braudel’sotherbooksincludeCivilizationandCapitalism,TheIdentityofFranceandAHistoryofCivilizations.TheMediterraneanintheAncientWorldwillbehislastmajorposthumouspublication.In1984hewaselectedtotheAcademieFrançaise.FernandBraudeldiedinParisin1985.

SianReynoldshastranslatedmanyofBraudel’sbooksintoEnglish.SheisProfessorofFrenchatStirlingUniversity.

OswynMurrayisaFellowandTutorofBalliolCollege,Oxford.

FERNANDBRAUDELTheMediterraneanintheAncientWorld

Texteditedby

ROSELYNEDEAYALAandPAULEBRAUDEL

PrefaceandNotesby

JEANGUILAINE,ProfessorattheCollegedeFrance

andPIERREROUILLARD,CNRS

TranslatedfromtheFrenchby

SIÂNREYNOLDS

WithanIntroductionby

OSWYNMURRAY

PENGUINBOOKS

PENGUINBOOKS

PublishedbythePenguinGroupPenguinBooksLtd,80Strand,LondonWC2R0RL,England

PenguinPutnamInc.,375HudsonStreet,NewYork,NewYork10014,USAPenguinBooksAustraliaLtd,250CamberwellRoad,Camberwell,Victoria3114,AustraliaPenguinBooksCanadaLtd,10AlcornAvenue,Toronto,Ontario,CanadaM4V3B1

PenguinBooksIndia(P)Ltd,11,CommunityCentre,PanchsheelPark,NewDelhi–110017,India

PenguinBooks(NZ)Ltd,CnrRosedaleandAirborneRoads,Albany,Auckland,NewZealandPenguinBooks(SouthAfrica)(Pty)Ltd,24SturdeeAvenue,Rosebank1196,SouthAfrica

PenguinBooksLtd,RegisteredOffices:80Strand,LondonWC2R0RL,England

www.penguin.com

FirstpublishedinFranceasLesMemoiresitlaMiditerraniebyEditionsdeFallois1998ThistranslationfirstpublishedbyAllenLaneThePenguinPress2001

PublishedinPenguinBooks20018

Copyright©EditionsdeFallois,1998Copyright©theEstateofFernandBraudel,rootTranslationcopyright©SianReynolds,2001Introductioncopyright©OswynMurray,2001‘Preamble’copyright©ChristopherLogue,1999

Allrightsreserved

Themoralrightofthetranslatorhasbeenasserted

ExceptintheUnitedStatesofAmerica,thisbookissoldsubjecttotheconditionthatitshallnot,bywayoftradeorotherwise,belent,re-sold,hiredout,orotherwisecirculatedwithoutthepublisher’spriorconsentinanyformofbindingorcoverotherthanthatinwhichitispublishedandwithoutasimilarconditionincludingthisconditionbeingimposedonthesubsequent

purchaser

978-0-14-193722-9

Contents

ListofIllustrations

IntroductionbyOswynMurray

‘Preamble’byChristopherLogue

Translator’sNote

Editors’ForewordtotheFrenchEdition

PrefacetotheFrenchEdition

Author’sPreface

PARTI

1 SeeingtheSea

2 TheLongMarchtoCivilization

Thelowerpaleolithic:thefirstartefacts,thefirstpeople

Fire,artandmagic

TheMediterraneanstrikesback:thefirstagrariancivilization

Conclusion

3 ATwofoldBirth

MesopotamiaandEgypt:thebeginnings

Boatsontherivers,shipsonthesea

Canthespreadofmegalithsexplaintheearlyhistoryofthe

Mediterranean?

4 CenturiesofUnity:theSeasoftheLevant2500-1200BC

Everonwardandupward?

Crete:anewplayerinthecosmopolitancivilizationoftheMediterranean

Accidents,developmentsanddisasters

5 AllChange:theTwelfthtotheEighthCenturiesBC

PARTII

6Colonization:theDiscoveryoftheMediterranean‘FarWest’intheTenthtoSixthCenturiesBC

Thefirstinthefield:probablythePhoenicians

TheEtruscans:anunsolvedmystery

ColonizationbytheGreeks

7 TheMiracleofGreece

Greece:alandofcity-states

Alexander’smistake

Greekscienceandthought(eighthtosecondcenturiesBC)

8 TheRomanTakeoveroftheGreaterMediterranean

Romanimperialism

RomebeyondtheMediterranean

AMediterraneancivilization:Rome’srealachievement

AppendixITableofPrehistoricAgesandAnthropoids

AppendixIIMaps

Notes

Bibliography

Index

Illustrations

FIGURES

Figure1HuntersfromthecavesoftheSpanishLevante

Figure2Deerhunt,CuevadelosCabalios

Figure3CatalHdytik–insideasanctuary

Figure4AdistrictinCatalHöyük

Figure5TheNarmerPalette

Figure6Phoenicianwarshipsandroundships

Appendix1TableofPrehistoricAgesandAnthropoids

MAPS

1.TheMediterranean(geographicaloverview)

2.TheFertileCrescent

3.Mesopotamia

4.AncientEgypt

5.‘Phoenicia’

6.TheeasternbasinoftheMediterranean(2500-1200),showingHittite

expansionandtheriseofCrete

7.Phoeniciancolonization

8.Greekcolonization

9.Etruscansettlements

10.Theurn-fieldburialpeople

11.Celticmigrations

12.TheEmpireofAlexandertheGreat

13.JuliusCaesar’sconquestofGaul

14.TheRomanEmpireinthereignofSeptimiusServerus

Introduction

FernandBraudel(1902-1985)wasthegreatesthistorianofthetwentiethcentury.Souniversalhashisinfluencebeenonthestudyofhistorysincethepublicationofhisfirstmajorworkfiftyyearsago,thatitisalmostimpossibleforustorememberwhathistorywaslikebeforeBraudel;andforthatreasonweoftentendtoforgethowimportantwasthisrevolutioninhistoricalmethod:ittakesadiscoverylikethatpresentedhere,ofalostworkbythemasteronhisfavouritetheme,toremindusofourdebttohim.ThepurposeofmyintroductionisthereforetodescribethelifeandworkofBraudel,andtoexplaininwhatwaysthisbookexemplifieshisapproachtohistory.BraudellikedtothinkofhimselfasatypicalFrenchmanfromthe

provinces:inhismemoryhebelongedtoapeasantfamilyfromLorraineonthebordersofFranceandGermany,wherebecauseofpoorhealthhehadindeedspenthisearlyyearsinthevillageofLuméville-en-Ornoisathispaternalgrandmother’ssmallholding,withitschickens,stonewallsandespalierfruittrees,inaworldwhich(ashedescribedit)wasstillcentredontheblacksmith,thewheelwright,theitinerantwoodcuttersandanancientmill.ThecontemporaryrealitiesofindustrialLorraineandtheever-presentthreatfromGermanyweresubsumedintothisidyll,aswasthefactthathislaterchildhoodandadolescencewerespentinParisanditssuburbs,wherehisfatherwasateacherofmathematics.Onleavingschool,BraudeldidnotcompeteforentrytotheeliteinstitutionoftheÉcoleNormaleSuperieure,butwenttotheSorbonne,wherehefoundhimselfattractedbythelecturesofprofessorsofhistoryoutsidethemainstream,ineconomicandsocialhistoryorthestudyofancientGreece,whichattractedaudiencesofbetweenfourandseven.In1923,attheageof21,hetravelledtohisfirstpostasateacherofhistoryatthegrammarschoolofConstantineinAlgeria,andherehesawtheMediterraneanforthefirsttime.Hehadchosenresolutelytoidentify

himselfwiththemarginsofFrenchsocietyandtoescapefromhisParisianbourgeoisbackgroundtoacareerintheprovinces.HistrueintellectualformationbeganinAlgeria,aworldwhereayoungmancouldtakehimselfseriously.HeturnedfromthestudyofLorraine(whichhecametothinktoofullofnationalproblems)toSpain,andbegantocontemplateatraditionalhistoricalthesisontheMediterraneanpolicyofPhilipIIbetween1559and1574;by1927hewaspublishingreviewsofbooksonSpanishhistory.ButhewasalsofascinatedbythenewhistoryofLucienFebvre,basedonthescienceofhumangeographyandexemplifiedinabookwrittenin1913butnotpublisheduntil1922,LaTerreetrevolutionhutnaine(translatedasAGeographicalIntroductiontoHistory(London,1932)).Braudelreadthebookin1924;butasusualhisapproachwascautious:itwasthreeyearsbeforehebegantowritetoFebvre,andtheirclosepersonalfriendshipdidnotbeginforanothertenyears.Meanwhile,inhisfirstreplytoBraudel,Febvrehadplantedaseriousdoubtabouthissubjectofresearch:PhilipIIandtheMediterranean,agoodsubject.ButwhynottheMediterraneanandPhilipII?Amuchlargersubject.Forbetweenthesetwoprotagonists,Philipandthemiddlesea,thedivisionisnotequal.Braudelwasasuccessfulschoolteacherandwasbecomingknownasanexpertinhischosenarea:in1932hereturnedtoParis,andwasnominatedtoaseriesofmoreandmoreprestigiouslycées;in1933hemarriedoneofhisearliestpupilsinAlgiers.Thenhemadeadecisionwhichwastochangehislife:in1935hetooktheofferofafive-yearsecondmenttothenewuniversitybeingestablishedwithFrenchhelpat530PaoloinBrazil.ItwasagoldenchanceforhimandforothersofhisgenerationwhohadnotfollowedtheeasyroadtobreakintoFrenchacademiclife;atleastoneofhiscontemporariesandfriendsinthatenterpriseisnowequallyfamous–theanthropologistClaudeLevi-Strauss.‘ItwasinBrazilthatIbecameintelligent.’Braudelwasalwaysaneminentlypracticalman.HemanagedtorentalargemansioncompletewithaChevroletandanItalianchauffeur,fromsomeonewhoconvenientlyspenttheperiodoftheuniversitytermsinEurope.EachwinterBraudelwouldreturntoEuropeandworkinthearchivesofthe

greatMediterraneantradingcities,suchasVeniceandDubrovnik(Ragusa).Inhisresearchhewasaninnovatorintworespects,conceptualandpractical.Hemadethemovefromgovernmentarchivestocommercialarchives;andbychanceheinventedthemicrofilm,whichheusedinordertocopytwoorthreethousanddocumentsaday,tobereadduringtheuniversityyearinBrazil:

IboughtthismachineinAlgiers:itbelongedtoanAmericancameramanandwasusedtomakeroughimagesofscenesforfilms.Onityouhadabuttonthatallowedyoutotakeonephotoatatime,oryouhelditdownandtookthewholeshootatonce.WhenIwasofferedit,Isaidtothecameraman,‘Photographmethat:ifIcanreadit,I’llbuyit.’Hemademeamagnificentphoto.Andthat’showImadekilometresofmicrofilms.ItworkedsowellthatwhenIwasinBrazilIcouldspendwholedaysreadingdocuments.

In1936,onthelongvoyagebacktoBrazilinacargoboat,hetoldhiswifethathehaddecidedtomaketheMediterraneanthecentreofhisresearch.AyearlaterhewasofferedandacceptedapostwithamuchlowersalaryatthemainresearchcentreinParis,theEcolePratiquedesHautesEtudes,inoneofthetwonon-scientificsections,theIVeSection(historicalandphilologicalsciences).BychancetheboatonwhichheandhiswifetravelledhomefromBrazilin1937wascarryingLucienFebvrebackfromalecturetourinBuenosAires:inthetwoweeksofvoyagetheybecameclosefriends.Febvre,nowagedsixtyandaprofessorattheCollegedeFrance,hadbeenoneofthetwoyoungprofessorsatStrasbourgwhofoundedin1929thepolemicaljournalAnnates,whichsoughttocreateinaprovocativelycolloquialstyleanewandmoreopenapproachtohistory,definedmostlybyitssearchfor‘alargerandamorehumanhistory’(MarcBloch),byitsdenialofallhistoricalbarriersandbyitsrejectionofthetraditionalhistoryofpoliticsandgovernmentinfavourofadeeperanalysisofsocialandeconomicforces.FromthistimeonFebvrebecameBraudel’sfriend,intellectualadviserandconfidant.Whenwarbegan,BraudelwasmobilizedintheartilleryandstationedonthefrontierinAlsace;hesawnofighting,buthewasforcedtosurrenderaftertheencirclementoftheFrencharmybytheGermans.Despitethearmistice,hewasimprisonedatMainzin1940,whereheremaineduntil1942.;thenhewasdenouncedbyfellowofficersasbeing

asupporterofDeGaulleratherthanPetain,andsenttoaspecial‘disciplinecamp’for‘enemiesofGermany’atLtibeck,whereheremaineduntil1945.Therehewasreasonablyhappyamidstallsortsof‘dissidents’–partisansofDeGaulle,FrenchJewishofficers,sixty-sevenFrenchpriestsofalldescriptions,escapers,‘allthebesttypesintheFrencharmy’,togetherwithEnglishairmenandDutch,SwedishandPolishofficers.HemissedonlytheGermanbooksthathecouldfindinthemunicipallibraryofMainz.ItwasduringthesefouryearsofcaptivitythatBraudelwrotethefirst

draftofhismonumentalworkTheMediterraneanandtheMediterraneanWorldintheAgeofPhilipII.Assistedbyafewbooks,butmainlyusinghisprodigiousmemoryandthelongperiodofhispre-warresearches,heconstructedaworkwhichcombinedavastchronologicalandhistoricalsweepwithahugemassofminutedetails,coveringtheentireMediterraneanworldfromtherenaissancetothesixteenthcentury.Thisimmenseintellectualachievementwaswritteninexercisebooksonasmallplankinaroomsharedwithtwentyprisoners.AtintervalsparcelsofthemanuscriptwouldarriveinParisforcriticismbyFebvre;bytheendofthewartheworkwasfinished,onlytoberewrittenattherateofthirtytofiftypagesadayuntilitwasfinallypresentedin1947asathesisof1160pages.ThetransformationofBraudel’sthoughtincaptivityremainsobscure,

althoughrecentpublicationsofwritingfromthisperiodhaveofferedsomeinsights.Inonesenseitwas,ashesaid,‘aworkofcontemplation’,anescapeintoaworldwhichhecouldcontrolandwhosedetailedrealitieshecouldbelievewithgreatereasethantheartificialworldofprisonlife.In1941hewrotearareletterfromMainztohiswife(whowaslivinginAlgeria),‘asalwaysIamreading,writing,working.Ihavedecidedtoexpandmyworktotheperiodfrom1450to1650:onemustthinkbig,otherwisewhatisthepointofhistory?’Inthetwocampshegaveminiatureuniversitylecturestohisfellowprisoners.Notebookscontainingthetextofsomeofthesehavebeendiscovered,andtheywerepublishedin1997:itisclearfromthemthatthereflectiveexperienceofprisonwastheturningpointinhishistoricalthought,forintheselectureshesetsoutvirtuallyallthegreatthemeswhichhepresentedafterthewar.

Shortlybeforethepresentationofhisthesis,BraudelhadbeenpassedoverasProfessorofHistoryattheSorbonneinfavourofamoreconventionalhistorian.Athisvivavoceexamination,hisrival(whowasonthejuryofexaminers)soughttojustifythechoice:‘youareageographer,allowmetobethehistorian.’Inretrospectitisclearthatthismomentmarkedaturning-pointintheintellectualhistoryofFrance:overthenextthirtyyearstheSorbonnestagnatedasaback-waterofconservatism,whileoutsidetheuniversitysystemBraudelproceededtoconstructhisgreatempireof‘thehumansciences’andtoopenaseriesofvistasthatcouldperhapsneverhavefoundtheirplacewithinamoreconventionaluniversityatmosphere,whereorthodoxyinteachingwasvaluedaboveoriginalityofideas.BraudelhadmadehisreputationwithTheMediterranean,whichwaspublishedin1949;asecondrevisedandreorganizededitionwaspublishedin1966,inpreparationfortheAmericaneditionof1973,inthemagnificenttranslationofSianReynolds(whotakesleaveofBraudelwiththepresentbook);withthetranslationofthisneweditionBraudelbecamethebestknownhistorianintheworld.Mygenerationwasbroughtuptobelieveinthewordsofitspreface:theoldhistoryofeventswasindeeddead,‘theactionofafewprincesandrichmen,thetriviaofthepast,bearinglittlerelationtotheslowandpowerfulmarchofhistory…thesestatesmenwere,despitetheirillusions,moreacteduponthanactors.’IntheirplaceBraudeloffered,not‘thetraditionalgeographicalintroductiontohistorythatoftenfigurestosolittlepurposeatthebeginningofsomanybooks,withitsdescriptionofthemineraldeposits,typesofagricultureandtypicalflora,brieflylistedandnevermentionedagain,asiftheflowersdidnotcomebackeveryspring,theflocksofsheepmigrateeveryyear,ortheshipssailonarealseathatchangeswiththeseasons’,butawholenewwayoflookingatthepast,inwhichthehistorianre-createdalostrealitythroughafeatofhistoricalimaginationbasedondetailedknowledgeofthehabitsandtechniquesoftheploughman,theshepherd,thepotterandtheweaver,theskillsofthevintageandtheolivepress,themillingofcorn,thekeepingofrecordsofbillsoflading,tidesandwinds.Itbegantoseemasimportantforahistoriantobeabletorideahorseorsailashipastositinalibrary.OnlythethirdsectionofBraudel’sbookreturnedtothehistoryof

events,‘surfacedisturbances,crestsoffoamthatthetidesofhistorycarryontheirstrongbacks’.Braudeltaughtustoseethathistoricaltimewasdividedintothreeformsofmovement,geographicaltime,socialtimeandindividualtime,butthatbeyondallthisthepastwasaunityandareality–allthesemovementsbelongedtogether:‘historycandomorethanstudywalledgardens’.Thiswastheultimateexpressionoftheintellectualambitionsofthe

Annatesschool,whichwasrebornafterthewarandtheexecutionbytheNazisofMarcBloch,oneofitstwofoundersandaherooftheresistance.Braudelbecameamemberofitseditorialboard.Meanwhilein1947anewsectionoftheEcolePratiquedesHautesEtudeshadbeenformedwiththehelpofmoneyfromtheRockefellerFoundation,thefamousVieSectioninsocialsciences,withFebvreasitspresidentandBraudelashisassistant.In1949BraudelwaselectedtotheCollegedeFrance,andinthesameyearhewasgiventheimmenselypowerfulpositionofpresidentoftheagregationinhistory,thegeneralqualifyingexaminationforteachinginsecondaryschools.Hisreformswereresistedbytheconservatives,butittookthemsixyearsbeforetheycoulddislodgehimin1955.Therecordofwhathesoughttoachieveiscontainedinalittletextbookthathewroteforteachersinthisperiodcalleda‘GrammarofCivilizations’(writtenin1962-3andrepublishedin1987),whichwasdesignedtointroducecontemporaryhistoryandworldhistorytotheschoolcurriculum:historywasdividedintosixcivilizations–western,soviet,muslim,thefareast,south-eastAsia,andblackAfrica,allofcourserelevanttoaFrancestillatleastinmemorycommittedtoitsstatusasacolonialpower.Braudel’sattemptsatreformweredestroyedbyanunholyallianceofrightandleft;forhewasoneofthefewFrenchintellectualswhobelongedtoneithercamp.HewasthereforehatedbyGeorgesPompidou,whoheldproto-Thatcheriteviewsontheunimportanceofallhistoryapartfromthehistoryofone’sowncountry,andwhowaslatertoregardhimasresponsiblefortheeventsof1968;andatthesametimehewasdenouncedbyorthodoxcommunistsas‘awillingslaveofAmericanimperialism’.LucienFebvrediedin1956,andBraudelinheritedthedirectionboth

ofhissectionoftheEcolePratiqueandofthejournalAnnates.Inthefirstinstitutionthroughhisappointmentshecreatedandfosteredoneof

themostextraordinarycollectionsoftalentinthetwentiethcentury:tomentiononlythemostfamousofhiscolleagues,theyincludedthehistoriansGeorgesDuby,JacquesLeGoff,EmmanuelLeRoyLadurieandMauriceAymard,thephilosopherRolandBarthes,thepsychologistsJacquesLacanandGeorgesDevereux,thesociologistPierreBourdieu,theanthropologistClaudeLevi-Strauss;andtheclassicalscholarsJean-PierreVernantandPierreVidal-Naquet.Braudelworkedhardtocreateaseparateinstitutionorbuilding,whereallhiscolleaguescouldworktogether,andwhereasuccessionofforeignvisitorscouldbeinvitedasassociateprofessors;thisidea,begunabout1958,didnotachievephysicalshapeuntiltheopeningoftheMaisondesSciencesdel’Hommein1970.Anditwasonlyafterheretiredin1972thattheVieSectionfinallymetamorphosedintoitspresentstatusasanewandindependentteachinginstitution,theEcoledesHautesEtudesenSciencesSociales.InandthroughAnnatesBraudelsoughttopromoteanddefendhis

conceptionofhistory.Forthirtyyearsthegreatdebatesonthenatureofhistorytookplaceinitspages.Inretrospectonecanseefoursuccessivebutoverlappingissueswithwhichheengaged.Thefirstdebatewasprovokedbytheclaimsoftheanthropologist

ClaudeLevi-Straussthatthetheoryofstructuralismofferedanexplanationofhumansocialorganization.Braudelhadbeenpossiblythefirsthistoriantousetheword‘structure’inhisoriginalthesis;buthesawthatthestructuralismofLevi-Strausswasfundamentallyanti-historical,inthatitsoughttoexplainallhumansocietiesintermsofasingletheoryofstructures:thenotionsofdifferenceandofchangewhicharebasictoallhistoricalthoughtweresimplydismissedasirrelevanttothesearchforauniversalunderlyingstructure,whichexistedinthehumanmindifnotinthephysicaluniverseitself.Againstthis,inafamousarticleinAnnates1958onhisconceptionofthetonguedurieBraudelsoughttoexplainhisownhistoricalconceptionofthevarietiesofunderlyingforcesinfluencinghumansociety,whichhehadalreadyformulatedduringthewritingofhisthesisinrelationtothestaticforcesandtheslowmovementsbehindtheephemeralhistoryofevents.Braudel’sconceptionoftheUongueduree(usuallytranslatedrathermisleadinglyas‘thelongperspective’)isnoteasytoexpressinnon-historicaltermsasatheoreticalconcept;foritistherecognitionthat

humansocietydevelopsandchangesatdifferentratesinrelationtodifferentunderlyingforces,andthatalltheelementswithinanyhumansituationinteractwitheachother.Thereareunderlyinggeographicalconstraints,therearenaturalregularitiesofbehaviourrelatedtoeveryactivity,whetherclimaticorseasonalorconventional,therearesocialcustoms,thereareeconomicpressuresandthereareshort-termeventsinhistorywiththeirresultingconsequences–battles,conquests,powerfulrulers,reforms,earthquakes,famines,diseases,triballovesandhatreds.Totranslatethismessycomplicationwhichconstitutestheessenceofhistoryintoageneraltheoryisimpossible,andthisfactrepresentstheultimateproblemoftryingtosubsumehistorywithinanyabstracttheory,fromwhateverphilosophicalorsociologicaloranthropologicalsourceitisderived.Theseconddebateconcernedquantitativehistory:aftertheMediterranean,Braudelbecamemoreandmoreattractedtotheideaofquantificationineconomichistory,thenotionthathistorycouldbecomescientificallyrespectablethroughtheuseofgraphsandtablesandthecollectionofhardquantifiabledata.IttooktheexampleofhisdisciplePierreChaunu,whosoughttosurpassBraudelwithhisimmenseworkof7800pagesonSevilleandtheAtlantictrade(finallypublishedin1963),toconvinceBraudelthatsomethingwasmissingfromthistypeofstatisticalhistory:historywassomethingmorethantheeffectofthefluctuationsintheSpanishAmericantradeontheeconomicboomanddeclineofthesixteenthandseventeenthcenturies.ItwasinresponsetothisdebatethatBraudelwrotehissecondgreatwork,translatedasCivilizationandCapitalism,15th-18thCentury(1982).Thefirstvolumeofthisworkhadoriginallybeenpublishedin1967,andwastranslatedintoEnglishin1973asCapitalismandMaterialLife1400-1800.ItpresentedavividpictureofsociallifeanditsstructuresbeforetheIndustrialRevolution,intermsofpopulation,bread,foodanddrink,fashion,housing,energysources,technology,money,citiesandtowns.Thiswasrevisedandincorporatedintoathree-volumeworkpublishedin1979withaonewordadditiontothetitle:MaterialCivilization,EconomyandCapitalism;theworknowapproachedthewholequestionoftheoriginsofmodern-worldcapitalism:thesecondvolumedealtwiththeorganizationofcommerce,manufactureandcapitalism,thethirdwith

thegrowthofaworldeconomyandworldtrade.Hisconclusionwasbothhistoricalandpractical:itissmall-scalebusinessandfreedomoftradewhichbothproduceandsustaincapitalism,noteitherstateenterprisenorlarge-scalecapitalism;withouttheindependentsmallartisanandthemerchant-shopkeepernoeconomicsystemcansurvive,andthesesmallerentitiesareembeddedinthesocialfabric,sothatsocietyandeconomycanneverbeseparatedfromeachother.Hisworkstandsthereforeasarefutationthroughthestudyofhistoryofbothcommunismandcapitalism.ThethirdissuewithwhichBraudelwasinvolvedwasaconsequenceofhisgrowingdistancefromthemosttalentedofthehistorianswhomhehadcalledtojoinhiminthemanagementofAnnates.Thenewhistoryofthesixtieswasturningawayfromthefactualcertaintiesofeconomicanddescriptivesocialhistory,andexploringthe‘historyofmentalities’.Thehistoricalworldwascreatedoutofperceptions,notoutofevents,andweneededtorecognizethatthewholeofhistorywasaconstructofhumanimpressions.Thecrucialquestionforahistorywhichstillsoughtadegreeofcertaintyandanescapefromarbitrarinessorfictionwastoanalysethementalworldwhichhadcreatedtherecordanageoracivilization.ThemedievalhistoriansDuby,LeGoffandLaduriepioneeredthisapproachfrom1961onwards;itmeantawhole-scalereturntotheoldGermanconceptionsofculturalhistory,andtotheuseofliteraryandartisticsourcesalongsidearchivalmaterial.ThiswasperhapsoneofBraudePsblindspots:tohimitwastherealitiesofpeasantormerchantexistencethatmattered,notthewaythattheymightbeexpressedinartisticorliteraryform.Hewasalsomoreandmoreinterestedintheglobalsweep,andsawthedetailedstudiesofthementalworldofsmallcommunitiesundertakenbyhiscolleaguesasabetrayalofthegrandvision.AshesaidtoLadurieinrelationtohisfamousbookMontaillou,‘Webroughthistoryintothediningroom,youaretakingitintothebedroom.’Hisdisapprovalofthesetrendscosthimthedirectionofhisjournal,andby1969hehadabandonedAnnales,sidelinedbythosewhosecareershehadstartedandwhomhehadoriginallyinvitedtojoinhim.Braudel’sreplytothisdevelopmentwaslongincoming,andremainsincomplete:itwashislastgreatprojectedwork,‘TheIdentityofFrance’.

Threevolumeswerepublishedbeforehisdeath,comprisingthefirsttwopartsongeographyanddemographyandeconomy:thesewereforhimtraditionalterritory.Withthethirdandfourthhewouldbeenteringnewterritory,bywritingaboutthestate,cultureandsociety,andinthefourthabout‘FranceoutsideFrance’.Fragmentsofthethirdvolumewerepublishedin1997.Theysuggestthatwhathewasreallyaimingatinthislastworkwastoconfoundhiscriticsbyprovingthatthe‘mentality’ofFrancewascontainedwithinitsphysical,socialandeconomichistory.ThepeasantwasthekeytothehistoryofFrance,andatruehistoryofmentalitiescouldonlybewrittenintheHonguedureeandfromalongperspective.Historymustdomorethanstudywalledgardens.Thedifficultyoftranslating‘tonguedurée’asthephrase‘thelong

perspective’revealsanotherproblem,whichwasperhapstoemergeinthelaterdebateswithMichelFoucault,whoseimportanceBraudelhadrecognisedearly:inalettertoFoucaultheexplainedthathewasunabletoappointhimtotheVieSection,becausethatwoulddamagehischancesofelectiontotheCollegedeFrance,whichtookplacewithBraudel’ssupportin1969-70.Braudelneverclaimedthathiscategorieswereabsolute:theywereonlymeansoforganizingtheexplanatoryfactorsinanysituation.Butequallyhewasnotpreparedtoseethemsimplyasconstructsfashionedbytheobserverforhisimmediatepurposes:howeverindeterminateandchangeable,theydidpossessarealexistenceasforcesinthefieldofhistory.ThiswaschallengedbythetheoriesandmethodsofFoucault,whopublishedWordsandThingsin1966,andTheArchaeologyofKnowledgein1969.Theideaofhistoricalrelativityintroducedintheseworksandadoptedbypost-modernhistorytookonestepbeyondthehistoryofmentalities.Notonlydidtheuncertaintycontainedinthestudyofhistoryrestonitsderivationfromasetofhumanimpressionsratherthanfacts:thecrucialroleinthisprocessbelongedtothehistorianasinterpreter.Indeedthewholeorganizationofknowledgecouldbeseenasaconstructiondesignedtocontroltheworld:history,likeallthesocialsciences,wasanaspectofpower;sothathistorywasboththehistoryofformsofcontrolanditselfaformofcontrol,notaninnocentactivity.Allthisishighlycontroversialstilltoday,butforBraudelitwasofcourseonestepworse

thanthehistoryofmentalities.Thehistorianwasnolongertheinnocentobserverbuthimselfcomplicitousinsociety’sattempttomarginalizecategoriessuchasthewoman,theprimitive,themad,thecriminal,thehomo-sexual,andthroughitscontrolofthepsychologyofhumanitytoconstructmechanismsofsocialpower–orultimately(inFoucault’slastwork)amorebeneficentformofthecontroloftheself.Moreover,FoucaultsingledouttheBraudelianconceptionofhistoryforspecialattack:itwasideasandthesuddenrupturecreatedbythem(exemplifiedinhisownbooks),notthelongperspective,whichmatteredinahistorydominatedbyrandomchange,bydiscontinuitiesnotstructures.Thistheoreticaldebatehadjustbegunin1968.Braudelwasgivinga

lectureseriesinChicago,whenhewasrecalledtofaceattheageof6xtherevolutionarystudentmovement.Likemanyradicalprofessorshewassympatheticbutuncomprehendingoftheanarchicstreakinyouthfulprotest;hisinterventionswerepaternalisticandnotwellreceived,andlaterhecondemnedtherevolutionbecauseitmadepeoplelessratherthanmorehappy.Hecouldnotunderstandthedesiretodestroyeverythingthathehadpersonallytriedtobuildoutsidetheuniversitysystem,ofwhichbothheandtheydisapproved,ortheircontemptforfactsandresearchinthefaceofneo-communistandanarchistideas.MoredangerousstillforBraudelwasthereaction,whichbroughtthe

conservativesunderPompidoutopower,andwhichplacedtheblame,notontheirownresistancetochange,butonthosewhohadtriedtoencouragechange.Hadnotthe‘events’of1968provedtheimportanceofthehistoryofevents?Wherenowwasthelongperspective?‘HasstructuralismbeenkilledbyMay68?’,asaheadlineinheMondeputitinNovemberofthatyear.Eitherthenewhistory(whateveritwas)wasresponsibleforthe‘events’,oritwasdisprovedbythem:asaconservativeyoucouldhaveitbothways,andbothimplicatedBraudelalongwithallhisintellectualopponents.ThiswasofcoursetoaccusetheEnlightenmentofcausingtheFrenchRevolution;buttheclaimwassuccessfulinblockingBraudel’saccesstogovernmentcirclesforalmostthefirsttimeinhiscareer.Theuniversityconservativeshadindeedlost,andtheoldSorbonnewassweptaway;buttheyhadtheirrevengeonthemanwhohadbeenmostresponsibleforestablishingtheirirrelevanceto

modernlife.Braudelendedhislifeashebeganit,asanoutsider,butnotunhappy

withthisfate.Hehadalwaysbelievedintheimportanceofacceptingrealityandtherelativepowerlessnessoftheindividualinthefaceofhiscircumstances,eventhoughhehadhimselfruledFrenchintellectuallife‘asaprince’forageneration.Aboveall,despitehisrecognitionoftheimportanceofthegrandvisionandthepowerofthe‘longuedurée’andofstructures,hehadalwaysupheldthatcrucialhistoricalvalue,thecentralityoftheindividualasthesubjectofhistory:nottheindividualgreatmanbuttheanonymousyetrealpeasant,theordinaryunknownman.Inthissenseheremainsmoretrulyrevolutionarythananyofhisopponentsontheleftorontheright.HowpowerfulthelegacyofBraudel,andespeciallyofhis

Mediterranean,stillisandhowmodernitsconceptionstillappears,canbeseenbyconsideringitsimpactontworecentbooks.ThefirstisBarryCunliffe’sFacingtheOcean:TheAtlanticanditsPeoples(2001),whereCunliffeseekstodofortheAtlanticwhatBraudeloncedidfortheMediterranean,andwherethetitleofhislastchaptermakesexplicitreferencetoBraudel’sHongueduree\ThesecondisthelatestbookontheMediterranean,whosefirstvolumeappearedintheyear2000;PeregrineHordenandNicholasPurcell’sTheCorruptingSea:aStudyofMediterraneanHistory.Forallitsimmenselearningandresoluteup-to-dateness,thisworktooisinconceivablewithouttheexampleofBraudel.ItisanattempttoanswerthesamequestionsasBraudelforthecenturiesbeforetheageofPhilipII;whenwewereyoungweallofusindeeddreamedofwritingabookontheMediterraneanwhichshouldreplaceinitstitlePhilipIIofSpainwiththatearlierPhilipIIofMacedon.Itisnotthereforesurprisingthatthiswork,Braudel’sMediterraneanin

theAncientWorld,althoughitwasoriginallywrittenagenerationago,canstillserveasamodel.ThislittlebookexemplifiesalltheideasthatBraudelbelievedin,andforthatreasonitisricherthanmostofthedetailedbooksbyexpertswhichhavebeenwrittenbothbeforeandsinceitsoriginalcomposition.Itcontainsallthoseelementsthathetaughtustorespect,andoffersnewsurprisesstill.ThefirstisitsscopeanditsexemplificationofthemeaningofthetonguedurieAhistoryofthe

ancientMediterraneanwouldnormallybeginwiththeMinoanage,ornotearlierthanzoooBC;BraudelinvitesustoconsidertheMediterraneannotasgeographybutasahistoricalphenomenonbeginninginthePalaeolithicage,orevenwiththestartofgeologicaltime;ashepointsout(p.29)thehistoricalperiodofclassicalcivilizationbelongsinthelasttwominutesoftheyear,andthelasttwochaptersofthisbook.HowBraudelwouldhaverelishedtherecentperspectivesontheearlystagesofevolutionandthebiologicalhistoryoftheuniversethatarebeingrevealedbythenewusesofgeneticsinarchaeologyandevolutionarybiology.HowhewouldhavelovedtheenrichmentofourknowledgeoftheoriginsofhumanartinthePalaeolithicagewiththenewdiscoveriesoftheGrotteChauvetintheArddche.Braudel’spicturealsoinvitesustoconsidertheMediterraneaninits

broadestgeographicalcontext,inclusiveofthegreatcivilizationsofIraqandEgypt,thesteppesofRussia,theforestsofGermanyandthedesertsoftheSahara.Forhim,Mediterraneanhistoryisanaspectofworldhistory.Withinthecontextofhumanhistoryheemphasizestwothemes.ThefirstiswhatIwouldcalltherealityprinciple.Humanhistoryisahistoryoftechnologicalmasteryandthedevelopmentoftheskillsbasictoancientcivilization:fireandwatertechnology,pottery,weaving,metal-working,seafaringandfinallywriting.Thisemphasisonthephysicalrealitiesofearlycivilizationsbringsouttheactualqualityoflifewithavividnessthatnoamountofreadinginotherbookscanachieve.Thesecondthemeistheimportanceofexchange,especiallylong-distanceexchange:‘Ourseawasfromtheverydawnofitsprotohistoryawitnesstothoseimbalancesproductiveofchangewhichwouldsettherhythmofitsentirelife’(p.58).Itisimbalancethatcreatesexchangeandthereforeleadstoprogress.Thesetwoideas,firstformulatedintheMediterraneanandsubsequentlyexploredindepthforthepre-industrialworldinCivilizationandCapitalism,arehereappliedtotheancientMediterraneanwithmagnificenteffect.Thisdeceptivelymodestbookisindeedtheworkofthegreatesthistorianofthetwentiethcentury,andChristopherLogue’snewpoemwillserveasafittingpreamble.*

OswynMurray

Preamble

TwolimestoneplatessupporttheAegeanworld.ThegreaterAnatolianstillliesflat,Buthalfaneonsince,throughsilenteyes:‘Ave!’Godwatchedthecounterplatesubside,until,OnlyitstopandmountaintopsremainedAboveHisbrother,LordPoseidon’s,sea:‘Andthat,IshallcallGreece.Andthose,HerArchipelago,’saidHe.ThenturnedawayTohearApolloandtheNineperformOfCreation,fromthestageatTableBay.

Theyenter.Theyattend.Theybow.TheLordofLightandMicegivesthemtheirnote.Andthentheysing:‘InthebeginningtherewasnoBeginning,Andintheend,noEnd…’

ChristopherLogue

Translator’sNote

Asthisisthelastofthefull-lengthbooksbyFernandBraudeltobetranslatedintoEnglish,Iwouldliketoputonrecordmythankstothepeoplewhohaveregularlyhelpedandadvisedmeovertheyears,forthosetranslationswithwhichIhavebeenassociated.(Someofhisbookshavebeenablytranslatedbyotherhands,notablyMiriamKochan,SarahMatthewsandRichardMayne.)IwouldthereforeparticularlyliketothankMadamePauleBraudelforallherkindnessandexpertise;RichardOllard,whoseencyclopedicknowledgeandgenerosityhavebeenavailablesincetheearliestdaysandwhohasreadoverthemanuscriptofthepresentwork;StuartProffitt,whoisaneditorinamillion;DouglasMatthews,whohasexpertlycompiledseveraloftheindexes;andPeterFrance,whohasalwaysbeenthere,buthasofferedhelpwellbeyondthecallofdutyinthislastvolume.Mosttranslationsaretosomeextentteamefforts,butforanymistakesandshortcomingsinthefinaltext,Iamsolelyresponsible.

SiânReynolds

Editors’ForewordtotheFrenchEdition

Thisbookhasahistory.Earlyin1968,arepresentativeoftheSwisspublisherAlbertSkiraarrivedfromGenevatoseeFernandBraudel.SkirahadplannedaseriesofillustratedvolumesinlargeformatnarratingthehistoryoftheMediterranean.HisagenthadbeenaskedtopersuadeBraudeltotakeonnotonlythevolumesonthesixteenthandseventeenthcenturies–ashewasexpectingsincethatwastheperiodofhisownresearch–butalsothefirstvolumeintheseries,ontheMediterraneaninprehistoryandantiquity.Initiallysurprisedbutimmediatelytempted,Braudelquicklybecamefascinatedbyprehistory,afieldthatwasquitenewtohimandwasgoingthroughrevolutionarychangeatthetime.Hesatdownandwrotehismanuscriptinashorttimeandwithgreatenjoyment.Butby1970AlbertSkirawasinverypoorhealth.Thismayexplain

whyin1971-2theprojectwasheldup,andtherewereuncertaintiesoverthechoiceofillustrations.Then,afterSkira’sdeathin1973,thewholeexpensiveserieswascancelledalmostbeforeithadbegun.Bythistime,FernandBraudelwastooabsorbedinhisworkonthesecondvolumeofCivilizationandCapitalismtoconsiderrevisingforseparatepublicationatextoriginallywrittenaspartofalargerproject.Itwouldalsohavemeanttheextrataskoffindingthenecessarymapsandillustrations.Sohesetasidethemanuscriptandthereaftermoreorlessforgotaboutit.Stillunpublishedtenyearsormoreaftertheauthor’sdeath,thistext

hadbecomeproblematic.Thosewhoknewofitsexistencewereanxiousthatitshouldnotbelost.Buttopublishitasitstoodseemedinappropriate,sinceintheyearssince1970archaeologyhadmadeagreatdealofprogress;inparticular,carbondatinghadthrownintoquestionearlierattemptsatchronology.Ontheotherhand,findingaco-operativeexpertwhocouldbringuptodateabookwritten

essentiallyforthegeneralreaderwouldalsobedifficult.Whatcouldbedone?WeappealedtoJeanGuilaine,whoseexpertknowledgewouldenablehimtomakeaninformedjudgement.Heunhesitatinglydeclaredthatthetoneofthebookwassocaptivatingthathefavouredpublishingthetextasitstood.Theimportantthinginhisviewwastoavoiddisruptingthebook’snarrativeandstylisticflow.Theoriginalproblemcouldbesolvedbyaddingnotesinformingthereaderwherevermodernscholarshiphadrevisedcertaindatesorinterpretationsintheinterval,andbyprovidingreferencestorecentpublications.Thetaskremainedoffindingascholarpreparedtotakeonthiswork.JeanGuilainevolunteeredtocoverhisownfield,prehistory,whilePierreRouillard,assistedbytwocolleagues,1agreedtocovertheperiodfromioooBC.Publisherandeditorswishtothankallthoseconcernedfortheirgenerousassistance.ThetextofwhichatranslationispublishedhereisthereforethesamemanuscriptwhichwassenttotheSkirapublishinghousein1969,andwhichtheauthorreceivedbackafewyearslater.NotesbyJeanGuilaineandPierreRouillard(recognizablebytheirinitials)appearafterthetext,andthesetwoscholarshavealsoprovidedapreface.ThemapsinAppendixIIidentifyplace-namesmentionedinthetext.Sincethemapsdonotneedtobeconsultedinordertofollowtheargument,itwasdecidednottoincorporatethemintothebodyofthebook,especiallysincetheyrefertomorethanonechapter.Thereisalsoafullindex.

PrefacetotheFrenchEditionbyJeanGuilaineandPierreRouillard

Thefieldofstudycoveredbythisbook–prehistoryandtheworldofantiquity–isnotonewherewewouldexpecttofindFernandBraudelatwork,evenifthesceneissetinhisbelovedMediterranean.Butthehistorianfamousfordrawingattentiontothepermanentrealitiesofgeographyandtheirdetermininginfluencewascertaintobetemptedbytheprospectofexploringtheoriginsofahistoricalenvironmenthehadspentalifetimestudying,bothinstructuraloutlineandexhaustivedetail.‘Neversaythatprehistoryisnothistory’,writesBraudelinTheIdentity

ofFrance.Anyarchaeologistoftheneolithiceraandprotohistorywouldagreewhole-heartedlywiththis,andmightevenadd:‘Neversaythatthedistinguishingfeaturebetweenprehistoryandhistoryistheinventionofwriting’.Anyonewhohasexcavated,analysedandinvestigatedtheearliestcivilizationsoftheneolithic,chalcolithicandbronzeages–whichhadagriculture,metal-workingandeventuallytowns,butwhichmostlyexistedwithoutanyformofwriting–willhaverealizedthatitisperfectlypossibletodescribetheirhistory,totracetheemergenceofvariouspatternsofidentity,socialfabric,competitionbetweenelites,economicchangeandeverydaylife.WhatdifferenceistherebetweentheroyaldynastiesburiedatUroftheChaldeesandthoseburiedatAlac.aHoyttkinAnatoliainabout2500BC?Dotheformercomeunder‘history’,thelatterunder‘prehistory’?Thedistinctionispointless.Scholarshavethereforeconstantlytriedtoexploreasfarbackintimeastheycan,backtotheeraofbeginningsandorigins.Thatiswhythehistoriancannotaffordtoneglectthefirstsettledcivilizations.Foritwasinthoseearlydaysthatthecrucialturning-pointsoccurred,ashierarchicalsocietiesbecameestablished,earlycitieswerefounded,geo-

culturalareasbecamedefined,religioustraditionsgrewup–inshortthatpopulationsturnedintopeoples.ReadersmaybeastonishedtofindBraudeltakingonthisnewchallenge.Butitisnotsosurprisingifwelocatethisbookwithinhiswritingsasawhole.BytransportingthereaderallovertheMediterranean,throughallthehistoricalstratafromprehistorytotheRomanconquest,hewasnotonlyenjoyingthepleasureofthejourney–whichshinesoutfromthetext–butalsosharingwithushisconvictionthat‘historycannottrulybeunderstoodunlessitisviewedacrosstheentiretimespanofhumanexistence’,viewed,inotherwords,bothinthelongperspective(lalongueduree)andalsothroughgeography:thelatterispresentfromthestartinBraudel’saccountofeverygreatculturalandpoliticalachievement,fromthefirststirringsinMesopotamiaandEgypttothecivilizationoftheEtruscansinwhatwasprobablyBraudel’sownfavouriteregion,Tuscany.ThisbookontheMediterraneaninprehistoryandantiquity,writtenjustashewasbeginningworkonthesecondvolumeofCivilizationandCapitalism,ofwhichthefirstvolumehadappearedin1967,marksanabruptshiftofscale.TheauthorhadtotearhimselfawayfromseriesofeconomicdatatoconsiderthesuccessivefluctuationsandconnectionsoftheancientcivilizationsoftheMediterraneanwhichhadshapedthehistoryofthesea:hisfieldofstudyhadexpandednowtocovernotcenturiesbutmillennia,thatfinalextensionoflalonguedureewhichwasalsotobefoundinhislastbook,TheIdentityofFrance.Asspecialistsinearlyhistory,weregardhisessayasasalutaryexercise.Onecanevenseeitasanobjectlesson,asthehistorianofgreatexpansesandlongtime-spansbringshisvisionandprofessionalskilltotheaidoftheprotohistorian,whosooftenfindshimselfboggeddowninamassofdetailsandspecificquestions.Braudel’sbookmaythereforebeabletoofferussomekeys,openupnewperspectivesandelicitfreshresponses.Somewillnodoubtbeshockedbyit:doesBraudelnotruntheriskofprojectingmodelsfromthemercantileandeconomy-drivensixteenthcenturyontoanancientworldthatwascompletelydifferent?Braudeldoesindeedoftenhazardreflectionsofthiskind:hecomparesthecosmopolitanismoftheLevantineportsinthesecondmillenniumBCorthecommercialdevelopmentofanarchaicGreekcitytothe

effervescenceofthecitiesoftheRenaissance;orhelikensthequarrelsbetweenAthens,SpartaandThebestocompetitionbetween‘modern’Italiancities;hesuggeststhatwhenthewesternbasinoftheMediterraneanwasfirstcolonized,itrepresentedsomethingliketheNewWorldtoAegeanemigrants,withCarthageasan‘American’power.Butheneverdoessonaively.HeknewtheMediterranean’sislands,plains,mountains,peopleandhistoryfartoowelltohazardimplausiblehypotheses,andheusuallypresentshismorespeculativesuggestionsintheformofquestions.Wecanbegratefultohimforpointingoutparallels,underlininganalogiesandaskingpertinentquestionswhichtheexpertstakecaretoavoid,sincetheycannotanswerthemandpreferonthataccounttokeepquiet.Hisanalysesofgreatblocsanddeepdivides,oftheperennialdrawingpoweroftheeast,lastinguntiltheconquestsofAlexanderandevenRome(thoughthelatterhadfirstlookedwestward)provideuswithsomethought-provokinglandmarks.Amongthekeyarticulationsinhistory,Braudelinsomeofhisotherwritingsputforwardaparticularlysuggestiveconcept,thatofthe‘world-economy’:heconvincedusthatitwasrelevanttothesixteenthcentury,thoughheneverappliedittoantiquity.WemaybesurethathewouldhavebeenagreeablysurprisedtoseethatthisconceptisbeingputtogoodusebyoneofourcolleaguesworkingontheironageinaEurope-wideperspective.

Thisisnotaworkofrecentcomposition.Itwaswrittenin1969,thensetaside.Inthelate1960s,radio-carbondatinghadnotyetmadeanimpactonchronologiesbasedlargelyonguesswork.ThescattereddataontheMiddleEastinneolithicandchalcolithictimesdidnotallowustogeneralizeaswecantoday.Thewesternmegalithswerestillthoughtbymanytohavebeenaphenomenonspreadingatthesametimeasmetal-working.Migrations,whetherbytheso-called‘PeoplesoftheSea’,theEtruscansortheCimbriandtheTeutons,wereatthattimegivenexaggeratedimportance,orallowedtoplayaroleinhistoricalexplanationswhichtheyneverreallywarranted.FernandBraudelalsoreflectstheacademicwisdomofhisdaywhenhelocatestheeastasthepointofdepartureforeverythingelse,orwhenhedescribesthelastmillenniumbcasthereignofthreepeoples,the

Phoenicians,theEtruscansandtheGreeks,leavingoutotherswhoalsocontributedtoMediterraneancivilization:theLigurians,CeltsandIberians.Thosewhowerestudentsinthe1960swillrememberwhatonewastaughtinthosedays:nothingatallaboutthePhoenicians,excepttheirinventionofwritingandthepracticeoftophetinancientCarthage;afewlecturesontheEtruscansandthe‘mystery’surroundingthem,a‘mystery’whichperplexesBraudeltoo;whileGreecewasreducedtotwomajortopics,colonizationandtheheydayofclassicalAthens.FernandBraudel’svisionliessomewherebetween–orperhapsbeyond–thisstandarduniversitysyllabusandwhatcouldbe(andstillisnotalways)adisciplinewhichwouldtakeintoaccountallthefacetsofMediterraneancivilization.Butifonegoesbeyondtheever-increasingvolumeofdiscoveriesmadebyarchaeologyandlooksagainatthebasiclong-termproblems,onequicklyfindsthattheseessentialquestionsremainpermanentlyinneedofananswer,regularlysurvivingeventhemostimportantdiscoveriesinthefield.Anditisthesequestions,goingbeyondexactdatingortheoccasionalsensationalfind,thatourauthorhassoughttobringtoourattention,sometimessuggestinganswerstothempromptedbyhisexpertiseinotherperiods.Atthesametime,thereaderwillmeetaBraudelfascinatedbythe

achievementsofneolithicfarmers,bytherichprogressinscienceandartsmadeintheMiddleEast,bytheindefatigablePhoenicianmarinersandmerchants,bytheextraordinaryfeatsrepresentedbythediscoveryofwriting,IonianphilosophyorRomanlaw.Asahistorianofthemodernperiod,heisforeveronthelookoutfornewdepartureswhichheseesassomanyrevolutions:thetradingrevolution,forinstance,whichwouldlastforalltime;ortheinventionofthePhoenicianalphabet,linkedtotradeandmakingitmorepracticable.AnotherchangeheconsidersrevolutionaryisthefunctioningofthestateofAthens,asestablishedafterthearchaicperiod;yetanother,theemergenceoftheRomanrepublic.Atthesametime,incounterpointtoallthis,hesuggestsanotherreadingofhistory,demythifyingsomewhatthosetwogiants,GreeceandRome,andseeingthemasmasterlybeneficiariesofaprocesswhichhadprecededthem.Whatismore,onesuspectshehadasneakingsympathyforthepeoplescrushedbytheRomanbulldozer:theEtruscansandCarthaginians.Inthisrespectanewreadingissometimes

necessarytomodifyorchallengesomeclaimstograndeur,sinceweknowthattherichandpowerfulinhistoryhavegenerallymanagedtowintheargument.Inparticular,hasGreecebeencreditedwithaprimacyinartsandtechnologyforwhichthedecisivebreakthroughshadalreadybeenmadefurthereast?Whenitcomestoevents,oneisdelightedtofindBraudelaskingquestionsabouttheirsignificance,abouttheirrealinfluenceinthestoryofthesegreatgeopoliticalchanges,andabouttheimportanceattributedtocertaindefeats–oftenseenthroughtheeyesofthedefeated–whichmayhavebeenover-estimatedbyhistorians.Onewarmstohisideathatstablepoliticalunitsmightverywellhavesurvivedaseriesofshocks,despitethesurfacedisturbanceofconstantharassment:thisistheBraudelianphilosophyofhistory,inwhichtheweightofthemassescorrespondstothetrajectoryoftime,withasacounter-themeastrongintuitionthateveninprehistoricerashumanitywasalreadyacross-bredpopulation.WithBraudel,thegreatteacherisneverfarbehindtheconvincedscholar:wefindhimtickingoffAlexandertheGreatforexample,asifhewereaPh.D.studentwhohassetoffinthewrongdirection,blaminghimforbeingtoopreoccupiedwiththeeast(anunpardonablefaultintheeyesofamanbroughtupinthewesternbasin);orwhenhereproachesRomeforstrayingtoofarbeyondtheMediterranean.Finally,andthisisnottheleastofthepleasuresinthisbook,wefindBraudelthewriter,themagicalstory-tellerwhoknowshowtomakethemostofadocument,askingawkwardquestions,bringingadetailtolifebygivingitanunexpectedtwist,comparingsituationsapparentlyquitedifferent,bringingtogetheroppositeaspectsofaproblem,orreactingagainstobviousanachronisms.Inthissensethepresentbookisatonic.Itistheworknotofsomevisitortotheprehistoricandantiqueworld,butofalong-timeloveroftheMediterranean,revealingitsbeginningstouswiththeaddedenrichmentofhisencyclopedicknowledge.Inthesepages,asweseethemegaliths,thepyramids,theGreektemplesandthebasilicasoutlinedagainsttheclearbluesky,wearebeingshowntheimageofapastwhichiseverpresent.

j.r.

P.R.

7

Author’sPreface

Asthereadermayknow,IamaspecialistontheMediterraneaninthesixteenthcentury.Outofcuriosity,andindeednecessity,Ihaveexploredthewholeofthesea’spast,andhavereadalmostalltheseriousworksIcouldfindonitinancientandmoderntimes.Forallthat,mypersonalresearchreallycoversonlytheperiod1450-1650.WhythendidIrashlyacceptAlbertSkira’srequesttowritethefirst

volumeinaseriesonthepastoftheMediterranean,sinceitindubitablylayoutsidetheusualrangeofmycompetence?Tomoveintonewterritorywithoutreallyleavinghomeisa

temptation,adelightcomparabletoatastefortravel.PerhapsIyieldedtoitoncemoreoutofthatsinofcuriosity,andalsobecauseIhavealwaysbelievedthathistorycannotbereallyunderstoodunlessitisextendedtocovertheentirehumanpast.Perhapsitisonlyright,aswell,tomeasureone’sideasandexplanationsagainstunfamiliarhistoricallandscapes.Thepresentwork,whichisintendedfortheeducatedgeneralreader,offeredmethechancetotakemyownfabulousjourneythroughthelongexpanseofhistory,latreslongueduree.SoIseizedthechance.Imustsaythatithasgivenmeenormouspleasuretofollowthe

discoveries,hypothesesandrunningdebatesinarchaeologyandancienthistory,disciplineswhichhavebeencompletelyrevolutionizedoverthelasthalf-century–whilealso,naturally,beingremindedquiteoftenofthehistoricalperiodsandproblemsIknewwellfromdevotingalifetimetothem.ForinthelonganddazzlingpastoftheMediterranean,historymaynotrepeatitself,butitisallpartofasinglefabric.F.B.

29July1969

PARTI

1SeeingtheSea

ThebestwitnesstotheMediterranean’sage-oldpastistheseaitself.Thishastobesaidandsaidagain;andtheseahastobeseenandseenagain.SimplylookingattheMediterraneancannotofcourseexplaineverythingaboutacomplicatedpastcreatedbyhumanagents,withvaryingdosesofcalculation,capriceandmisadventure.Butthisisaseathatpatientlyrecreatesforusscenesfromthepast,breathingnewlifeintothem,locatingthemunderaskyandinalandscapethatwecanseewithourowneyes,alandscapeandskylikethoseoflongago.Amoment’sconcentrationordaydreaming,andthatpastcomesbacktolife.

Anancientscarontheterrestrialglobe

Butifthatistrue,iftheMediterraneanseemssoalive,soeternallyyounginoureyes,‘alwaysreadyandwilling’,whatpointisthereinrecallingthissea’sgreatage?Whatdoesitmatter,thetravellermay

think,whatcanitpossiblymatter,thattheMediterranean,aninsignificantbreachintheearth’scrust,narrowenoughtobecrossedatcontemptuousspeedinanaeroplane(anhourfromMarseilletoAlgiers,fifteenminutesfromPalermotoTunis,andtheresttomatch)isanancientfeatureofthegeologyoftheglobe?ShouldwecarethattheInlandSeaisimmeasurablyolderthantheoldestofthehumanhistoriesithascradled?Yes,weshould:theseacanbeonlybefullyunderstoodifweviewitinthelongperspectiveofitsgeologicalhistory.Tothisitowesitsshape,itsarchitecture,thebasicrealitiesofitslife,whetherwearethinkingofyesterday,todayortomorrow.Soletuslookattherecord.Inthepaleozoicera,millionsandmillionsofyearsago,removedfromusbyachronologicaldistancethatdefiestheimagination,abroadbandofseaknowntogeologistsasTethysranfromtheWestIndiestothePacific.Followingthelinesoflatitude,itbisectedwhatwouldmuchlaterbecomethelandmassoftheAncientWorld.Thepresent-dayMediterraneanistheresidualmassofwaterfromTethys,anditdatesbackalmosttotheearliestdaysoftheplanet.ThemanyviolentfoldingsofthetertiaryeratookplaceattheexpenseofthisveryancientMediterranean,muchlargerthanthepresentone.Allthemountains,fromtheBaeticCordilleratotheRif,theAtlas,theAlpsandtheApennines,theBalkans,theTaurusandtheCaucasus,wereheavedupoutoftheancientsea.Theyreduceditsarea,raisingfromthegreatseabednotonlysedimentaryrocks–sands,clays,sandstones,thicklayersoflimestone–butalsodeeplyburiedprimitiverocks.Themountainssurrounding,strangling,barricadingandcompartmentalizingthelongMediterraneancoastline,arethefleshandbonesoftheancestralTethys.Everywheretheseawaterhaslefttracesofitsslowlabour.ThesedimentarylimestonesoutsideCairo,‘sofine-grainedandofsuchmilkywhitenessthattheyallowthesculptor’schiseltogivethesensationofvolumebyworkingtoadepthofonlyafewmillimetres’;thegreatslabsofcoralinelimestonefromwhichthemegalithictemplesinMaltawerebuilt;thestoneofSegoviawhichiseasiertoworkwhenwet;thelimestoneoftheLatomies(thehugequarriesofSyracuse);theIstrianstonesofVeniceandmanyotherrockformationsinGreece,ItalyandSicily–allthesecamefromtheseabed.

Volcanoesandearthquakes

Attheendofthisprocess,sincetheseriesofMediterraneantrencheswasneverfilledin,theseawasleftasadeepbasin,itshollowsasifscoopedoutbysomedesperatehand,itsdepthsinplacesequalorsuperiortotheheightsofthetallestMediterraneanmountains.NearCapeMatapanrunsasea-trench4600metresdeep,easilyenoughtodrownthetallestpeakinGreece:MountOlympus,2985metreshigh.Whetherunderthewateroronland,thereliefofthewholeareaisunstable.Networksoflongfaultlinesarevisibleeverywhere,somereachingasfarastheRedSea.ThenarrowpassageofthePillarsofHerculesbetweentheMediterraneanandtheAtlanticOceanistheresultofatleastatwofoldfault.Allthissuggestsatorturedgeology,aprocessoforogenesisnotyetstableeventoday.Itaccountsforthefrequentandoftencatastrophicearthquakes,forthehotspringswhichtheEtruscanshadalreadydiscoveredinTuscany,andforthebroadvolcaniczones,withtheirstringsofvolcanoes,extinct,activeorpotentiallyactive.MountEtnawasthefabledhomeoftheCyclops,blacksmithsandmakersofthunderbolts,wieldingtheirmightybullhidebellows;here,muchlater,thephilosopherEmpedoclesissupposedtohavecasthimselfintothecrater,fromwhichalonesandalwasrecovered.‘HowoftenwehaveseenboilingEtnaspillforthballsoffireandmoltenrock!’remarkedVirgil.VesuviusreallydiddestroyPompeiiandHerculaneuminad79.Andintheyearsbefore1943>tsplumeofsmokecouldbeseenhangingoverNaples.Everynight,intheLipariarchipelago,betweenSicilyandItaly,Strombolistilllightsuptheseawithitsincandescentlavadisplays.EarthquakesanderuptionshavecontinuallypunctuatedthepastandstillthreatenthepresentinMediterraneancountries.Oneofthemostancientofmuralpaintings(andImeanmural,notcavepainting)inatempleatfatalHdyiikinAnatoliadatingfrom6zooBC,representsavolcaniceruption,probablyofthenearbyHasanDag.Weshallhaveoccasiontoreturntothe‘Plutonian’convulsionsoftheearth’scrustaproposofMinoanCrete,notablythecataclysmicexplosion

ofthenearbyislandofThera(knowntodayasSantorini)inabout1470–1450BC.Halftheislandwashurledintotheair,creatingamassivetidalwaveandanapocalypticrainofash.TodaythestrangeislandofSantoriniisasemi-crater,partiallysubmergedunderthesea.Accordingtothearchaeologist,ClaudeSchaeffer,earthquakesandseismicshocksalsocontributedtotheswiftandunexpecteddestructionofalltheHittitecitiesinAsiaMinorintheearlytwelfthcenturyBC.Inthisinstance,natureratherthanhumaninterventionmayhavebeenresponsibleforacataclysmthatstillpuzzleshistorians.

Theever-presentmountains

MountainsareallaroundintheMediterranean.Theycomerightdowntothesea,takingupmorethantheirshareofspace,pilinguponebehindanother,formingtheinescapableframeandbackdropofeverylandscape.Theyhindertransport,turncoastroadsintocornichesandleavelittleroomforserenelandscapesofcities,cornfields,vineyardsorolive-groves,sincealtitudealwaysgetsthebetterofhumanactivity.ThepeopleoftheMediterraneanhavebeenconfinednotonlybythesea–apotentialmeansofescape,butforcountlessagessodangerousthatitwasusedlittleifatall–butalsobythemountains.Upinthehighcountry,withfewexceptions,onlythemostprimitivewaysoflifecouldtakeholdandsomehowsurvive.TheMediterraneanplains,forlackofspace,aremostlyconfinedtoafewcoastalstrips,afewpocketsofarableland.Abovethemrunsteepandstonypaths,hardonthefeetofmenandthehoovesofbeastsalike.Worsestill,theplains,especiallythoseofanysize,wereofteninvaded

byfloodwatersandhadtobereclaimedfrominhospitablemarshland.ThefortunesoftheEtruscansdependedinpartontheirskillatdrainingthesemi-floodedflatlands.Thelargertheplain,ofcourse,theharderandmorebackbreakingthetaskofdrainage,andthelaterthedateat

whichitwasundertaken.ThegreatstretchesofthePovalley,wateredbythewildriversoftheAlpsandApennines,wereanoman’slandforalmosttheentireprehistoricperiod.Humanshardlysettledthereatalluntilthepile-baseddwellingsoftheterra-mare,inabout1500BC.Onthewhole,humansettlementtookmorereadilytothehillsides,asbeingmoreimmediatelyhabitablethantheplains.Lowlandsites,whichcalledforlandimprovement,couldbeoccupiedonlybyhierarchicalsocieties,thoseabletocreateahabitableenvironmentbycollectiveeffort.Theseweretheoppositeofthehigh-perchedhillsettlements,poorbutfree,withwhichtheyhadcontactsbornofnecessity,butalwaystingedwithapprehension.Thelowlandersfeltandwishedthemselvestobesuperior:theyhadplentytoeatandtheirdietwasvaried;buttheirwealth,theircities,theiropenroadsandtheirfertilecropswereaconstanttemptationtoattackers.Telemachushadnothingbutcontemptfortheacorn-eatingmountain-dwellersofthePeloponnese.ItwaslogicalthatCampaniaandApuliashoulddreadthepeasantsoftheAbruzzi,shepherdswhoatthefirstsignofwinterswarmeddownwiththeirflockstothemilderclimateoftheplains.Giventhechoice,theCampanianswouldratherfacetheRomanbarbariansthanthebarbariansfromthelocalmountains.TheserviceRomerenderedsouthernItalyinthethirdcenturyBCwastobringthewildandthreateningmassifoftheAbruzzitoheel.Dramaticdescentsfromthemountainstookplaceineveryperiodandineveryregionofthesea.Mountainpeople–eatersofacornsandchestnuts,huntersofwildbeasts,tradersinfurs,hidesoryounglivestock,alwaysreadytostrikecampandmoveon–formedaperpetualcontrasttolowlanderswhoremainedboundtothesoil,someasmasters,someasslaves,butallpartofasocietybasedonworkingtheland,asocietywitharmies,cities,andseagoingships.Tracesofthisdialogueremaineventoday,betweentheiceandsnowoftheausteremountaintopsandthelowlandswherecivilizationsandorange-treeshavealwaysblossomed.Lifewassimplynotthesameinthehillsasintheplains.Theplainsaimedforprogress,thehillsforsurvival.Eventhecrops,growingatlevelsonlyashortwalkapart,didnotobservethesamecalendar.Wheat,sownashighupthemountainsideaspossible,tooktwomonths

longertoripentherethanatsealevel.Climaticdisastersmeantdifferentthingstocropsatdifferentaltitudes.LaterainsinAprilorMaywereablessinginthemountainsbutadisasterlowerdown,wherethewheatwasalmostripeandmightrustorrotonthestalk.ThiswasastrueofMinoanCreteasofSyriaintheseventeenthcenturyadorAlgeriainourowntime.

TheSaharaandtheAtlantic

Theoneexception,wherethemountainsdonotcomerightdowntothesea,istheverylongandunusuallyflatseaboardstartingattheedgeoftheSaharaandrunninghundredsofkilometres,fromtheTunisiansahelorcoastalhillsandtheroundislandofJerba(homeoftheLotus-Eaters)totheNiledelta,whichemptiesitsfresh,muddywatersfaroutintothesea.Theflatcoastlinerunsevenfurtherround,asfarasthemountainsofLebanon,whichlentthecitiesofthePhoenicians,ontheircrowdedislandsandterracesoverlookingthesea,theirthoroughlyMediterraneancharacter.Viewedfromtheair,whenlandscapesappearinbrutalsimplicity,theseaandtheSaharacomeintostarkcontrast:twogreatimmensities,oneblue,theotherwhiteshadingawayintoyellow,ochreandorange.Infact,thedeserthashadapowerfulimpactonthephysicaland

humanlifeofthesea.Inhumanterms,everysummersawthedesertnomads,adevastatingmultitudeofmen,women,childrenandanimals,descendonthecoast,pitchingcampwiththeirblacktentswovenfromgoatorcamelhair.Asneighbours,theycouldbetroublesome,attimesmarauding.Likethemountainpeople,highabovethefragilestripsofcivilization,thenomadswereanotherperpetualmenace.EverysuccessfulcivilizationontheMediterraneancoastwasobligedtodefineitsstancetowardsthemountain-dwellerandthenomad,whetherexploitingthem,fightingthemoff,reachingsomecompromisewithone

orother,sometimesevenkeepingbothofthematbay.Inspiteofitsgreatsize,thedesertnevercompletelycontainedthe

peopleswhoinhabitedit,butusuallypropelledthematregularintervalstowardsthecoast,orontothesahels.Onlysmallnumbersofpeopletookthecaravanrouteswhichcriss-crossedthedesertslikesomanyslowsea-passagesacrossthestonyandsandywastesofAfricaandAsia–oceansincomparablygreaterthantheMediterranean.Butinthelongrun,thesecaravanroutescreatedafantasticnetworkofconnectionsreachingouttosub-SaharanAfricaandtheprimitivegold-panningoftheSenegalandNigerrivers,orthegreatcivilizationsborderingtheRedSea,thePersianGulfandtheIndianOcean,thesitesoftheearliestexperimentsinceramics,metal-working,jewellery,perfumes,miraculousmedicines,spicesandstrangefoods.Physically,too,thedeserthasalwaysinvadedtheMediterranean.

Everysummer,thehotdryairabovetheSaharaenvelopstheentireseabasin,extendingfarbeyonditsnorthernshores.ThisiswhatcreatesthosedazzlingskiesofstartlingclaritytobeseenovertheMediterranean,andastarrynightskyfoundnowhereelseinsuchperfection.Thedominantnorth-easterlies,fromApriltoSeptember,theAetesianwindsastheGreekscalledthem,bringnorelief,norealmoisturetotheSaharanfurnace.There,thesummerskyiscloudedonlyforafewshortdayswhenthekhamsonblows,orthesirocco,thewindHoracecalledtheplumbeusAuster,heavyaslead.Thesesoutherlywindscarryinggrainsofsandsometimesdroppedfromtheskythat‘rainofblood’whichmadesageswonderandsimplemortalstremble.Sixmonthsofdrought,withoutadropofrain,isalongtimetowait,

whetherforplants,animalsorhumans.Theforests,theindigenousvegetationoftheMediterraneanmountains,couldonlysurviveiftheinhabitantsleftthemaloneanddidnotbuildtoomanyroadsthroughthem,burntoomanyclearingsforcrops,sendflockstograzeinthem,orfelltoomanytreesforfuelorshipbuilding.Ravagedforestsdeclinedfast:maquisandscrub,withtheirrockyoutcropsandfragrantplantsandbushes,arethedecadentformsofthesemightyforests,whichwerealwaysadmiredintheancientMediterraneanasararetreasure.Carthage,disadvantagedbyitsAfricansite,senttoSardiniafortimbertobuildships.MesopotamiaandEgyptwereevenworseplaced.

Thedesertretreatsonlywhentheoceanadvances.FromOctoberonwards,rarelyearlierandoftenlater,Atlanticdepressions,heavywithmoisture,begintorollinfromthewest.AssoonasadepressioncrossestheStraitsofGibraltar,ormakesitswayfromtheBayofBiscaytotheGulfofLions,itheadseast,attractingfromeverycompasspointwindsthatpropelitfurthereastwards.Theseagrowsdark,itswaterstakeontheslate-greytonesoftheBaltic,orarewhippedupbygalesintoamassofspray.Andthestormsbegin.Rainstartstofall,sometimessnow:streamswhichhavebeendryformonthsbecometorrents,citiesdisappearbehindacurtainofdrivingrainandlowcloud,givingthedramaticskylineofElGreco’spaintingsofToledo.Thisistheseasonmarkedbytheimbribusatrisoftheancients,‘darkrains’cuttingoffthelightofthesun.Floodsarefrequentandsudden,rushingdownthroughtheplainsofRoussillon,ortheMitidjaofAlgeria,strikingTuscanyorSpain,orthecountrysideroundSalonika.Sometimesthistorrentialrainfallinvadesthedesert,swampingthestreetsofMecca,andturningthetracksthroughthenorthernSaharaintotorrentsofmudandwater.AtAmSefra,southofOran,IsabelleEberhardt,aRussianexilefascinatedbythedesert,waskilledin1904whenaflashfloodsweptdownthewadi.ButtheMediterraneanwintershavetheirgentlesidetoo.Snowfallsonlyrarelyinthelow-lyingplains;therecanbedaysofbrightsunshinewithoutthecoldmistralorborawinds;theseaitselfcanbecomeunexpectedlycalmandthegalleysofformertimeswouldhavebeenabletoriskabriefsortie.Andtherainofthestormyseasonismuchneeded.ThepeasantsofAristophanes’playsmakemerry,drinkingandtalkingthetimeawaywhileZeus,withmightyrainstorms,‘makestheearthfertile’.Incoldweather,letusheaplogsonthefireanddrink,advisesAlcaeus,theancientpoetofMytilene.Therewillalwaysbetimeforthefewtasksofthewinterseason:crushinggrainorroastingittokeepitedible,heatingandreducingsweetwine,cuttingvineprops,findingacurvedbranchofevergreenoaktomaketheploughhandle,trappingmigratingbirds,weavingbaskets,takingthemuleintotowntomarket.Realworkcouldonlybeginagainafterthelastofthespringrains,whentheswallowsreturned,astheoldsongofRhodesrecalled:

Swallow,swallow,Bringerofspring,Swallow,whiteofthroat,Swallow,blackofback…

Butspringisshort-lived,almostoverbythetimethehyacinthsorliliesbloom,orwhenthetinyflowersappearontheolivetrees.The‘draggingmonthsofsummer’begin,withtheirinterminableroundoftasks.Thefullfarmingcalendarwillbeinterruptedonlyinautumn,when,accordingtoHesiod,‘thevoiceofthecranesendsitscallfromtheclouds’,heraldingthetimeofplantingand‘thecomingofrain-drenchedwinter’.

Whenthingsgowrong

IhaveofcoursesimplifiedthemechanismsoftheMediterraneanclimate.Itiscertainlynotaperfectagriculturalmodelwithtwoclearseasons;otherinfluencesplaytheirpart.Butthisaccountisnottoomisleading,solongaswerememberthatthemechanismcanmalfunctionattimes:raincanarrivetooearlyortoolate,therecanbetoomuchofitortoolittle,‘wintercanbecomelikespring’,waywardwindsmaybringanuntimelydroughtortoomuchwater,springfrostsmayburnuptheyoungwheatorthevineshoots,andthehotsiroccocanparchthegrainbeforeithashadtimetoripen.PeasantsocietiesintheMediterraneanhavealwaysdreadedthesesurpriseswhichcandestroyeverythinginthetwinklingofaneye,asfastasthe‘plaguesoflocusts’–andthesetoowerefrequent.InKabylia,whenthe‘gatesoftheyear’opened(equinoxesandsolstices),theyusedtosayitwasthesignalforanewseason‘withitsfortunes:barleybreadorfamine’.Wastheonlyremedyartificialirrigation,thesolutionadoptedbytheearliestcivilizationsonthebanksofriverssuchastheNile,the

EuphratesortheIndus?Intheory,yes.Buteveninthesecases,somenecessarycircumstancehadtomakeirrigationimperative.Foritwasacostlysolution,requiringimmenseeffort.Limitedinextent,itbroughthelponlytoafewregions.

Waterways

ClaudioVita-Finzi’sbookTheMediterraneanValleys(1969)remindsusthatthemostspectacularevents–volcaniceruptions,earthquakes,climatechange–arenottheonlyonesweshouldnoticeinretrospectivegeography.Thewaterwaystoohavehadaroletoplay,eventhecoastalstreamswhichsooftenrundryintheMediterranean.Theirroleistwofold:ascarriersofwater,debrisoralluvialclay,they

werebasicallyresponsibleforcreatingthearableplainswhichhumanswouldlaboriouslycultivate;orasinstrumentsoferosion,theymightattacktheirownvalleybeds,cuttingchannelsthroughtheirownfloodplainsandshiftingthemoncemore.Platoimaginedthatthewatershadcarriedoff‘thesoftthicklayers’ofearthinAttica:‘allthatremainsisthebarecarcass’.ThevalueofVita-Finzi’sbookisnotsomuchthatitdistinguishes

betweenthesetwotypesoflong-termaction,butthatithistoricizestheirpast,suggestingakindofhumanhistoryofthewaterwaysthatrundowntotheMediterranean.Itisanexcitingandeventfulhistory,sinceflowingwatermingleswitheverykindofnaturalphenomenon;and,morethanonemightimagine,ithasalsomingledwiththeparticulardestinyofmankind.Inthepaleolithicera,therebeganalongperiodofsedimentation,

whichwasalsoresponsibleforthelayersofancientalluvialmud,thesoilsreddenedbyironoxide.Between30,000and10,000BC,theNileflowedmoreabundantlythaninthetimeofthePharaohs,andaccumulateditsgreatestvolumesofmud.Theneolithicage,when

agriculturebegan,coincidedunfortunatelywithatimeoferosion,damagingtoarablelands.ThiscarriedonuntilandduringtheRomanEmpire,whichsoughttocombatitbyeverymeans,buildingdykes,dams,andretainingterracesthroughoutNorthAfrica,fromCyrenaicatoMorocco.Haltingonlybriefly,erosionmadefurtheradvancestowardstheendoftheEmpire:waterpouredintobreakthedamsanddykes,andfertilesoilwaswashedaway.TheMiddleAges,intheMediterraneanandelsewhere,weremorefortunate:thewaterwaysweremoreabundantandbecameoncemorethesourceofgoodriver-valleysoil.TheArabiangeographersoftheeleventh,twelfthandthirteenthcenturieswereevenabletocomparetheSous,ortheShelif,withitsregularflooding,totheNile.Wemaythinkthisanexaggeration,buttheseriverswerenotthenastheyaretoday.Itwasinaboutthesixteenthcenturythatthebalanceswungbacktheotherway.Erosionbeganoncemore,theriverscutchannelsthroughtheancientflats(sometimesfortymetresdeep)andcarriedoffintotheseaallthesandandmudaccumulatedthere.Thedeltasexpanded,buttheirfertilelandwasnoteasytobringintocultivation.Anditseemsthereislittlehopetodayoffindinganeffectiveremedytothisgeneralerosionoftheland,whichhasbeengoingondowntoourowntime.Thealternationbetweensedimentationanderosionisexplainedby

changesinthesealevel,byvariationsintheclimate(morerainfallbringsmoreerosion)andbyhumanactivitywhichmayinterferewiththecompositionofthelayersofsoilandmodifytheconditionsofflow.Thishasbeenpartoftheequationsincethepaleolithicera,whenhumansfirstcausedforestfires(thereare5000cubicmetresofashononeAlgeriansitefromtheCaspianera);andsinceneolithictimes,whenthecriticalfactorswereslash-and-burnagricultureandgrazinglivestock.Theseconsiderationsopenupnewperspectivesandobligeustorevise

previoushypotheses.IftheRomanCampagnawasdepopulatedandbecamewastelandinthefourthcenturyad,thereasonmaybesoughtnotonlyinhumannegligencebutintheincreasedwaterflowwhichwashedgravelandunhealthywatersdowntothelow-lyingregions.Similarly,whenmalariabecamevirulentthereinthesixteenthcentury,itwasbecausewaterhadfloodedtheflatlandsandstayedthere,obligingtheresidentseithertowagewarunremittinglyagainstfloodwaters,orto

abandonthesite.Allthishelpstoexplaintoowhyhillfarmingpersistedandcametobe

ofexceptionalvalueintheMediterranean:upabovethewaterloggedvalleys,onthemountainslopes,acombinationofwheat,olives,vinesandfig-treeswascultivatedfromearliesttimes.

Limitsonexpansion

Letmesumup.WearetooinclinedtothinkofMediterraneanlifeasladolcevita,effortlesslyeasy.Butweareallowingthecharmsofthelandscapetodeceiveus.Arablelandisscarcethere,whilearidandinfertilemountainsareeverywherepresent(‘plentyofbones,notenoughmeat’asonegeographerhasputit).Rainfallisunevenlydistributed:plentifulwhenthevegetationishibernatinginwinter,itdisappearsjustwhenplantgrowthneedsit.Wheat,likeotherannualplants,hastoripenquickly.Humanlabourisnotrelievedbytheclimate:alltheheavyworkhasalwayshadtobedonewhenthesummerheatisatitsfiercest,andtheresultingharvestcropisalltoooftenmeagre.Hesiod’sadviceinsummerwastogo‘nakedtosow,nakedtoplough,nakedtoreap’,andVirgilrepeatedthetag:nudusara,serenudus.Ifthegrainisinshortsupplyattheendoftheyear,headds,‘thenshaketheoaktreeoftheforeststosatisfyyourhunger’.

Toallthis,itshouldbeaddedthatthewateroftheMediterranean,alwaysquitewarm,near13degreescentigradeovermostofitsarea(hencethewarmwinterclimate),isbiologicallyverypoor.ThenaturalistwhoknowstheAtlantic,andthenwitnessesthe‘haulingupofpotsandnets’intheMediterranean,isastonishednottofindthere‘thatsquirmingvarietyofsealifethatcharacterizestherichoceandeeps’.Therearefewspeciesoffishandshellfishandmostofthemaresmall.Thereareofcoursesomefamousfishing-grounds,thelagoonof

Comacchio,thelakeofBizerte,theRivieraoftheBosphorusandintheHellespontthe‘passesofAbydos,richinoysters’.ShoalsoftunaarehuntedeveryyearoffthecoastofSicily,NorthAfrica,ProvenceandAndalusia.Butforallthat,theoverallharvestislean.Thefruttidimaremaybeexquisiteperhaps,buttheirstocksarelimited.Thereareseveralreasonsfortheshortfall.Thecoastsplungeabruptlyintothewaterwithoutshelving–andcoastalshelvesarethehabitatofseacreatures.Theanimalandvegetableplanktonisverypoor–almostasbadasintheSargassoSea,wherethesurfacewaterforthatveryreasonhasthesamebluetransparencyastheMediterranean.Andlastlythereisthecomplicatedmarinehistory,whichisresponsibleforfrequentsuddenshiftsofsalinityandtemperature:thelocalspecieshavebeendecimatedoneafteranother.ItisitsnarrowopeningintotheAtlanticthathasbeenthe

Mediterranean’slifeline.ImagineifadamweretosealuptheStraitofGibraltar:theMediterraneanwouldbetransformedintoasaltlakefromwhichalllifewoulddisappear.IfontheotherhanditwasmoreopentotheAtlantic,theseawouldbereinvigorated,revivedbythetrafficofthetides,invadedbyoceanicfauna.Thesurfacewaterwouldbedisturbed,theexceptionalwarmthinwinterwouldvanish.Whichwouldweprefer?PerhapsweshouldberesignedtoeatingfrozenfishfromtheAtlantic,whichisbroughtregularlytotheMediterranean.ThenwhenwevisitVenice,itwillbeagreatluxurytoorderanoratadiferrinotfromthelagoonbutfromthefreewatersoftheAdriatic,landedfromoneofthosebeautifulfishingsmacksfromChioggiawiththeirpaintedsails.Butwhatabouttherichesoftheseaitself,thereadermaywonder.We

canallconjureupimagesofaMediterraneanjewelledwithislands,itscoastlinesindentedbyharbours,thoseschoolsformariners,aninvitationtotravelandtrade.Infacttheseadidnotalwaysinthepastprovidethat‘naturallink’betweencountriesandpeoplessooftendescribed.Averylongapprenticeshiphadtobeserved.Almostasdauntedbytheseaaslatergenerationswouldbebythesky,primitivepeoplesdidnotrisktakingtothewavesintheMediterraneanuntilthetwelfthandeleventhmillenniaBCattheveryearliest,morelikelythesixthandfifth(datesofwhichwearemuchmorecertain)–andeventhenitwasabrave

venture.Butstartinganapprenticeshipdoesnotmeanattainingmasteryallatonce.Onlywiththethirdmillenniumbc,ifthen,didfleetsbecomeofpracticalimportance;inthesecond,effectivetradebecamepossible,andnotuntilthefirstdidshipssailoutbeyondthePillarsofHerculesontothetracklesswatersoftheSeaofDarkness.Soalthoughtheywereattemptedveryearly,these‘haphazard

voyages’didnotbecomeregularandcivilized(thoughnotalwayssafe)shippingroadsuntilverylateintheday.Whilethenetworkofmaritimelinkswascomparativelydense,itoperatedonlyoncertaincoasts,fromcertainports.Crossingsweremostlymadeacrossnarrowstretchesofthesea,orinoneofthesea-basinsintowhichtheMediterraneanisdividedandwhichactedassomanysemi-insulatedeconomies.‘HewhosailsbeyondCapeMalea’,saidaGreekproverb,‘mustforgethisnativeland.’

TheSicilianbar

Asaresult,theMediterraneanworldwaslongdividedintoautonomousareas,onlyprecariouslylinked.TheentireglobeistodayfarmoreunitedasbetweenitsconstituentpartsthantheMediterraneanwasintheageofPericles.ThisisatruthoneshouldneverlosesightofevenwhencontemplatingtheapparenttranquillityandunityofthePaxRomana.Thepluralalwaysoutweighsthesingular.Thereareten,twentyorahundredMediterraneans,eachonesub-dividedinturn.Tospendevenamomentalongsiderealfishermen,yesterdayortoday,istorealizethateverythingcanchangefromonelocalitytoanother,oneseabedtoanother,fromsandbanktorockyreef.Butthesameisequallytrueonland.Yes,wecanalwaystellthatwearesomewhereneartheMediterranean:theclimateofCadizisquitelikethatofBeirut,theProvencalrivieralooksnotunlikethesouthcoastoftheCrimea,thevegetationontheMountofOlivesnearJerusalemcouldequallywellbeinSicily.Butwewouldfindthatnotwoareasareactuallyfarmedalike,

notworegionsbindandstakethevinesthesameway–infactwewouldnotfindthesamevines,thesameolive-trees,fig-treesorbay-trees,thesamehousesorthesamekindofcostume.TounderstandtheessentiallydualcharacterofDalmatia,onewouldhavetohaveseentheportofRagusa(Dubrovnik)inFebruaryduringtheFeastofSaintBlaise,whenthecitywastransformedbymusicanddancing,andthrongedbymenandwomenfromthemountains.Thesedifferenceshaveoftenonlybeenpartlycreatedbygeography.Itisthehistoricalpast,persistentlycreatingdifferencesandparticularities,thathasaccentuatedthesevariations,leavingcolourfultraceswhichstilldelightus.Theunifiedimageoftheseaisinanycasebeliedbysomemajorcontrasts.Thenorthcanneverbetakenforthesouth;afortioritheeasternMediterraneanisnotthesameasthewest.TheMediterraneanstretchesoutsofaralongtheparallelsthattheSicilianbarbisectsitratherthanbringingthefragmentstogether.BetweenthesouthcoastofSicilyandthelow-lyingshoresofAfrica,theseaisnotverydeep.Itseemstoheaveupitsbed:onemoreeffortandabarrierwouldrunfromnorthtosouth.TheseshallowwatersaresignalledbythestringofislandsstretchingfromSicilytotheTunisiancoastwithitscoralandsponges:Malta,Gozo,Pantelleria,Lampedusa,Zembra,theKerkennahislands,Jerba.IcanrememberflyingfromTunisiatoSicily,orbetweenGreeceandItaly,inthedaysofflying-boatswhichtookyoulowoverthesea:youcouldmakeouteventhewhiteedgeoftheTrapanisaltmarshesinwesternSicily,theshadowsoftheboatsontheseabedcloseintoshore,andthechannelsofdeeperbluewatermarkingthesurfacecurrents.YoucouldevenseeCorfuandtheGulfofTarantoatthesametime!IalwaysimaginethedividinglinebetweenthetwoMediterraneansonthisimaginaryaerialmap,madeupofmemorieslaidendtoend.ItisalinemarkedbysomeofthestirringepisodesinMediterraneanhistory.Butthatishardlysurprising.NorthagainstsouthmeantRomeagainstCarthage;eastagainstwestmeanttheOrientagainsttheOccident,IslamagainstChristendom.Ifallthebattlesofthepastweretobeplottedtogetheronthemap,theywoulddescribealongcombatzonestretchingfromCorfuthroughActium,Lepanto,MaltaandZamatoJerba.Historyhasdemonstratedoverandagainthatthetwobasinsofthe

Mediterranean,theeastandwest,havebeencomparativelyself-containedworlds,eveniftheyhaveattimesexchangedships,commodities,peopleandevenbeliefs.Intheend,theseaitselfobligedthemtoco-exist,buttheyhavealwaysbeenquarrellingbrothers,opposedtoeachotherineverything.EventheskyanditscolourslookdifferenteithersideofSicily.Theeastislighter:inaseamorepurplethanblue,orwine-darkasHomercalledit,theCycladesarepatchesofluminousorange,Rhodesablackmass,Cyprusashapeofintenseblue.OrthatishowIsawthem,oneafternoon,flyingfromAthenstoBeirut.Wemaycriticizeprogress,butifyouwanttoseetheMediterranean,thebestthingyoucoulddoasanintroductionwouldbetoflyoveritonacleardayinalittleplanewhichisnottravellingtoohighorintoomuchofahurry.

TheMediterraneanattheheartoftheAncientWorld

ImmensethoughtheMediterraneanwasifmeasuredbythetravellingspeedsofthepast,ithasneverbeenconfinedinsideitsownhistory.Itrapidlyoutstrippeditsownborders,lookingwestwardtotheAtlantic,eastwardtotheLevantwhichwastofascinateitforcenturiesonend,southtothedesertmarchesbeyondthepalmgroves,northonewaytotherollingEurasiansteppesthatbordertheBlackSea,andnorththeotherwaytotheslow-developingEuropeofforests,beyondthetraditionallysacrosanctnorthernlimitoftheolivetree.ThelifeandhistoryoftheMediterraneandonotstop–asthegeographer,thebotanistoreventhehistorianmighthaveimagined–atthepointwherethelastolivetreehasbeenleftbehind.Itisinfactthemajorfeatureofthesea’sdestinythatitshouldbelockedinsidethelargestgroupoflandmassesontheglobe,the‘giganticlinkedcontinent’ofEurope-Asia-Africa,asortofplanetinitself,where

goodsandpeoplecirculatedfromearliesttimes.Humanbeingsfoundatheatrefortheirhistoricaldramainthesethreeconjoinedcontinents.Thiswaswherethecrucialexchangestookplace.Andsincethishumanhistorywasinperpetualmotion,flowingdowntotheshoresoftheMediterraneanwhereitregularlycametoahalt,isitanywonderthattheseashouldsosoonhavebecomeoneofthelivingcentresoftheuniverse,andthatinturnitshouldhavesentresonantechoesthroughthesemassivecontinents,whichwereakindofsounding-boardforit?ThehistoryoftheMediterraneanlentaneartothedistantsoundsofuniversalhistory,butitsownmusiccouldbeheardfromfarawaytoo.Thistwo-wayflowwastheessentialfeatureofapastmarkedbyadoublemovement:theMediterraneanbothgaveandreceived–andthe‘gifts’exchangedmightbecalamitiesaswellasbenefits.Everythingwasinthemixtureand,asweshallsee,thebrilliantarrivaloftheearliestcivilizationsintheMediterraneancanalreadybeexplainedasthecomingtogetherofdifferentelements.

2TheLongMarchtoCivilization

TakingourbearingswithinthefamiliarspatialcompassoftheMediterraneancallsforlittleeffort.Wehaveonlytocloseoureyesandmemoriesfloodin:wecanpictureVenice,Provence,Sicily,MaltaorIstanbul.ButtakingourbearingsacrossthetotalspanoflivedtimeinthesameMediterraneanraisesproblemsofaquitedifferentorder.Goinginsearchoflosttimeislikeunrollinganendlessribbon:thefurtherbackwego,theharderitistokeepholdofit.Whenweembarkonthisbackwardjourney,shouldwestopatthe

turnofthethirdmillenniumBC?ForthiswaswhentrulyestablishedcivilizationsfirstappearedintheMiddleEast–withtheirfields,domesticanimalsandclusteredvillages,theirtowns,gods,princes,scribes,shipsandtrade.Thesearetheclassiccivilizations,recognizablefromourschoolbooks,andstillthenormalstartingpointforallteachingabouthistory.EgyptandMesopotamiaseemalmostfamiliarterritory.Butperhapsitismisleadingtograntthemthisstatusasthetake-offpointinhumanhistory?Theireradidindeedmarkasensationalturningpoint.Thegreat

watershedinhumanhistorywasnotthefalloftheRomanEmpire,asleadinghistoriansofaformergenerationusedtothink(FusteldeCoulanges,FerdinandLot,HenriPirenne)buttheemergenceoftwokeydevelopments:agricultureandwriting.Thisiswherethewatersoftheworlddivide,with‘prehistory’ononesideand‘history’inthetraditional(andtoonarrow)meaningoftheterm,ontheother.Wecanagreeonthis;butcontrarytowhatwasoncethought,agricultureandwritingdidnotappearatthesamemoment.Fromthemostrecentarchaeologicaldiscoveries,wenowknowthat

theearliestformsofagriculture,theearliestdomesticationofwildanimals,thefirstsignsofawarenessofthehumancondition,thefirstpotteryandbronzeartefacts,thefirstseavoyages,didnotbeginwiththeSumerians,orwithMenes-Harmer,thefirstlegendarypharaohofEgypt,butsometwo,threeorfourmillenniaearlier,inAsiaMinor,PalestineandIraq.Wewouldprobablynolongerdareagreewiththeauthorofa(neverthelessrathergood)bookpublishedin1958thatHistoryBeginsatSumer.Sumeriancivilizationdidnotspringfromnowhere.Andsincewearebeginningtofindoutmoreaboutwhathappenedcenturiesorevenmillenniabeforethatcivilization,theurgetopenetratefurtherintotheearlierpastbecomesmorepressing.

IThelowerpaleolithic:thefirstartefacts,thefirstpeople

IshallthereforefollowtheadviceofAlfredWeber,asociologistwhocaredpassionatelyabouthistory.Asearlyas1935,hewassayingthatifwereallywantedtoknowwhathumanbeingsareandwheretheycomefrom,wewouldhavetostartfromprehistoryinitsentirety.Butweshouldrecognizethatthatiseasiersaidthandone.Inthosetimelessagesbeforewritingwasinvented,therewasnoHerodotustodescribetheEgyptofhisday,nocuneiformorhieroglyphicscriptforscholarstodecipher.Oncehumanbeingsstarttospeakandwritedowntheirwords,thereissomechancethatwemightunderstandthem.Butwithoutanywrittendocuments,howarewetoimaginetheirlife,theirlegends,theirreligions?Ouronlyrecourseisarchaeology,ofcourse,aspecialkindofscienceandevenmorecomplicatedwhenappliedtoprehistory,sincethatcompoundsoneuncertainsciencewithanother.ThetalentedpopularizerC.W.Ceramoncedescribedarchaeologistsasdetectives,lookingnotforcorpsesandmurderersbutforskeletons,shardsofpotteryandfragments

oftools.Thesedetectiveswillneversucceedinuncoveringthewholetruth,butmaypatientlypiecetogetherthefragments,devisingoverallexplanationsiftheyhaveabentforgen-eralizations–andthatisalwaysdangerous.Newexcavationscanatanymomentdemolishwhatmighthaveseemedaveryplausibleversionofthepast.Everyarchaeologicalsiteuncoversaseriesoflayersfromdifferentages,eachwithitstracesofhumanactivity.Ideally,onewouldwishtodigdowntovirginsoil,totheearliestoccupationofthesite.InCreteforexample,onthesiteofKnossos,fifteenmetresrepresentstheverticaldistancebetweenthepresentdayandtheseventhmillenniumBC(thebeginningoftheneolithic,whentheislandwasapparentlyfirstoccupiedbyhumans).Everyexcavationthereforecreatesitsownchronology:‘this’musthavehappenedbefore‘that’.Thedifficultyliesinmatchingonechronologywiththosefromothersitesandinchartingthatelusive‘absolute’chronologywhichisthedreamofeveryarchaeologist.Thereareseveralapproachestothistask,themostsensationalofwhichhasbeenradio-carbondating,devisedbytheAmericanchemistWilliamF.Libbyin1946.Thisenablesustodatethingsasfarbackas60,000yearsago.Plants,animalsandhumansallabsorbduringtheirlifetimeacertainamountofradioactivecarbon,whichisprogressivelylostfromtheirremains.Thislossismeasurableandbecomesasortofretrospectiveclock,withsomemarginoferror,someexceptions,generallyself-evident,andsomeastonishingresults,whichcanbeverifiedwhentheycoincidewiththoseobtainedbyothermeans.Theproblemisthatcarbondatinghasnotbeenappliedtoallsites,andtheresultsofexcavationsstillunderwaymaynotbepublishedforsometime.Soarchaeologicalknowledgeisalwaysinastateofflux.ButevenSherlockHolmessometimeshadtoabandonhisfirsthypothesesandstartagain.

Mankindandtheveryoriginsoflifeonearth

Fromtheearliestdays,thehumanspecieswaspresentacrossthewholesurfaceoftheAncientWorld.Essentially,then,theearlyhistoryoftheMediterraneanandtheearlyhistoryofmankindwenthandinhandfromthestart.Thishistorymovedslowly,soslowlythatitschronologicalstagesaremeasurednoteveninmillennia–whichwouldbemeaningless–butintensandhundredsofmillennia.Itisnoteasyforuseventobegintounderstandthedimensionsofsuchafabulous,unthinkablestretchoftime.Therewereprobably‘threestagesinhumanevolution,startingfrom

ourhominidancestors:Australopithecus,PithecanthroposandtheHominoidae’.Pithecanthropos,whoisfoundallovertheAncientWorld,isoftencalledHomoerectus:inotherwords,theemergenceofthehumanspeciesistracedbacktothisstage.Butonwhatcriteria,andatwhatstagecanweseemankindbeginning?Theuseoftoolswasonceregardedasthedefiningmoment,butwenowknowthatAustralopithecus,whoisfoundalloverAfrica,wasalreadyabletofashiontoolsoutofstoneandtousethem,possiblyasmanyasthreemillionyearsago.Thattakesustothebeginningofthequaternaryera.Beforethat,thehominidsofthemioceneandplioceneeras,ancestorsofAustralopithecus,werelinksinachainofprimatesand,likethem,wereinturnrelatedtootherspecies.Inthisendlesssequenceofevolution,‘mankind’wasjustanaccident,aninfinitelypreciousoneinviewofwhatwastofollow,butcertainlybelatedandofsmallsignificanceifviewedonthescaleoftheearth’sexistence.Oneprehistorianfamouslyusedatellingmetaphortodescribeit:ifweimaginetheentirebiologicalevolutionoflifeonearthascontainedwithinthecycleofonesolaryear,withtheveryfirstsignsoflifeappearingoniJanuary,theearliestprehominidspecieswouldappearataboutfivethirtyontheafternoonof31December;Neanderthalmanwouldshowupatabouttwentyminutestomidnight;andtheentireexistenceofHomosapiens,fromthestoneagetoourowntime,wouldbecontainedinthelastfewminutesoftheyear.

Amistypastwithveryunevenchronologicaldivisions

Forourpresentpurpose,weshallbeconcernedwithmankindonlyfromthepointatwhichthespecieshadembarkedonitshumandestiny,hadconvertedtowalkinguprightontwolegs(Homoerectus)andthushadfulluseofitshands,makingitpossibletopititsintelligenceandthetoolsitcouldnowhandleagainstthecombinedobstaclesofahostilenaturalenvironment.Thesetools,madefromcrudestone,whetherhewn,splitormuchlaterpolished,offerusalmosttheonlyclueaswetracethestepsofalongtechnologicaljourney,withrecognizablestagesatverylongintervals.

Wearefacedwithahugetime-span:atleastamillionyears.1Howarewetofindanybearingsinthisvastexpanseoftime?Traditionally,historyhasusedthetermsAntiquity,theMiddleAgesandModernTimes.Wecandistinguishasimilartripartitedivisioninprehistory:thepaleolithic(theoldstoneage);mesolithic(middlestoneage);andneolithic(newstoneage).Butthesethreeagesareofenormouslyunevenlengths.ThepaleolithicrunsfromatleastamillionyearsBCto10,000or8000BC.2Overthenextfourorfivemillenniacamethedecisiveagesofthemesolithicandneolithic,varyinggreatlybetweenregionshowever,andeventuallyleadingtothebronzeage,whichbroadlycorrespondstotheageofwriting.Thisdisproportionindurationisofcapitalimportance.Thepaleolithiclastedaverylongtimeindeed:99percentofhumanexistencesofartookplacethen.Logically,then,scholarshavetakentodistinguishingseveralperiodswithinthelongpaleolithicera:lower,middleandupper.Heretoo,thedifferenceintime-scaleisfantastic:inroundfiguresaboutonemillionyearsfortheoldorlowerpaleolithic;40,000forthemiddle,3lessthan30,000fortheupper.Nothingindicatesmoreclearlythelateappearanceofprogress.Firstcameanemptymonotonousage,markedonlybytheveryslowevolutionofthespecies;thentheprocessspeededup,punctuatedbynewdevelopmentsandbywhatcanalmostbecalled

events,especiallyafterthecrucialemergenceofNeanderthalmaninabout100,000BC,andofHomosapiens,whomayhaveappearedataboutthesametime,butwhobecamewidespreadonlyinabout30,000BC.Butitisaboveallthetoolsthattheseearlyhumansmade,andtheir

successiverefinements,whichhavebecomemarkersforthetraditionalchronologicaldivisions.Hereweshallhavetouseaterminologywhichmayseemoddtothelayman,andlackinganyobviouslogic,sincethestagesinprehistorictool-makinghavebeennamedafterthearchaeologicalsiteswherethefirstcharacteristicdiscoveriesweremade.SinceFrancewasthelocationofmanyfinds,andsincenumerouspioneersofprehistoricalstudieswereFrench,manyofthesenamescomefromFrenchsites:Abbeville,Saint-Acheul,Levallois,LaGravette,Solutre,LaMadeleine–butthereareEnglishonestoo(Clacton-on-Sea)aswellasvariantsfoundinNorthAfrica,Palestine,etc.AtableinAppendixIliststhislongseriesofnames,whichisnotrepeatedhere;ratherweneedtounderstanditssymbolicmeaning.Itwouldcertainlybepreferabletohavesomekindofsystematictypologysynthesizingallthefinds.Butisthatpossible?Itwouldmeanjettisoningthescientificlanguagewhichhasnowbeenusedregularlyforoverahundredyears.

Theendlesspaleolithicera

Thelowerandmiddlepaleolithic,whichmanyspecialistsprefernottoseparate,consistedfirstofallofcountlessageswhenameresplitpebblewithoneortwocuttingedgeswastheonlyimplement(theso-calledPebbleCulture).AfterthatwecanbegintospeakoftheAbbeville,Saint-Acheul,Clacton,LevalloisorMousterianperiods.Eachofthesereferstoadifferentkindofstone-agetechnology:double-sidedhand-axes,madebychippingbothsidesofalargelumpofflinttoreduceitinsizeandnarrowittoatriangularpiercingpoint;chopperscutbythesamemethod,butendinginanedgenotapoint;andthenallthetoolsbased

onsplintersofflint.WiththeMousterian-Levalloisperiod,whichcorrespondstoalongplateauinthemiddlepaleolithic,improvedtechniquesmadeitpossibletoobtainflakesratherthansplintersofflint.Thetwo-sidedall-purposetoolscametohaveamoreregularandfunctionalshape.Thesplinter-toolswererefinedbyfinebevelling,givingthemsharpedgesandmakingthemintospecializeditems.ThisskillwouldsoonenableNeanderthalmen,whoflourishedinthemiddlepaleolithic,tocombinewoodenhandlesandstonetools:byfixingastonearrow-headtoawoodenstake,theycouldarmthemselvesmoreeffectivelyagainstwildbeasts.Butthisbreakthrough,heraldingthecrucialadvancesmadeduringthe

upperpaleolithic(sometimesknownastheleptolithicor‘light’stoneage),wasalatedevelopment.Forlongages,theprimitivetoolsusedbythehumanspeciesmeantthatmenwereineffectivepredators,poorlyequippedhunterswhohadtobecontentwithcatchingsloworimmatureanimals;theysometimesfellpreythemselvestowildbeastswhowerestrongerandfaster.Fishing,gatheringorscavenging,humanbeingswerenomads,livingintinygroupsconstantlyonthemovefromonehunting-groundtoanother,subjecttohungersincetheyhadfewreserves,andonlyoccasionallymeetingothergroupsofhumanswithwhomtheymightfightorbarterafewobjects.Astimewentby,thesesmallbandsofpeoplebegantotravelveryfar

afield.Althoughwecannotreconstructevenapproximateitineraries,weknowthattheirpossessions,especiallystonetoolswiththeireasilyrecognizedmanufacture,musthavebeencarriedoverfabulousdistances.Wecandetectthesame‘civilization’orratherthesamemethodofstone-cuttingallroundtheMediterraneanatperiodswhichmoreorlessconcur,atleastintheearlystagesofthelowerpaleolithic:toolsoftheAbbevilleorSaint-AcheultypehavebeenfoundinNorthAfrica,Spain,SyriaandtheBalkans.Later,especiallyfromtheupperpaleolithiconwards,therewouldbeirregulardevelopments,withsomeregionsforgingaheadwhileotherslaggedbehind.ThewesternMaghrebseemstohavebeenaregionslowtodevelopinthelatepaleolithicorearlyneolithicage,althoughtheexpertsarenotallagreedonthis.Certainlytheworkingofsmallflints,themicrolithswhichdeveloped

inEuropeattheendofthepaleolithicandespeciallyinthemesolithic,

aswellastheuseofawholerangeofsmalltoolseachdevisedforaspecialpurpose,canbeattestedeverywhere,fromScotlandtotheCapeofGoodHope,fromtheAtlantictotheVindhyamountainsinIndia,ortotheMongoliandesert,overareasfarexceedingtheboundsoftheMediterranean.Thetasteforornament–shellnecklacesandbracelets,ochrebody-paint–seemstohavebeenverymarkedandwasnodoubtlinkedtobeliefinmagic.Weknowthatornamentstravelledlongdistances,sinceamberfromthenorthhasbeenfoundinthePyrenees.Soonerorlater,alltheaccessibleregionsroundtherimoftheMediterraneanwouldwitnessthearrivalofthesetinygroupsofprimitivehunters.Theyhavelefttracesalmosteverywhereoftheirpassageorsettlement.CorsicaandSardinia,asislandsfarouttosea,mayhavehadtowaituntilthethirdmillenniumtobeinhabitedbyseabornesettlers,butifsotheyweretheexceptionthatprovedtherule.4Twentyorthirtyyearsago,itwasthoughtthattheimmigrantswhobroughtthe‘neolithicrevolution’totheGreekarchipelagohadalsolandedonsoilpreviouslyuntouchedbyhumanhabitation.TheAbbeBreuilwasoneofthesceptics:‘Seekandyeshallfind’,asheputit.AndindeednowthatsystematicexcavationhasbeensetintraininGreece,paleolithicsiteshaveoneafteranothercometolight.Thehuntingpeopleoftheearlystoneagedidnotleavemanyregionsunexplored.Onlywideexpansesofseacouldstopthem.Theirpresencealmosteverywherewasinfactachievedovertime,overanalmostunimaginablestretchoftime,millenniaaftermillennia.TheearlystoneageculturehadplentyoftimetoworkitswayroundtheAncientWorld,spreadinginwavesofidenticalnature.Itwasonlywhenprogressbegantobemade(relatively)quicklyattheendofthepaleolithicandabovealltheneolithicthatserioustime-lagsbegantocreateprivilegedareas,introducingdifferencesinthedegreeofdevelopment.Butasisalwaysthecase,theseimbalancesweretoresultinincreasedcompensatoryexchangesbetweenzones,leadinginturntofurtherprogress.

Wastheclimatethesourceofchange?

Inthisslow-motionpast,therewasoneforceful,oratanyratedominantfeature,capableofupsettingeverything:theclimate.Forreasonsstilluncertain(seebelow)itwassubjecttoconstantchange.FromthebeginningoftheVillefrancheperiodatthestartofthequaternaryera,itwasthecauseofmanyupheavals.Thiswasthemostdramaticaspectofthesefar-offmillennia.Geologyhasmadeitpossibletodetectpastclimaticchangeandalmosttomapitseffects,buthere,too,weshouldrememberthattheseawesomefluctuationsoccurredoververylongtime-spans,withchangeaccumulatinglongbeforeitspresencebecomesvisible.Themostspectacularsignoftheseworldwidedisruptionswastheaccumulation,atfourdifferentperiods,ofenormousmassesoficetothenorthoftheAncientWorldandAmerica,giantglacierslikethosewhichstillcoverGreenlandandtheAntarctictoday,uptotwoorthreekilometresdeep.Theadvanceandretreatofthesemonsterglaciers,theinlandsis,weretraumatic.Whentheyexpanded,itmeantthatthecoldlandmassesandfrontsofpolarairmovedsouthwardstowardstheMediterranean.Atsuchtimes,theseamusthavebeensubjecttoverylowtemperatures.Atthesametime,thecoldnorthernairalsodisplacedtowardstheMediterraneanalmostallthecyclonicAtlanticdepressions.Colderweatherwasaccompaniedbylongperiodsofheavyrain,sotheMediterraneanmusthaveexperiencedseveralcold‘rainyperiods’,alternatingwithcomparativelywarmdryperiodswhentheglaciersretreatednorthwardsagain.Rushingtorrentsinthevalleys,frostscoldenoughtosplitstoneonthepeaks–allthesephenomenaofthepastarerecordedintheancientalluvialdepositsofthepaleolithicera.Butthisgeneralexplanationisprobablynotsufficienttoaccountforallpossibleclimaticvariation,sincetheSaharaalsowitnessedalternateperiodsofdroughtandhumidity,whichdonotexactlymatchthechronologyofthoseintheMediterranean.Expertshavesuggestedthatanothersystemofwinds,temperaturesandrainfallwasresponsible,amonsoonsystemcentredonequatorialandtropicalAfrica,whichmay

alsohavemovednorthandsouthbyturns.Itsmoisture-ladeninfluencemayhavebeenextendednorthwardsatthetimeofthethirdinterglacialperiod,creatingtheanomalousSaharanlandscapesof‘LakeChadandthehippopotamus’;thentheremayhavebeenanextensionevenfurthernorthattheendoftheiceages,whichwouldexplaintheextraordinaryfloweringoftheSaharanneolithicage,withitspastoralpeoples,probablyblack,itsremarkablecave-paintingsofgiraffes,elephantsandgazelles,anditssurprisingagriculturalachievements,short-livedminiatureEgyptsonthebanksoftheriversflowingthroughthedesert.Itisnaturallytemptingtolinksuchclimaticcriseswithchangesinthe

destiniesoflivingorganisms,whetherhumans,floraorfauna,andwiththedisappearanceorevolutionofdifferentspecies.Butcautionismoreappropriate:theseclimaticshifts,whilecertainlydramaticforEurope,wheretheymusthavehadanimpactonhumanevolution,werevirtuallyunknowninotherpartsoftheworld.Andwhileitistruethatplants,animalsandhumanswouldallhavesufferedfromthesedevastatingandinvariablylong-lastingshiftsintheclimate,thehumanracehasa‘tendencytodisobey’;inanycase,alllivingthingsreactandoftenadaptwhenfacedwithobstacles,sometimessimplymovingawaytoescapethem.Sochangesinthefaunadonotinevitablyprovideincontrovertibleevidenceaboutclimatechange.Itisallthesamesurprisingtofindthattherewerereindeerinwestern

Europewellbeforethelastgreaticeage(theWtirm)andparticularlystrangetothinkofthemintheParisbasinorontheplateauxofCastile;itisequallyamazingtofindthe‘beady-eyedmammoth’incave-paintingsatRouffignacinthePerigordinFrance.Thesearenotisolatedcases.Whatarewetomakeoftheremainsofnorthernbirds,andofagiantpenguin,atRomanellinearLecceontheheelofItaly,or,comingfromtheotherdirection,remainsofhippopotamiinthePontinemarches?Itistruethatthe‘woollyhippopotamus’,nowextinct,wasadaptedtoacoldclimate!Thehistoryoftheelephant(Atlantic,AsianandAfrican),withquiteseparatespeciescorrespondingtodifferentclimates,isanexampleofthepossibilitythatanylivingcreaturecouldadapt.TheremainsofancientelephantsonDelosprovesthattheislandwasonceattachedtothemainland.InSicily,Sardinia,Crete,CyprusandMalta,thebonesofdwarfelephantspointtothedegenerationofan

ancientspecies,literallytrappedwhentheislandsbrokeaway.In1960,excavationsatLarissainThessalybroughttolight‘mammothandhippopotamusbonesaswellastoolsmadeofflintandboneoftheLevallois-Mousteriantype’.Andthereareplentyofsimilarexamples:in1940,cave-paintingswerediscoveredinLaBaume-Latrone,probablyfromtheAurignacperiod:afriezeofelephantsandrhinoceros,depictedschematically,almostlikeacomicstrip.Butanimalremainscansometimesprovidealmostunbrokenevidence

aboutpastclimaticchanges.OnMountCarmelinPalestine,archaeologistshavebeenabletotracethealternatingfortunesofthegazelle,whichthrivesinadryclimatewithplentyofsunshine,andtheroedeer,‘whichissuitedtolivinginforests’andtothedampandtemperateclimateoftherainyperiods.Anentertaininggraphshowingthisseesawrelationshiphasbeencompiledfromtracesofbothspeciesindifferentarchaeologicallayers.Astheclimatealtered,eachspecies,truetoitsnature,soughtrefugefurthernorthorsouth,insearcheitherofwarmthorofmoisture.ButtheseinvoluntarymigrantswerefacedwiththebarrieroftheMediterranean.Whentheicespreadsouth,the‘cold-weatherspecies’werepulledupshortbythesea.Whentheiceretreated,the‘warm-weatherspecies’couldnoteasilyreachthenorthshoreanditshinterland.ItwasonlyinthevastAfricancontinent,ormorelikelyinthegreatlandmassofEurasia,thatlarge-scalemigrationmightleadtofreecompetitionbetweenspeciesandtounexpectedcross-breeding.ThiswasoneofseveraladvantagesoftheMiddleEastregion.Vegetationanditscombinationscouldalsoprovideevidencethatmay

beclearerandlessdisconcerting,althoughnotwithoutcomplications.Butthefascinatingscienceofpaleo-botanyisstillinitsinfancy.Weshallhavetowait,buttherearesurelysurprisesinstorehere.

Riversandcoasts

Overthesurfaceoftheglobe,waterinallitsforms,liquid,solidandvapour,formsaconstantmass.Theamountofwaterlockedupinglaciersisthereforerelatedtotheoverallsealevel.Thelatterfallswhentheglaciersadvance,andriseswhentheymelt.Thedifferencemaybeaslittleastenmetres,ahundredatmost.Butthisisenoughtocausemajorchangetocoastlinesallovertheglobe,changewhichcanbechartedwithsomeaccuracy.ThustheAdriatic,whichwasoncepartlydryland,prolongedthePovalleyasfarasAncona;theGulfofLions,similarly,wasashelfattachedtothemainland;CorsicaandSardiniaformedasingleislandlandmass,possiblyevenapeninsula;thelow-lyingSuezisthmus(only15metresabovesealevel)hasseveraltimesbeenfloodedbythesea,turningAfricaintoanisland;theAegeanwasalandmassthroughoutthepaleolithic(AsiaMinorbeingjoinedtoGreece);andtheBlackSeawasalake,linkedbyanarrowchanneltotheCaspian.ButtheStraitofGibraltar,wherethewateriscomparativelydeep,hasapparentlyneverbeenacorridorofdryland.ItisalsodoubtfulwhetherTunisiawaseverlinkedtoSicily,thoughthelatterwascertainlyoncejoinedtoItaly.Theseobservationsexplainwhysomeislandsweresettledinveryancienttimes,aswellassomeoddfeaturesoftheirfloraandfauna.Abovethepresent-dayleveloftheMediterranean,ancientseashoresmarkwhatwereoncehighsealevelsandbeaches.AllthosebelltowershalfwayuphillsontheGenoeseriviera,formingasortofamphitheatrelookingdownonthesea,tracetheshorelineofonetimebeaches,wherevillagesnowperchasifonabalcony.Changesinsealevelalsoledinvariablytofurthererosionof

watercourses.Theriversdugdownintotheirownalluvialplains,soancientterracesmarktheslopesofonetimerivervalleys.Thesefrequentaccidentsplayedapartinthechoiceofsitemadebyprehistoricpeoplesfortheirsettlements.Andsincegeologistsareabletodatetheseaccidents,itbecomeseasiertoproposeaplausiblechronology.

Ageologicalrevolution?

Theterm‘geologicalrevolution’todescribethecataclysmsofprehistorywascoinedbyAlfredWeber.Itisacontroversialexpression:whilewecertainlyknowthatthegeographicalenvironmentvarieddramaticallyduringtheyearsofprehistory,werethehumanswholivedonearthduringtheAurignacorSolutreperiodseverreallyconsciousoftheinstabilityoftheirphysicalsurroundings,seasonbyseason,yearbyyear?Climaticvariationsextendovermanycenturiesandobeyverylong-termrhythms.Aretheytheresultoflocalorgeneraldisturbances?Arethey,forinstance,causedbyvariationsinsolaractivityassomeexpertsthink,or–aswasoncesuggested,thoughIthinknoonewoulddarehazardittoday,sinceitseemedtoogoodtobetrue–becauseofashiftinthepolaraxis?Accordingtothistheory,theNorthPolewasoriginallylocatedinwhatisnowGreenlandandgraduallymovedtoitspresentposition:thiswouldhavebenefitedEuropeandNorthAmericabutwouldhavebeenbadnewsforSiberia.ThedisappearanceoftheSiberianmammoths,someofwhicharestilltobefoundpreservedinthepermafrost,andwhichwerethesourceofaflourishingtradeinivoryaslateasthetwelfthcenturyad,mightbeevidenceofsuchashift.Nothingofthekindhaseverbeenproved.Butwecanstillwonderat

thesecosmicrevolutionswhichareyettobeexplained:awesometransformationswhichforoncereallydidchangethefaceoftheworld.

IIFire,artandmagic

Inauniversewherelivingcreaturesweretheplaythingsoftheblindforcesofnatureforthousandsofyears,inwhichsomanyanimalspeciesdroveoneanotherintoextinction,mangraduallycametooccupyaspecialplace.Heovercametheobstacleofadeterminismwhichshouldintheoryhavedefeatedhim;hesafeguardedhisachievementsand‘capitalized’onthem,committingthemtomemoryandthusimprovingthetoolshehaddeveloped.Biologicallytoo,thehumanraceevolved.

Themostimpressiveevidenceisthatthesizeofthehumanbrainincreasedsteadily.‘Humanprogress’hadbeguneverywheresimultaneously,atasnail’spaceofcourse,butfromnowonitwasunstoppable.Theupperpaleolithicwastowitnesssomeextraordinarydevelopments.

NeanderthalmanandHomosapiens

Duringthemiddlepaleolithic,fromabout100,000BC,5allofEuropeandtheMediterraneanbasinwasoccupiedbythepeopleweknowbythename‘Neanderthalman’.Biologistsnolongerconsiderthisspeciesasprimitiveandbrutish.Despitehisheavyjaw,lowandrecedingbrowandape-likeposture,Neanderthalmanwasafairlycloserelationofhisconqueror,Homosapiens,andpossiblyasub-speciesofthesame.Inrecenttimes,ithasbeenthoughtthathemighthavebeenacrossbetweenPithecanthroposandHomosapiens,althoughthiswouldobligeustorethinkmuchofourdata.6Neanderthalmanwasatanyrateresponsibleforperfectingthetechniquesofflint-knappingintheLevalloisera,thankstoamethodofobtainingsplintersbycalculatingtheangleofstriketoobtainadesiredshape.Afewfinishingtouchesandthetoolwasreadyforuse.Woodandstonewerenowcombinedtomakeimplementsandforthefirsttimehumansbegantoburytheirdead,somethingwhichimpliesthatritualsalreadyexisted,andthatpeoplehadthecapacitytoreflectondeathandtheafterlife,amentalstepwhichmanyprehistoriansconsidertomarkthetruebirthofhumanity.ItistruethatNeanderthalmanhadnotyettakenthestep,crucialforahuntingspecies,ofdevelopingweaponstobethrown;norhadheyetdiscoveredanyformofartisticexpressionorindeedlanguage(orsoitisthought,buthowdoweknow?).Atanyrateitseemshighlyprobablethathewastheinventorofartificiallycreatedfire.Untilthen,naturallyoccurringblazesweretheonlysourceofflamesforhumanuse,andthey

hadtobecarefullypreserved.Buttobeabletoproducefireatwill,to‘manufacture’it,wasaformidablestepforward,a‘meansofproduction’andguaranteeofsecurity–thegreatestrevolutionbeforethecomingofagriculture.TheNeanderthalersdiedout,however,inabout40,000BC,duringtheupheavalswhichaccompaniedthelastmajorcoldstrike,theso-calledWiirmiceage.Wastheproblemthattheywereinsomesenseamistake,an‘evolutionarydeadend’,orwasitsimplythattheirlownumbersmadethemunsustainable?Oneexpertsuggeststhattherewerenomorethanabouttwentythousandindividualsscatteredovertheareathatispresent-dayFrance(anumberwhichcannotofcoursebeconfirmed,butisbasedonthenumberofauthenticatedsites,soisnotblindguesswork).Intheirstead,mixingwiththemandeliminatingthem–perhapsbyforcealthoughwedonotreallyknowthat–adifferenthumanpopulationbecameestablishedandtookoveronaglobalscale.ThiswasHomosapiens,thatisourownspecies,withthevariousracialdifferenceswhichstilldistinguishusfromeachothertoday.Thiswasaspeciesalreadytheresultofcross-breeding,‘likeamongreldog’asMarcelinBouleputit.Sinceinter-breedingbetweendifferentracesappearstohaveproducedgreaterintelligence,itwasobviouslyagoodthing.CertainexpertshaveclaimedthatintheareaoccupiedbyFrancealone,tracescanbefoundofawhiterace,Cro-Magnon,intheDordogne;anInuit-typeLagerieman,atChancelade,alsointheDordogne;andaNegro-typemanatGrimaldinearMenton.‘Theyareallstillveryclosetous’,writesR.-L.Nougier.‘TheGuanchesoftheCanariesarelivingexamplesofCro-Magnon,andmanypeasantfamiliesintheDordogneandCharente,tallanddolichocephalic,stilldisplaysomeofthesamefeatures.TheInuitpeoplesaredescendedfromtheMagdalenianpeopleofChancelade,whiletheresidualBushmenandHottentotpeopleofdistantSouthAfricahaveaffinitieswiththepeopleoftheGrimaldicaves.’Thisallsoundsabittooneattobetrue.ButS.Coon’sremarkablebookonTheOriginofRacesfirmlystatesthatalltheracespresentintheworldtodaywerealreadypresentbeforethefinalstageofevolutionwhichproducedHomosapiens.Asforthislast-named,doeshegobackaverylongway,100,000yearsBC,withmuchthesameappearanceastoday–asaUNESCOsymposiumsuggestedinSeptember1969?

Prehistoriansmakejokeslikeeveryoneelse,andoneofthem,F.Bordes,tellsusthatifHomosapiensfrom100,000yearsagowereto‘bedressedinpresent-dayclothes,noonewouldturnroundinthestreet’.Well,perhapswecanbelievehim…Tosumup,whetherveryancientornot,HomosapiensappearedataboutthesametimeinEuropeandtheMediterranean.Withhisemergence–thoughnowshowingsubstantialregionaldifferences–theevidencepointstoanincreaseintherateofprogress,fromtheAurignactotheGravettian,SolutreandMagdalenianperiods.Therangeofeverydayimplementswasextendedbytheproductionoffinestonebladesandbeforelongtheemergenceofmorespecializedtools:knives,chisels,scrapersandsoon.Thenewtechnologyinvolvedplacingbetweenthehammerandthelumpofflinta‘chisel’madeofsomemateriallesshardthanstone,usuallywood.Flakesofflintwereshapedintolong,lightsharp-edgedblades.Atthesametime,theoriginaltwo-sidedaxes,whichhadalreadybecomeslimmerintheNeanderthalperiod,werefashionedintheshapeofcrescentsorleaves,lightandsharp.Thesefinelyhonedtoolsmadeexcellentspearheads;theinventionofthehaft,awoodenstickwithagrooveintowhichthespearheadfitted,wouldturnitintoavaluableacquisition,areallylong-distanceweapon.ThisprojectilecanbedatedtotheMagdalenianperiod.Bytheendofthepaleolithic,itwasbeingreplacedbythebowandarrow,alandmarkinventionwhichwouldbethestandardequipmentforhuntersandwarriorsforthousandsofyearstocome.Inaddition,othermaterialswerenowbeingworkedonwithflintchisels:horn,boneandivory,substanceswhichwereeasytosplit,slice,carveandpolish.Theywouldbeusedtomakearrowheads,harpoons,awls,bradawls,fishhooks,eyedneedles–allobjectsfoundinabundanceindepositsfromtheSolutreperiodonward.

Artfirstappears–butoutsidetheMediterranean

Alltheseobjectsalsobegantobedecoratedwithpatterns,carvingsandengravings.Artnowappearedforthefirsttimeinhumanhistory,andinmanydifferentforms:afantasticdevelopment!ThisartofthepaleolithiceraseemstohavebeenafeatureofEuropeasfarastheUrals.ItisfoundinthewesternMediterranean,thoughverylittleintheeasternhalf,withoneexception:thecarvingsandobjectsdiscoveredinthecavesandrocksheltersofBelbasiinsouthernAnatolia.SotheMiddleEast,wheresomemillennialaterthefirstformsofagriculturewoulddevelop,followedbythefirstcitiesanddenselysettledsocieties–thecradleofmanyoriginalcivilizationsandcultures,allrichinartandtechnology–wasnotthesiteoftheearliestformsofartisticexpressioninthepaleolithicera.Allthetechnicalinnovationsoftheupperpaleolithicinthewayofimplementshavebeenfoundintheeasternbasin,aswellasalongtheNorthAfricancoast,sometimes(inSyria,PalestineandCyrenaica)inmoresophisticatedformthanintheFrenchsites,asrevealedbycarbondating.ButitseemsthatapartfromBelbasi,therearenosurvivingtracesthereofpaleolithicart.ThecavepaintingsoftheSaharaandLibyadatefrommuchlater,soarenotrelevanthere.ThisearlypaleolithicartevenseemstobealtogetherforeigntotheMediterraneaninorigin.Theso-calledGravettiancultureprobablyoriginatedincentralEuropeandRussia,andfromtherespreadtowhatarenowFrance,SpainandItaly,atatimewhentheAdriaticwasstillpartlydryland,providingoverlandaccessbetweenItalyandtheBalkans.Itisfromthisperiodthatwecandatetheamazingfemalefigurinesmadeofstone,clayormammothivorywhichhavebeenfoundinsouthernRussiaandSiberia,atModenaandVentimiglia,andinAustria,MoraviaandtheDordogne.Aboutsixtyorsohavebeendiscovered,mostofthemunarguablyofsimilarorigin:theheavybreasts,massivethighsandroundedpregnantbelliesoftheseso-calledVenusesareunambiguouslysomekindofsymboloffertilityandprosperity,foreshadowingthemother-goddesseswhowouldbeveneratedbyalltheagriculturalculturesoftheneolithic,fromtheMiddleEasttoPortugal,fromSiberiatotheAtlanticandelsewhere.Perhapswiththesefigures,weholdapieceofessentialevidence.Canwesaythatthisstageofhumandevelopment,startingwiththeso-called

Aurignacculture,representsthebasicreligiousprototypeofhumanity?IaminclinedtoagreewithJeanPrzyluski’ssynthesizingtheory:whatwasbeginningtotakeshapehere,afteranimmenselylongperiodwhentheinstincttosurvivewasparamount,wasthefirststage–ritualmagic–inareligiouslifewhichwouldtakemanylongagestomovebeyondthis.Artitselfhaditssourceinmagic.Inthepaleolithic,thereisverylittlerepresentationofthehumanformforitsownsake,asdistinctfromsymbolicrituals.Thereareafewexceptions:inMoravia,atinycarvinghasbeenfound,amerefivecentimetresofcarvedstone,inwhichamiraculouslypowerfulhumantorsoisdepicted.(ToaFrencheyeitisreminiscentofthesculpturesofMaillol.)Andatinyivorycarvingofaface,asmovingasanunfinishedportrait,hasbeenfoundatBrassempouyinFrance.Bothofthesesuggestthatmodelsofhumanbeautywerethesourceofinspiration,asdistinctfromthesteatopygicgoddessesoffertility.Butisthereanyreasonwhypaleolithicartshouldhavetoberelatedtomagic?Dowehavetoexcludethepossibilitythattheideaofpurebeautycouldhavepossessedsomestoneagesculptor?Ishouldhastentosaythatthoughtslikethesearepromptedonlybyafewisolatedexceptions.Theycertainlydonotfollowfromthecavepaintings,thegloryofthepaleolithic,howeverpleasingaestheticallywenowfindthem.ItwasoncethoughtthatcavepaintingswereconfinedtoFranceandSpain.ButrecentdiscoveriesinmainlandItalyandontheislandofLevanzo(oneoftheAegadianIslands)aswellasinacaveatKapovayaintheUrals,seemtoindicatethattheycoverthesameterritoryastheVenusesoftheGravettianera.FranceandSpainarenevertheless(butwhy?)theunchallengedcentresofanartwhichisthoughttodatefromtheAurignactotheMagdalenianeras(fromabout30,000to8000BC),althoughthesedatesarestillamatterofdebate.Cavepaintingsarealmostentirelydevotedtoanimals,whicharedepictedinrealisticandfantasticmode,withsuchmasteryofdraughtsmanshipandmovementthatwhenthefirstoneswerediscoveredatAltamira,lessthanahundredyearsago,andattributedbyaSpanisharchaeologisttostone-agehunters,therewasanoutcrytotheeffectthattheymustbefakes.SincethenawholeseriesofcavesintheFranco-Cantabrianregion,fromAltamiratoLascauxandFont-de-GaumeintheDordogne,haverevealedahostofengravings,

reliefsandimmensefrescoes,allevidentlyrelatedinsomeway.Wecannowdatethemwithsomeconfidenceandclassifythem;weknowwhatthereistoknowabouttheirsubjectmatter(whichisrathermonotonous)andthetechniquesused.Yettheirmessageremainsmysterious.Onlytheoutercavernsortheentrancesofthesecaveswereinhabited,andthenonlyforpartoftheyear;sothecontextwasalmostcertainlyonereservedforritualactivities,‘farinsidethedarkness,barelylitbyanoillampmadeofstone,withlichenforawick’,indeepcavesonceoccupiedorreoccupiedbyhyenasorbears.Sowhydowefindtherethisprofusionofanimaldrawings–rhino-ceros,bison,reindeer,horses,goats,saiga,bulls,deer,elephantsandmammoths–depictedlyinginwait,runningorwounded,allwithanextraordinaryfeelformovement?Itseemsvirtuallycertainthatthesefigures,whicharealmostnevergroupedinrealisticfashion,andaresometimessuperimposedoneachother,onthesamewallatdifferentperiods,musthavetheirplaceinsomekindofancientritual.Theimageitselfisaformofpossession.Allprimitivehumansocietyismarkedbyincantation,magic,ananguisheddialoguewithsupernaturalforces.Plentifulgeometricalsigns,whicharealsonodoubtsymbolic,decoratethesamewalls,andsomeanalogieswiththefewhunter-gathererpeoplessurvivinginthetwentiethcenturyhavesuggestedvariousingeniousandall-encompassingexplanations.Infactwestilldonotknowwhatthesocial,sexualandritualcontextwasfortheseimages.Theirextraordinarybeautydoesnotcorrespondtoaestheticpreoccupationsamongourprehistoricancestors,atleastinanysensethatwewouldunderstandtoday.Theydonotrepresentaquestforbeautysomuchasobediencetotheenchantmentofanincantatoryandinescapablemagic.

Decoratedartefacts

Yetsoonerorlater,fromtheGravettianperiodonward,artbeganto

impingeoneverydaylife.Ordinaryimplementsmadeofhorn,stoneorbonestarttobedecoratedwithcarvingsorengravings,patternsmadeoflinesordots,moresophisticatedarabesquesandlifelikeimagesoffauna:horses,ibex,bison,birds,fish,bears,rhinos,reindeer.Whenonelooksatoneofthese‘piercedrods’or‘wands’,withitspainstakingdeeplyengravedcarvings,oratthecurvedhandleofaspearintheshapeofaboundinggazelleorahorse’shead,oneisirresistiblyremindedofthemanyeverydaywoodenobjects,alsolovinglypainted,polished,carvedandsculpted,producedintheMiddleAges.Doesthatmeanthatsomeotheraim,apartfromthedesiretomakeasatisfactoryimplement,hasalwaysguidedthehandofcertainkindsofcraftsmen?Weareentitledtowonder:Homoludensmayhavebeenpresentineveryera.Wehavenoclearevidence,norisitlikelyweevershall,aboutwhat

madeuptheculturaluniverseofthesehuntingpeopleswhodecoratedtheircaves:nothingisknownabouttheirbeliefs,theirceremonies,songsanddances,aboutthepaintedskinsandtattoossuggestedbycertainremains,orbythedepositsofochresandotherdyestuffsfoundatNeanderthalsites.

TheartofeasternSpain

Aquitedifferentkindofart,anotherlanguagealtogether,isfoundinthesecondgreatzoneofprehistoricart,knownasthatoftheSpanishLevante.Itisactuallydividedintothreebasicgroups:theCataloniancoastline;thecoastalregionofValencia-Albacete;andtheregionofCuenca-Teruel.Intheseareas,mostofthepaintingshavebeenfoundinrocksheltersopentotheair,ratherthandeepinsidecaves.Ithasbeensuggestedthatthiscorrespondstosomekindofliberation.Theimagesmaywellhavecontinuedtoholdsomemagicalmeaningorintention,buttheirspiritandstyleappearverydifferent.ThereisnoneofthemajestyofthepowerfulheavybeastsofLascauxintheselittlepictures

showingmenandanimalsineverydaysituations:hunterschasingtheirquarry,awoundedanimalcharging,groupsofwarriorsarmedwithbowsandarrows,apeacefulflockofbirds,agroupofdancers,womengatheringplantsorcollectinghoneyfromaswarmofbeesatthetopofacliff.Whatthestylemayhavelostinvigouritmakesupforinlivelinessandmovement.Itscharmliesintheswiftgesturessoconfidentlysuggestedbythesemonochromesilhouettes,stylizedtothepointofbeingschematic.Thelatestindatearesometimesreducedtosinglestrokes.Thelifelikecharacterofthegesturesandscenescontrastswiththenear-abstractstyleofdraughtsmanship.TheartoftheSpanishLevantebelongsunequivocallytothe

Mediterranean,butislaterindatethanthatofLascauxorAltamira–perhapsevenaslateasthemesolithic.Andinanycase,itconcernsonlyatinysectoroftheenormousMediterranean–whichraisesaprobleminitself.Why,attheverymomentwhenman-madeartappearsforthefirsttime,doessolittleappearintheMediterraneanproper?Waslifethereliveddifferently,withotherpreoccupations?WasthetrulymiraculousaspectoftheMediterraneanthedevelopmentoflanguageandspeechintheeasternbasin,assomehavethought?Buttheoriginsoflanguagearestillmysterious:wearereducedtoourimagination,ortolatercomparisons.ThelasttribetobediscoveredintheAmazonbasin,forexample,notonlydoesnotpractisetheprimitivefarmingoftheotherIndiantribes–itisahuntingculturelikethatoftheearlystoneage–italsodoesnotspeakanyknowndialect.Oneobserverwhospenttimeamongthesepeoplereportedin1969thattheironomatopoeicandgruntingsounds,whichhadnoneofthefeaturesofanarticulatedlanguage,seemedtoexpressemotionsandsensations,butnotconcepts.Howeverthattakesusintotherealmofunverifiablehypotheses.

Figure1(Above)ThreepicturesofhuntersfromthecavesoftheSpanishLevante(lefttoright:CuevadelGarroso,reproductionbyM.Almagro;ElsSecans,reproductionbyVallespi;CuevaRemigiadellaGasuUa,

reproductionbyPorcar).

Figure2(Below)Deerhunt,CuevadelosCaballos(Arana,Spain,reproductionbyHernandezPacheco).

Themesolithic:anearlyexampleofthedeclineofthewest?

IsitconceivablethattheratheradvancedcultureoftheSolutreandMagdalenepeopleinthewestresultedfromtheadvantagestheyderivedoveralongperiodfromtheherdsofreindeerandotherherbivores(saiga,horses,bison)whichroamedthevastopenspacessweptbyhowlingwindssouthofthegreatglaciers?Humanswereparasitesontheabundantwildlife.Theyhadonlytoattachthemselvestooneoftheseherds,followingitinitsseasonalmigrations,tobesuppliednotonlywithfoodbutwithhides,forclothingandtents,andwithhorn,sinewsandbonesformakingtoolsandweapons.Animalswerealreadytheservantsofmen.Thusliberated,theseearlypeoplefoundthemselveswithmorefreetime,whichcreatednewneeds:theypainted,carvedandmouldedobjects,anddressedwithgreatercareoncetheneedlehadbeendevisedforsewingclothes.Alongsidethecaves,whichwerenowadaptedasdwellingplaces,theywouldeventuallybuildhutswithstonefloorscolouredwithochre,likethosediscoveredatArcy-sur-CureinFrance.Theendofthelasticeageandtheretreatoftheglaciersmayhaveput

anendtothistimeofcomparativeplentyandtheancientbalancebetweenmanandnaturewhichitrepresented.Themeltingoftheglaciersledtomuchflooding,asnewlakes,riversandseascameintobeing:theEnglishChannelandthenorthernAdriaticforinstance.Therapidgrowthofthegreatforestmantlelimitedtheareaofgrassland:reindeerandotherherbivoresmovednorthandthehuntershadtoresorttotrapping,amuchmorehazardousmatter,goingafterforestgamesuchasroedeer,boarandothercreatures.Inshortthetriumphofbirch,oak,willowandpine,whichledtotheshrinkingofgrazinglandinnorthernEurope,alsospelledtheendofthemagnificentartofthecave-androck-paintings.Anartisticpinnaclehadpassed,andpossiblytheclimateisoneexplanationofthisart‘wrappedinadoublemystery:whereitcamefromandwhyitvanished’.Theterm‘reindeercivilization’hasoftenbeenusedtodrawattention

tothebenefitsthatthenaturalworldfirstoffered,thenwithdrew.Butseveralprehistorianshavestronglyobjectedtotheexpressionandthesuggestionitcarriesofsomekindof‘decline’ofthewestinmesolithictimes.7Theyhaverightlypointedoutthatduringtheupperpaleolithic,thereindeerwasbynomeanspresenteverywhere.NearNemours

(Seine-et-Marne)theMagdaleniansofthelimestoneplateauofBeau-regardwereeatersofhorsemeat;animmensegraveyardofhorseshasalsobeenfoundatSolutrenearMacon.InsomeofthecavesintheAriege,thefavouredgameseemstohavebeenthePyreneangoat.InStyria,humansatethefleshofbears,andtheremainsofsomefiftythousandanimalshavebeendiscoveredonasinglesite.Andtheforestsbroughtsomebenefitstoo:theHelixnemora\isythespeciesofsnailfoundinwoodlands,wasprolificandanimportantsourceoffoodifwearetojudgebytheimpressivemiddensofsnailshells.Water,bothfreshandsalt,wasoncemorearesourceatthistime:fishingaccompaniedhunting.Whatismore,mesolithictechnologycertainlydoesnotindicateany

backwardmove.Thebowandarrowwasdevelopedandmanyingeniousimprovementsweremadetothemicrolithsusedforfish-hooksandarrowheads,providingevidenceofmanualskill.AndintheplainsofnorthernEurope,fromEastAngliatoRussia,themanydecoratedobjects,includingattractiveamberstatuettes,artefactsmadefromwood,boneandhorn,tracesofdwellings,fishingnets,wovenosiersandwoodencanoesareallevidenceofalivelycultureknownasMaglemosian,fromthenameofaDanishsite.Thiskindofargumentrightlyrehabilitatesthehuntersandfishermen

ofthemesolithicageinEurope.Butthatisnotperhapsthemostimportantpoint.Themesolithicmaynothavemeantanabsolutechangefortheworse(debatableanywayforcertainregions)butitmayhavebroughtchangeinthemostimportantaspectofevolution:animalrearingandagriculture.Theearlydomesticationofanimals,achievedintheMiddleEastinneolithictimes,andbythepastoralpeoplesofthedesertsandtheAsiaticsteppes,wasalwaysaslowprocess:itdevelopedoutofthesustainedrelationbetweenhuntersandparticularherdsofanimalstowhichtheyattachedthemselves.SuchasymbiosisbetweenagroupofanimalsandagroupofhumansdoesnotseemtohavebeenpossibleinwesternEuropeoncethegreatherdsofreindeerandotherice-ageherbivoreshaddisappeared.AlthoughflocksofsheepandgoatsweretobefoundontheMediterraneanlittoralinsuchplacesasProvencebytheseventhmillenniumBC,therehadbeenabreakincontinuity,probablyleadingtoaslowdown.IntheMiddleEastonthe

otherhand,therehadbeennodisruptionoftheclimateandherethefloraandfaunalentthemselvesmorereadilytodomestication.HerewefindthebeginningsofthegreatadventureoftheeasternMediterranean.

IllTheMediterraneanstrikesback:thefirstagrariancivilization

Inabout8000BC,justastheFranco-CantabrianMagdalenianagewasdrawingtoaclose,genuinevillageswerealreadyinexistenceattheotherendoftheMediterranean.Theirinhabitantswereabouttobe‘initiatedintothesecretsofmakingwheatgerminateandanimalsbowtotheyoke’,asfarmingofcropsandanimalsgraduallyreplacedhuntingandgathering.Withthischangecamefixedhumansettlements,asvillageswerenolongercamp-sitesbutwerebuiltontopoftheirownmiddens,formingthoseartificialhillockswithwhicharchaeologistsaresofamiliar:thetellsofAsia,themagoulasofThessaly,thetumbasofMacedonia,thehoyiiksofTurkey.Shouldwecallthisarevolution(theonlyonedeservingofthenamebeforetheindustrialrevolutionofourowntimes,originatingineighteenth-centuryEngland)?GordonChildewasthefirsthistoriantospeakofthe‘neolithicrevolution’withoutwhichHomosapiens,forallhisintelligence,wouldhaveremainedascatteredandthereforedefencelessspecies,likehispredecessors.Theexpressionhasinspiredmuchcontroversy.Perhapsthisarises

fromasimplemisunderstandingovervocabulary.Arevolutionimpliesabreak,anewspiritwhichrelegatesanarchaiclifetothepast.Itistruethatanewkindofhumanity,anewlandscape,newsocialsystemandneweconomydidappearinafewlimitedpartsoftheglobeduringtheneolithicera.Inthisrespect,yes,itwasindeedarevolution.ButIneedhardlyaddthattheword‘revolution’alsosmacksofatrulyhistoricalvocabulary,denotingsomethingrapid,suddenanddramatic.The

‘neolithicrevolution’,likealltrulyprehistoricalprocesses,tookplaceveryslowlyateverystage,fromitsbeginningsthroughtoitssettledphaseanditsexpansion.Thestagesmustbecountedinthousandsnothundredsofyears.Itwouldalsobemistakentothinkofitasamiraculousformula,discoveredonceandforallintheMiddleEastandthentransmittedbydegreesallovertheworld.Itispossiblethattheformula,whetherfullyworkedoutornot,wasarrivedatinvariouspartsoftheglobeindependently.Theremayhavebeen,asEmileWerthdeducedfromthediversityofwildgrassesandanimalspecies,severalautonomouscentresofinventionfromwhichtheculturespread.Afurtherambiguityisintroducedifthisparticularrevolutionisseen

asthebirthofCivilizationwithacapitalC.Civilization,anotherphenomenonwhichtookimmeasurabletimetodevelop,cantrulybesaidtobeginwiththefirstgroupofhumanbeings,howeverlimitedtheirresources,fromthemerefactthattherewasagroupandthatithadsomethingtopasson.Civilizationbecomesestablishedorconfirmedwiththeappearanceofbeliefs,thefirstelementaryattitudestowardsdeathandthenaturalworld.Ifitistoexpandandinfluenceothers,civilizationrequirestheexistenceoftwothings:firstsomekindofagriculturewhichattachessocieties,villages,andabovealltownsandcities,toaparticularsite;andsecondlywriting,thecementholdingtogetheranycoherentsociety.Inshort,civilizationwasnot‘born’atanyparticulartimeandplace.Thatsaid,itseemsthatinaEuropeanandMediterraneancontext,the

firststepstowardsanagriculturalcivilizationweretakenintheMiddleEast,inafewprivilegedandisolatedspotswithinavastareaofinertiaandindifference.Thoseprivilegedspotswillbeourpresentconcern.

RevolutionaryexcavationsintheFertileCrescentofAsiaMinor

Thequestionoforiginsremainstobedecidedbyarchaeologicalstudieswhichwillcertainlydeservethelabelrevolutionary.Whatisknownalready,andwhatwillbeknowninfuture,dependsonaseriesofexcavationsaimingtogoasdeepaspossible,sometimesasmuchastwentymetresdown,tothevirginsubsoil.Itwillnotbepossibletolocateanycrucialturningpointsuntilweareabletoreconstitutetheentiresequenceoflayers,andreadoffallthestagesintheslowprocessofchange,eventuallychartingthesequencewithaspreciseachronologyaspossible.Thefirstevidenceofpestleandmortar,offlintkniveswithlongbonehandles,ofsickles,silos,grainpits,theremainsofanimals,wildordomestic–allthesearevitalelementsinthestoryrequiringcarefulexamination.Theremainsofasickle,forinstance,cannotnecessarilytelluswhetherwildcerealswerebeingsystematicallyharvestedorwhethertheywerealreadybeingcultivated.Tracesofthecerealsthemselves,whentheirspeciescanbeidentified,aremoreinstructiveonthispoint.Mistakesandconfusionsarealwayspossible:remainsratherhastilyidentifiedasthoseofadogonasiteinJerichoturnedoutafterfurtheranalysistobethoseofawolf–andthismightbeanimportantdetailwhenoneislookingforthebeginningsofdomesticationofanimals.Nevertheless,aco-operativeresearchnetworkbasedonsystematic

carbondatinghasmadeitpossibletoestablishsequencesofdateswhichseemeithertoconcurortodifferinalogicalfashion.Broadlyspeaking,themesolithiceraisseenasdatingfromabout10,000BC,theproto-neolithic(withoutpottery)fromabout9000,andtheneolithicproper(withpottery)fromtheseventhmillennium–withlocalvariationsneedlesstosay.Themostsignificantdiscoverybyfarremainsthatofanearlyneolithicerawithnopottery–althoughpotteryhadlongbeenconsidered,alongwithpolishedstone,asbeingthekeystructuralsignofaneolithicsite.Butisthatsosurprising?Thereisnonecessaryconnectionbetweenpotteryandelementaryagricultureamongcertainprimitivepeoplesstilltobefoundinthetwentiethcentury.IncentralBrazil,therearetribeswhichdonothaveceramicsatall,whereastheyall‘practiseakindofagriculturebasedonslash-and-burnmethods,atwhichsomegroupshavebecomeveryaccomplished’(ClaudeLévi-Strauss).

Theotherdiscovery,evenmoreimportant,isthattheearliestcivilizations–thosewhichcombinedcultivatedplants,domesticanimals,housesgroupedinvillagesandtowns,someformofart,andorganizedcultswithrecognizedholyplaces–didindeedbeginintheMiddleEast,butnot(aswasthoughtuntilveryrecently)exclusivelyinthegreatrivervalleysofEgyptandMesopotamia.Atthetimeofwriting[1970]thereareabouttwentypointsonthemapmarkingthekeyexcavationsofthelasttwoorthreedecades.Thesearewherethenewevidenceistobefound.Theyarecertainlynotyetcomplete,butalreadyseemtopointinacertaindirection.Threezonesstandoutasadvanced:thevalleysandwest-facingslopesoftheZagrosrangenearMesopotamia;thewidesouthernborderofAnatolia;andthezonebroadlycorrespondingtoSyria,PalestineandLebanon.Theseregionsareallatfairlyhighaltitudes,wellwatered(over200mmofrainfallayeareventoday)andsituatedwithinthatbroadarcrunningalongthenorthernedgeoftheSyriandesertknownasthe‘FertileCrescent’.Thefertilityistheresultoftherelief,whichhaltsandcapturestherainsofthewinterdepressions,asthemountainsturnintoaseriesofwater-towersfortheregionsdownbelow.Thesprings,streamsandtorrentspouringdownfromthehillsexplainthepresence,soneartheSyriandesert,ofthewoodlandandvegetationwhichwouldhaveprovidedneolithiccultureswithplantsforcultivation.Butfurtherexcavationwillbeneededtocovertheentirezoneofearlyfarmingcultures.LetusimaginethattheFertileCrescentisrepresentedbyasemicircle,roughlybetweentheDeadSea(ortheRedSeaforthatmatter)andthePersianGulf.Thenimagineatangentgoingoffwestwardsfromthehighestpointofthesemicircle.OurbrushstrokewouldhavetobebroadenoughtotakeinallofsouthernAnatolia,betweenCatalHdyukandHacilartothenorthandthesitesofKizilkayaandBeldibitothesouth,almostontheMediterranean.NeolithicdevelopmentwasparticularlyprecociousandstrikinginthisAnatolianoffshoot–longconsidered,mistakenly,tobethebarbaricandbackwardfrontieroftheFertileCrescent.Inabout5000BC,nodoubtasaresultofsomeforeigninvasion,thisearlyAnatoliancivilizationvanished,leavingnotraceontheculturaldevelopmentoftheMiddleEast.Ontheotherhand,during

thesixthmillenniumBC,aneolithiccultureestablishedinGreeceshowedmarkedaffinitieswiththatofHacilar(similarimplements,similarpottery).TheAnatolianinfluenceseemsundeniable,althoughwecannotworkouthowitwastransmitted.Alltheselocalidentificationsadduptoapattern.Thezoneswherevillagesfirstappearedcorrespondtotheoriginalhabitatofflocksofwildsheep,goats,cattleandpigs.Theyalsocorrespondtothehabitatofseveralwildgrasses,foundatbetween600mand900maltitude:emmerfromtheBalkanstoIran;barleyfromAnatoliatoPersia,andfromTranscaucasiatoPalestineandArabia;andspelt,whichwastobefoundinalltheselocalities.Peas,lentilsandvetchwerealsoavailable.Havingsincetimeimmemorialgatheredgrainfromthehills,womennowbegantoplantit;andthehuntersgraduallymovedtowardsthedomesticationandfarmingoflivestock.

Afewexamples

Togettheauthenticfeeloftheseearlystagesofhumanculture,socrucialforfuturedevelopmentbutstillatarudimentarystageandnotleadingtoanymajorcivilizationinthisarea,thereisnosubstituteforconcretedetailsfromarchaeologicaldigs.Eachofthemcorrespondstoaculture,orratherasequenceofexperiences,neveridentical.Threeexamples,brieflypresentedhere,takeustoJarmointheZagrosmountains;toJerichoonthelowerslopesofMountCarmel;andtofatalHoyiikinAnatolia.Theproblemisfindinganyconnectionbetweenthesedifferentyetparallelhistories,fittingthemintoacommonchronology.Jarmoliesontheedgeofadeepwadi,theAdhaim,oneofseveraltributariesoftheTigrisflowingdownfromthemountainstojoinitsmiddlereaches.Herearchaeologistshavedugdowntothenon-ceramicneolithiclevel(theseventhmillenniumBC).Therearenofewerthanelevendifferentlevelsbelowthefirsttracesofpottery.Allofthemrelate

toaquitesmallvillage(twentytotwenty-fivehearths,possibly150inhabitants).Theearliesthutswerebuiltofsun-driedclaywithareedthatch;thenthefirstfireplacesappeared,withovensandchimneys.Hides,wovenosierslinedwithpitch,andstonejarswereallusedasreceptacles.Theremainsofemmer,agrassstillveryclosetothewildvariety,andofspelt,twokindsofbarley,peasandlentilsunambiguouslypointtoanalreadywell-developedagriculture.Handmills,sickles,crushingtoolsandplentyofimplementsfashionedfromflintandobsidianimportedfromAnatoliawerefoundalongsidecrudeearth-mothergoddessesmodelledfromunbakedclay.Thedeadwereburiedoutsidethevillage.Bythetimepotterystartedtoappearinabout6000BC,thehousesalreadyhadstonefoundations.Buttheonlyanimalstobedomesticatedwerethegoatandpossiblythedog.Mostofthemeateatenbythiscommunitywasstillprovidedbyhuntingwildboar,orwildsheepandcattle.ThesecondexampletakesustoJerichoandtheimportantexcavationsof1954.Westilldonotknowthewholestoryaboutthisexceptionalsitewhichupsetanumberofoldertheories.Nooneexpectedtofindatown8withovertwothousandinhabitantsatthedawnofprehistory.Yetthissettlementexistedataveryearlydate.Theoldestlevel,thoughttobeidentifiedasasiteofsanctuary,hasbeencarbondatedtoabout9500BC.Atthistime,thevillageof‘Jericho’andallthosewhichsucceededitonthissiteinthecourseoftheninthmillennium,wereindistinguishablefromalltheotherPalestiniansitesbelongingtotheso-calledNatufianculture,Eynanforinstance,ontheshoresofLakeHuleh.Thisstrangecultureofunknownorigin,establishedincavesandonlevelledterraces,theninauthenticvillageswithcircularhuts,hasprovidedrichstone-ageremainsandinterestingsculptures,theoldestintheMiddleEast.Itseemstohavebeenmovingtowardstheneolithic,withitsheavyconsumptionofcereals(althoughtherewerenodomesticanimals),itspestlesandmortarsanditsgrainpits,etc.Butitapparentlystagnatedoreventuallyquitedisappearedfrommostoftheseearlysites.TheJordanvalleyandJerichoinparticularareexceptionalinhavingretaineditslegacy.Bytheeighthmillennium,thecultivationofcerealcropswasprobablyestablished.WasthisthereasonforJericho’ssuddenremarkable

expansion?Afterall,atthispointontheshoresoftheDeadSea,200metresbelownormalsealevel,theconditionsforsuccessfullygrowingcropswiththeaidofirrigationwerenobetterthananywhereelseinPalestine.Andyetthesettlementbecameatown,withwell-builtcircularhousesmadeofdriedbrickonstonefoundations,someofthemhavingseveralrooms.Impressivetrenchesandramparts(includingaverylargetower)wereconstructedroundtheperimeter,andthetownpossessedwatercisternsandgrainsilos,allclearsignsofacoherenturbanidentity.TheexplanationmaylieinJericho’sexploitationofthesalt,sulphurandpreciousbitumen(pitch)tobefoundintheDeadSea–inotherwordsveryearlytradingactivity,sincewealreadyfindobsidianfromAnatoliamakinganappearanceintheancientvillagebytheninthmillennium.ItwouldlaterbejoinedbynephriteandothervolcanicrocksalsofromAnatolia,turquoisefromSinaiandcowrieshellsfromtheRedSea.Thiskindofevidencepromptsthebeliefthatalongsidetheagriculturalrevolution,theremusthavebeenarevolutionincommunications,inthoseearlydaysof‘civilization’.Thattoomustgobackmuchfurtherthanweusedtothink.Theselong-distancecontactsmaynotallhavebeenbeneficial,however,sinceaftertwenty-twolevelsofbuildingandathousandyearsofanexistencewhichwasprosperousthoughnotalwayssecure,tojudgebytheextendedramparts,thetownwasabandonedatthebeginningoftheseventhmillennium.Itwasalmostimmediatelyreoccupied,butnowbyadifferentpopulation,whotookoverthewholeJordanvalleyatthistime:thesignsarethatthesepeoplecamefromnorthernSyriaorAnatolia.TheNatufiancultureentirelydisappearsatthispoint:thehousesinthenewtownwererectangularandhadplasteredfloorsintheSyriantradition.Theeconomyremainedproto-neolithic,asitwastobeforthenexttentofifteencenturies,theonlyrealinnovationbeingthedomesticationofthegoatanddog.TheneolithicerawithpotterywasfinallyestablishedinJerichointhesixthmillennium,andwasprobablybroughttherebyasemi-nomadicpeople,followingaseconddesertionofthetownindicatedbyagapinthelayers.Oddlyenough,thearrivalofpotterycorrespondedtoalongperiodofculturalimpoverishmentinJericho,PalestineandtheLebanon,whichlasteduntilthefourthmillennium.

Ourthirdexample,fatalHoyiikinAnatolia,providesevenmorefoodforthought,sinceexcavationin1962-4revealed,lyingadjacenttoproto-neolithictraces,whatmaybetheearliestexampleofaneolithicculturewithpotteryinthewholeofAsiaMinor.fatalHoyiikisarealtown9ofwhichunfortunatelyonlyonedistricthasbeenprospected,theso-called‘priests’quarter’,halfahectareofafifteen-hectaresite.Twelvelevelshavebeenidentifiedbetween6500and5650BC.Theearliestdwellingsweresingle-storeyrectangularhousesmadeofdriedbrick,withaholeintherooftoletoutsmokeandsmallhigh‘windows’toletinlight.Thewayinwasthroughanopeningintheflatroof,reachedbyaladder(housesofthistypearestilltobefoundtodayinAnatoliaandevenArmenia).Therewerenodoorsandnorealstreets.Sometimestherewasaninnercourtyard,sharedbyseveralhouses,withtinywindowsopeningontoit.Alternatively,ifdwellingswerebuiltallthewayupthesideofthetell,adjoininghousescouldhavewindowsopeningontotheneighbour’sroof.Togetfromonehousetoanother,peopleusedshortladderslaidacrosstheroofs.Figure4onp.56explainsthisoddwayofmovingaboutmoreclearlythanadescriptioninwords.Thetownthuspresentedtotheoutsideworldaseriesofblankadjoiningwalls,makingiteasytodefend,withwindowsservingasloopholesforarchers.Thepresumptionthattheinhabitantsofthislargesettlementcamefromthenearbymountains(whereprimitiveplantsweretobefound)suggeststhattheyhadaninterestingprevioushistory,aboutwhichunfortunatelynothingisknown.Thisisthemoreregrettablesinceitwouldhaveprovideduswithknowledgeaboutthetransitionfromthepreviousmesolithicstagetotheneolithic‘revolution’.InCatalHoyiik,agriculturehadindeedreachedahighdegreeoforganization:thefieldsaroundthetownwerefarmed,perhapscollectively,tobearwheat(threevarieties),unbeardedbarley,lentils,peas,vetch,aswellaspistachio,almondandcherrytrees.Oilwaspressedandbeerwasprobablybrewed.Sheepandpossiblycattleweredomesticated,10whileotherbeastswereregularlyhunted:wildcattle,deer,onager,roedeer,boar–andespeciallyleopard.Butwhatmustberememberedisthatthemostimportancesourceofincomeforthetownwastrade.Lyingneartwoactivevolcanoes,CatalHoyiikoperatedavirtual

monopolyonthetradeinobsidianwithwesternAnatolia,CyprusandtheLevant.Inexchange,itreceivedhigh-qualityflintfromSyria,manyshellsfromtheMediterranean,andallkindsofstone:alabaster,marble,blacklimestone,andfromthenearbymountainsochre,cinnabar,nativecopperandevencopperore.Thismaterialprovidedsuppliesforthetown’salreadyadvancedcraftsmanship:represented,forexample,byaritualdaggerwithaflintbladeandchasedbonehandle,decoratedwiththecoilsofasnake,datingfromthebeginningofthesixthmillennium.Butevenbeforethisdate,allthelittleobjectswhichwereplacedalongsidethebodiesofthedead,thecountlessjavelins,lancesandarrowheads,themirrorsofpolishedobsidian,thenecklacesoffinelypiercedbeadscarvedfrombrownstone,blueapatiteorshell,

Figure3(Above)fatalHoyiik–insideasanctuary:showingthegoddessgivingbirthtoabull,theseatsarrangedaround,thebull’shornsandtheladdergivingaccesstotheupperterrace(drawingafterJ.Mellaart).

Figure4(Below)AdistrictinÇatalHöyük:smallgroupsofadjoininghousesareclusteredroundseveralsanctuaries.Ontheouterside,thewallsformacontinuousbarrier,protectingthevillageagainstmarauders.Thealmosttotalabsenceofdoorssuggeststhatpeoplemovedbetweenthehousesviatheterracesratherthanatgroundlevel

(drawingbyLaureNollet).

thependantsmadeofobsidianorcopper,themetalbeads(copperandlead),thevesselsmadeofwood,boneandhorn,thetextilesoffinelywovenfabric,probablywool–allofthesestronglyindicatetheexistenceofspecializedcraftworking.Finally,thepotteryonthissite,stillcrudeintheseventhmillennium,progressivelybecomesfiner,firstredordark-colouredearthenware,thensmooth,yellowishandmottledindifferentcolours.Inthefinalstages,whichexcavationhasnotyetdiscoveredonthissite,butwhichweknowaboutfromHacilar,paintedpotteryisfound,redonacreambaseorwhiteonred(mid-sixthmillennium).ButitisitssacredartwhichmakesfatalHciyukespeciallyinteresting.Atthevariouslevelsofthedifferentsanctuaries,aparticularlyrichcollectionofartefactshasbeenfound:manysculpturesmadeofstone,alabaster,marbleorterracotta;somereliefsandpaintingsexecutedwithabrushonasmoothplastersurface,thefirstknownpaintingsdoneonaman-madewall.Thefertilitygoddess,theessentialdivinityofneolithiccults,appearshereinmanyversions:asayounggirl,asapregnantwoman,reminiscentofthepaelolithicVenuses,orsometimesgivingbirthtoabull.Thebullisthemalegod,generallyrepresentedbyabull’sheadalone,orbyrowsofhorns,onlyrarelyinanthropomorphicshape.Paleolithicreligionstillsurfacesinplaces,withallitsancientimagery:muralfrescoesandrelieffriezesrepresentinganimals:bulls,cattle,deer,boar,leopards(thegoddess’ssacredbeasts).Therearepatternsmadewithhandprints,paintedorindented,asinthecaveartofFranceandSpain,coveringanentirepanelinonesanctuary,alongsideimagesofwomen’sbreastsandbulls’heads;andtherearehuntingsceneswithdancerscladinleopardskins,andfuneralritesinwhichpriestsdisguisedasvulturesareofficiating.Inthisculture,thebodiesofthedeadwereindeedexposedforbirdsofpreytopickthebonesclean.Theirskeletonswerethenwrappedintheirclothingandburied,withtheirworldly

goods,inthehouseinwhichtheyhadlived,underoneoftheraisedplatformsfoundineverydwelling,largestonebenchesonwhichpeoplesat,workedandevenslept,asinancienthousesinChina.Womenwerealwaysburiedundertheprincipalplatforminthehouse,intheplaceofhonour,asignthatthiswasasocietywheremothers,priestessesandgoddessesreigned.

IVConclusion

Theinnovationsoftheneolithiceratookplace,asfarasweknow,atpinpointsonthemap,distantfromoneanother,butwithzonesofinfluencearoundthem.Canwesaythatthesepointsaddeduptoakindofpowdertrailwhichcaughtalightandsenttheflamefurtherafield?Theimagecertainlydoesnotfittheslowpropagationofagricultureandlivestockfarming.‘Neolithicization’tookonlysmallstepsfromitseasterncentres,anddidnottakeholdeverywhere:wholeregionsoftheMediterraneanandEuropewereleftbehind.EvenintheMiddleEast,itwouldtakeanothertwentyorthirtycenturiesbeforethegreatcivilizationsofMesopotamiaandEgyptemerged.ButwhatIfindfascinatingabouttheseearlymicrocosms,particularlyCatalHoyiik,isthattheirevolutionwasalreadyreachingthestageofanurbanculture.Despitewhathasbeensaidaboutthem,thesewerenotmerelylargevillages,theproductofagriculture,livestockherdingandthesedentarizationofnomadicpeople.Wecanseeinthemthebeginningsofadivisionoflabour.Long-distancetrade,inmyviewthekeyfactor,wasalreadypresent,nottomentionthesocialorganizationnecessaryforanyhighlyritualizedreligion:eachsanctuaryinCatalHoyiikwasatthecentreofitsowndistrict.Itistruethatthesetownsdidnotlast:atsomepointtheseventuresreceivedsomekindofmortalblow.Buttheyhadmadeastart,prefiguringthefuture.Fromthattimeon,thediewascast.CatalHoyiikandHacilarwouldsimplydisappear;

Jerichowoulddeclineintoobscurity;Jarmolastedonlyafewcenturiesandwasinanycasenevermuchmorethanahamlet.Buttheheadstartgainedbytheseas,thecountriesandthepeoplesoftheMiddleEasthadalreadybecomeafixtureformillenniatocome.Thisrepresentsageographicalandspatialfeat,themostlastingofvictories.Localsetbacksnotwithstanding,itwasherethatcivilizationwouldfirstspringtolifeandherethatitsfirstoutstandingexampleswouldbelocated.FromnowontheMediterraneanwouldlooktowardstheseenlightenedareas,andthatorientationwouldbeverylong-lasting.Sowefindthatourseawasfromtheverydawnofitsprotohistoryawitnesstothoseimbalancesproductiveofchangewhichwouldsettherhythmofitsentirelife.Theyconsistedbothofnorth-southcontrasts,asalreadydescribed,andofeast-westcontrastswhichverysoontooktheformofdifferencesinlevel,leadingeventuallytomarkedconflictsbetweencivilizations.

3ATwofoldBirth

Theneolithicrevolutionasheredefined–theappearanceoffields,cultivatedplants,domesticanimals,pottery,weaving,villagesandeventuallytowns–extendedoveralargepartoftheMediterraneanareabetweenthefifthandthethirdmillenniaBC.Itwasofcapitalimportanceforthedestinyoftheseathitthisearlyseriesofchanges,leadingtothegreatcivilizationsofthefourthandthirdmillennia,shouldhavetakenplaceonornearitsshores.Thetransformationswereaccompaniedbyarevolutionintransport,bothonlandandonsea.Sometimebetweenthefar-offtenthmillennium(averyapproximatedate)andthesecond,coastsandriversweregraduallyexploredbyshipping.Soitwasthatincreasinglycomplexandwell-organizedsocieties

developed,whilethenumberofboatssailingontheseaalsoincreased.Fromthisdoublehistory,whichisperhapsasingleoneafterall,thehistoricalMediterraneanderiveditsfirstidentity.

IMesopotamiaandEgypt:thebeginnings

Thefirstmiraclestookplacenotontheshoresoftheseaitselfbutalongcertainfreshwatercourses.ThedomesticationoftheNile,theTigrisandtheEuphrateslaybehindthecreationofEgyptandMesopotamia:economic,culturalandalreadypoliticalgiantsdatingfromevenearlier

thanthethirdmillennium.Yettheareasinquestionwereverysmall:UpperEgyptcoveredonlyabout12,000squarekilometres,LowerEgypt11,000;Mesopotamia,ifmeasuredbyitsfertilegardens,representedabout20-25,000squarekilometresofirrigableland.Onthesemodestterritoriesthereassembledanunprecedentedconcentrationofpeoplesandresources.Forcenturiestocome,theMiddleEastandthebusyseasborderingonitwouldbecentredontheEgypt-Mesopotamiaaxis,thewholeformingafragileentitybutonegraduallygainingincoherence.

Afewcomparisons

Civilizationinitsfirstreallylarge-scaleformscameintobeingatroughlythesametimeinMesopotamiaandEgypt,inthefourthmillennium.Byaboutathousandyearslater(hardlyanytimeatallinthiscontextofveryslowchange)civilizationshadappearedonthedistantbanksoftheIndus,andprobablyinChinaaswell.Thephenomenondidnothappeneverywhereatexactlythesamemomentinworldhistory:itwasnotasifcivilizationwassomehow‘intheair’foralltoexperience.Rather,historystartedmoreorlessfromscratch,inoneplaceafteranother.Thesecivilizationsgrewuponthebanksofriverswhichhadtobetamedbytheuseofartificialirrigation,sothatfullusecouldbemadeoftheiralluvialmudwhichwaseasytotillandprovidedever-renewablefertility.Theresultsmatchedtheeffort:theyproducedbothanunparalleledadvantageinglobaltermsandthevisiblesubjectionofindividualstothecollectivegood.Suchadisciplinedsocietycouldnothavebeenputinplacewithoutthenetworksoftowns,madepossiblebytheagriculturalsurplusesfromthenearbycountryside.Yetthesetownshadatfirstbeeninward-looking.Theirself-centredpreoccupationshadoperatedonlyoverashortradius.Theywerelikeaggressivewaspswhichhadtobetamedandbroughtundercontrolbeforetheycouldbeincorporatedintoabusybeehive.Theoperationsucceededbyandlarge

inEgypt,buthadlittleornosuccessinMesopotamia.Thisbecameadistinctivetraitoftheirrespectivehistories.Inorderfortheunequaldialoguebetweentownandcountrytobecomeestablished,certainthingshadtobeinposition:advancedeconomiclinks;someformofdivisionoflabour;socialobediencebasedonstrictreligiousbeliefs,andaroyaldynastybasedondivineright.Allofthese–religion,adynasticruler,towns,irrigationchannels,plustheskillofwriting,withoutwhichnoorderscouldbesentoverdistancesandnoaccountscommittedtomemory–hadtobecreatedexnihilo.Therestfollowedinsequence.Theseurbansocietieshadcertainimmediateneeds:salt,woodforbuilding,stone(eventhemostbasic).Then,likeanysocietywhichisdevelopingtowardsamoresophisticatedstage,newneedssprangupandquicklybecamenecessities:gold,silver,copper,tin(essentialforcastingbronze),oil,wine,preciousstones,ivory,rarewoods.Asitgrewricher,asocietywouldsendabroadforthesegoods.Inshort,therangeofcommoditiestobetradedincreasedconsiderably,openinguptooutsideinfluenceeconomiccircuitswhichwouldotherwisehavebeenself-contained.Roadtrafficbecameorganized:caravansofpack-assessoonappeared,tobefollowedbywheeledvehicles(theheavyfour-wheeledcartwasnoteasytomanoeuvre,butwaspresentinMesopotamiabythefourthmillennium),andcargovessels,poweredbysailsoroars.

Mesopotamia,firstoffthemark.Doesthismatter?

SpecialistsarevirtuallyunanimousthatMesopotamiawasthefirsttodevelop.BeforeEgypt,thefirstplaceonearthtodeveloptheplough,thewheel,writingandlatermoneywasthe‘riverisland’betweentheTigrisandtheEuphrates.Atsomelaterpoint,ontheeveofthethirdmillennium,Egyptborrowedfromitsdistantrivalanumberofthings:thecylindricalseal,thebrickwallwithredansandniches,aseriesof

artisticthemes,especiallyheraldicmonsters,significantwordssuchasmr(=house);possiblythekey-wordma’at(=justice,truth);andperhapstheshapeofitsboats,intheviewofscholarsinthepast:wearenotquitesosuretoday.Buttheseexamples,inconclusiveinthemselves,donotinfactresolvethedebate.Therehavebeencivilizationswhichborrowedmorethanothers,buttheywerenotonthataccountinferiororlessprecocious.Astonevasewithindentedcarvingsdatingfromtheendofthefourthmillennium,discoveredbyKeithSeele,andavaseofthesameperiodintheBritishMuseum,depictboatsontheNileofthesameancienttypeasthoseonthecylindricalsealsofMesopotamia:theyhavethesameshapeandpossiblyamoreadvanceddesignofsail.OnespecialisthasrightlypointedoutthatifEgyptwasindirectcontactwithMesopotamiainthefourthandthirdmillennia,itwouldhavebeenoddifitdidnotborrowthewheelandcartweknowtohaveexistedinSumer–butwhichEgyptdidnotinfactadoptuntilthesecondmillenniumwhentheHyksosinvadedtheNileDeltausingchariotsandhorses.AfterstudyingthesequenceofculturalandtradingrelationsintheMiddleEast,thesameexpertconcludesthatthetwocivilizationsprobablyneverhadanyseriouscontactsexceptthroughintermediaries,suchasthelink-townsontheSyrian-Lebanesecoast.Allthesame,thedevelopmentoftheNileValleycivilizationinabout

3000BCshowseverysignofbeinga‘suddenmutation’.Whileitmaynothavebeentheresultof‘amassiveinvasionofEgyptbyAsiaticpeoples’,somewritersdoattributeitto‘theinfiltrationofsmallgroupsofimmigrantsincluding…artisans’,thatistosomekindof‘catalyticinfluenceontheemergingkingdomoftheNile’,atatimewhenpoliticalunitywasbeingachievedwiththefirstpharaohs.Thismaybethecase.Anotherhypothesis,thattheincomerswereMesopotamianswho‘cameroundtheArabpeninsulabysea’,isnotimpossible.YetifAsiaticinfluencewassostronganddecisive,itissurelysurprisingthatEgyptiancultureshouldfromthestarthavebeenmarkedbyitsownspecialandoriginalstyle,onewhichitwouldneversubsequentlyabandon.Fromearliesttimes,itwas‘monolithic,singular…andintolerantofanydialogue’.IntheNarmerPalette,oneofthemostcharacteristicexamplesofanartefactshowingatypicallyMesopotamianmotif(twofantasticbeastswithlonginterlockingnecks),thesubjectistheonlythingthatis

Mesopotamian,sincebothformandhandlingdisplayfeaturesandconventionswhichweretodistinguishEgyptianartforthreemillennia.Menes-Narmer’soutstretchedarm,victoriouslythreateninghisprostrateenemy,prefiguresexactlythegestureofTutmosisIII,fifteenhundredyearslater,inthetempletoAmmonatKarnak.AlthoughitisthereforedoubtfulwhetherEgyptiancivilizationcanbetracedtoMesopotamianorigins,itislikelythatthelattercamefirst.Butwhyshouldonecivilizationappearearlierthantheother?Andwhyatthattimeandinthatplace?ThesimpleanswermaybetolookattherelatedgeographicalsituationsofMesopotamiaandofthenarrowzoneinwhichthefirstneolithicadvancesweremade.Therewasclearlymorethanone‘Mesopotamia’.ThefamousartificialirrigationanditsmiracleswereactuallylocatedinLowerMesopotamiaandonlyafterthefifthmillennium.NorthernMesopotamiawasadryzonelookingtowardstheEuphratesandbecomingprogressivelybetterwateredtotheeast,thankstothestreamsandspringsoftheArmenianmountainsandtheproximityoftheZagros.Alandofhillsandlowplateaux,itcorrespondedinparttowhatwehaveearlierdescribedastheFertileCrescent.WeknowthatagricultureandanimalhusbandryspreadfromtheveryancientoriginalsitestoextendtotheentirezonebetweennorthernSyriaandtheIranianplateau,thustakinginaswatheofnorthernMesopotamia.Thepeopleherehadnoneedtotraveltofindtheearliestrudimentsofcivilization:theywerealreadyonthespot.ItwasinthenorththereforethattheearliestMesopotamianculturesdeveloped.Theyareknownaftertheirveryfinepaintedceramics:Hassuna(about6000BC);followedbySamarra(about5500)andHalaf(5000).Viewedfromcloseup,thedevelopmentisverycomplex,withavarietyoforigins:theHalafculture,forexample,didnotderivefromthetwopreviousgroups,andinsomeareaswasoverlaidonthestillexistingSamarra.Butineachcase,onecanclearlyrecognizeatradingarea,givenconcreteshapebythespreadofthecharacteristicceramics.WefindHassunaandSamarrapotteryconfinedtonorthernIraq,whiletheHalafzoneismuchwider,lyingbetweentheEuphratesandtheGreatZab,atributaryoftheTigris.ItwasontheIranianside,atArpachiyainparticular,thattheartofHalafceramicsdevelopedinitsmostperfectform,anditwasnodoubtontheSyrianside,whereitwouldhave

encounteredechoesofSamarraandastronglocaltraditionofmetal-working,thattheHalafculturedevelopedtheuseofcopper.Thesesuccessiveculturesbothechoandexplainoneanother.The

sameisnottrueofthecolonizationofsouthernMesopotamia.TheearliesttracesofthishavebeenfoundatthesouthernsiteofEridu,datingfromaboutthefifthmillennium;latertracesappearatElObeidandUruk.Theunprecedentedscaleoftheirrigationschemesheremusthavemobilizedmanylabourers,nodoubtthesurpluspopulationsofthevariousMesopotamiansettlements,townsandvillagesfromwhichpioneersemigrated.OneparticularlyimportantimmigrationwasthatoftheSumerians,whogavethenameofSumertothelowervalleywithitsirrigation.Weknowlittleornothing,alas,aboutthesehardyandintelligentpeople,wholaidthesolidfoundationsofthecivilizationwhichfamouslygrewupbetweentheTigrisandEuphrates.Eventheirlanguage,andtheirscript,althoughthelatterhasbeendeciphered,donotrevealthesecretoftheirorigin.ItwasthoughtatonetimethattheycamefromTurkestan,oreventheIndus.TheymaysimplyhavebeenfarmersfromeasternIran,fromtheregionlatertobecomePersepolis.TheirearlypotterysuggeststheinfluenceofnorthernMesopotamia,SamarraorHalaf.Butthissoutherncultureveryquicklydevelopedalongitsownlines,thankstoanewtypeofagriculture,whichbroughtaboutarevolutionintheirwayoflife.TheSumerianshadsettledonuncultivatedandinhospitableland.The

soilwascertainlyrich,composedofrivermudwhichwouldbeeasytotillandtoplant,andcapableofprovidingfabulousyields(eightygrainsharvestedforeveryonesown,accordingtotheBible),butithadfirsttobereclaimedfromstagnantwaters,fromhugereedbedsinhabitedonlybyfish,waterfowlandwildbeasts.Theclimatewastorridandtherainfallscanty,yetthefloodwatersfromtheriverswereascatastrophicasthedryseason.Theseriversranthroughabedraisedupbytheirownalluvialdeposits,highabovetheplain,behindnaturalleveesoftheirowncreation,yetnotstrongenoughtocontaintheirregularlytumultuousfloodwaters,causedbythemeltingoftheArmeniansnows.Whenthathappened,thewaterspilledovertheplain,turningeverydepressionintoamarsh.Toavoidtheircropsbeingsweptaway,theearliestsettlershadtostrengthenthenaturaldykes,buildchannelsto

drainawayexcesswaterintopoolslaterusedasreservoirstowaterplantsparchedbythesummerdrought.Thisallrequirednotonlyunremittinglabour,repeatedyearafteryearundertheblazingsun,butalsomanytechnicalmiracles,thediggingofraised-upcanalsforexamplewithdownhillsluices,orthecuttingofirrigationchannelsfarfromtheoriginalriverbank.Somedivineassistancemayhavebeencalledfor:Enki,thefish-godofEridu,issaidtohaverevealedtohumansthesecretsofmasteryoverthewaters.Oncethewatershadbeendomesticated,LowerMesopotamiadid

indeedbecome‘thegardenofEden’,wherewavesofimmigrantscametosettle,wheretherewasanabundanceofcereals,fruittreesandsesame(theessentialsourceofoilintheMiddleEastforagestocome),andofcoursethatmarvelamongtrees,thedate-palm.ThecentreofgravityofMesopotamiamovedsouthasaresult.While

civilizationhadoriginallycomefromthenorth,nowitwouldbelocatedentirelyinthesouth,andallthosefragileearlycentreswouldbewipedout,sweptawaybythesheerweightofthemassivecivilizationofthelowervalley,triumphantandnaturallyexpansionist.

Egypt:similarbutnotidentical

Egypttoofoundthatitsmightyriverwasnotaneasyally.Ifitdidnotexactlyhavetobeconquered,itdidneedengineeringwork:thechiefproblemwastoincreasetheareaofarablelandwhichwaswashedoverthenuncoveredinthenaturalfloodplainoftheNile.ThesituationwasnotthesameasthatontheEuphrates:EgyptandMesopotamiawouldneverbeidenticallyplaced.ThemostobviousreasonisthatEgyptwasfromthestartsurrounded

bydeserts,witharidwastescuttingitoffonallsides.ItwastheincreasingdrynessoftheclimatewhichhadcreatedEgypt,byintensifyingtheencroachmentoftheSaharansandsfromtheseventh

andsixthmillenniaonwards.Populationsofmixedorigin(brachycephalic,dolichocephalic,Negro,Mediterranean,andsomerelatedpeoplesofCro-Magnondescent)fledtherefromthesouth,theeastandthewest,sometimesleadingtoconfrontations.Theserefugeesweremovingclosertothevitalwatersupply.ThiswastheoriginoftheindependentcantonsanddistrictsofEgypt,thefuturenomes.Ittooktimebeforethewaterswerebroughtundercontrol.TheNilemighthavebeenreducedinvolumebytheincreasingdrought,evenlosingsomeofitstributaries,butitremainedamonstrousnaturalphenomenon,apowerfulbodyofwater.LiketheMesopotamianrivers,ithadbuiltupitsbed,creatingoneithersideundulatingbanksofsoftmud,overwhichitfloodedeveryyear,leavingpoolsandmarshesbehinditasitretreated.Waterseepedintoeveryhollowandlaystagnant.LakeFayum,beforeitwas‘improved’,wasahugeswamp,coveredinwaterplants.Thesuper-richzoneoftheNileDelta,constantlyaccumulatingfurtherterritory,wasalabyrinthoflagoons,oflow-lyingamphibiousislandsandmarshyswamps.ItwasaparadiseforwildbeastsandthroughoutEgyptianhistoryitremainedarefugeforhumanfugitives.Themagnificentbas-reliefsdecoratingthetombsofSaqqarah(about1500BC)showhuntersglidinginflat-bottomedboatsamongamedleyofcreatures:fish,crocodiles,hippopotami,andeverykindofwaterfowl:ibis,herons,ducks,kingfishers.Menandbeastsalikecouldslipthroughthehighclumpsofpapyrus,theirforestsofhugeribbedstemsformingtheregularbackgroundtohuntingscenesintheDelta.Ontheirgreatumbrella-tops,birdsbuilttheirnests.Athousandyearslater,exactlythesamesceneryappearsonthebrightlycolouredfrescoesoftheeighteenthdynasty:thesamehunters,thesameimpenetrablethickets,thesamelightboatsbuiltofrushesboundtogetherinthickbundles,thesameflyingbirds,thesamethreateninghippopotamilurkinginthedepthsofthemarshes.BeyondtheseimageswecanglimpsethewildlifeofearlyEgypt,itsinhospitalitytoman.ButunlikethevalleysoftheTigrisorEuphrates,theregularfloodingoftheNilebetweenthesummersolsticeandtheautumnequinoxallowedforapredictablefarmingcalendar.Thefloodbroughteverythingthatwasneeded,waterandblackNilemud,butitwasconfinedbynaturalfeaturestothevalleybed,sincetheriverwas

enclosedonbothsidesbythehillsofthedesert,theArabianchaintotheeastandtheLibyanrelieftothewest.SoinEgypt,floodwatersdidnothavetobecheckedandbroughtundercontrol,merelychannelled.Prodigiousfeatsoflabourwereneverthelesscalledfor,tofillinthemarshyhollows,tostrengthenthebanks,ortosetuplevees(embankments)runningacrossthevalleybetweenthetwodeserts.Thedoublestripoffarmlandoneithersidewasthusdividedintoaseriesofbasins,heldinbylevees.Whenthefloodscame,theembankmentswerebreached,thenclosedagainoncethebasinswerecoveredwithrichmuddywatertoaboutametreortwoindepth.Theywouldremainsubmergedforatleastamonthbeforethewaterwoulddrainawaybytheforceofgravity,frombasintobasin.So,apartfromthegreatlabourofbuildingtheembankments(whichshouldnotbeunderestimated)aregularpatternwasinplace:theriverbroughtwaterandfertilityandpreparedthewayforcrops.Theearliest‘machines’forartificialirrigationappearedratherlateinEgypt:theshaduf,possiblyanimportfromMesopotamiawhereitwastobefoundinthethirdmillennium;thenoriawhichcamewiththePersiansinthesixthcenturyBC;andtheArchimedesscrew,importedbytheGreeksinabout200bc.Egypthadbeenabletomanagewithoutthesetechniquesforalongtime:theembankmentsoftheNilehaddonetheworkunaided.SurvivingtextsfromMesopotamiatellofmuchmorecomplexactivities.HereirrigationwasfarmoreartificialthanonthebanksoftheNile.Thewaterlevelwasunderconstantsurveillanceandonesluiceoranotherwasalwayshavingtobe‘opened’or‘diverted’,sendingsurpluswatertothemarshesorbasins;theflowofirrigationhadtobedirectedfirstonewaythenanother,andtherewasaconstantbattleagainstthereeds,grassandmudwhichblockedtherivulets;sometimesthelandhadtobeploughedtoenablethewatertopenetratetheearth(‘gettingouttheoxentowatertheearth’).Inthesurvivinglettersgivingordersordescribingtheworkaccomplished,therearemanyvividimages.WemayperhapsconcludewithMauriceVieyra:‘EgyptwasagiftfromtheNile.Mesopotamiawasmadebyhumanhands’(1961).

Otherkindsofprogress:thepotter’swheel

Thevictoryoverwaterwasaccompaniedbyotherachievementsandadvances.Letusstartwiththemostbasic.Theinventionofthepotter’swheelinLowerMesopotamiainthefirst

halfofthefourthmillenniumisonesuch.Thefirstturnedpotsseemcuriouslydevoidofanyconcernforbeauty:theyareverysimple,inplaincolours,beigeorlightyellow.Onlyaftertwoorthreecenturiesdidtheystarttobedecoratedwithredorpurpleglaze,stillusingplaincolours.ThiswasthestyleknowntousasUruk.Inabout3400,andonthesamesites,itbegantoreplacethesimplebutdelicateancientceramicsofEriduandElObeid,ortheinventiveandbeautifulpotteryofnearbySusiana.ThenthisundistinguishedandnotparticularlyattractivepotteryspreadtothewholeofMesopotamia,wherethegreattraditionofpaintedceramicsseemstohavediedoutentirely.Thiswasperhapsonlylogical.Urukwasalreadyanenormouscityfor

thetime(possibly20,000inhabitants);itwasintouchwithotherlargetownsalongtheriverandonceithadacquiredthewheel,itwasabletoturnoutindustrialpotteryinlargequantities,probablyusinglessexperiencedlabourthanbefore.Thisundecoratedpotterywasexportedinalldirectionsinbulk,bothinnorthandsouthMesopotamia.Productsvariedonlyinshape.Thiswasthefirstappearanceofthe‘functional’pot.Duringthelatterhalfofthefourthmillennium,then,inventiveness,imaginationandtasteweretobefoundsurvivingamongthepottersofneighbouringIran,sometimesinsurprisinglypoorvillages,ratherthaninthegreatcitiesofMesopotamia,whichwereatthecuttingedgeofprogress.EverytimeonefindsanylocalproductioninMesopotamiawherethepottershaveretainedsomeskillinpainting,italwayshappenstobeintheregionsindirectcontactwithIran.SuchforinstanceistheredandblackpotteryoftheJemdetNasrperiod(c.3200),relatedtothe‘scarletceramics’oftheDiyalavalleyandalsofoundonIraniansitesorinMesopotamiantownssuchasMussianneartheDiyala(c.2800).Thesamecanbesaidofthe‘NineviteV’stylewhichspreadinabout3000throughtheregionthatwouldlaterbecalledAssyria,atoneendofthe

passesleadingtoAzerbaijan.InEgypt,amusinglyenough,stoneandclayseemtohavebeenin

competitionwitheachother.Throughoutthefourthmillenniumandbeyond,hand-madepotteryhadbecomeprogressivelyrefinedinitsfiringprocedures,coloursanddesigns.Atthesametime,vesselsmadeofpolishedstone,whichcalledforhoursofwork,becamearareluxury,althoughthetechnologyofflinttoolshadbythenreachedamagnificentlevelofprecisionandaccuracy(witnesstheperfectregularityoftheJebelel-Arakblade,cutaccordingtotheundulationtechnique).Butwiththelastpre-dynasticage,ataboutthetimewhenMesopotamiabeganregularlyemployingthepotter’swheel,theEgyptiansinventedastone-drill,workedbyahandle.Thismadeitpossibletohollowoutablockofstonewithfarlesseffort,anditisafterthisthatwefindthegreatageofstonecupsandvasesinEgypt,madeofvariousmaterialseachmorebeautifulthanthelast.Concurrently,fromabout3200,thestyleofceramicsdeclinesinquality,designandglaze,andshapesbecomeutilitarian.Thewheel,whichwasnotingeneraluseuntil2600,althoughithadbeeninventedearlier,ledtoincreasedoutputofpottery,butdidnotrestoreittoitspastgrandeur.Specializedandstereotypeddesignsweredictatedbythevessel’sdestination.Itwasnotusuallydecorated.Inthecoloureddisplaypieceswhichhavebeenfound,thepaintisgenerallyfragile,havingbeenappliedafterfiring,andwouldeasilyhavebeenremovedbywater.WhatisknownasEgyptianporcelain,sofamousduringtheMiddleEmpireandexportedoverseas,wasactuallyvitrifiedenamel,bakedinakilnonabasemadeofstoneoragglomeratedstonedustandusuallyinamould.ThepoorqualityofpotteryinEgypthelpsexplainthegreatvoguethereofimportedCretanandMycenaeanceramicsfromthefifteenthcenturyBC.

Farming:cropsandanimals

Othermoreimportantkindsofprogressaffectedcropsandanimals.Itisimpossibletoworkouthowmuchwascontributedbythefirsthill-farmersandhowmuchbythepioneersofthelargecropfarmsintheplains.Whatwecanbesureofisthesteadyimprovementofcerealspecies,fruit-trees,olives,vinesanddate-palms.Morebreedsofanimalsweredomesticated.InMesopotamia,domesticanimals,whetherinheritedfromtheneolithiceraoracquiredmorerecently,includeddogs,sheep,goats,pigs,oxen,onagersandlaterasses(whichwerenotnative).Latecomerswerehorsesandcamels,bothimported,thefirstfromthenorthernsteppes,thesecondfromArabia,hencetheirnamesof‘assofthenorth’and‘assofthesouth’.TheEgyptianshaddomesticatedorcapturedthesameorsimilar

species,aswellasotherexamplesofAfricanfauna.Theyhadevenexperimented,sometimesratherunwisely,withsuchbirdsandbeastsaspelicans,leopards,herons,cranes,antelopes,hyenasandgazelles.Otherinitiativeswereofmorepermanentvalue.Theysuccessfullydomesticatedcats,Nilegeese–flocksofwhicharedepictedonthebas-reliefsofthethirdmillennium–pigeons,andchickens,whichappearonlyinabout1500BC.TheAnnalsofTutmosisIIIrefertothisextraordinarybirdwhichcouldlayeggsatanytimeofyear.EvenmoresignificantinMesopotamiathanthetrainingofassesas

beastsofburdeninthethirdmillennium,wasthefeatofharnessingoxentocartsandploughs.Theearlyplough,akindofhoedraggedalongbyateamofanimals,canbeidentifiedonMesopotamiansealsofthefourthmillennium,butitisnotimpossiblethatwoodenploughswithmetalorevenflintploughsharesexistedevenearlier,perhapsintheFertileCrescent.InEgypt,wheretheploughappearedinthefourthmillennium,grainwassownbroadcast,thenburiedbyploughingorthehoofsofanimals.InMesopotamiainthesecondmillennium,asortofmould-boardwasfixedontotheploughhandle.Thegrainfellintotheopenfurrowandwascoveredbyarear-fittedharrow.Shouldonecallthearrivaloftheplougharevolution?Itistempting

todoso.Itcertainlyledtothespreadandaccelerationofagricultureevenonfairlypoorsoil,andimprovedpossibilitiesofcultivatingthesamelandwithshortfallowperiods.Longerfallowperiods,whichledtothegrowthoftreesandshrubs,entailedthepracticeofslash-and-burn.

Butthismethodcouldnotdestroythegrassgrowingonshort-termfallowland:forthataploughwasneeded.Thisprogresswasfollowedbyanincreaseinthenumberofmouthstofeed–unlessitwastheotherwayroundandanincreaseinpopulationcalledthetechnologyintobeing.Therewasanotherconsequence.Untilnow,womenhadbeenin

chargeofthefieldsandgardenswherecerealsweregrown:everythinghaddependedontheirtillingthesoilandtendingthecrop.Menhadbeenfirsthunters,thenherdsmen.Butnowmentookovertheplough,whichtheyalonewereallowedtouse.Atastroke,itmightseemthatthesocietywouldmovefrombeingmatriarchaltopatriarchal:thattherewouldbeashiftawayfromthereignoftheall-powerfulmother-goddessesandimmemorialfertilitycultspresidedoverbypriestessestobefoundinneolithiccommunities,andtowardsthemalegodsandpriestswhowerepredominantinSumerandBabylon.Atleast,ifwecouldbesureofthis,itwouldbeagoodexampleofeconomicdeterminism!ButtheEarthMotherretainedanimportantrole,evenaftertheappearanceoftheplough,andwouldcontinuetoreignforalongtimetocome,especiallyintheAegeanreligionsinCreteandlaterinGreece.Nodoubtinthisdomaindevelopmentsweretoolong-termandtoocomplicatedtobesummedupinanyformula.Thedomesticationoflargeanimalslikeassesandoxen,followedbyhorsesandcamels,tookcenturies.Metal-working,anoblecraftreservedformen,wasalsototipthebalancetowardsmaledominationofsocietyanditsbeliefs,‘fromaqueenresemblingtheEarthMothertoakingresemblingJupiter’asJeanPrzyluskiputit.Buthereagain,itwastheresultofcenturiesofsocialchange.IntheBabylonianmyths,thesungodMardukhastokilltheterribleshe-dragonTiamatinordertocreateheavenandearthfromherbody.ButinSumer,thegoddessInannawasstillqueenoffertility,thedeitytowhomthefruitsoftheearthwereoffered(cf.theWarkavase).

Weaving

Inthecaseofweaving,wasitroutineorprogressthathadtheupperhand?Both,probably.Weavingclothisaveryancientcraft.WefinditatCatalHoyiikorJarmointhesixthmillenniumBCanditprobablygoesevenfurtherback.Thetechnologyissimilartothatofbasket-work,whichwasalreadyinexistenceinthepaleolithic.Wemaythereforesupposethatfromthenon,wheneversuitablerawmaterialswereavailable,weavingwillhavebeenpractised.SoitisnotsurprisingthatinAnatoliaandtheFertileCrescent,woven

woollenfabricsarefoundintombscontemporarywiththedomesticationofsheepandgoats;orthatinEgypt,linenweavinggoesbackatleastasfarasthesixthmillennium,beforethefirstdynasties.Cottoncanberuledout:itwasfirstusedbytheancientcivilizationsontheIndus,reachingMesopotamiaonlyinthefirstmillennium,intheageofSennacherib:itisfoundinEgyptonlyintheformofimportedwovencalico,inbrightcolours.Goathairwasusedverylittle,exceptformakingbagsorbridles.Woolandlinenhadalwaysbeenthetwoessentialtextiles.Egyptvirtuallyconfineditselftolinen,Mesopotamiaemployedbothandtheirrespectivemeritsweredebatedthere.Spinningandweavingprobablydevelopedtheirmaximumpotential

fairlyearlyon.AfragmentofEgyptianlinendatingfromabout3000BChas64threadsforthewarpand48forthewoofoverasquarecentimetre:thiscouldhardlybebettered.Thetechnologydoesnotseemtochangeatall,whatevertheageoftheiconographicaldocumentsthathavesurvived.Tospineitherwoolorlinenbasicallymeantstartingfromamassofrawmaterial,andpullingoutofthisbundle,whichwasplacedonthegroundorinareceptacleofsomekind,thethreadstobetwistedbythespindle.AbouttwentycenturiesseparatewomenoftheDiyalavalleywiththeirdistaffs,asdepictedonavase,andawomanofSusa,sittingonastool,doingthesametask:thegestureisidenticalinbothcases.Egyptianwomenalwaysdidtheirspinningstandingup,orsometimesperchedonawoodenplatform,soastoincreasethedistanceseparatingtherawflaxfromthespinner’sfingers,thusgivingmoreplay

tothedistaff.Thenewfeature,intheseearlydaysofEgyptandMesopotamia,wasthesuddenincreaseintextileproduction.EvenalongtheNile,wherefewclotheswereworn,clothproductionincreasedascostumebecameasignofsocialstatus.Fromthedays-oftheNewKingdomthesimplemaleloin-cloth–traditionalgarbwhichgodsandpharaohswerealwaysdepictedwearinginEgyptianart–waswornonlybymenoflowerstatus.Richermenworeseveralsuchloin-clothsandtunicsontopofeachother,oftenpleated.Womenwerenolongermerelycladinthelongtunicofthepast,butcovereditwithmoreflowingrobesoffinetransparentlineninmanycolours.(Untilthen,bothsexeshadwornonlywhitelinen.)Immenselengthsofwovenfabricwererequiredforthepreparationofmummies.AndEgyptianlinenwasfamousoverseas,beingwidelyexported.Thisforeigntradewasaroyalmonopoly.InMesopotamiatoo,textiles,especiallywoollens,wereoneofthestaplesoftheexporttradefromthethirdmillennium.AtUroftheChaldees,workshopsweresetupinthetempleswhichwerealsothepowercentresofthetime.Theroyalpalacewouldlaterbecomethecentrefororganizingthisactivecraft.Nothingmoreclearlytellsustheextenttowhichweaving,amodestactivityalmostalwayscarriedoutbywomenorwretchedprisonersofwar,infactimpliedtheorganizationofthewholeeconomyandsociety.

Wood,akeymaterial

TheessentialroleplayedbywoodintheEgyptianandMesopotamianeconomyishardlysurprising.Mostobviously,itwassimplyusedeverydayasanall-purposematerial,asintherestoftheworld,includingEurope,untilthenineteenthcenturyandbeyond.Buttheproblemwasthatthealluvialsoilofbothareas,despiteallitsadvantages,couldnotproducethisessentialmaterial.OneAssyriologistsaysthattheuseful

treespeciesinMesopotamiacanbecountedonthefingersofonehand.Whatusewerewillows,orthefibroustrunkofthepalm-tree?InEgypt,onlythesycamoreandacaciayieldedhardwood.Lateron,newspecieswereestablishedundertheNewKingdom:pine,yew,lemon,beech,butthesecouldneverfullycompensateforthelackofindigenoustrees.Forrafters,doors,pillars,furniture,ships,crafttools,looms,sarcophagiandsculpture,theresidentsofEgyptandMesopotamiahadalwayshadtorelyonimportedwood.BothcivilizationsknewandenviedtheforestsofcedarandotherresinoustreesintheAmanusMountainsandLebanon.Mesopotamianlegendhadalreadybaptized‘thecedarmountain’the‘homeofthegods’.‘Theretheshadewascoolandrefreshing’forGilgamesh,thefabuloushero,andthegreattreetrunksslidintotherivers‘likegiantserpents’whenGudea,thepriest-kingofLagash,felledthemwithhisgreataxetobuildthetemplesofhiscity.AnEgyptiantravellerfourteencenturiesbeforeChristlookedupinamazementattheskyabovetheforestsofLebanon,‘alldarkbecausetheregrewtheresomanycypresses,oaksandcedars’.TheseforestsexplaintheflotillasofsailingboatsbetweenByblosandtheNileDelta,orplyinguptheSyriancoasttonorthernports,towingbehindthemraftsoftimberwhichwouldthenbetransportedoverland,heedlessofcost,tothecitiesofMesopotamia.WoodwasthereforethereasonforthefirstproperlinksbetweenEgyptandSyria,fortheexpeditionstoByblossentbythePharaohSahiraandthe‘entrepreneurs’ofElephantine.SargonwagedawarovertimberfromtheMediterranean.Thismayseemunusualprominencetogiveamaterialusuallypassedoverinsilenceinhistoricalnarratives.Buttherewasnochoicewhensuchaneverydaynecessitywasinsuchshortsupply.Egypt,wherewefindsomanyimagesofcraftsmenwieldingadze,hammerandpegsbeforethedaysofcoppernails,hadtoimportallitswood.TimberforcedabreachinEgypt’seconomicisolation,andthroughthisbreach,manyotherthingswouldfloodin.AcomparableexampleisnorthernChina,anotherzoneofmuddyterrain,asbarrenasthemoon,andobligedtolooktothesouthorfarsouthfortimber.Thesamecausessometimesproducethesameeffects.

Copperandbronze

Withtheuseofmetals,asignificantbarrierwascrossed.Intheorythestoneagewasnowleftbehind.Inpractice,however,nothingchangedovernight.Fromearliesttimes,metalssuchaslocallyoccurringcopperandevenironfrommeteoriteshadbeenworkedlikestone,usinghammerandchisel.Butthebirthofmetallurgymeanttheuseofafurnaceandsuccessfulsmelting.ThisbeganinthefifthmillenniumBCwithcoppersmelting,attestedinIranandCilicia,andprobablycarriedoutintheAmuqplainsandnorthtowardsDiyarbakir,‘thelandofcopper’.Itssuccessmusthavedependedinpartonthequalityoftheores,whichintheseareasareoftenmixedwitharsenic.Puremoltencopperisnoteasytocastinmoulds.Coppersmeltingwastransformedthedaytinbegantobesystematicallyaddedtoit–againbytrialanderror,bysprinkingcassiterite(tinoxide)mixedwithcharcoalonthemoltencopper.Theexcellentalloythatresulted–bronze–appearedinMesopotamiainabout2800,andinEgyptinabout2000BC.Costlyandrare,bronze,whichhasgivenitsnametoawholeeraofhumanhistory,longremainedaluxury.Onlyafewtools,ornaments,andtheweaponsofthepowerfulwouldbemadeofmetal.Mostordinarymortalswerestillinthestoneage.InSumer,woolwasstillpluckedfromsheep’sbacksratherthansheared.TheEgyptianslongusedstoneknives,asdidtheadvancedcitiesontheIndus,wherethebladeswhichhavebeenfoundaremadeofblackflint.Specializedsmithsverysoonemergedforthedifferentprocessesofmetal-working,includinggoldandsilver.Somehandledores,othersthemetalonceithadbeenrefinedbyhammering,crushingandrepeatedsmelting.InMesopotamia,potteryfurnaceswithblastpipeshavebeenfound:thebellowswouldbeusedtoactivatethecombustionofcharcoalmixedwiththeore.Mouldsforthemoltenmetal,somemadeoflimestone,havealsobeendiscovered.Theearliestcopperandbronzesmithswereundoubtedlyworkinginaluxurytrade,withitsownrules,methodsandtraditions,itsindependent

oritinerantworkerswho,likethoseofsub-SaharanAfricatoday,wentroundsellingtheirownwares,ormadethemtoorder.WanderingcraftsmenofthiskindarethoughttoberesponsibleforthestrangemetalobjectsfoundontheshoresoftheBlackSea,intheNahalMishmarcave,datingfromabout3000BC:1copperweapons,sceptres,crowns,copperclubsofcomplicateddesignbuttechnicallyperfectandcertainlyinadvanceofanythingtobefoundinMesopotamiaatthetime.Herethecopperhadastrongadmixtureofarsenic.GordonChildedescribedmetallurgyasthe‘firstinternationalscience’ofthosefar-offcenturies.Thiswouldexplainthecuriousresemblancesfoundinsomecasesbetweencopperandbronzeobjectsenormousdistancesapart.Another‘international’aspectofmetallurgywasthattherawmaterials,intheformoforeorcrudemetal,hadtobefetchedfromdistantsources.TheMesopotamianswentinsearchofcopperinCappadociaorintheTaurusmountains,orprocureditintheislandsofBahrain(dispatchpointsformetalandmineraloresfromOman).TincamefromIran,silverfromtheTaurus.Thepursuitofmetal,likethatofwood,thusobligedthecitiesofMesopotamiatoengageinthelong-distancetradewhichwasessentialforthecreationofadiversifiedsocietywithitsartisansandcarriersandalreadyequippedwithamerchantclass,completewithfinancialbackers.TheEgyptianshadtogotoSinaiforcopperandtoNubiaforgold.ButbeingfurtherawaythanMesopotamiafromboththecreativecentresandthetravellingsmithsoftheearlydaysofmetallurgy,Egyptwasslowtoadopttheirtechnology.MagnificentexamplesofgoldsmithingexistedundertheOldKingdom,itistrue,asbeautifulintheirwayasthecupsandgobletsofUrwiththeirfinepurelines.ButbronzesmeltingdidnotbecomeestablishedinEgypt,ifourdatingiscorrect,untiltheendofthethirdmillennium.

Writingandnumbers

Writingisbasicallyatechnology,awayofcommittingthingstomemoryandcommunicatingthem,enablingpeopletosendordersandtocarryoutadministrationatadistance.Empiresandorganizedsocietiesextendingoverspacearethechildrenofwriting,whichappearedeverywhereatthesametimeasthesepoliticalunits,andbyasimilarprocess.Theearlypictogram,aratherclumsyformofproto-writing,wasa

meremnemonicdevice:anoutlinevaguelyreminiscentoftheobjectitreferredto.Severalmeaningswerepossible.‘Whenwefindtheheadofanox,doesitrefertotheanimalitself,ortooneofitsproducts?Perhapsitsignifiesahorn,orsomethingthatcouldbemadefromhorn?’Themeaningwasclearonlytothoseusingitatthetime.Forthepictogramdoesnotalludepreciselytoasinglegivenword,distinguishedonceandforallfromotherwords.Amongcertainpeoples,eventoday,thiskindofwritingstillexists.Thesecondstageistheideogram,astylizedshapewhichdesignatesasingleobjectbutdoessoregularly.Thefinalstageisthephonogram,whichtranslatesandexpressesthesoundsofalanguage,itsphonemes.Butthisistooschematicadescription.Inpractice,theideogramwas

notcompletelyeliminatedbythephonogram,theappearanceofwhichsignifiedgreaterprecisioninwriting,ratherthanasystemreplacingwhathadgonebefore.SoinEgyptian,thewordforhoe,mer,wasrepresentedbythreestylizedstrokes,buttheyalsodesignatedthesoundmere,whichcouldmeanbothcanalandtheverbtolove.‘Inthefirstcase,whenitisusedtomeanhoe,itisstillanideogram,inthesecond,ithasbecomeaphonogram’.InSumerattheendofthethirdmillennium,whentherefirstappeared

whatwenowcallcuneiformscript–producedbytheimpressionmadeonsoftclaytabletsbythescribe’sstylus,asharpenedreed–thisscriptcombinedideogramsandphonograms:ithadbecomecapableoftranscribingallthesoundsinSumerian,anddespitedifficultieswhichwouldpersistuntiltherevolutionaryinventionofthealphabettowardstheendofthesecondmillenniumBC,cuneiformscriptwasusedtotranscribethephonemesofmanyotherlanguages(Akkadian,Elamite,CassiteandHittite).Byasomewhatsimilarprocess,Egyptmovedfromhieroglyphicto

hieraticandthentodemoticscript,thelastnamedbeingthemostcursiveandsimplified.Butatthispointinournarrative,itistheoldestformofwritingthatinterestsus.Thenamehieroglyphics,sacredwriting,wascoinedbytheGreekswho,onfirstseeingthesesignsontemplewalls,thoughttheymusthavereligioussignificance.Sculptedinrelieforbyincision,encrustedindecorativeglass,engravedonpreciousobjectsbyagoldsmith,paintedonthewallofatomboronamodestpapyrusroll,hieroglyphics,althoughinstantlyrecognizable,havetobeinterpretedwithsomelatitude.ThepaletteofNarmer,thepharaohwhohasbeenidentifiedwiththe

legendaryMenes(c.3zoo)istheearliestwrittenEgyptiandocumentwepossess.Thereadermayliketotryreadinginthetopleft-handcornerthepictogramofthevictoryofHorus(thefalcon-headedgod,butalsothepharaohhimself)overachainedmanwhodoublyrepresentsnorthernEgypt:heisbearded,unliketheclean-shavenEgyptiansoftheUpperNile,andthewaterplantsaroundhimsignifythemarshynorth.Itisapuzzlewhichcanbetranslatedas‘ThegodHorushasconqueredthenorthernenemy’or‘thegodHorushasconqueredfivethousandenemiesinthenorth’,sincefivelotusflowerscouldalsorepresentthefigurefivethousand!Animportanttechnicalpointisthataflexibleformofpaper,made

fromthecortexofthepapyrusreed,wasinuseinEgyptfromthetimeofthefirstdynasties.Thismadeitpossibletousethecalamusreedasapenandtowritequickly,usingblackorredink.Theingeniousinventionhashadratherannoyingconsequencesforusthough:whereastheheavytabletsofMesopotamianclaystackedinthepalace‘archives’havebeenfoundinlargenumbers,thefragilepapyrusrollshaveonlyrarelysurvived.Foreveryfewmetrespreservedinmuseumstoday,literallykilometreshavedisappeared–virtuallyallthepublicrecords.Moreimportantthanthesetechnicaldetailsisthecrucialroleplayed

bywritinginthesedevelopingsocieties.Itbecameestablishedasameansofcontrollingthesociety.InSumer,mostofthearchaictabletsaresimplyinventoriesandaccounts,listsoffoodrationsdistributed,withanoteoftherecipients.LinearB,theMycenae-Cretanscriptwhichwasfinallydecipheredin1953,isequallydisappointing,sinceitreferstosimilarsubjectmatter:sofarithasrevealedhardlyanythingbut

palaceaccounts.Butitwasatthisbasiclevelthatwritingfirstbecamefixedandshowedwhatitcoulddo,havingbeeninventedbyzealousservantsofstateorprince.Otherfunctionsandapplicationswouldcomeinduecourse.Numbersappearintheearliestwrittenlanguages.TheEgyptian

systemofnumberinginhieroglyphicsisasimpleidea.Itworkedonadecimalbasis,andtheonlyfiguresusedwereforone,ten,ahundredandathousand:thus‘alotusflowermeansathousand,anindexmeans

Figure5TheNarmerPalette.FromHierakonpolis,itdescribestheviaoryofHorus.Schist,64cmhigh,CairoMuseum(drawingsbyLaureNollet).

10,000,atadpolemeans100,000,agodwithraisedarmsamillion’.Numberstobeaddedtogetherweresimplyjuxtaposed.Sothefigurefor

10,000neededonlyonesign–but9999wouldhaverequiredthirty-six:ninetimesthesignfor1000,ninetimesthesignforahundred,ninetimesthesignfortenandninetimesthesignforone.Hieraticnumberinglatersimplifiedthesystembyavoidingrepetitionofnumerals.ButEgyptianarithmeticandthesystemusedthereforfractionsremainedprimitivecomparedtothatemployedbythosewizardsatcalculation,theBabylonians.Atfirstsight,itistrue,theBabyloniannumbersystem,inheritedfrom

theSumerian,looksundulycomplicated:beingonthebaseof60,itusesfifty-ninedifferentsymbolsforthefirstfifty-ninefigures.Butfornumbershigherthansixty,thepositionofthefigureinthewritingsystemchangesvalue.Everyfigurethushastwovalues,itsownanditspositionalvalue,asinthecaseofmodernnumerals.TheBabyloniansystemforfractionsmoreover,alreadyinuseatthetimeofHammurabi(1792-1750BC),wasextremelywelldevisedandeasytouse.Theseearlywritingandnumbersystemstookyearsofapprenticeship

tomaster,sotheartofwritingandcalculatingwasrestrictedtoaprivilegedandtalentedelite.AtUgarit,ontheSyriancoast,acitywhoseimportanceandactivitywillbedescribedlater,ascribehadtoknowSumerian(moreorlessadeadlanguagebythen);Akkadian,whichinthesecondmillenniumwasthelanguageforinternationalrelationsandlegaldocuments;andathirdscript,assoonasthealphabeticalcuneiformscriptofUgarititselfbegantobeused.Thiswasabodyofsciencewhichhadtobetransmittedfrommastertopupil.Oneoftheclassicexercisesconsistedofcopying,andprobablytranslatingintoseverallanguages,the‘scribes’prayer’:‘Totheyoungpupilsittingbeforethee,benotindifferentinthygreatness.Intheartofwriting,allsecretsrevealuntohim.Numbering,counting,everysolutionrevealuntohim.Secretwriting,revealtohimtherefore’.Thisprayerdatesfromquitelateon(thirteenthcenturyBC),butisneverthelessrevealing.Onecouldnotbecomea‘technocrat’,ascribeoraliterateperson,withoutrigoroustraining.Itwasthepricetobepaidforenormousprivileges.EgyptandMesopotamiahadtheirownmandarinclass.

Townsandcities

Citiesplayedacrucialthoughambiguousroleinthenewcivilization.Theywerecreatedbypopulationincrease,buttheyalsogeneratedit.Theywerecreatedbytrade,buttheygeneratedthattoo;theyweretoolsinthehandsofgreatpoliticalpowers,buttheyalsooperatedontheirownaccount.Thebasicconditionsoftheirexistenceseemalwaystohavebeenthesame:theyallhadadependenthinterland,atemple,apalace,anartisanclass(weavers,blacksmiths,goldsmiths),scribes,carriers,merchants.Onceawallhadbeenbuiltaroundthesettlement,itwasfixedperhapsforcenturies,distinguishingthetownfromthesurroundingcountrysideandmakingitinsomesensesuperior.Allthesebasicconditionsaccompaniedtheriseofacitybutdidnotalwaysdetermineitsfortunes.Thedestinyofagiventownorcitydependedonadoublebalanceof

activityandexchange:thebalanceitcreatedbyitsowneffortsforthegreatergoodofitslittleworld;andthebalancewhichmightbeimposeduponitbytheeconomicandpoliticalforcesofagreaterworldbeyond.InEgypt,thetownsdonotseemtohavehadautonomouscareers,exceptinthepre-dynasticera–andinthosedaysanydevelopmentwasverymodest.WhonowremembersHierakonpolis,thecityofthefalcon-god,orthestrangecityofHeliopolis,whichspecializedininventinggreatmyths,explanationsoftheEgyptianreligion?Verysoon,theall-powerfulauthorityofthepharaohswastoexertitsruleovertheEgyptiancities,fortheirbenefit,sincethegenerallevelofprosperitytherebyincreased.Possiblytherewassomethingtherewhichwecannotquiteunderstandtoday,akindofarresteddevelopmentofurbanlifeonthebanksoftheNile.Itisasiftheoldtownsclungonwithdifficultytositeswhichwereallequallyinappropriate,andasifthelargecapitalsdrewtowardsthemalltheurbanpotentialofthecountryandexhaustedit.Atanyrate,when,forreasonsexternaltoEgypt,theOldKingdomfell

apart,itisstrikingtonotethatthecountryfragmentedintonomes,orruraldistricts,becoming‘feudalized’ashistoriansoftensay,andthatinthisfragmentation,theleadingrolewasplayednotbycitiesbutby

princes,templesandpriests.Mesopotamiaprovidesnoexamplesofthissemi-silence,this

urbandecay–farfromit.Sumerconsistedofagalaxyofbustlingcitiesinasmallspace;theygrewupdenselyandhadclosecommunications–ofnecessity,sinceroads,whetherlocalorlong-distance,hadtoremainopentoall.Butallthesecities–Ur,Uruk,Lagash,Eridu,Kish,Mari,orNippur,aholycitylikeHeliopolisinEgypt–competedforpower,promotingtheirvarioustutelarygods.AndeachofthemmanifestedthaturbanpatriotismwithwhichUrukiscreditedintheepicofGilgamesh,thelegendaryfounderofthecity:‘Lookuponiteventoday:theouterwallbearingthetower,seehowitgleamswithcopper;andtheinnerwallhasnoparallel.Touchthethreshold,itisancient…ClimbonthecitywallofUrukandwalkuponit…Seehowwellitisbuilt:areitsbricksnotfineandfairlybaked?’TheMesopotamianworldalwaysseemedtocentreonacity,which

mightbebuiltandrebuiltinthecourseofastormyhistory.Attheworstmoments–whichwereneverfeudal–therewasalwaysanurbanflamereadytorisefromtheashes.Whyshouldthisbe?Firstly,becauseMesopotamiawaslessunifiedthanEgypt,farmorevariedincomposition,anyattempttoconstructasinglepoliticalunithadalwaysendedinfailure(Sargon’sempiredidnotappearuntilZ335andlastedlessthan150years).Situatedatthemeetingpointofeveryroute,Mesopotamiawasnecessarilymoreopentotheoutsideworld,moredynamicthananyotherregion.Its‘bourgeoismerchants’weretotakethefirstknownstepsinhistorydowntheroadmarked‘capitalism’.Iaminclinedtothinkthatitwascopper,boughtintheBahrainislands,whichprovidedthefirstimpetusfortheSumeriancities.Itlaunchedthemintotheadventureoflong-distancetradewhich,ineveryage,hasbeenarevolutionaryforce.

TwoEgyptsintoonewillgo

InEgypttherewasjusttheoneriver,andonlyonethingthatmattered:theannualflood.EverythingthathappenedonoraroundtheNile,fromthefirstcataractatAswandowntothesea,hadanimpactontheentirelifeofthecountry.Despitewhathasbeensuggestedthen,anddespitedifferencesvisibletoindividuals(forsomeonefromLowerEgypt,theElephantineislandwasanotherworld),theEgyptianpeoplewasessentiallyasinglepeople,orverynearlyso,fromUppertoLowerEgypt.Thenotnesmighthaveledindependentlivesatfirst,butregroupingtookplaceverysoon.Thelandscape,thepeople,thelocalgods,thetowns,allresembledeachother.TheDeltabecameunifiedasLowerEgypt–thekingdomoftheBeeandtheUraeus(thecobra);itsprinceworearedtiara.UpperEgypttoo,thenarrowNilevalley,becameestablishedasapoliticalunit–thekingdomoftheLilyandtheVulture,itssovereigndistinguishedbyawhitecap.Eventually,Menes-Harmer,themasteroftheUpperNile,broughtthetwotogetherinabout3200,andworeasasignofunityadoublecrown,redandwhite.Washethefirstpharaoh?ThetitlecomesfromtheEgyptianperaaorGreatHouse,thepalacetowardswhichallpeopleturn.Onlymuchlaterwasitusedtodenotetherulerhimself,somefourteenorfifteencenturiesafterNarmer’sreign.Butwemightnotethattheconfusionbetweenhouse,palaceandsovereignissignificant.Narmer’sPalette[seeFigure5]showsfromthebeginningapharaoh

cloakedintheextraordinarydignityofalivinggod.Hisattitudes,hisrepresentativenature,histallstaturetoweringaboveothermen–alltheseaspectswouldremainthesamethereafter,atleastinformalterms.ThedivinerightofthemonarchwasinfactEgypt’s‘politicaltheory’asS.Morenzhassuggested.Uponitwasfoundedtheorderofasocietywithanintenselyreligiousconsciousness.Thisright,rootedinreligion,andthismiraculousformofroyaltycamefromthedepthsofEgypt’spre-dynasticandprehistoricpast,fromamagicalandwilduniverseinwhichthegodswerefrighteninganddangerousbeings.Thepharaohbecameagodhimselfthroughhiscoronation,acquiringthestrengthofthecrownsinthemostrealisticfashion,byeatingthem.Insimilarfashion,heacquireddivinesubstance.IntheTextsofthePyramidsisfoundthe‘famoushymntothecannibalpharaohwhofeedsonthegods,eatingthebigonesforbreakfast,themiddle-sizedonesfordinnerandthesmall

onesforsupper,breakingtheirbackbonesandtearingouttheirhearts,eatingaliveallthosehemeetsonhisway’.Inotherwords,thepharaohisthegreatestofallgods,oratleasttheirequal,themasterofmenandobjects,themastertooofthewatersoftheNile,ofthelandandevenofthegrowingharvest.‘Iwassomeonewhomadethebarleygrow’werethewordslaterputintothemouthofadeadpharaoh.Thisconceptofalivinggodwastoremainformallyunassailable.RamsesII,inthetwelfthcenturyBCcouldstillcryout,‘Listen…forIamRa,lordofheaven,cometoearth’.Butweshouldnotover-simplifyaninstitutionwhichdespiteits

longevityhadbeensubtlytransformedoverthemillennia.AtfirstthepharaohwasHorushimself,thefalcon-god,thenhebecamehisearthlyincarnation,andthestatueofChephrenisverysignificantinthiscontext.When,finally,hebecamethesonofRa,ofthelordofthegods,fromthefourthdynastyonwards,didheperhapslosesomeofhisoriginalgrandeur?Inthefirstplacehewasnolongertheequalofthegods,butthesonofadivinefather.Inthesecond,hewasresponsiblebeforehisfather,asanysonis,andonearthtocarryouthisfather’scommandments.RamsesIII,thelastgreatmantoruleEgypt,toldAmon:‘Ididnotdisobeythecommand’.Inshort,Morenzthinksthatwecandistinguish‘aprogressivediminutionofthedivinityofthethrone:…fromidentitytoincarnationtofiliality’.Thepharaohwasneverthelessresponsibleforuniversalorder.The

wordma’atwhichmeantrectitude,truth,justice,tookonthemeaningofthenaturalorderoftheworld.Thelivinggodwastheguarantorofthatorderandwhenhegaveuphisearthlylifeitwastobebornintoanotherexistence,wherehewouldcontinuewithhisbeneficialtask.Thegreatpyramidsofthefourthdynastywerebuiltwithreligiousfervourbyapeoplewhothoughtthatbysodoingtheywouldpreservethisactivebeneficence.TheEgyptologistCyrilAldredevenconcluded,paraphrasingafamousaphorism,that‘AncientEgyptwasagiftfromthepharaoh’.Thesovereignprovidedthestrengthandcohesionofacivilizationwhichoftenworkedwithaunityofspirit.PoliticalunitymeantthatEgyptwasreducedtoobedience.Butthe

Nilevalleymachineryoperatedsomuchbetterunderthisorderthatitssuperiorityseemedtohavebeendemonstrated,totheadvantageofthe

LivingGod.WhenaninternallyinspiredculturalrevolutionbroughtdownthegrandioseconstructionoftheOldKingdomduringthefirstintermediateperiod(between2185and1040),itwasultimatelyrealizedthatthebestcourseofactionwouldbetorebuildwhathadbeendestroyed.

Lifeonearth,eternallife

SoitwasthatEgyptaccepteddisciplineasunavoidable.ButwhatkindofEgyptwasit?Amassofordinarypeople,whoseeverydaytoilcanbeseenonthebas-reliefsonthetombsofSaqqarah,andintheclaystatuettesandpaintingsoftheeighteenthdynasty:peasantsintheirfields,sowing,reaping,loadingsheavesofcornontothebacksofasses,haulingupamillstone,carryinggraintothegranary,bindingflax,drivingaherdacrossaford,harvestingpapyrus,drawinginanet,unloadingaboat;craftsmenworkingwithwoodandmetal;slavesbrewingbeer,grindingcorn,orkneadingdoughwiththeirfeet,harvestingandtramplinggrapes.Thehieroglyphswhichaccompanytheseimagesarefulloffamiliarterms:‘Haulaway!’or‘Comeon,lads,faster’,whileafluteplayerprovidesmusicintimetothemovementsoftheworkers.ArchiveswhichhavesurvivedfromthevillageofDeir-el-MedinehgiveadetailedaccountoftheworkmenonthesiteofthenecropolisofThebes(nineteenthdynasty),thetoolstheywereprovidedwithandtheexcusesforabsence:‘Ascorpionbithim’;‘WasdrinkingincompanywithX’(G.Posener).Wasthedrinkerpunished?OnescenefromthemastabaofAmenhotepisexplicit:peasantswhohadnotpaidtheirdueswerebastinadoed.Thereasonmightchangebutthepunishmentwasusuallythesame.ThiswastherealityofEgypt:apeopleinastateofconstantanxiety,whoseliveswereshortandlivedentirelyunderthesignofobedience,asstrictasChinaunderthemandarins.Aroundthepharaohwerethevizierandprincesoftheblood.Man-

datedbyhimthroughoutallEgyptwerethescribes,aprivilegedmandarinclass,wellawareoftheirstatus.Atthebottomoftheheapcamethecountlessnumbersofpeasantslaves.InfactslavestatusdidnotbecomelegallyestablisheduntiltheNewKingdomwhentherewasaplentifulsupplyofprisonersofwar.Butevenbeforeitwasofficial,slaveryhadsurelyexistedsincetimeimmemorial.Everyyear,whenthefloodedvalleydisappearedunderthewatersoftheNile,thepeasanthadamomentofrespite–andthiswasthemomentwhenhewascalledontolabourfortheroyalhousehold,tobuildthecolossalpyramids.Thiswasoneformofslavery.Anotherwasthetaxsystem–whichwastheissueeverytime(veryrarely)thatacomplaintisrecorded.Theexcusesdatingfromabout1500BCseemtimelessinfact:therehasbeennoharvest,‘becausethereweretoomanyrats,thelocustscame,herdsatethecrop,sparrowshavedevastatedthefields,andthehipposatetherest’.Thetaxmendidnotgiveup:‘theytoldthepeasant:giveusthegrain–evenwhentherewasnone.Thentheybeatthepeasantsavagely,tiedhimupandthrewhimdownawell’.Theaccountistooliterarytobetrue,buttoocircumstantialtobeentirelyfalse.Thiswasanover-obedientsociety,nodoubt.ButthiswassurelythefateofthoseearlycivilizationswhichAlfredWeberdescribedas‘blueprints’.Thegodsweresimplytoopresent.Throughtheirpriests,theyexplainedtheoriginoftheworld,revealedthemselvesinthecelestialbodiesorinsacredanimals,toldhumanswhattodo–inshort,‘theywrotehistory’.Themanygodsjostledforposition,andchangedwithdynasties,citiesorclergies.Fromamongtheirnames–Isis,Osiris,Horus,Bes,Hathor,Thoth,Ptah,Seth,AmonRaandmanymore–everytown,indeedeveryindividualcouldchooseaprotectivedeity.Withtheirappearance,mythologyenteredhumanexistence:themanyadventuresofthesegods,withtheirhumandimensions,broughtthemclosertoordinarymortals.J.M.Keynes,theeconomist’seconomist,jokedaboutancientEgyptthatitrepresentedhumanandeconomicperfectionsinceanysurplusproduction,agriculturalorurban,wassystematicallyconsumedbyputtinguphugeand‘useless’pyramids.SotheEgyptianeconomyrannoriskof‘overheating’–butonlyonconditionthatitwasself-contained.TheEgyptoftheOldKingdomhadlittlecontactwiththeoutsideworld

exceptthatitsentexpeditionstoLibya,SinaiorNubiainsearchofpreciousorrarestones,gold,slavesandblackmercenaries–andthatitsentafewboatstoByblostofetchoilandwoodfromLebanon.EverythingwastochangewhenEgyptwasforciblydrawnintotheinternationalsceneinthesecondmillenniumBC,andhadtodefenditsowngates.Thenthearmybegantoconsumewhathadearlierfuelledthepeacefulbuildingprogrammeofthepyramids.Lordsofearthlylife,thegodscoulddispenseeternallife.Foralongwhile,onlythepharaohcouldenjoytheprecioussurvivalwhichwasachievedbyamultitudeofprecautions:theembalmingofthebody,themanyfuneralrites,thetomb,thestatues,frescoes,andimagesofhisservantsincaseheneededassistanceintheafter-life.ItwasduringtheMiddleKingdomthatthewiderimmortalityofthehumansoul’s‘double’washeldtobeacquired,atfirstonlybythehighandmighty,andthenbyallEgyptianswhocouldmaketheultimatejourneytothekingdomofthedeadbyundergoingthetrialsofpurificationandthelastjudgment.RecordssurviveofSinouhe,anEgyptianborntwentycenturiesbeforeChrist,andatravelleragainsthiswill,wholivedinSyria.Hemadeafortunethere,marriedthedaughterofalocalchief,anddescribedthedelightsofthislandofwineandfruitandabundantherds.Buthecamehomeatlast,troubledbyhomesicknessbutevenmorebythefearofbeingburiedoneday‘withameresheepskinforashroud’,andthusforgoingeternallife.

Societies,religionsandempires:theeventfuldestinyofMesopotamia

Mesopotamiawasaplaceofconstantturmoil:thepowersthatpresidedatitsbirthforgottoprotectitfromitsneighbours,whetherthoseofthesurroundingmountains‘whichbothguardedandmenaced’ittotheeast

andnorth,orthoseoftheburningSyriandesert,tothewestandsouth.Thelandbetweenthetworivershadahistoryinterruptedbymanyepisodes,oftendramaticones.ItwasinEden,inMesopotamia,thatthebookofGenesislocatedtheearthlyparadise.Nomadsfromtheuninhabiteddesert,mountainpeoplesandhungrytravellersacrossthehighplateauxwereconstantlytemptedbythefields,gardensandcitiesofMesopotamia.Thisblessedregion,absorbedinitslabours,wasafruitthateveryonewantedtoseizeorshare.ThedestinyofEgyptbycontrastseemstohavebeenashelteredone,developingsmoothly–thoughthatisnodoubtasimplification.Toonespecialist,Mesopotamiancivilizationseemslikeatreeforeverputtingoutnewbranchesorvigorousshootsfromitsverytrunk.Buteveryfreshfloweringwasboughtatahighcost–war,exodus,destructionofcities,pillageandupheaval.Nevertheless,asinglecivilizationsurvivedthroughallthesevicissitudes.Andalltheregionssurroundingthe‘landbetweentherivers’weresomanyoffshootsofthiscivilizationwhichactedasanunchallengedcentreofinfluence.Atthecentreofabrillantandvariableconstellation,Mesopotamiawasalwaysthestar,throughallthestorms.Everyinvasionendedwiththenewcomersbeingabsorbedintolocallife,sothatSemiticdynastiesfromthedesertmightsucceedSumerians,orviceversa,atthewhimofhistory.Suchchangeswereintheendmarkedonlybyculturaldifferences–someofthemquitestriking,itistrue.SoMesopotamiahadasingulardestiny.Buttheoutsideworld,mountainordesert,wasnotsolelyresponsible.Thehousewasitselfdivided.Exaggeratingonlyalittle,wemightcompareittoRenaissanceItaly.Sumer,likeItaly,flourishedunderapluralityofpowers,withfiercerivalriesbetweencities.Thesecities–Uruk,Ur,Eridu,Kish,Larsa,Isin,Mari,Adab,Lagash–hadtakentheplaceoftribesandprimitivesocieties.Eachonehaditsparticulardivinitiesanditspriest-kings(somethingverydifferentfromakingidentifiedwithagod).Theyfoughteachotherunremittinglyandhegemonypassedfromonetoanother:fromKishtoUr,thentoUruk,LagashandAdab.ThefirstseriousunificationtookplaceundertheAkkadianEmpire,createdbySemiticpeoples.ThisstatehadabrilliantfloweringwithSargontheElder,butonlyashortlife(2340-2230).Urthentooktheleadfora

while,beforepassingthetorchtoIsin,LarsaandeventuallyBabylon.DidMesopotamiasufferfromsomekindofpoliticalweakness,makingitimpossibletoinventstableroyalinstitutions,prince,kingormonarchy?Thatisprobablynotthepoint.Letussayratherthatthecities,enrichedbyagricultureandtradefromtheearlySumerianperiodonwards,becamesoprosperousthattheywerepropelledforwardbytheiroriginalimpetus,carryingallbeforethem.Thepoliticalinstabilityoftheregionprobablydidnotasaruletouchthemdeeply.Itdidnotnecessarilyaffectforeigntradewhichcarriedonoperatingacrossthewholearea,fromnorthtosouthandeasttowest.Achangeindynastycouldbeacceptedaslongastranquillityreturned,andsolongaseachcity,alongwiththelabourersinthesurroundingcountrysideandtheworkshopsintown,wasoncemoreincontrolofitsownsphereofinfluenceandtradinglinks.SosomeformsofobedienceontheEgyptianmodelwerepossible,particularlysinceearlyMesopotamiawasanevenmoregod-fearingplacethanEgypt:itsgodsweredominanteveniftheywereseentobequarrellingamongstthemselves,withsomewaxingandotherswaning,dependingonhumanfortunes.EnlilhadreignedoverUr;then,whenBabylontriumphed,itsowngodMardukimposedhissuperiorityoverallothers.Lateragain,AssyriatookitsnamefromAssur,agodwhoalsocameoriginallyfromtheoldSumerianpantheonofthethirdmillennium.Tohavethesuperiorityofitsgodsproclaimedwasonewayforacitytoassertitsauthority.Butsuchatriumphdidnotmeandispossessingtheothergodsoftheirparticularfunctions:thusInanna(thefutureIshtaroftheBabylonians)representedfertility,Enlilcontrolledthedestinyandtheorderoftheuniverse,Anuwastheredoubtablegodoftheheavens,Enkithewiseandkindlybringerofspringsandlife-givingwater.Thesenumerousandever-presentgodsruledeverythingandwereneverforgottenintherhythmofeverydaylife.Withtheirstaringhypnoticeyes,theyfrightenedandtormentedhumanbeings,withoutleavingthemeventhehopeofthelonged-foreternallife,astheydidinEgypt.EventheheroGilgameshdespairedatthethoughtofhisowndeath.Asownersofthecityandallitslands,ofallthefruitsitbroughtforth,thegodsleftittotheprieststodistributeplotsoflandtohumans

andtodecidehowmuchoftheharvestshouldbebroughttothetemples.Firstthepriests,andlaterthekingsofcity-statesandearlyempires,wereseenasthegods’representativesonearth.Theywerechargedwithcarryingoutthedivinewillandinterpretingitthroughomensandoracles.Theseaugurieswerethemysteryofthetemple,andthesovereignwasoftenaprisonerofhisrole.Likehissubjects,helivedinfearoffailingtounderstandthemessagesofthegods.Thelatter,accordingtotheMesopotamianworldview,desiredorderandprosperityonearth,asaconditionoftheirownhappiness.Itwasnaturalthereforethatthediggingofcanals,theorderingoftrade,thegreatcraftworkshopsandtheadministrativereforms,suchasthoseofHammurabi,alwaysreferredtoagodastheoriginalinspiration,forthegreatergloryofthecommunityandthegloryofthesovereign.Theentiresocialstructurewasthusattachedtoareligiousinfrastructure.Withoutdivinecommands,withouttheexpertknowledgeofthepriestlyinterpreter,whocoulddecipherthesemessages?Withoutthesovereignwhodesiredtoobeytheordersfromhigh,howcouldlifegoon?Theobediencewhichwastheruleinthefirstmajorhumansocieties,EgyptandMesopotamia,wasthereforenotsimplytheproductofblindfear,butcorrespondedtoacertainsocialcoherence,onemightevensayanawarenessoftheobligationsofcollectiveliving.Waseverythingforthebestinthebestofallpossibleworlds?Wemaydoubtthatinthelightofourownsensibilities,butthenthesearenotcompetenttojudgesuchdistantsocieties.

IIBoatsontherivers,shipsonthesea

EvenbeforethenetworkofmaritimelinksthroughouttheMediterraneanhadtakenshape,itsbalancewastiltingtowardsitseasternreaches.TheMediterraneansystemwasafterallcreatedtofulfilthedemandsandthepotentialoftwogreatsocialunits:Egypt,which

hadlimitedbutdirectaccesstotheseaitself,andMesopotamia,whichusedtheactiveintermediaryoftheSyrianseaboardtoobtainaccesstothe‘UpperSea’.Regularshippingwasonlyeverestablishedintheserviceofthepowerful,andoperatedeitherthroughSyria,gatewaytothevalleyoftheEuphrates,orthroughthemanyinconvenientbutactiveportsintheNileDelta.EgyptiangoldandBabyloniansilverwerethelifebloodofMediterraneantrade,whichreachedsignificantlevelsinthesecondmillenniumBC.Buttoinaugurateshippinglinksmeantfindingvesselsandmarinerstosailthem,neitherofwhichappearedbymagic.Theshippingthatwassowellestablishedbythesecondmillenniumpresupposedotherlesssuccessfulshippinginitiatives,wellbeforethegloriousdaysofthepharaohs.ThisearlychapterintheMediterraean’slife-storyremainsobscure,however.Fewdocumentshavesurvived.Underwaterarchaeologyhaslocatedafewsunkenships.Buttheseaislessreadytoyieldupitssecretsthandryland,wheretheyaremoreeasilypreservedforustodiscover.Wedoknowsomethingoftheboatswhichinveryearlytimespliedupanddowntherivers–theNile,theEuphrates,theTigrisandeventheIndus–butnexttonothingabouttheshipsthatsailedontheMediterranean,theIndianOceanandtheRedSea.Wasrivernavigationanancientskillandseafaringlearnedmorerecently?Thatseemsabittoosimpletobetrue.Butriverboatswereundoubtedlycirculatingattheheartoftheoldestcivilizationsintheworld:theyfigureintheearliesticonographyofMesopotamiaandEgypt.Seafaringremainedmarginaltotheseearlycivilizations,andalthoughittoomusthavebegunatthedawnofhistory,itsoriginsarelostinsilence.Thefuture,however,wastobelongtoseagoingvessels.

OntheriversofMesopotamia

RivercraftsailedontheEuphratesandevenontheTigris,despiteitsdangerouswhirlpools,fromveryearlytimes.Inthebeginning,inflatedanimalhidesmusthavebeenused,althoughwefindnoformalevidenceofthembeforetheAssyrianmonumentsoftheeleventhcenturyBC,whichshowsoldiersridingastridetheseblown-upskinsontheirwaytoattackacity;othersarefleeingtheenemyonthesamestrangesteeds;sometimesseveralskinswerelashedtogethertomakearaft.TheseweretheBabyloniankalakkuscapableofcarryingveryheavyloadsdownstreamwiththecurrent(astheArabiankeleksstilldotoday,usinghundredsofinflatedhides).Oncetheyreachedtheirdestination,thewoodandriggingoftheraftswassold,andtheskinsdeflatedandsentbackbypack-animal.ThemostancientSumeriancylindricalseals(latefourthmillennium

BC)showboatsbeingusedforritualprocessions.Theyhavenomastsbutbothendsarehoistedhighoutofthewaterbytautropes,andtheyaremadeofreedslashedtogetherorplaited,asindeedaretheboatsstilltobeseenontheEuphrates,consistingofabasket-workbasecoatedinpitchorcoveredwithleather.Inabout3000BC,canoe-shapedboatswereusedtohuntwildbuffalointhemarshes:asilvermodelofoneofthem,discoveredintheroyalburialgroundatUr,showssevenrowingbenchesandsixpairsofoars.Sailingdownstreamwiththecurrent,theseboatsweresimplysteeredbylongpoles,butgoingupstreamtheyhadtobepropelledbyoars,orhauledfromthebank.Sailsmusthavedevelopedquiteearlyon:tradinglinkswithBahrainandnodoubtwiththeIndiancoast,viathePersianGulf,suggestthatsailsandseagoingshipswerealreadyinexistence.TheselinksareknowntohavebeenoperatingbythethirdmillenniumBC.Atthisstage,itistruethattheywerefarfromhavingthedensityofthetrafficontheriver.Mesopotamiawasobligedbyitsverynaturetodependoninternalexchange:themanytownsinthelowerreachesoftheplainneededthestone,timber,pitch,copper,wineandlivestockthatUpperMesopotamiaproducedorimportedfromneighbouringregions.Thesefloateddownstream,whilebackuptheriverbyboatorpackanimal,wentgrain,dates,evenreedsforbuildinghouses,andeventuallymanufacturedarticles.Textsfromthesecondmillenniumdescribethisactivity:theboat-

buildersinriversideyards,thevoyages,thevarietyoftraffic,thelawsuitsthatfollowedaccidents.AgovernorfromthetimeofHammurabiurgesoneofhissubordinatestohastenthebuildingofaboat:‘Deliver[totheboatbuilder]thegrainanddateshewillrequestfromyouforthereed-weaversandotherunskilledworkers’.ToanotherboatbuilderinthesameyardatLarsahewrites:‘assemblewhateverboardsandbeamsareneededtobuildabarge’.Soatthisperiod,bothtimberandreedswerebeingusedtomakeboats.Theownerofaboatgenerallydidnotsailithimselfbuthireditouttoaboatman.TheCodeofHammurabicontainsclausesreferringtowhathappensifanegligentboatmanletsthecraftfallintodisrepair:hebecomesliableforthedamage.Ifheallowstheboatanditscargotosink,heissentencedtoreimbursetheownerinfull–unlesshehashadthepresenceofmind(andthematerialmeans)torefloatthewreck,inwhichcasehewill‘onlyrepayhalfthemoney’.Weseeheresurelythekindofrelationbetweenemployerandemployeewhichalreadyforeshadowsacapitalistsociety.

RivertrafficontheNile

AlltheevidencepointstothegreatimportanceofrivertrafficinEgypt:manywrittenorpictorialdocuments;overeightywordsfortypesofboat,largeandsmallandfittedinvariousways;andtheveryreligionoftheEgyptianpeople,whichisfullofnauticaltermsandmetaphors.Thegodsandpharaohsallhadtheirboats,andthejourneyofthedeadtowardstheirjudgmentisimaginedasavoyageonthefamiliarriver.BoatshadbeensailingontheNilesincethepre-dynasticperiod.Wecanseewhattheylookedlikefromartefacts:apotintheBritishMuseum,astonevasedatingfromaboutthesameperiod(3500-3x00)intheChicagoMuseum,ortheivoryhandleofthemarvellousknifeofDjebel-el-Arak:thesedepictshipswithsquare-riggedsails,andhigh,almost

verticalbowsandstern,theshapetypicaloftheMesopotamianreedboats.InEgypt,amorefamiliarsightwasthelongflatpunt,madeofbundlesofpapyruscarefullyboundtogether.Thetwoendswereslightlyelevated,anditslowdraughtenabledittocirculateintheshallowwatersofthemarchesoroversandbanksintheriver.Thisistheboatdepictedinhuntingorfishingscenes,andinvariablyitisaboatofthiskindwhichappearsonthewallsofEgyptiantombs,ferryingthedeadontheirlastvoyage.Thesamedesign,developedandenlarged,wasusedfortheEgyptianmerchantmenorwarshipswhichtravelledonbothriverorsea.Progressconsistedofreplacingthepapyruswithtimber;buttimber,atleastofgoodshipbuildingquality,wasinshortsupplyinEgyptitself.BesidecedarimportedfromLebanon,sycamoreandacaciawoodfromtheregionnearpresent-dayKhartoumwasused.Thetreetrunksweresawnupintoshortthickplanks,whichwerethensolidlyassembled,usingmorticeandtenonandevenswallowtailjoints,ormerelyleatherstraps.Suchboatswereflat-bottomed,andtheirentiredesignwasreminiscentofthepapyrusmodel.Theyhadnokeel,thehullwasstrengthenedbythetransoms,andthecurvedendsweremaintainedsimplybyathickcablerunningforeandaftwhichcouldbetightenedasrequired.Atwo-footedmast,locatedforwardintheearlyversions,wasreplacedbyacentralmast,carryingaquadrangularsail.Thesailhadmadeitsappearancebythefourthmillennium.Boatswerealsorowedorhauledupstream,butsincethewindblowsfromthenorthalmostallyearroundinEgypt,thisinevitablyledtotheincreaseduseofsailsgoingupstream.TheEgyptianlanguageusedtwodifferenthieroglyphstodescribejourneysontheNile:thesignshowingaboatwithabillowingsailmeantthevoyagesouth;thesignforaboatwithafurledsailreferredtothetripnorth,whichcouldbeaccomplishedsimplybygoingwiththecurrent.

Thefirstmarinersbackinthemistsoftime

Itwouldbefascinatingtoknowwhatkindofshipsfirstventuredoutontotheopensea,bravingitsdangers.Alas,wedonot.Wecanspeculateforhoursonend,butwillneverreachanyfirmconclusion,sincetheveryfewitemsofevidencethatexistaredifficulttointerpret.Thefirstseacrossingsmusthavedevelopedveryearly,betweenthe

tenthandtheseventhmillennia.Buttheevidenceisflimsy.ThereisnothingserioustoconnecttheenigmaticdrawingsengravedoncavewallsnearSantander,ontheAtlanticcoast,andnearMalaga,ontheMediterranean.Dothesevesselsdatefrompaleolithictimes?TheAbbeBreuilthoughtso,butwithoutfurtherproof,itisratherarashassumption.NordoesanyformalevidencesupportthehypothesesmadebycertaingeographersthatmaritimeshippingoriginatedontheRedSeaandonthecoastofAsiaMinor,orinthelargeislandsneighbouringtheAegean.ThefactthatCreteandCypruswereapparentlyalreadyinhabitedintheearlyneolithicera,roughlybetweentheseventhandsixthmillennia,wouldtendtosupportthisnotion.Thesefirstinhabitantscouldonlyhavearrivedbysea.Soraftsorprimitivevessels,ifnotgenuineboats,mayhaveexistedasearlyastheseventhmillennium,andprobablyearlier.Itisnotimpossiblethattracesofhabitationgoingbacktothemesolithicorevenpaleolithiceraswillonedaybefoundononeoftheislandsthathasneverbeenlinkedtothemainland–Cyprusforinstance,wherenotallthecaveshaveyetbeenexplored.2Ifso,ourproblemwillhavetobereformulated.Mypersonalview,thoughwithlittletobackthisup,isthatattempts

tosailoutontheopenseagobackaverylongway.Therewasafterallnoinsuperableobstacle.Primitivesocietiesinvariousplaceshaveovercomethedangersofthesea:onehasonlytothinkoftheraftsmadebyAmericanIndians,oreventhereedboats,thecaballitosorlittlehorses,inwhichfishermenstillsetouttoseaonthecoastofPeru.Besides,inthecaseoftheMediterranean,theearlydevelopmentofcoastalshippingseemstobetheonlyexplanationforthespreadofcertaincommodities.ThusthespreadaroundtheMediterraneancoastsofso-calledcardial

pottery(thedesignwasimpressedondampclaywithashell,thecardium)couldhavebeenachievedviashort-haulvoyages,perhapsfromthegulfofAlexandretta,inshorefromCyprus.Fromthere,raftscould

havebeensailedtoGreece,Italy,Provence,Spain,Sicily,Malta,oreventheshoresofNorthAfrica–sinceonalltheseseaboardspotteryfragmentsshowingthesameimpressionsaretobefound.Itwasoriginallythoughtthattheydatedfromthethirdmillennium,butrecentexcavationshavepushedthedatemuchfurtherback.Buthowfar?InThessalytheyarethoughttodatefromtheendofthesixthmillennium.InthewesternMediterranean,thedateisstillamatterofdebate–possiblythefifthorfourth.3Whatisknownforcertainisthatthispotteryeverywherecorrespondstothespreadofearlyneolithicagriculture.Itwasbyseatoothatthetwowavesofsettlerscametopre-ceramic

Greece,fromAsiaMinor,bringingwiththemthesecretsofprimitivefarming(thoughthefirstofthesewavesmaypossiblyhavecomeoverland,iftheAegeanlandmasshadnotyetbeensubmergedatthattime).

Syria,EgyptandtheRedSea

Afirmerandlesshazardouschronologycanonlybeestablishedbyjumpingmanycenturiesanddatingdevelopmentsonthegreatclock–sotospeak–ofEgypt.EgyptianshipsweresailingbothtoByblosandontheRedSeafroman

earlydate–exactlywhenwecannotsay.ButcookingoilfromSyriawasalreadyarrivinginpre-dynasticEgypt,carriedinpotsofnon-Egyptianorigin.Andbyabout2600BC,weknowthatEgyptalreadyhadplentifulcontactswithByblos,throughwhichitgainedaccesstothecedarsofLebanon,pitchfromtheDeadSea,goldfromtheTaurusmountains,andtheoilandwineofSyria.Theboatswhichceaselesslypliedtoandfroonthesetripswereknowninthemiddleofthethirdmillenniumasthe‘Byblosboats’;butwhileEgyptcertainlyfinancedthem,andwhiletheir

designwasEgyptian,wedonotknowwhethertheywereinfactbuiltinByblosorinEgypt,norwhethertheircrewscamefromoneorotherplace,orboth.Thesemusthavebeenlarge-scaleshippingventures,asisprovedby

thenumberofboatsshownbeingassembledatSaqqarahfortheexpeditionledbyKingSahura.Evenmoreconclusiveisthehugeorganizationapparentlycentred,oddlyenough,onElephantineIsland,atthefirstfallsontheNile.Intheageofthepyramids,inthetwenty-fifthcenturyBC,theroyal‘civilservants’ofElephantine(whomwemaythinkofasentrepreneursandevenventuretodescribeascapitalists,tojudgebytheextravaganceoftheirtombs),controlledshipmentsofgranitedowntheNiletothecapital,Memphis.Theyalsocontrolledthequarriesinthedesert,thetransportofthesegreatblocksofstonetotheriver,theroadsfromCoptostoKoseirontheRedSea,theturquoiseminesofSinaiand,lastly,themaritimelinkswiththePuntviatheRedSea,aswellaswithSyria.Therewasthusacurioussetofconnectionsbetweentheoverlandroutes,theseapassagesandtherivercraftontheNile,betweenthegraniteofUpperEgyptandthesquaredcedartrunkscomingfromByblos.TheglimpseswehaveofthemleaveuswonderingwhetherweshouldimagineactiveseaportsintheNileDeltaasearlyasthetwenty-fifthcenturyBC.Alas,everythingisburiedundermudtoday.Aboutathousandyearslater,undertheeighteenthdynasty,aTheban

painterdepictedboatsbuiltbyCanaanites(asthepeoplesoftheSyriancoastwerecalled,theancestorsofthePhoenicians)landinggoodsfromtheircountryontoaquayside.TheboatswereunquestionablyofEgyptiandesign,similarto,ifalittlerounderthan,theoneswhichSahurasenttoByblos,withtheirfamiliarraisedends.TheboatswhichQueenHacheptsut(eighteenthdynasty)launchedforhermaritimeexpeditionof1480BCtothePunt,andpossiblytoSomalia,werelongerandlaylowerinthewater,buthadsimilarrigging.Themastwasinthecentreofthehullandcarriedalargesquaresail:twolongpaddlesactedasarudder.ThebeautifulmodelofafullyriggedsailingshipinTutankhamun’stomb,ahundredyearslater,showsidenticalfeaturesinhullandmasttothePuntships.Onlythesystemfortherudderisdifferent.Typically,theseEgyptian-Syrianvesselsoperatedalmostentirely

undersail.UnlikethesmallboatsontheNilewhichusedoars,theselargesailingvesselsusedoarsonlywhenmanoeuvringintoandoutofport.Butweshouldnotexaggeratethemaritimeachievementsofthe

Egyptians.AteaseontheNile,theywerelessenthusiasticabouttheopensea.Egyptlivedalargelyself-containedlife,withitsriveranditsalluvialplains.ThedistantworldinterestedtheEgyptians,butdidnottemptthemunduly–orrather,itwasmorelikelytocometoEgypt,drawnbyitswealth.Whygofarafield?ExternaltradewasoftenhandledbyforeignerswhohadsettledatthemouthsoftheNile:Canaanites,Cretans,PhoeniciansandfinallyGreeks.Afterall,the‘firstSuezcanal’wasonlydugin610-595underNecho.ThiswouldlinktheeasternbranchoftheNilewithLakeTinsetandtheBitterLakes,andaccordingtoHerodotustwoseagoingshipscouldpassalongsideinit.Itwasundoubtedlyamajorachievement,butratheralateone:itwastobecompleted,orratherre-created,byDarius.Similarly,itwasAlexandertheGreatwhoprovidedEgyptwithitsfirstproperlyequippedharbour,bybuildingAlexandria.Yetasearlyas2150,theEgyptianshadnothesitatedtoopenupcanalsthroughthehardgraniteofthefirstNilefallsatAswan.TheearlydateofsuchmajorworksontheriverprovidesacontrastwiththelaterandmoreepisodicinteresttheEgyptiansshowedforthesea.

Therealthing:theLevantseas

ItisdoubtfulwhetherEgyptianshipseversailedonanyoftheMediterraneanseacrossings,excepttheconvenientandfamiliarroutefromtheDeltatoSyria:thismeantfourtoeightdaysatseaeachway.ThekeyprogressinshippingcamefromotherdirectionsandcanbeglimpsedonlyaspartofthecompositehistoryoftheseasoftheLevant:thePhoeniciancoast,theislandsandshorelinesoftheAegean,thelarge

islandofCrete,andtheGreekmainland.Heretoo,littleisknownforcertain:therearemanydoubtsand

controversies.TheonlythingwecanbesureofisthattheseawaseffectivelyconqueredduringthesecondmillenniumBC,bycrossingsoftheAegeanandtheLevantseas.Butthemomentonetriestogointomoredetailaboutthecircumstances,thechronologyorthecausesofthisdevelopmentandthetechnicalconditionsorkindsofshipconcerned,thepicturebecomesverycomplicated.Theimagesthathavesurvived,whicharetheessentialdocumentsinthisrespect,havegivenrisetovariousmutuallyincompatibletheoriesandhypotheses.In1933,SpyridonMarinatos,ameticulousandwell-informed

historian,compiledacatalogueofsixty-ninedrawingsoftheancientshipsoftheAegean;in1957,DianaWoolnerlistedandreproducedthirty-eightgraffitishowingshipscarvedonapillarinthegreatmegalithictempleofHalTarxieninMalta.Sowehaveaboutahundredrepresentationsofvesselsatourdisposal–andyettheresultisdisappointing.Thedrawingsarealltoooftenschematicandinaccurate,anddonotobeyanyrulesofperspective.Anymodelsthathavesurvived,generallymadeofclay,areonlyveryapproximatelyshaped.ThereisnothinghereliketheaccuracyoftheEgyptiandrawings.ApartfromtheMaltesegraffiti,whichwerescratchedontostonewithametaltool,thesepicturesofboatsareillustrationsfromthesidesofvasesorotherutensils,fromsealsorcylinders,rings,orhieroglyphictablets.Theirdatesaregenerallyuncertainandarespreadoutacrossmorethanathousandyears.Nevertheless,sincenavaldesigndidnotsubstantiallychangefor

centuriesonend(andinanycasenewtypesofshipco-existedwitholdones),itwouldnotbeoutofordertoassumethatinasensealltheseshipsweresailingtheseaatroughlythesameperiod,whatevertheactualdatesofthevessels.Theycanbeseenastheavailablepoolofshipping,ifyoulike,asiftheycouldallhavesailedtotheEgyptianDelta,ortothequaysideatUgarit,inresponsetotheappealfromthekingoftheHittitesforgrainforhisstarvingcitiesinizooBC.Whatquestionsshouldweaskoftheseimages?Quiteelementaryones.

Firstofall,weoughttobeabletotellbowsfromstern,sothatwecanseewhichwaytheboatwastravelling.Thiscanbeworkedoutbythe

positionoftheoars,whenthereareany.Greekoarsmen,liketheirMycenaeanandCretanpredecessors,rowedwiththeirbackstothedirectionoftravel,unliketheVenetiangondolierforinstance,whostandsinthesternoftheboatfacingthewayheisgoing.Anotherwaytotellisfromthewidthofthevessel,ifitcanbegauged,asitcaninatleastonemodel:inthatcase,theforwardend,thebow,willbethewider,sincetheboatwasalwaysnarroweratthestern(arulewhichaeroplanesalsorespectbecauseofair-currents:thisisthe‘fish-shapedbody’theory).Andofcourse,whenthevesselhasarudder,madeofoneortwomoveablepaddles,thesenaturallyindicatethestern.ThereaderwillnoticethatthepoopofAegeanshipswasoftenhigherthanthebows,buttherulewasnotabsolute,anditisoftendifficulttotellwhichendiswhich.Thereareotherquestionstoo:didthevesselhaveadeck,andifso

wasitawholeoneorahalf-deck?Didithaveoars,benches,mastsandsails?ShipsintheAegean,sincetheyhadplentyofoars,didnotalwayscarrysailsasanextrameansoflocomotion.Wheresailsexisted,theyseemtohavebeensquare,carriedonayardarm.Sometimestwosquaresailswereattachedsidebysidetothesameyardandmast.Thiskindofriggingwastendingtodisappear,butalateexampleisfoundinashipfromPompeii.Thenumberofoars,usuallyaccuratelyrepresented(uptoamaximum

offifteen)enabledMarinatostocalculatethepossiblelengthsofsomeboats(byestimatingthedistancebetweentwooarsmenas90cm).Heconcludedthatthemaximumlengthwasabout20metres(allowingfortheareawithoutoars),inthecaseofthelargestvesselswithfifteenoars,butmuchlessthanthatonaverage,sincemostboatshadnomorethanfive.Somostofthesevesselswerequitesmall,longandlight,withasinglemast,propelledbyoarsmenandusingsailsonlyasanextraaid.Buttheimportantpointtonoteisthatfromearlytimes,fromthe

middleMinoanperiod(before2000BC)therewerealsotobefoundalongsidetheseshipsotherswithnooarsatallbutafulldeck,asisconclusivelyprovedbyaclaymodeldatingfromabout1500BC.Theseshipsweremuchbroaderthantheotherkindandsuggestthepossibilityofcargovesselsundersail,perhapslargerthanotherCretanshipsandthusaveryearlycaseofthetraditionaldivisionintheMediterranean

betweentherapidlongshipswiththeirbanksofoarsmen,usedforwarorpiracy,andtheroundedsailingvessels,carryingmerchandise.IagreewithKirkthatthealternationwefindatdifferentperiodsbetweenartisticimagesoflongandroundedshipsdoesnotnecessarilypointtoapreferencebythesailorsofthattimeforoneortheother,andmaymerelyreflectchangingartisticfashion.Bothformsmusthaveco-existedintheshippingoftheAegean:thelongshipsgenerallyhadalow-lyingbowwithakindoframandaraisedpoop.Theroundshipshadbothbowandsternraisedandcurved,ascanstillbeseenonsomelatepotteryfromCyprus.

Theramandkeel:apossibleevolution

Theoriginoftheramisakeyproblem.WhenitsdevelopmenthadreachedcompletioninthefirstmillenniumBC,theentireforceofthewarship,PhoenicianorGreek,wasconcentratedonthisdangerousweapon,prolongingtheship’skeelforwardintoasharppoint.TheramseemstohavebeenanAegeanrefinementtothelongship.Ontheearliestmodelsweknowof,intheCyclades(depictedon

the‘fryingpan’potteryofSyros),thebowoftheshipisprolongedinacuriousshapestronglyreminiscentofabatteringram.Thisprojectionisfoundinaseriesofdrawingsandclaymodels.Kirk,writingin1949,wasnodoubtrightthatthiswastheancestorofthebatteringram,butalsocorrectlysurmisedthatitwasnotconceivedofatthisstageasaninstrumentofwar.Theinitialfunctionofthisspar(whichmightprojectfromeitherendoftheboat)wastoconsolidatetheship’sstructure,inparticularthebows,whichwereexposedtotheshockofthewavesandalsosufferedwheneverthevesselwashauleduponabeach(hencetheupwardcurveoftheearlyversions.)Thefirststraightramwassimplytheextensionofthekeel,thebackboneoftheshiponwhichthewholestructureoftheAegeanvesselwasbased.

Thiswasanoriginaldevelopment.EgyptianboatsandtheCanaaniteboatsofthesecondmillenniumhadnokeel,noramandnoribs.AndwhileitispossiblethattheCretanroundship,whichappearedinthesecondmillennium,wasacopyoftheSyrio-Egyptiankindofboat,itisclearthat‘theAegeansmadegreatprogresswhentheyaddedtothisverypracticaldesignthoseessentialelementsofnavalconstruction,thekeelandribs.Thuswascreatedastableandsolidtypeofvessel,stillfoundtoday’alongtheGreekcoast.Itwasindeedthefirsttransportshiptrulyadaptedtosea-going.

Whataboutthe‘Phoenicians’?

ItisnosurprisetofindthatthosebornintermediariesoftheLevant,thecoastaltradersoftheSyriancoast,longaccustomedtotheEgyptiancrossing,shouldrapidlyhavetakenovertheAegeantypeofship.Theyhadseenitcomeintobeing,sinceCretanvesselswerefrequentingtheSyrianseaportslongbeforetheywenttotheNileDelta.Asthecenturieswentby,therewouldhardlybeatypeofvesselknownintheMediterraneanwhichhadnotbeenadopted–andadapted–bythePhoenicians,thedirectdescendantsoftheSyriansofthesecondmillennium.TheAegeanlongship,withitsoarsmenandkeel,nowfullydeveloped,appearsforthefirsttimeonabas-reliefinKaratepe,azoneofPhoenicianinfluenceintheformerHittiteregion,inabouttheeighthcenturyBC.WerethePhoeniciansorperhapstheMycenaeansresponsibleforitsperfecteddesign?ThankstothisdesignitbecametheclassiclongshipoftheMediterranean,thekinddepictedonaSpartanivoryaswellasonsomanygeometricvaseswithblackfigures;thedesign,too,whichSidonchosetoputonitscoinsinthefifthcenturyBC,asdidtheGreekislandofSamos.ThiskindofshipwouldbefurtherimprovedbytheGreeks,whomadealighterversionbytakingoutthedecks.Theywerethereforeabletoextenditslengthto30or35metresandputup

thenumberofoarsmentofifty:thiswasthefamouspentecontoronwhichtheAthenianfleetrelied,accordingtoThucydides,downtothebattleofSalamis(480BC).Afterthatcamethereignofthetriremewithitsthreetieredbanksofoarsmen.Itisamistake,however(derivedfromafewGreekvaseswithfaulty

perspective),tocredittheGreekswiththeinventionofthebireme.Aperfectlyunambiguousdocumentprovesotherwise.OnthewallsofthepalaceofNineveh,thePhoenicianfleetisshownfleeingtheportofTyrebeforethecitywasattackedbySennacherib(700BC):roundshipswithsymmetricallyraisedendsareshownalongsidelongshipswithpointedbows.ThelessonsoftheAegeanhadevidentlybeenfullyassimilatedbythePhoenicians,butwithoneinnovation:alltheseshipshadtwobanksoftieredoarsmen.Thiswasthebireme,theimportanceofwhichmayinanycasehavebeenexaggerated.AccordingtoKirk,theGreeksborrowedthedesignfromthePhoenicianslateron,inthesixthcentury,butonlyforashortwhile,preferringthepentecontorwhichwassaferatsea.ThePhoeniciansthemselvesusedthebiremeonlyincalmweatherandclosetoshore.Atthesameperiod,forthecoastalconvoysoftimbermentioned

earlier,thePhoenicianswereusingotherboatsofmoremysteriousorigin,knowntotheGreeksashippoibecausetheirbowsweredecoratedwithahorse’shead.ItwasonsuchashipthatKingAssurbanipalwenthuntingontheTigris,andthiskindofboatmayhavebeentakenbythePhoeniciansallovertheMediterraneanifwecanplacecredenceonaPhoenicianjewelfoundatAlisedainSpain.AccordingtoStrabo,itwasstillinuseintheMediterraneanattheendofthefirstcenturyad,andonlyfiftyyearsagoorso,fishermenonthecoastnearCadizusedtocarveahorse’sheadonthebowsoftheirboats.

Malta:ameetingpoint

ThegraffitiinthethirdtempleofHalTarxieninMaltahaveplayedlittlepartsofarinouraccount.Thatisbecausetheyarenoteasytointerpret.Thesailorswhoscratchedtheseexvotosonastonepillar,inachapelwhichwasprobablyabandonedsometimeafter1500BC4weregivingthanksafteradangerousvoyageorashipwrecktosomemother-goddess,anearlyStellamaris.ThetempleisnearthelargenaturalharbouronwhichthecityofVallettawasmuchlaterfounded,aportwhichprovidedarefugeeveryautumnaswinterapproachedforshipswhichhadbeensurprisedatseabybadweather.Unfortunatelythesedrawingsarepartlyeffacedandoverlapwithone

another:eachgratefulsailordrewhisboatattheheighthecouldreach,likethosewhohadcomebeforehimandthosewhowouldcomeafter.Andonlimestone,anynewscratchmarkshowsupaswhite,instantlyobliteratinganypreviousgraffiti.Astimepasses,itmergeswiththerest.Takenasagroup,theseforty-odddrawingsdomakesense:theyprove

thatfromthefirsthalfofthesecondmillenniumBC,Maltawasbeingreachedbyshipswhich,foronce,wedonothavetoimagine.Whetherornottheyweretempest-tossed,shipswerearrivingatMaltaandputtinginthere.Theoneswhichmadethevoyageingoodweatherandwithoutincidentareprobablynotrepresentedintheranksofthethank-offerings.Buttheymusthaveexistedtoo.Onecouldlingeratlengthoverthedesignsoftheseboats.Theirkey

featureisdiversity.IagreewithDianaWoolner,whohasmadeastudyofthegraffiti,thatwehavehereacertainnumberofAegean,Cretan,andMycenaeanships,withraisedbowsandsterns.LikeWoolner,IalsorecognizeatleastoneboatofEgyptiantype,perhapsmore.ButweshouldnotthereforeconcludethatEgyptianvesselswereactuallyreachingMalta.EvenEduardMeyer’shypothesisofsometimeago,thattheEgyptiansreachedCrete,istodayseenasverydoubtful:theEgyptianvasesandsculpturesfoundonCretewereprobablycarriedtherebyCretanships,eitherdirectlyfromEgyptorfromtheSyriancoast.SoitisevenmoreunlikelythattheEgyptiansventuredasfarasMalta.Butduringthefirsthalfofthesecondmillennium,aswehavealreadynoted,SyrianshipshadimitatedEgyptiandesigns.WeknowthattheyweretradingwithEgyptandhadanactivetradeintheLevant.Theymayalsohavebegun,alongsidetheAegeanships,toexplorethewesternbasinsof

thesea.OncemorewefacethethornyproblemofrelationsbetweeneastandwestMediterranean.5IftheAegeansandtheSyrianswereputtinginatMaltaatthebeginningormiddleofthesecondmillennium,theyweresurelynotstoppingshortthere.Wastheislandnotthecentreofatradingsystem,notablyinobsidianfromPantelleriaandtheLipariislands,astonewhichisalsofoundinsouthernItaly,asfarupasLucera?MycenaeanpotteryhasalsobeenfoundbothintheLipariislandsandinItaly.ThelandfallmadebysomanyshipsatMaltadoesnotinvalidatethese

archaeologicalclues;quitethecontrary.Anditalsofitsthegeneralhypotheseswhichhavebeensuggestedbythatextremelycuriousphenomenon,themegaliths.

IllCanthespreadofmegalithsexplaintheearlyhistoryoftheMediterranean?

Idonotproposetotacklethedifficulttopicofmegalithssimplyforthepleasureofpresentingafewimagesfromastrangeworldwhichhasremainedmysterious.Myconcerniswiththeseaitself,unknowableanduntamed.Thereaderhasseenthatthequestfortheearliestshipsdoesnotreallyenableustograspmuchabouttheearlyperiodsofthesea,andthatthecurrentofevidencecarriesusceaselesslyonwardtowardslatererasmucheasiertounderstand.Willthemegalithsbeabletotakeusfurtherbackintime?Unfortunately,anydispassionateattempttotracethehistoryof

megalithsleavesonewiththeimpressionofavanisheddream,aproblemthatmayneverbesolved.ThisisthemoreregrettablesincethiswidespreadphenomenonconcernstheentireMediterraneanarea,withsimilaritiesbetweenoneplaceandanotherthatsuggestsomeunifiedmovement.Butthedataatourdisposalarefarfromclear.

Areweeventalkingaboutasingleproblem?Toregardmegaliths,thoselargeandsometimesenormousblocksofcrudelyhewnstone,asthesymbolofaparticularcultureisnotaprioriproblematic.Buteventhenthesymbolhastotobefoundinassociationwiththesameculturalelements.Asregardsthestonesthemselves,weareallfamiliarwiththe

terminologyofFrench,orratherBreton,origin:menhirsareverticalstandingstones,dolmensarewallsmadeofseveralcutstonestoppedwithhorizontalslabs.Thereadermayhaveseenlinesofstandingstonesorstonecircles(cromlechs)madeupofmenhirs,andwillalmostcertainlybefamiliarwithpicturesofStonehengenearSalisburyinEngland,animpressivesite,althoughnowinruins,datingfrombetween1700and1500BC:itismadeupofseveralconcentriccirclesofbluestonesandlargeboulderswithslabsovereachlintel,broughtfromquarriesintheWelshmountainsmanymilesaway.Thesestones,traditionallysupposedtobeofsacrednature,werealwaysthoughttohavebeenlinkedtoCeltichistoryandDruidrites.Onlyveryrecentlyhavetheybeenrecognizedaspossiblybelongingtoamuchmorewidespreadculture,probablyofMediterraneanorigin.Othersignsofthisculturearefoundinthemultipleburialchambers,

sometimescoveredbycairnsmadeofoverlappingstonesandsometimesaccessibleonlyviaalonglowtunnel.ReadersfamiliarwithclassicalarchaeologywillrecalltheMycenaetombs(inaccuratelydescribedasAgamemnon’streasure):acirculartomb(tholos),reachedbyacorridor(dromos).Thesemultipletombsmightofcoursevaryinoveralldesign.Thelastandcrucialseriesofsignsareasfollows:1)Megalithicmonumentsarelinkedtothecultofearth-mother

goddesses,representedinmanyforms,sometimesasschematicfaceswheretheeyeshaveaspecialplace,orasstonecolumnswithonlyanotionalfacebuttwocurvedarmsindicatingbodyshape.2)Megalithsareusuallylinkedtocopperandbronze-working,asthe

exampleofeasternSpainclearlyshows.3)Thesemegalithsarealsoconnectedinthewesttoearlykindsof

farming,whichoftenprecededthem.Thereisthereforesomelinkbetweensettlementandtheestablishmentofvillagesononehandandontheotheranewcultandthetechnologyofmetal-working,broughtby

immigrantpopulations(possiblytravellingsmiths)orspreadingfromseveralcentresbymereimitation.6

Thisbeingso,onecanforeseeconsiderabledifficultiesofinterpretation:uncertaintyaboutchronology–butthenthatisnormalinprehistory–andgapsinthepicture,ascertainelementsmaynotbewhereonewouldexpectthem,ormayappearinanunusualform.

Seapassages

Andyetonegeneralfeatureseemstobeclear.Sincethousandsofmegalithicmonumentshavealreadybeenfound,ahugenumberofpositionscanbechartedontheglobe,fromThailand,IndiaorMadagascartonorthernEurope.Withinthishugeandchronologicallyincoherentarea,ifweconcentrateontheEuropeanandMediterraneansector,oneconclusionseemsinescapable:thisphenomenonmusthavespreadbymeansofseacrossings.Themonumentsareoverwhelminglyfoundincoastalareas,andinparticularonislands:Malta,Sardinia,theBalearics,Britain,Ireland,Zeeland(theDanishislandwheresome3500monumentsofthistypehaverecentlybeeninventoried),andthecoastsofNorthAfrica,Provence,SpainandBrittany.InBrittany,wheretheyareplentiful,theymaybetheconsequence,somewherebetweenthesecondandthefirstmillenniaBC,7ofvoyagesundertakentofetchgoldfromIrelandandtinfromCornwall,sinceBrittanywastheindispensablewaystation.IntheMediterranean,thezoneinquestionremindsoneofthemorelimitedzonedatingfromtwothousandyearsearlier,definedbycardialpottery.Thiscivilizationofhugestoneswasthereforepropagatedbysea,and

not,aswasthoughtinthepast,byconquerorsonhorseback.Sincetheseaisnowrecognizedastheprimeroute,itistemptingtosuggestthat

theMediterraneanplayedtheroleofinitiator.ThishypothesishasthesupportofaconferenceheldinParisin1961.ThesuggestionisthatoncemoretheMiddleEast,bothonlandandsea,wastheoriginofthephenomenon.ProfessorM.Stekelis’sexcavations,whichhavedatedthemenhirsofPalestineandLebanontobetweenthefifthandsixthmillenniaBC,provideus,atleastuntilmoredataisavailable,withaplausiblecentrefromwhichitmighthavespread.Ifthisindeedwasthecase,thenthe‘culturaluniverse’ofthe

megalithsmovedfromeasttowest.Butitcertainlydidnotdosoinanyregularfashionorfromanysinglesource.Weshallbeabletocharttheirspread,ifspreadtherewas,onlywhenwehavesucceededindatingallthemegalithicmonuments,regionbyregion.8

Malta:templesanddolmens

TheexpertsdonotbyanymeansagreeforexampleonthedateofthemegalithictemplesinMalta,orevenonthedateofthefirsthumanhabitationoftheisland(whichwasprobablyreachedviaSicily):theevidenceconsistsonlyofaveryfewshardsofcardialpottery.Someveryancientburialchambershave,however,beenunearthedbyexcavation,containingamixtureofbonesstillcoatedinochreandhumanblood.LaterthanthesearetheimmensecatacombsofHalSaflieni,discoverediri1901,inwhichoverseventhousandskeletonswerefound,theirbonesscatteredapparentlyatrandom.Atsomeveryearlydate–andthisispeculiartoMalta,givingita

specialplaceinmegalithichistory–genuinetemplesalsoappeared.Aboutadozenofthemhavebeenpreserved,differinggreatlyfromoneanother,andcombininghugeboulderswithmoreordinarybuildingstones.Althoughtheirchronologyisuncertain,excavationsthroughouttheislandhavemadeitpossibletoclassifythesetemplesinrelationto

oneanother.ThetwooldestonesatMgarrhaveaclover-leafdesign,withthreeovalmainchambers,afeaturewhichisalwaysfoundinlatertemples,despitetheincreasingarchitecturalcomplexitywhichmakethemtrulyenormousmonuments.ThisistrueforinstanceofthetemplesatGantija,HagiarKim,and

Mnaidra,andofthefantasticcomplexatHalTarxien,madeupofseveralsuccessivetemples,notfarfromthepresent-daycapital,Valletta.ThehypothesisadvancedbyJ.D.Evansin1959seemsquiteplausible:

thatthesetempleswereoriginallyprimitivetombswhichlaterchangedtheirusage,remainingdedicatedtothecultofthedead,whohadtobeplacatedbypropitiaryritesandsacrifices.Thiswouldexplain,amongotherthings,thecuriousfriezeintheHalTarxientemple,depictingrams,pigsandgoats,potentialvictims.HeretoowefindtheEarthMother,representedbymanycarvedimages(notmerelymenhir-statuesaselsewhere).Thestylevariedgreatlywiththeperiod,butinthefinalgenerationoftemples(datingfromthefirsthalfofthesecondmillennium),thestyleofthesculptureandcertainmotifssuchasthespiralmakeonethinktheremayhavebeensomedirectAegeaninfluence.ThistemplecivilizationinMaltawassuddenlyandtotallydestroyedin

about1500BC,9byinvaderswhoprobablyoriginatedinsouthernItaly.Theboatgraffitimentionedearliercannotbelaterthereforethanthemiddleofthesecondmillennium.Butthenewcomers,whodestroyedtheisland’sfirstcivilizationandusedtheruinsoftheHalTarxientemplesfortheirownends,hadonespecialfeature:theybroughtwiththemcopperweapons.Thisadvantagenodoubtmadeupfortheirinferiornumberscomparedtothebuildersofthemegalithictemples.Ofthosebuilders,nothingelseremained,neithertheirpottery–whichwasreplacedbyamuchcrudervariety–northeirart.Theirsuccessorsappearthemselvestohavebelongedtosomeformofmegalithicculture,however,andtheyinturncoveredtheislandwithsmalldolmentombs,offairlycrudedesign,inwhichpotterycharacteristicoftheoccupationhasbeenfound.Maltamayperhapshaveplayedakeyroleinthemegalithicchain.I

say‘perhaps’advisedly.Thishasoftenbeensuggested,butweshouldnotallowourselvestobecarriedawaybythesizeandgrandiose

strangenessoftheMaltesestones.Afterall,itisequallypossiblethatsouthernItaly(Bari,Otranto,Tarentum)andSicily,wherehugemasstombscutintotherockhaveleftplentifultraces,associatedwithbronze-ageartefacts,mayhaveplayedjustasinfluentialaroleinthisprimitiveculture,ifnotmoreso.Thesmallsea-girtislandofMalta,producingafantasticsetofstonemonuments,yethavingnoknowledgeofmetals,seemstoospecialacasetohaveplayedtheroleofculturaltransmitterinthespreadofmegaliths,assomepeoplehavehypothesized.

ThestrangecaseofSardinia

Sardinia,equallystrangeandspecial,isalsoworthpausingtoconsider.Thisisaverycuriousisland,longuninhabited,likeitsneighbourCorsica.Beinglargerandevenmoreisolatedfromthemainlandthanthelatter,ithasbeenperhapsthemostconservativeregionofthewholeMediterranean–ateverystageinitshistory.AsinMalta,therewasbothadeviationfromandadevelopmentoftheusualmegalithicpattern.Collectivetombswerepresentfromtheveryfirsthumanoccupationof

theisland,whichwasprobablynotbefore2250BC.10TheyincludethemysterioustombsofLiMuri,withtheirraisedstonesandtheirrefinedstoneartefacts;somewhatlater,itseems,camethetombscutintotherock,whichcorrespondtothefirstidentifiablecultureontheisland,knownastheOzierian.Everythingaboutthesetombsseemstopointtoalinkwitheasternculture–thebulls’headscarvedontherockywalls,theidolsofCycladictype,thespiraldesignsatPimenteli,whichareasymboloffertilitywidespreadintheeasternMediterraneanfromSumertoTroy,MycenaeandSyria.Butthereissomewesterninfluencetoo,particularlyfromsouthernFrance,andcertainimportedartefactsargueforcontactwithbothSicilyandtheBritishIsles,possiblyIreland.

Oflaterdate,butalmostcontemporarywitheachother,11arethe

tombswithdolmens,whichwouldlaterdevelopintothegreatmassburialchambersknownasthe‘tombsofthegiants’,andthefirstvillageswithnuraghi,towers,verycharacteristicoftheisland,andsimilartotheCorsicantorri.About6500ofthesetowers,moreorlesswell-preserved,havebeenrecordedontheisland,andthelistisprobablynotcomplete.Theirname,whichmaycomefromapre-Indo-Europeandialect,maymeanaheaporahollow.Originallytheyseemtohavebeenwatchtowersfordefensivepurposes,builtonaplatformandonthecairnprinciple,thuscreatinginsideakindoftholos,avaultedchamber,onamoreorlesssteepslope.TheywentonbeingbuiltuntilRomantimes(238BC)andevenlater,Thenuraghithusspannedathousandyearsofexistence,duringwhichtimetheyweregraduallyembellishedwithvariousrefinements,likethetemplesinMalta,aprotectiveoutsiderampartforinstance,orsupplementarytowers.WiththeCarthaginianinvasioninthesixthcenturyBC,theyhadtobedefendedagainstenginesofwar:numerousprojectileshavebeenfoundatthefootofthenuraghi.ThehugecomplexatBarumini,whererecentexcavationshaveidentifiedatleasttwosuccessiveperiods,wastheresultoftheseprogressiveimprovementsandrefinements.Thesecomplexes,builtofmassiveboulders,sheltereddefenders,

families,tribesandtheirchief,andsometimesarmaments.Asfortheirreligiouslife,aboutwhichlittleisknown,itcentredfirstonthetombsofthegiants,thenonsanctuarieslocatednearwellsorfortifiedtemples.ThesesitesarereminiscentofthoseonMalta,buttheyarenotidentical,andweshouldnotethattheyareinfactofmuchlaterdate.Yettheycomefromthesamestockofformalpossibilities.UnlikeMalta,Sardiniahadearlyknowledgeofmetals.Artefacts,

probablyimported,includingcopperwhichanalysisshowstohavecomefromSpain,thesouthofFrance,andIreland,havebeenfoundintheOzieritombs.Afterthis,localworkingsrapidlycametooccupyanimportantplaceinthisminingisland,asweshallseelater.Onewouldliketoknowthedateatwhichthefoundriesconnectedtothefortifiedtemplesandthenuraghiwerebuilt.

FromtheSpanishLevantetotheAtlantic

TheBalearicislands,oratleastMinorcaandMajorca(IbizawasuninhabiteduntiltheCarthaginiansarrivedin636BC),wouldgiverisetoobservationscomparabletothoseonemightmakeconcerningthewholeMediterranean‘fromCyprustoMycenae,bywayofCreteandtheAegeanislands’,MaltaandaboveallSardinia.Thetombsandtowersinthesetwoislandshavenotyetbeensystematicallyexcavated.Thereareaboutathousandtowers,bothroundandsquare,locallycalledtalayots.Dotheydateonlyfromthefirstmillennium,asseemspossible?Atanyrate,theyhadtimetodevelop,culminatingingroupsoftowersandhouses,surroundedbythickwalls.ThevillageofCapocorpVeilforexample,nearLluchmayor,isabouttwohundredmetreslongandfortyacross;ithasawallthreemetresthick,andincludesseventalayots,threeroundonesandfoursquare.Theculturalandhistoricalmeaningofthismegalithicarchitecturehasyettobedeciphered.InSpainitself,thespreadofmegalithswasevenmorecurious.FromAlmeriatotheEbroandeventotheLlobregat,theMediterraneancoastisabsolutelyfreeofanytraceofthiskindofconstruction.Theregionseemstohavebeenpenetratedfromthesouth,throughanarrowgapnearthefamousarchaeologicalsiteofLosMillares(mid-secondmillennium).12Afterhavingcomeinviathisentrance,thenewcomersmovedwestwards,towardstheAtlanticcoastandPortugal.Ifthearchaeologistsareright,thesepeoplewereinvaders,sincetheirskeletons,foundinlargenumbersinthenecropolises,seemtoindicateadifferentracialgroupfromthatalreadyestablishedinSpainandNorthAfrica.Theseinvaderswerenewcomersthen,andtheywerefamiliarwithmetallurgy.Theobjectsinthetombsrevealthecombineduseofcopperandstone,daggersmadeofmetalorflint,pikesandsomeremarkablearrowheads.Aboveall,andthisisparticularlynoteworthy,thenewcomersheadedfortheminingareasofAlmeria,Jaen,theSierraMorenaandtheLowerGuadalquivir.Theseweretheonlyinlandregionstheycolonized,otherwisesettlingonlyincoastalzones.Wasitminingorseafaringthatmadetheirfortune?Both,probably.Evidenceoftheir

prosperityatanyrateliesintheexistenceoftownswithoutanyequivalentinthewestatthetime.Onwhatisnowthedespoblado(uninhabitedsite)ofLosMillaresinAlmeriaprovince,wemustimagineagenuinecitywithwallsandflankingtowers,anaqueductbringingwaterfromthreekilometresaway,andmanyrichnecropolises.Thepracticeofburyingprincesorchieftainssurroundedbytheirentirefamiliespointstoa‘patriarchalandaristocraticsociety’.Thesecollectiveburialsiteshelplocatetheinvadersinthegreatmegalithicmovement:easterninfluenceseemsclearerherethanelsewhere.13IntheLosMillarestombs,acorridorleadsintoaroundorovalchambermadeofgreatslabsofuprightstones,weldedtogetherwithclay,andtoppedbyafalsedome,asincertaintholoiintheAegeanfromthefirsthalfofthesecondmillennium.Sometimesagroupofbaitlos(sacredstones)paintedredisfoundatthemouthofthecorridor,verylikethoseofByblos.Othertombs,enormousinsize,asatAntequeraorLacaranearMerida,usemoreoftheheavyraisedstonesofthedolmentype.Someofthetombsareunderground,cutintotherock(asinSicilyandveryfrequentlyintheAegean)andtheyalwaysfollowthepatternofthecorridorandthecairnedchamber.MartinAlmagroBaschhasunhesitatinglyrelatedthisarchitectureanditsassociatedpottery,weaponsorstylizedidols,totheCycladesculturedatingfromaboutzoooBCtotheendoftheMycenaeanperiod.OncemorewefindlinksbetweenamegalithiccultureandAegeanorSyrianinfluence,emanatingthereforefromareasalreadyinclosecontactwitheachotherintheseasofthecosmopolitanLevantofthesecondmillennium.

Anopenquestion

Themegalithproblem,whichwehavenotexploredbeyondtheMediterraneanarea,remainsobscure,complexandcontroversial.Isthewholequestawildgoosechase,asonearchaeologistmaintains?All

hypothesesremainpossible,andthespecialistsoftencomeupwithcontradictoryones,althoughtheyarealmostalwayssuggestive.WhatifwewereonedaytofindfirmevidencethatthedolmensandmenhirsofBrittanygobacktothefourthmillenniumandaretheoldestofallthegroupsinthewest?14Onetheoryhoweverdoesnotseemconvincing:inordertorefutetheideaofaneasternorigin,andthusofanykindofunityinthewholemegalithicculture,oneschoolofthoughtpointsoutthatthechronologywecurrentlyuseprovidesnoclearevidenceofaneast-westprogression.Ithasthereforechosentoconcludethat‘theverysimpleideasandtechnology’underlyingthemegalithicmonumentsmusthavesprungupspontaneously‘inmanyregions’inEuropeandtheMediterranean,withoutanyobviousconnectionbetweenthem.Butwasitsuchasimpleandstraightforwardmatter,intermsoftechnology,totransportthegreatbouldersofStonehengefromaquarrysomehundredandfiftymilesaway?Wasit‘natural’tobuildthesehugecollectivetombs(whichG.Bailloudhasrightlyidentifiedastheessentialfeatureofacultureincluding‘thedolmens,thehypogeesandthetholoi’),andisitreallyplausibletoassumethatitappearedeverywheremoreorlessspontaneously?Thespreadofaculturalphenomenonwhichincludedbutwasnotconfinedtothemegalithsdoesnotofcoursesignifytotalcoherenceorabsoluteuniformity.Thiswouldhardlybelikely,sincetheprocesswasspreadoveroneortwomillennia,andinenvironmentsgeographicallyandhumanlyverydifferent.Neverthelessacertainworldviewofformsandritualsdidmanifestitself,probablyspreadingbysea,ratherthanbylarge-scalepopulationmovement,andthatdoesposetheenigmaoftheoriginsofthosewhocreatedthesemonuments.Weretheymissionariesofakind,foundingareligion?TheexpandingtemplesonMaltaandthefunerarycultsseemtopointunavoidablytoreligiouslife.Butinthosedays,whatpeopledidnotbuilditslifearounditsreligion?Weretheyadventurers,settingoutfromtheeastinsearchofnewtinorcoppermines?Iwouldbeinclinedtofavourthistheory,inspiteoftheearlyMaltesecivilizationwhichhadnometal.Thefactthatambulantmetal-workersandsmithsarewellknowninthehistoryoftheMiddleEasttendstostrengthenmeinthisbelief.Weknowthattheytravelledlargedistances,fromtheearlythirdmillennium.Inabout2500,inthegreat

citiesoftheMiddleEast,metalcraftworkingwasusuallyinthehandsofguildsofforeigners,whoguardedtheirsecretsjealouslyanddidnotminglewiththeurbancommunity.Alittlebefore2000,itseemsthattherewasaseriouscrisisinthecountrieswhichhadbeenlongestinpossessionofbronze,fromAsiaMinortoIran.Wasitcausedbysocialmovements,naturaldisasters,orsimplybytheworking-outoflocalmines?Atanyrate,itresultedinmanygroupsofmetal-workersmovingsouth.Theytookwiththemidenticaltechnologyandartefacts:large-headedpins(knownasmace-shaped),torques(akindofopennecklet),braceletsofthesameshape,bi-conicbeadsorbeadsintheshapeofstonedolives,daggerswithtriangularblades.These‘torque-wearers’asC.Schaeffercalledthem,possiblybecauseoftwosilverstatuesfromUgarit,eachofwhichwearsagoldentorque,canthusbetracedfromUgarittoByblos,Palestine,Egypt,Cyprus,Crete,andcentralEuropeviatheAdriatic.15WasitcontactbetweentheSyrianorCretansailorsandthe‘torque-wearers’whichexplainedthefirstvoyagestowardsthewesternmines,thoseofSardinia,SpainandcentralEurope?Ifthesamepeoplewerealsothosewhoexportedthemegaliths,ourproblemswouldbesolved.Butthatwouldperhapsbetoogoodtobetrue.Whatisclearisthatsomekindofshippingroutewasestablished,andasalwaysinthesecases,anumberofinfluenceswereatwork.ItalsoseemsclearthatthisrevivaloftheminesandwesternmetallurgywasasortofprefacetothePhoenicianvoyagesofthefirstmillennium.These,farfrombeingablindleapintotheunknown,seemtohavebecomelinkeddirectlytotheexploitationofminesinSpainandSardinia,andnodoubtalsotothetraditionleftbehindbytheearlyinvaders,whohadsentoutcolonialexpeditionslongbeforethePhoenicians.

4CenturiesofUnity:theSeasoftheLevant2500-1200BC

InattemptinganoverviewoftheMiddleEastinthefifteenorsocenturiesbetween2500and1200-1000BC,theperiodroughlycorrespondingtothebronzeage,weareobligedtotakethelongviewandrecognizethattherewillbelargegapsinourknowledge.Ouracquaintancewiththisagehasprogressedinleapsandboundsinthelastfewdecades,butevenso,whenthetime-spanissogreat,manyblackholesremain.Itisadauntingtasktosketchanoverallpicture,whensomuchstillliesinshadow,andwhenanyfreshevidencemaysetoffakindofchainreaction,underminingaseriesofexplanationspreviouslythoughtvalid.Whatmustithavefeltlikein1915,whenthescholarBedrichHrozny(1879-1922)firstdecipheredthecuneiformscriptoftheHittitearchiveofBogazkoy?Hewasconvinced(hencehissuccess)thattheHittitelanguagemusthavebeenIndo-European.Asimilarsensationwascausedwhenthepressannouncedon3September1969thatthelanguageofthecivilizationoftheIndushadbeendeciphered:itwassaidtobeDravidian,andthusrelatedtopresent-daydialectsintheDeccan.1

Sucheventscandestabilizeanentiresequenceofexplanations:whatwethoughtlastyearmaynolongerbevalidtoday.Wealwayshavetheexcitingfeelingthatweareonthepointofdiscoveringwhatreallydidhappen–thenwemaybesentbacktosquareone.ThefantasticimagesfromtheCretanpalacesstillexist,butwenolongerseethemthroughtheeyesofanArthurEvansoraGustaveGlotz:wedonotcallthesefigures‘theParisienne’or‘thePrincewiththefleurdelys’.

IEveronwardandupward?

ThebronzeagebeganintheMiddleEastinthemiddleofthethirdmillenniumandendedinthetwelfthcenturyBC,withtheturmoilbroughtbytheso-called‘PeoplesoftheSea’.Thestoryofthebronzeagecouldeasilybewrittenindramaticform:itisrepletewithinvasions,wars,pillage,politicaldisastersandlong-lastingeconomiccollapses,‘thefirstclashesbetweenpeoples’.Butalltheserivalempiresandaggressivecities,allthebarbariansfrommountainsordesertwhoovercamebyforceorcunningpeoplesmoreadvancedthanthemselves,werecaughtupinageneraltideofcreativeprogresswhichwashedovereverything,acivilizationwhichspreadregardlessoffrontiers.InthiswayacertainunitywascreatedamongthecountriesandseasoftheLevant.Thehistoryofthebronzeagecanthereforebewrittennotonlyasasagaofdramaandviolence,butasastoryofmorebenigncontacts:commercial,diplomatic(evenatthistime),andaboveallcultural.MightthisexpandingculturaluniversehavebeencapableoftakingovertheentireMediterranean?ItseemedtobeheadingthatwayshortlybeforetheinvasionsofthePeoplesoftheSea.Theseinvasionsprovedadisasterforthewholearea,notonlyforthedestructiontheywrought,butbecauseGreeceandtheAegeanwerenowcutoffandisolatedfromtheMiddleEast,eventuallybecomingforeigntoit.Thisschism,whichwasnevertobehealed,containedinembryothefuturegreatculturaldividebetweenEastandWest.2

After2000BC:bronzebooststrade

Bronzemetallurgyitselfplayedanimportantroleinthisconstructiveexpansionoftrade,especiallyoncemetal-workingreachedthedensely

settledsocietiesofEgyptandMesopotamia.Aswiththeearliesttypesoffarming,innovationinmetal-working(andthesamewaslatertrueofiron)didnotoriginateinthemostprivilegedareas.ThesmeltingofcopperanditsalloysdevelopedfromthefourthmillenniumbcinthenorthernsectoroftheFertileCrescent:westernIran,theCaucasus,ArmeniaandAsiaMinor.TheexcavationswhichhaverevealedthesitesofpalacesinTroyII,Alishar,Ala^aH&yttkandKultepe,andthetreasuresofAstrabad,TepeHissarorMaikopinTranscaucasia,unequivocallymarkoutabroadzonewherebronzewasinuse.NowhereelseintheMiddleEast,eveninEgyptorMesopotamia,hastherebeendiscoveredsuchprofusionofrichmetalsasinthetombsofAlaca,datingfromc.1300:everythingisthere–gold,silver,copper,bronzeandeveniron–atthetimeamorerareandpreciousmetalthantheothers.BronzemadeitsveryfirstappearanceinMesopotamiainabout2800,anddidnotreachEgyptuntilabout2000.Moresignificantfordevelopingtradewasitsgeneralizeduse,whichishardertodatewithprecision–sayabout2000to1500,withMesopotamiastartingearlyandEgyptlaggingbehind.InthetombofKingTutankhamun(c.1350BC)therearemorecopperobjectsthanbronze.Thisgradualextension,asortofsecondcareerforbronze,waslinkedtowavesofemigrationbythemetal-workersofAsiaMinoralreadymentioned.TheyweretobefoundatUgarit,wheretheyremainedfortwohundredyearsorso,untilabout1700BC;inByblos,animportantmetal-workingcentreinabout2000,wheretheydevelopedveryfinetechniquesof‘damascene’,theartofchasinggoldthreadontocopper,silverorniello;andtheirtracesarealsofoundinCyprus,Palestine,EgyptandcentralEurope.Richerregionswerethebeneficiariesofthisimportantdiaspora.Withbronze,itbecamepossibletomanufacturethatimpressivearmouryofoffensiveanddefensiveweaponswithoutwhichtherewouldhavebeennostate,noprincewhocommandedrespect.Itbecamethefoundationofamaterialcivilization–justasironandsteelarestillthebasisofourowncivilization.Copperandtinmineswouldthereforebecomecovetedobjects,jealouslyguarded.Comparativelyrare,butscatteredacrosstheknownworld,theyusuallyhadtobeexploitedfromadistance.Tocapturetradeinthesepreciousmetals,rich

regionshadabuilt-inadvantage,usingtheirtradingnetworkswhichhadlongbeenorganizedaroundtheso-called‘palaceeconomy’.Foritwasindeedtheprinceswho,havingstartedbycontrollingthe

dailylifeoftheirsubjectsunderthesystemofbarter,laterdrewintothepalacecoffersanyresourceswhichcouldbemobilized–duespaidinkind,taxes,unpaidlabour,customsduties.Itwasinthepalaceworkshopsthatcraftproductionintendedforforeignexportwasorganized.This‘royalpalace’systemwouldexpandfurther,feedingoffthenewdevelopmentsintrade.Thepalacewasnotonlythemostimportanteconomiccentreintheregion,itwasoftentheonlyone,withtheprincehimselfbeingtheleadingproducer,financierandcustomer.Itwasforhisbenefit,andforthatofthesmallgroupofpeopleattendantonhisperson,thattradewasorganizedanddeveloped.Religioustemplestoo,withtheirlandedestates,peasantsandcraftsmen,were‘palaces’inaneconomicsense.Sometimestheyhadevenprecededtheprincesinthisrespect.InthesecondmillenniumBC,sucheconomicconcentrationcanbefoundnotonlyinEgyptandMesopotamia,butintheHittiteEmpire,orinCrete–wherethefabulouspalacecellarswiththeirgiantamphoraeofoilorwine(70,000litresinstockaccordingtoEvans’scalculations)speakforthemselves,asvisitorstoKnossoscanattest.ThepalaceatUgaritwasregularlyextendedtomatchthecity’sfortunesandthoseofitsrulers,andthedevelopmentofits‘administration’.KingSolomontoohadhis‘palaceeconomy’.Sowithoutapalacetherecouldbenostate–andwheretherewasa

palacetherewasalwaysastate.Thesystemwasonlyviablebecauseitwasbasedontheruthlessexploitationofmassesofpeasantsandcraftsmen.Iftheeconomyexpanded,thepeople’sdependencecouldonlyincrease.Beforelongeveryregionhadmarkedoutitsownjealouslyguardedsupplyzones,fromwhichitderivedbothluxurygoodsandmilitarystrength.Centredonthesezones,aformofprivatecapitalismwassoonseekingtoexpandbeyondthepalaceeconomyinthenarrowsense.CopperfromAnatolia,Arabia(viaBahrain)orCyprus,andtinfromIranorpossiblyalreadyfromTuscany,SpainandEngland,werecirculatingintheformofcrude,half-finished(orevenfinished)products.Primitivefurnaces,dugintheground,havebeenfoundinSinai,wherecopperorewastreatedbeforebeingdispatchedtotheNile.

Whenini960underwaterarchaeologistsdiscoveredawreckdatingfrom1200bcoffGelidonyaontheTurkishcoast,itscargowasfoundtoconsistoffortycopperingotsintheshapeof‘oxhides’,bearingthemarkoftheCypriotcopperfounders.Thenetworkwentonexpanding,takinginMalta,Iran,Turkestan,andtheIndus;itstretchedfromthenorthwhichproducedcopper,tinandamber,toNubiainthesouth,acolonialterritorymercilesslyexploitedbytheEgyptians.Overlandcaravansandshippingconvoysconnectedwitheachother.ShipsandboatswerealreadyventuringintotheseasofnorthernEurope,perhapsalreadyhoistingtheleathersailstheVenetiiwereusingwhenCaesardefeatedtheminahard-foughtnavalbattle.Thenorth-southlandroutesmusthavebeenevenbusieracrossthenarrowEuropeancontinent,obeyingthecalloftheMediterranean.ThesamedrawingpoweraffectedtheRedSea,whereaThebantombpainting(sixteenthcenturyBC)depictsthelocalcoastingtrade:nativeproducersaretakingtheirgoodstoanEgyptianport,possiblyKoseiratthefarendoftherouterunningfromCoptosontheNiletotheRedSea.WhatIfindparticularlystrikingisthattheseroundboats,probablymadeofosiers,andbuilttoadesignstillfoundinArabcountriestoday,haveatriangularsail,carefullyrenderedbythepainter.NowthetriangularsailischaracteristicoftheIndianOcean.Twothousandyearslater,IslamicsailorswerethefirsttointroducetotheMediterraneanthisexoticshapeofsail(sowelladaptedtoitswatersthatitcametobeconsideredtypicallyMediterranean,ascomparedtotheAtlantic,andwasknownasthe‘Latin’orlateenrig).SotheThebanpaintingsuggestslinkswiththatotherzoneofseatravel,fromthePersianGulftotheIndies,governedbythemonsoon.Thistrafficonland,riverorseabenefitedfromfavourablecircumstances.Iamnotsuggestingthattherewerenopiratesonthehighseasorbrigandsonlandroutes.Buttheselong-distanceconnectionsimpliedadegreeofcomplicitybetweenonecityorstateandanother.InMesopotamia,goodswerepassedefficientlyfromcitytocity,liketheballinagoodrugbymatch.Thegreatcaravansofblackdonkeys,forexample,whichtravellednorthfromAssurtoKanesh(present-dayKliltepe)carryingtinandfabricsboughtinsouthernMesopotamia,andbringingbackcopperfromAnatoliaonthereturntrip,werenever

interceptedorharassedontheirregularroutes.ABabyloniandocumentfromthistime(earlyinthesecondmillenniumBC),mentions‘royaltravelpermits’,whichnodoubthadtobepaidfor,andtheitinerarieswerewell-organizedwithovernighthaltsand‘refreshment-providersatthecrossroads’.Evenso,thejourneywastoughgoinganddangerousenoughfortheMesopotamianstoinvoketheprotectionofShamash,thesun-god,beforeleaving:‘OThou,helperofthetravellerwhoseroadisharsh,andcomforterofhimwhocrossesthesea,fearingthewaves’.

Mesopotamia’sadvantages:roadsandcurrency

Mesopotamialayatthecrossroadsofmanyroutes:itborderedonIranandtheIndianOcean,stretchedupasfarasAsiaMinor,andcouldmakecontactwithCappadociathroughthegoodofficesofAssyrianmerchants.ButthemostvigorousarteriesoftraderantoSyria,beyondpowerfulMari,aggressiveCarchemishandAleppo,towardstheOrontesvalley,anddowntotheseaandthegreatportofUgarit(modernRasShamra).AnearlyversionofGenoaorevenVenice,Ugaritwasthegatewaytothe‘upperseaofthesettingsun’,astheMesopotamianscalledtheMediterranean,asopposedtothe‘lowersea’,thePersianGulf.WithoutnecessarilyseeingMesopotamiaintheagesofSargonand

Hammurabiasanillustrationofthetheoryof‘polesofgrowth’,oneisforcedtorecognizetheregion’sobviousprecociousness,revealedveryearlybytheriseofaneconomythatusedcurrency.Thiswasnotmoney-as-symbolinthesenseweknowittoday.Butamonetaryeconomyisoneinwhichasinglecommodity–say,apreciousmetal–tendstobeusedasameasureforallothersandtobesubstitutedforthemintrading.ItwasthemightyPersianEmpirewhichmuchlaterongeneralizedtheLydianinventionofmoneyinthemodernsense,usingstampedcoinswhichitdispatchedallovertheMiddleEast,includingMesopotamiaandEgypt(thelatterbeingratherresistanttothem,asithappens).

TheearliestformofcurrencyusedforpaymentbytheSumerianswasameasureofbarley.SoinMesopotamiamoneyhaditsoriginsincropcultivation,ratherthaninlivestock,whichwastheunitusedinRome(pecunia),inGreece(bous)andinIndia(rupia).Barleyascurrencycontinuedtobeusedforordinarytransactions,sincemetal,whenitmadeitsfirstappearance(firstcopper,thensilver,inweightedamounts),wasasortofmoneyofaccount,ascaleofreference.Barleycontinuedtobethe‘real’money.Acontract,afterstipulatingthepriceinsilver,wouldindicateinanappendixwhatthecurrentexchangeratewasbetweensilverandbarley.Forforeigntrade,however,thecurrencywhichactedasastimulusandbecamewidelyadoptedwas,ofcourse,metallic.Silver,assoonasitappearedandbegantobeusedasrealcurrencyfor

sometransactions,tended,infact,toprevailoverotherformsofpayment.ThisexplainsonedecisionofthecodeofHammurabi:iftheproprietressofatavernwillnotacceptgrainasthepricefordrink,butreceivessilverandtherefore‘makesthepriceofthedrinkfallbelowthepriceofgrain,thesaidproprietresswillbeseizedandflungintothewater’.Thisunexpecteddetailindicatestheambiguousnatureofasemi-monetaryeconomy.Perhapsasoneexpertsuggests,barterwasretainedwhenitwaspossibletopayinkindinheavygoods–nearriversorbythesea–orwhenpalaceshadbeenbuilt,sincetheycouldstoregoodsinquantity.Themonetaryeconomywouldhaveprevailed,ontheotherhand,among‘capitalists’whodidnothaveenormousstorehousestodrawon,andwhose‘travellingsalesmen’travelledtheroads,withtheir‘agentscarryingtheircapital’,assuggestedintheinvocationtoShamashquotedabove.Therapidappearancealongsidepalaceofficialsofauthentic

merchants,someofthemtravellingwholesalers,othersprovidersoffunds(thelatterdefinitelythemoreimportant),wasanunmistakablesignofMesopotamia’seconomicprecociousness.Ineverycitythesemerchantsmadeupacommunityapart,thekarum.TojudgebythekarumofKanesh,whichweknowaboutfromitsplentifulcorrespondence,theyhadattheirdisposalwarehousesandthefacilitiesofatradeassociationwhichactedasasortofchamberofcommerce.Theywerecompetenttohandlesilverforpayments,andwerefamiliar

withnotesofhand,billsofexchangeandcompensatorypayments–whichprovesthattheinstrumentsofcapitalismemergespontaneouslywhenevercircumstancesfavourthem.InBabylon,therewereevenbankinghouses,sowearenotsurprisedtofindamonetaryeconomyinUgarit,theoutletonthecoastfortheMesopotamianhinterland:itwasanactiveport(150vesselsarementionedasbeingthere)andnotfarfromtheTaurussilvermines.Thecity’smerchants,importersandexporters,someofthemforeigninorigin,paidfortheirpurchasesofwool,slavesandevenlandinsilversides.Didthechoiceofsilver,asalesscumbersomeformofpaymentthancopperorbronze,promoteMesopotamia’sforeigntrade?Onewouldthinkso.Butsilveritselfhadtobepurchased.Inreturnforimportedrawmaterialsandfoodstuffs–silver,timber,copper,tin,preciousandsemi-preciousstones,oilandwine–Mesopotamiacouldofferonlybarley,dates,hides,woollenfabrics,engravedcylindersandothercraftgoods.Italsoactedasanintermediary,takingacommissionforitsservices.Theruleseemedtobetobuyasmuchaspossiblefromthesouthandeast,wheresilverwashighlyvalued(sosouthernMesopotamiapreferredtobuycopperfromBahrainratherthanfromAnatolia)andtosellluxurygoodsandtextilestothenorthandwest,thesuppliersofsilver.PerhapstheMesopotamianeconomydidnotoperateentirelyonthestandardruleforadvancedcountries–buyingrawmaterialsandmakingaprofitbysellingthemon,eitherinoriginalconditionorasmanufacturedproducts.ItcouldbethatMesopotamiawasalreadybenefitingfromtherulewhichprevailedsolongintheMediterranean,wherebytheuseofsilver,anover-valuedcommodityintheFarEast,wasanadvantageinitself,abeneficial‘multiplier’oftrade,atleastforreturngoods.Inthatcase,thechoiceofsilvercurrencyinMesopotamia,closetothecurrentsoftradewithIndia,wouldcarryextrasignificance.Buttheexplanationisbasedonratherslightevidence.

Egyptiangold

Toexplaineverythingintermsofsilverwouldbeanexaggeration.AndtoexplaineverythingbythecontrastbetweenEgyptandMesopotamiawouldbeequallyso.YetthatcontrastisstrikingandeconomistsregisterastonishmentandevenexasperationwhenconfrontedwiththespectacleoflifeinEgypt:fantasticallywell-orderedandintelligent,yetobstinatelyarchaic.Justasthepotter’swheeltookalongtimetoentereverydaylife,sotoodidbronze.Firstintroducedinabout2000BC,itwasnotincommonuseuntil1500,afteranintervaloffivehundredyearsduringwhichitwashardlyusedatall.Similarly,Egyptonlyeverhadonemoneyofaccount,theshat(7.6grammes)ofcopperorbronze,datingfromthefourthdynasty.Inabout1400BCthiswasreplacedbytheqite(9.1grammes).Thisshouldnotberegardedasastrengtheningofthecurrency:moneyremainedofmar-ginalsignificanceinEgypt,barterbeingtheruleuntilthePersianorindeedtheGreekconquests.AndyetEgypt,likeMesopotamia,hadtoengageintheforeigntradenecessaryforitssurvivalanditsluxuries.Itexportedmanufacturedproducts:linenclothrenownedforitsfineness,porcelain,multicolouredglass,furniture,jewelsandamulets.Butitwasnotascommittedtothislong-distancetradeasMesopotamia,sinceexceptfortimber,Egyptcouldobtaineitherathomeoronitsdoorstepalmostalltherawmaterialsitneeded:copperfromSinai(ingotsfromSyriaandCypruswerenotimporteduntilthemiddleofthesecondmillenniumbc);varioustypesofstoneforbuilding,tobefoundalongthebanksoftheNile–granite,sandstone,schist,limestoneorbasalt;manypreciousandsemi-preciousstonesfromtheeasterndesert;coralfromtheRedSea;ivory,ebonyandespeciallygoldfromNubia(thenameitselfmeans‘landofgold’).Goldwasobtainedbyprimitivepanningmethods,carriedoutbylabourerswhoweretreatedasslaves.Productionwasplentiful.UnderTutmosisHI(1502-1450BC)Nubiasentthepharaohtwoorthreehundredkilosofgoldinasingleyear.Thisisafabulousfigure,ifonethinksthatSpanishAmerica,fromthefirstvoyagesofdiscoveryuntil1650,wasdeliveringonaveragehardlymorethanatonayear.TherewassometruththenintherepeatedclaimsinthediplomaticcorrespondenceofAmarna(AmenophisIII,1413~1377,andAmenophisIV,1377-1358)thatinEgyptgoldwasascommonassand.Pusratta,theemperorofMittani,acontemporaryofAmenophisIV,preferredtosay‘likedustbetweenthe

toes’.Silverontheotherhandwasinshortsupply,sothegold-silverratioundertheMiddleKingdomwasonly1:2oreven1:1.Bypossessinggold,Egyptwasunconsciouslybuteffectivelyinastrong

position.Wasthisanencouragementtostagnate?WhereasMesopotamiawasobligedtomakeconstantefforts,toremainactiveandalertandtolaunchintoforeigntrade,Egyptsuggeststous,mutatismutandis,Chinaintheeighteenthcenturyad:self-confidentandsupremelyself-centred.

Theverylong-termtrend:the‘conjoncture’

TheMediterraneaneconomydescribedabovehaditshighsandlowsandexperiencedanumberofcrises.Itwasadmittedlyprosperousforcenturiesonend:evidenceforthisliesinitsexpansion,orinthecreationofmightystatesandhugepalaces,whoseinterestisnotconfinedtoarthistory.Itisevenpossiblethatthemovebeyondthepalaceeconomy,traceableintheregionsof‘cuneiformscript’,wasbothproofandresultofeconomicexpansiongreaterthanelsewhere.Allthesame,upsanddownsoccurred.Wearefairlysurethatroutesweresometimesblocked,thatpricesfluctuated,andthatthesizeofthepopulationroseandfell(atleastinEgyptandCrete),andwealsoknowthattherewerepoliticalaccidentsorupheavalswhichcouldnothelpbutbringeconomiccatastropheintheirwake.Allthisbeingso,andsinceIhaveratherprovocativelybroughtthe

word‘conjoncture’(trend)intothedebate,canwefindagenuineuseforit?Somekindofoverallpatternmusthaveexistedofcourse,butwecandolittlemorethanimaginewhatitwaslike,onthebasisofsomesketchyevidenceandhypotheseswhicharenomorethanplausible.i)Iwouldimaginethatthisworld,withitscriss-crosstradinglinks,

andallowingbothforinertiaandabruptchange,mustneverthelesshavehadsomekindofoverallrhythm,thoughthatwouldofcoursehaveconcernedonlythehigherformsoftrade.

2.)Theonlyindicatorswehave,andtheyareveryimperfect,concernMesopotamiaandEgypt.Theformerwasactive,andcarriedmuchweight,butwas,sotospeak,lackingindirection,orratherdisruptedbyexcessivepoliticalchange;thelatterbycontrastwasahugebutpassiveeconomy:alltraderoutesseemedtoleadtherebutitwasoftenmanipulatedfromoutside,asinlatertimesCantoneseChinawouldbebyEuropeancapitalism.TheevidencefromEgyptistheclearestandthemostuninterrupted,

butnotnecessarilythebest.Letusstartwithit,however,becauseitistheeasiesttointerpret.Thelongperiodsofpoliticalcollapseareunambiguouslysignalledin

Egyptbytheterm‘intermediaryperiods’.Thefirstofthese,betweentheOldandtheMiddleKingdoms,ranfromabout2280to2050.Thesecond,betweentheMiddleandtheNewKingdoms,ranfrom1785to1590.Itwasduringthisverylongintervalthatthewell-attestedepisodeoftheHyksostookplace.These‘foreigners’wereapastoralpeoplewhosettledintheeasternpartoftheDelta,wheretheybuilttheircapital,Avaris.Theirrulersplayedtheroleofpharaohsowellthattheybecamethetitularholdersofthefourteenthandfifteenthdynasties.Thethirdandlastintermediaryperiod,whichdidnoteverreallyend,ranfromtheeleventhcenturyBCuntiltheseventhandbeyond.TheSaiteperiod(663-523)wasonlyashort-livedinterlude.Allinallthen,wecanseeEgyptasonarisingcurveuntil2280BC,thenadownwardoneuntil2050;risingagainfrom2050to1785,beforeadownturnfrom1785to1590;itthenwitnessedaverypronouncedupturnintheageofgloriousvictoriesoftheNewKingdombeforeitdeclinedintotheendlessmorasswhichaffectedthewholeoftheMiddleEastaftertheconvulsionsofthetwelfthcenturyBC.OfthesethreelongperiodsofbreakdowninEgyptianhistory,thefirst

–asortofculturalrevolt,emergingfromthedepthsofthecountry’sinterior,accompaniedbyanAsiaticinvasionandatotalbreakdownoftradewithByblosontheonehandandthegold-producingcountriesontheother–wasmuchmorepronouncedthanthesecond.TheHyksosepisodedidnotproducequitesuchextensivecollapse:theincomersappropriatedtheeconomicactivityofLowerEgyptwithoutdestroyingit.LittleisknownaboutthisactivitybutwedoknowthattheDeltaunder

HyksosdominationmaintaineditsformerlinkswithSyria,Crete,theLevantcoastandevenwiththeHittites.Thefinalandthirdbreakdown,however,spelledtheendofanera.Theperiodsofrisingprosperitycorrespondtothemanyhundredsof

yearsofsuccessofthethreesuccessiveKingdoms.LetustaketheexampleoftheMiddleKingdom(2040-1786):orderhadbeenrestoredintheNilevalley,theregimeofmonarchsandinterdependenttempleshadbeensuppressed,thecountryhadoncemorerecovereditscruisingrhythmandacertainprosperity.Itwasthenthatthepharaohscreatedastandingarmy–abottomlesspitofexpenditure;notonlythatbutburialtombs,evermorenumerous,werenolongerconfinedtotheroyaldynasties,yettheybecamemorerichlyequippedthanever:frescoes,statuesandpreciousobjectsaccompaniedthedead,whilewoodenstatuettesprovidedthemwiththearmyofservantswithoutwhichnograndeecouldliveinthisworldorthenextandbehappy.LuxuryinallitsformsenteredEgyptianlife:theluxuryofclothes,jewelsandperfumes;offestivalsatwhichyoungwomeninrichfinerysatlisteningtomusicians,attentiveslavesofferedguestslotusflowersandbunchesofgrapesoracostlyperfumecone,tobesetlikeawhitediademontheirdarktresses.Thatsaid,ifonecomparesthethreefoldEgyptianpatternwiththeups

anddownsofMesopotamia(se^cTablei),itisbynomeansaperfectmatch,andthatoughttoreassureus,sincetheindicatorbeingfollowedhereisessentiallypolitical;itcannotbeappliedwithanyprecisiontoeconomicchange.Whatismore,theseculartrendsdonotfitthedifferentregionsatexactlythesametime.Sowearefacedwithonlyverybroadcorrespondences,forwhichtheimperfectchronologiesatourdisposalcanlegitimatelybeused.LetuscallthethreeEgyptiancrisesA,B,andC;andthethree

MesopotamiancriseswhichoughttocorrespondtothemA(i),B(i)andC(i).ThecorrelationbetweenAandA(i)issatisfactory:theAkkadianEmpire,foundedinabout1340,cametoanendinabout2230,andtheOldKingdominEgyptcollapsedinabout2280;theMiddleKingdomemergedin2050andthethirddynastyofUrinabout2100.SoA=A(i),ornearenough.ForBandB(i)thereisanevenmoreclearcorrelation:thedisorderontheNilebeganagaininabout1785,lasting

untilabout1590;inMesopotamia,wecansuggestthedatesof1750(thedeathofHammurabi)and1595.ThethirddynastyofUrlastedonlyacenturyperhaps,butitwasfollowedbytheLarsadynastyandthepowerfulstateofMari,andthenbytheBabyloniandynasty,withtheAmoriteHammurabiwhoconqueredbothLarsaandMariandre-unifiedMesopotamia.Thiscomplicatedhistoryoncemorecorrespondstorivalriesbetweencities,butatnotimeseemstohaveaffectedathrivingtrade,whichisknowntousthroughabundantwrittenrecords.ThefragmentationwhichfollowedthedeathofHammurabi,ontheotherhand,correspondedtoasocialexplosion,hithertocontained:privatepropertyandinterestsnowcameintoconflictwiththeorganizationofthestate.Hammurabi’scodehadbeenanattemptTable1ChronologicaltableshowingcomparativefortunesofEgypt

andMesopotamia

EGYPT MESOPOTAMIA

C.I7OOBCOldKingdom(thirdtofourthdynasty);Cheops,ChephrenandMykerinos(fourthdynasty);establishmentofpowerofpharaohs.

c.2700BCSumerianpowerinsouthernMesopotamia;foundationofthedynastiesofUruk,UrandLagash(c.1490);foundationofAkkadianEmpirebySargontheElder(c.2340).

C.2280BCFirstintermediaryperiod(seventhtoninthdynasty);variousroyalfamilies;decadenceofthecentralpower;hegemonyofthenomarchs.

c.2230BCDeclineofAkkadianEmpire(2230)weakenedbyraidsoftheGuti,whooccupiedBabylon.

c.2050BCMiddleKingdom(twelfthdynasty);AmmenemesIfoundsanew

c.2100BCSumerianrenaissance;thirdUr

dynasty(c.2000);thecountryisbroughtundercontrol;administrativereformofSesostrisII(c.1950).

dynasty;MariandLarsastatesconqueredbyHammurabiwhocreatesthefirstAmoritedynastyinBabylonandunifiesMesopotamia.

c.1785BCSecondintermediaryperiod(thirteenthtoseventeenthdynasty);theHyksosinvadetheDeltaandmakeAvaristheircapital(c.1750);politicalandsocialdisturbances.

c.1750BCDeathofHammurabi;BabyloncapturedbytheHittitesandendofthefirstdynastyofBabylon;KassiteraidsinMesopotamiafrom1740.

c.1590BCNewKingdom(eighteenthtotwentiethdynasty);Amenophisunifiesthekingdom(c.1590);RamsesIIbeginsreignof67years(c.1300);policyofconquestandalliances.

c.1594BCKassitedynastyestablishedinBabylonfortreatyofalliancewithEgypt;expansionofSyriancitiesandHittiteEmpire(apogeefrom1380on);futheralliancewithEgypt.

c.eleventhcenturyBCThirdintermediaryperiod(1070);weaknessanddeclineoftheEgyptiankingdom.

c.eleventhcenturyBCGeneralcrisisinMiddleEast.BabylondestroyedbyAssyrians(1087);endofHittiteEmpire.

atcompromise,seekingtosatisfyaspirationswhilechannellingthem,andpreservingastrongstate.Buttheattemptwasafailureandthefamouscoderemainedadeadletter.RestorationofordercameonlywiththeKassitedynastyin1595.WemayconcludethenthatB=B(i).AndC=C(i),beyondadoubt,sincethetwelfth-centurycrisiswaswidespread,sparingnoregioneitherintheMiddleEastorinGreece,nowunderMycenaeancontrol.

Thesesixperiods–threeagesofdeclineandthreeagesofcomparativegoodhealth–allowustolocatecertainevents.Ifwecallthe‘euphoric’periods(a),(b)and(c),wewillnotethattheHittiteEmpire,formedinabout1600andlastinguntilizoo,coincidedwithalongupwardmovement(c),whichalsobenefitedtheBabylonoftheKassites(notasprosperousasallthat,however),theNewEgyptianKingdom,anditsallytheMittanistatewhichwasoccupyingnorthernMesopotamia.InCretethiscorrespondstotheso-calledsecondpalaceperiod;finally,thefourteenthcenturysawtheriseofAssyria.Workingback-wards,the(b)periodcoincidedononehandwiththeMiddleKingdom,andontheotherwiththetwoorthreestrikingattemptsatMesopotamianunification,comingtogriefafterthedeathofHammurabi;italsocorrespondstothefirstpalaceperiodinCrete.The(a)periodisprobablythemostremarkableofall:thiswastheageoftheAkkadiansuccessesandthefirstprosperityarisingfromminingmetals,acrossawidebandcoveringthewholeofAsiaMinorfromIranandtheCaucasustotheAegeanandbeyond.Egyptexperiencedthesechangesinfortunelessdramatically,sinceprosperityhadlongbeenestablishedthere.ButEgyptwassuchalargepresencethateverythingseemedtostartorfinishthere.

Acosmopolitanculture

TheparallelstobeobservedbetweentheeconomicfortunesofEgyptandMesopotamiaarethemoreinterestingsince,apartfromafewcaravansofpack-animalstravellingbetweenSinaiandtheEuphrates,thesetwogreatcivilizationshadlittledirectcontact.ButimpulseswerecommunicatedbetweenthetwoviathegreatturntableformedbytheSyria-Lebanonregion.Whenevertheeconomicclimatefavoureditspowerfulneighbours,thisintermediaryregiontookadvantageofthegeneralwaveofprosperityandactivetradewhichinvigoratedthewholeoftheMiddleEast.GraduallythiswholeareaoftheMediterranean

thereforebecameaunifiedeconomiczone,throughoutwhichallkindsofexchangewerepossible:artefacts,techniques,fashions,taste,andofcoursepeople.ArtborewitnesstothecosmopolitanculturewhichW.S.Smith’sfinebook(1965)datesfromabout2000BC.Hedistinguishestwomainperiodsofculturalcontact:thetwentiethtonineteenthcenturiesand1500-1100(verybroadlycorrespondingtothesecondandthirdperiodsofeconomicprosperity).ThisunifiedcivilizationaffectedonlyhalftheMediterranean,butitwasalreadygoingbeyondtheMiddleEastinthestrictsense.Therecouldbenobettervantage-pointfromwhichtoobserveboththegradualunificationandtheextensionofthiscivilizationthantheislandofCrete.Cretewasanewcomer,enteringthegameforafewcenturiesonly,buttodazzlingeffect.

IICrete:anewplayerinthecosmopolitancivilizationoftheMediterranean

Pre-HellenicCrete,knowntousasMinoanfromthenameofitslegendarykings(thetermMinoswasusedlikethatofpharaoh)offersafascinatingandenigmaticspectacle.WearetoldongoodauthoritythatnoprehistoricsocietyisbetterknownthanCrete;yetitiswhatwedonotknowaboutitthatperplexesus,sinceourcuriosityhasbeensowhettedbywhatwedoknow.Since1953,whenMichaelVentrisfirstdecipheredLinearB,thethirdandfinalformofscriptusedontheisland,theproblemhaschangedincharacterbuthasbecomenoeasiertosolve.Somepeoplehaveevenargued,seriouslyorotherwise,thatithasactuallybecomemoreobscure.WecertainlyhaveachoiceofnarrativesaboutCrete.ArchaeologistshavesuggestedtwoorthreeversionsandthedaysomeonedeciphersLinearA,anotherwillnodoubtemerge.Allweknowforthepresentis

thattheearliestCretanlanguageisnotanIndo-Europeanlanguage.3

TheearliestcivilizationintheAegean

AncientCretewasanislandmaroonedinadesertofsaltwaterinthesouthernAegean.Largeandmountainous,itwasbisectedbyplains(theMessaraplainincentralCreteissizeable:40kmlong,6to12across),andbristlingwithlimestonemountainswhichactedaswater-towers,culminatinginMountIda,almost2,500metreshigh.SoonefindshereinmicrocosmthefamiliarMediterraneancontrastbetweensea-levelandmountaintops.YetalthoughtheCretanhigh-landsseemtohavebeencutofffromtheforeigninfluenceswhichcausedsuchupheavalslowerdown,theyapparentlyposednoparticularthreatinprehistorictimestotheplains,citiesandpalacesofthelowlands.Transhumanceofflockswaspractised,butitseemstohavebeenuneventfulandprovokedlittlecomment.Inshort,ancientCretewasnothinglikeitslaterincarnationasCandia,underVenetianrule,whenthemountainscontainedawild,dangerousandmenacingpopulation.ShouldwededucethatMinoanCrete,existingsopeacefullywithinitsownlimits,wasactuallyunder-populatedforalongtimeinrelationtoitspotential?Thestrongestandmostunexpectedcontrastisonewhichbecameestablishedbetweenthenorth-andsouth-facingcoastsoftheisland:theformerlookingtothenearbycoastsandislandsoftheAegean,thelatterlookingouttowardsdistantAfrica,CyrenaicaandaboveallEgypt.TheformerislikemanyotherMediterraneanseaboards,thelatterakindofclimaticcuriosity,withsomethingtropicalaboutit,reminiscentoftheSpanishcoastaroundMalaga.Swallowscometheretowinter,astheydoinEgypt.Anislandisalwaysaself-containedworld.InCretetherewerescarcelyanynativeanimals,apartfrommountaingoats,badgers,wildcatsandferretswhichwerekeptasdomesticpetstocontrolthemice.

Therewerenofoxes,wolves,eaglesorowls,fewharmfulcreaturesatallifweexceptscorpions,vipersandapoisonousspiderunknownonthemainland.TheGreekswerelatertosaythat‘theislandofZeus’hadbeenprotectedfromnaturalscourgesbythekingofthegodsorbyHerakles.Therealreasonwastheprotectionprovidedbymanymilesofsea.AndthisisolationdidindeedofferadvantagestoCreteintheearlydays.Otherislands,almostaslarge,likeRhodes,orevenlarger,likeCyprus,werejustaswellsituatedforsea-routesandbetterconnectedtothemainland.YetCretewastheonewhichstoodout.Cretehadplayedonlyveryamodestrole,however,intheveryfirstAegeanorquasi-Aegeancivilization:theCycladesandTroy,southoftheHellespont,werethestarsinthisgalaxy.LiketherestoftheAegean,CretehadseenitsearliestsettlersanditsfirstformsofagriculturearrivefromAsiaMinor,inabouttheseventhmillennium.Severalwavesoflaterimmigrantshadintroducedpotteryandeventually,inthecourseofthethirdmillennium,metal-workingreachedtheisland.Yetifwecanbelievethearchaeologists,whosediagnosisisbasedonpottery,intheearlydaysCretelaggedwellbehindregionslikeArgosandThessaly,whichweremorecloselylinkedtoAnatolia.ItevenlaggedbehindtheislandofSyros,whichisknownforthepotsfamiliarlydescribedbyarchaeologistsas‘frying-pans’:flat-bottomedreceptacles,nodoubtforritualuse,decoratedwithwhitereliefsintheformofspirals,triangles,stars,suns,boatsandfish.ThefirstHelladiccivilization,likethatinAnatolia,hadasitssymboltheomnipresentearth-mothergoddess,representedintheneolithicagebynaturalisticstatuetteslikethoseoftheAsianmainland;andlaterintheearlybronzeage,bythestrangeso-calledCycladicidols,whichmaybelessethnicallyAegeanthanhasbeensuggested.The‘violin-shaped’figurinesforexample,whichseemtohavebeencarvedoutofmarbleorclayslabs,arefoundnotonlyinTroy,atpracticallyalllevelsfromItoVI,andinCrete,butalsoinThessaly;ontheAsiaticsideoftheBosphorus;andatTelEilatGhassul(northoftheDeadSea).Similarlittlesilhouettes,cutoutfromgoldleaf,havebeenfoundincertaintombsinAlacaHoyIlk.FromCrete,theseartefactstravelledwestwards–toSardinia,wheretheyinspiredmanyofthelocalstatuettesmadeofstoneormarble(earlysecondmillennium),andinthesixteenthcenturyBCtoMalta,wherewefindstylizedequivalentsinthe

shapeofviolins,orflatdiscs.InSpain,inthemegalithictombsofPurchenaandLosMillares,theyareoneofthemanysignsofeasternMediterraneaninfluence.TheeasternedgeoftheAegean,andthecoastofAsiaMinorwithports

atthemouthsofthevalleysrunningdownfromtheplateau,servedasstaging-postsintheculturalcurrentwhichforseveralmillenniaflowedfromAnatoliatowardstheAegeanandGreece.ThebrilliantcareerofTroy,ontheslopesofMountHissarlik,notfarfromtheHellespont,whichbeganinabout3000BC,isthestoryofonesuchstaging-post.NinesuccessivecitieswerediscoveredbySchliemann(in1870)onthesitewhichuntilthenhadbeenthoughtlegendary.Theoldestofall,TroyI,wasaverysmallsettlement,butalreadyundeniablyatown,withwallsandaprincelypalaceonthesafestsiteinsidethefortress.Hand-thrownpotsweremadethere,greyandblack,incisedandencrustedwithwhite,andsoweremanystoneimplements(anunsurprisingsurvivalofthepast).Butthepresenceofcopperrevealsthatanearlyformofmetallurgywasnotunknown.TheinevitableEarthMotherturnsupheretooofcourse.TroyII,onalargersite,lastedonlytwohundredyears,2500-2300,anddisappearedinafire–as,aboutathousandyearslater,didTroyVII,thecityofPriamandHector,afteralongsiegebyaGreekarmy.Butduringthosetwocenturies,TroyIIplayedanimportantroleinthespreadofmetallurgythroughouttheAegean.Excavationshavediscoveredamassofpreciousobjectsthere,madeofgold,silver,lead,electrum,eveniron,daggerswithsilverandbronzebladesandhandlesofcarvedrock-crystal,andsophisticatedgoldsmith’swork,usingtechniquesoffiligrane,cloisonneandbeading.Allthesepreciousthingsshowsignsofhavingbeenburiedhastily,possiblyjustbeforeamomentofgreatdanger.Therearetheremainstooofturnedpotsalongsidehand-madeceramics.Inthatsecondhalfofthethirdmillennium,Troywasevidentlyin

touchwithMesopotamia(asweknowfromthecylindersandsealsofJemdetNasr),withtheAnatolianplateau,Thessaly,Macedonia,theAegean,EgyptandevenwiththeBaltic,viatheDanube(sinceamberofNordicoriginhasbeenidentifiedbychemicalanalysis).Thevarietyofmaterialsinuse,semi-preciousstonesinparticular,indicatesthatthesewerenotjustfleetingcontacts.

Itwouldberashtogeneralize,tojudgetheearlycivilizationoftheAegeanfromone,perhapsexceptionalexample.Butitservestoalertustowhatmaybethecase:bynowsufficienttracesofauthenticcitiesandevenpalaceshavebeendiscoveredontheGreekmainlandandislandstosuggestthatanactivecivilization,nourishedbyearlyseabornetrading,hadspreadthroughthewholeoftheAegeanbythethirdmillennium.ThiscivilizationwasdramaticallysnuffedoutbytheIndo-European

invasionsaroundthetwenty-fourthcenturyBC.TheTroad,Anatolia,theGreekmainland,andmanyislandsintheAegeanwereinvadedbypeoplesfarlessadvancedthantheywere–probablytheancestorsoftheMycenaeansinGreece,andoftheHittitesandLouwitesofAnatolia.AlltheAegeancitiesandtheirpalaceswentupinflames.Troy,HaghiosKosmas(nearAthens),LernosandTirynsinArgos,PoliochniontheislandofLemnos.ThegeneraleconomicandculturalleveloftheAegeanfelldrastically.Thessalyrevertedtobarbarism.Allthelightswentout–exceptinCrete.Lessaccessible,savedbyitsremotelocation,theislandwasnotinvaded.Thiswasprobablyitsfirststrokeofluck.

Externalshocks

BeforethedeclineofthefirstAegeancivilization,Crete’sprosperityhadalreadyemergedinabout1500,butinanoddlylimitedform,asifanadvancedeconomyhadcarvedtwoislandsoutofonebigone:ononehandasmallfragmentintheeast,betweenZakroandthegulfofMirabello,centredonthesiteofVasilikiandtheoff-shoreislandofMochlos;ontheotherhand,thecentralplainofMessara,vastbutenclosedandsetapartbyitsnaturalwealth,evidenttousfromitscollectiveburialsites,withtheirtholoi.UnliketherestoftheAegean,whichinthethirdmillenniumwasreceivingalmosteverythingfromthewestcoastofAnatolia,CretehadcontactswithSyriaand,directlyorindirectly,withEgypt.Wasitforthisreasonthat,evenbeforezooo,this

formerpoorrelationoftheneolithicAegeanwasdevelopinganactive,outward-lookingandoriginalcivilization,reformulatingforitsownuseitsdiverseborrowingsfromelsewhere?Therewerenorealcitiesyet,orpalaces,inthisforerunnerofancient

Minoancivilization.Butthetombsontheeastcoasthaveyieldedsomerichfinds:pitcherswithspoutsintheAnatolianstyle(asintherestoftheAegean);stylizedmarblestatuesofgoddesses;toolsandweaponsmadefirstofpurecopper,thenofbronze;goldjewelsalreadyshowingdistinctivefeatures;originalkindsofpottery,including‘teapots’withlongspouts,apparentlyimitationsofmetaloriginals;andaboveall,manystonevasesofobviousEgyptianinspiration(someevenimported),whichhavecausedmuchdebateamongtheexperts.ItisnowthoughtthatCretedidnothavedirectlinkswiththeNileintheearlythirdmillennium,thedatewhenthesevasesoccurinEgyptitself,butratherindirectlinksviaByblos.Butwasthisastraightforwardimporttrade,ordidCreteallowentrytorefugeesfromtheNile,whohadtravelledbywayofSyria?Andifso,when?AtthetimeofthedistantconquestoftheDeltabyNarmer?Orfromthefirstintermediaryperiod,inthetwenty-thirdcentury,whichwitnessedsomuchlootingofveryancientEgyptiantombs?SuchtheoriesmightaccountforthepenilesheathswhichmaleCretancostumeincludedfromaveryearlytime(andwhicharethoughttobecharacteristicoftheDeltaasmuchasofLibya);theymightalsoexplainthemanypotterysealsfoundintheMessaraplain(atHagiaTriada),datingfromtheveryearlyMinoanperiod,pre-2200,anddirectlyimitatedfromsealsofthefirstintermediaryperiodinEgypt–themselvesAsiaticininspiration.OtherspecialistssimplythinkthattheCretanswhowenttoByblostravelledontoEgyptwiththelocaltraders.Bytheendofthethirdmillennium,atanyrate,Cretewasalready

poisedfortake-off.ButatthebeginningofthetwentiethcenturyBC,andasifbychance,therewasaremarkablysuddenburstofexpansion:citiesandpalacesroseandflourished;wheelsandwheeledtrafficarrivedintheisland;thepotter’swheelwasadoptedthereinaboutzoooand,miraculously,thisdidnotharmthequalityofthepre-existingpottery,onthecontrary.Theboomwassoremarkablethatithasagainbeensuggestedthatitcouldbeexplainedbysome‘migration’:peoplesfromtheSyrianorPalestiniancoastmighthavetakenrefugeinCrete,fleeing

fromLugalzaggisi,theMesopotamianrulerofthethirdUrdynasty,whoatthistimeopenedupthewaytothe‘upperseaofthesettingsun’.4ThelegendofEuropabeingcarriedoffbyZeusfromthePhoeniciancoastandtakentoCreteacrosstheseamightcontainagrainoftruth.Butdoesoneneedtoinvokeanymigrationtoexplainwhatcanbe

quiteadequatelyaccountedforbytherenewedvitalityoftradeand‘international’relationsintheearlysecondmillennium?FromthetimeoftheancientMinoancivilization,before2000BC,theCretanshadadoptedahieroglyphicformofscript,andthisfeaturealoneindicateshowdetachedtheywerefromtheAegeanworldanditsilliteratebarbaricinvaders.CretansailorswerecertainlyfamiliarwiththeroutetotheSyriancoast.CutofffromtheAegeanworld,CretelookedtowardsCyprus,UgaritandByblos;andthroughtheseplaces,itmadecontactwithEgyptandMesopotamia,withoutwhichanyseriousdevelopmentwouldhavebeenunthinkable.Cretewasfromthenonenmeshedinacontextofeasterncivilization.

Palacesandcitiesasindicators

ThegreatcitiesandpalacesarethoseatKnossos,Phaistos,MalliaandZakro,asiteexcavatedin1946.UnlesstherearemoremarvelswaitingtobediscoveredonthesiteofformerKydoniatothewest(astraditionhintsthattheremightbe),thelistoflargeurbanandpalacecomplexesiscomplete.Therewerealsoafewmoremodestpalacesornoblemen’svillas.Indeedtherewasscarcelyacultivatedplainoractivetownwhichdidnothaveitslocalpalaceandprince:theseincludeArkhanes,justafewkilometresawayfromKnossos,wherebronze-agewallscanstillbeseenincorporatedintothewallsofpresent-dayhouses;MonastirakiwhichcontrolsthefertilevalleyofAmari;KanliKastelliorGournia,withits‘housespiledroundthelittlepalaceanditscourtyard,justasmedievaltownsclusteredaroundtheirchurchorchateau’.

Ifthesesitesareplottedonamap,thepatternisrevealing.Unlessnewfindsdoturnup,thereisabsolutelynothinginthewestoftheisland.Yetitwasjustasfertileastheeastandcertainlybetterwatered.ThismustprovethatCretewasinfluencedfromoutside,andfromtheeasternsideofthecompassonly.Insimilarfashion,westernArgosandpeninsularGreecewestofMountPindusandMountParnassuslongremainedareasinhabitedbyprimitivepeoples(accordingtoSpyridonMarinatos).Plottingtheriseofthesecentresovertimeisalsoinstructive.There

were,broadlyspeaking,twogenerationsofpalaces:thefirstfromzoooto1700;thesecond,from1700to1400.Fire,earthquake,foreigninvasionorsocialrevolution–everykindofexplanationhasbeenputforwardforthemanyvicissitudesoftheCretanpalaces.Whatiscertainisthattheyweredestroyedandrebuiltonthesamesitemorethanonce,andthattheperiodofthesecondpalacescorrespondsbothtoeconomicprosperityandtothespreadofthehighartofCrete.Whatisalsocertainisthatthenumberofpalacescorrespondsto

alargenumberofcity-states.TheMinoswasnotapharaoh.KnossosprobablyneverexertedtightpoliticalcontrolovertherestoftheislanduntiltheMycenaeanconquest,ifthen.Itspoliticalandpossiblyreligioushegemonywasexercisedoverwhatwemayimagineasaloosefederationofcity-states,eachwithitsownprince,onthemodeloftheearlySumeriancities,orratherthepocketrulersofthetownsofSyria.Thewholeenterprisewasapeacefulone–hardlyanyCretancitieshadramparts.Moreover,alongsideeverypalacetherewasacity,builtatthesame

timeifnotearlier.JustafewstepsfromtheouteresplanadeatKnossos,oneisinanurbansettlementwhichmayhavehadasmanyas60,000or100,000inhabitants.Thiscityofartisans,shopkeepersandsailorsdidnotnecessarilyobeyitsmastersindeedandword.Itislogicaltosuppose,asH.vanEffenterredidinabrilliantarticle,thattherewasaclassofmerchantswiththeirownprivatecommercialinterests,outsidethestrictcontrolofthepalaceeconomy.Theisland’sdispersedoverseastrade,andthemanymerchant‘colonies’ithadfoundedinSyrianorAegeantownsmusthaveencouragedthiseconomicindependence.Itisalsonotimpossiblethatthesenotablesplayedsomepoliticalroleinapatriciansystemofrulewithinthecity;orthatthepeople,meetingina

publicsquare,mayhavehaditssayinsomeformofagora;orthatthekingmighthaveplayedtheroleofanarbiter–liketheMinosoflegend–asareligiousleaderratherthanheadofstate.IfweagreewithvanEffenterreaboutthis,thenMinoanCretemighthavebeenanearlyversionofthefutureGreekcity-state.Thehypothesisisaseductiveone,althoughtheargumentsputforwardtosupportit–theexistenceofanelders’councilchamberatMalliaandofapublicroomnearthepalace–couldequallywellapplytocertainBabyloniancities,whereweknowthatthemerchantswereorganizedandmastersoftheirownaffairs,butwithoutplayingapoliticalrole.Thelastpointofwhichwecanbecertainisthattheseluxurious

palacesweretheceremonialsettingforadivinityasmuchasforthemanwho,hereaselsewhere,probablyderivedhisauthorityentirelyfromhistitleandfunctionaspriest-king.Wastheso-calledThroneRoomatKnossos,withitsgypsumseatsanditsfrescoofgriffins,laterrestoredbyEvans,apublicreceptionroomfortheMinos,orasanctuaryreservedfortheearth-mothergoddess?AlltheCretanpalacescontainamultitudeofreligiousartefacts:tablesforlibations(asatMallia),statuettesrepresentingthegoddess,rhytons,doubleaxes(labrys),consecrationhorns,shieldsintheshapeofafigureeight,orthestrange‘sacredknots’madeofpotteryorivory,representingaknottedscarfwithagoldenfringe.Sothepalaceswereatoncetemples,statelyresidences,andhuge

warehousesinwhichmuchoftheeconomiclifeoftheislandwasconcentrated.

Creteandtheeconomiccycle

ThebeginningsofCretanurbanizationhadcorrespondedtoageneralimprovementoftheeconomyatthestartofthesecondmillenniumBC.Thesecondageofpalaces,anevenmorethrivingperiod,corresponded

toincreaseddemandintheEgyptianNewKingdom,justthenembarkingonitsgrandanddramaticforeignpolicy,byexpellingtheHyksosandinterveninginAsia.ThenewwindofcosmopolitanismblowingthroughtheMiddleEastwasresponsiblealmostunaidedforCrete’smaterialwealth.ThisdependenceontheoutsideworldexplainswhyCretecontinuedtoprospermateriallyuntilaboutizoo,whenitwashitbyawaveofcatastrophes.CertainlytheearlierMycenaeanconquest(about1400?)andthedestructionwhichaccompaniedithadnotdentedCretanprosperity.ThosenewcomershadfoundaplaceforthemselvesintheformerpatternofeconomicactivityinCretewithoutapparentdisruption.Duringthefirsthalfofthesecondmillennium,Creteadaptedtothis

prosperousexternaltradewhichwasgraduallyturningitintothecentreofahugenetwork.Itbegantodevelopintoanavalpowerofthefirstrank.Butcanonereallyspeakofa‘thalassocracy’orofa‘Cretansea-borneempire’?Aswehavealreadynoted,Cretewasnotapowerfulpoliticalmachine.Itssailorsnodoubthadtheirportsofcall:Thera(Santorini),Melos,theobsidianisland,Cythera,whichcouldbeseenonacleardayfromthewestcoastoftheisland,andwasalook-outpointontheroutetothePeloponneseandpointswest–allofthesehadbeenoccupiedbyCretanmarinersandevensettlers.CretanmerchantshadsettledatMiletusonthecoastofAsiaMinor,inRhodes,Cyprus,Ugaritandprobably,liketheSyriansthemselves,intheportsoftheNileDelta.MinoanshipshadsailedtoMalta,SicilyandsouthernItaly.5Butthesecontacts,defencepostsandfacilities,usuallyonafriendlyfooting,didnotadduptoanempire.Theydid,ontheotherhand,carveoutasphereofculturalinfluence:

CretanartanddesigninvadedthewholeoftheAegean.OnMelos,thepalaceofPhylakopi,forinstance,rebuiltintheseventeenthcenturyBC,withitscolumnsanditsfrescoofflyingfish,wascastintheimageofKnossos.TheyalsoindicatedthatCretantradehadconqueredthesea,withalltheconsequencesandprofitsthatentailed.FindingenoughmentomantheoarsandsailingvesselsofCretehadonlybeenpossiblebyrecruitingsailorsfromthroughouttheCycladesandasfarawayasCariainAsiaMinor.ThefolkmemoryofCarianpiratesfirstbeingpursuedbytheCretansandthenbecomingeffectivepolicemenoftheseaintheir

serviceprobablyhassometruthinit.ThiskindofthingwouldhappenmanymoretimesinthehistoryoftheMediterranean,wherethereweresofewsailorsthatafleetofanysizesimplyhadtorelyonforeignrecruits.ThiswastobeastrueofAthensintheageofPericles,IstanbulundertheTurks,orRenaissanceVenice,asithadbeenofMinoanCrete.Withthesedevelopments,thetradingactivitywhichhadhitherto

concentratedontheeasterntipoftheislandwouldsoonestablishitsmainaxisfurtherwest,basedontheroadbetweenKnossosandPhaistos,theformeronthenorthcoast,thelatteronthesouth.Itisnotsurprisingthattheseshouldhavebeenthetwolargestpalacesontheisland(Knossosrepresented20,000squaremetresofbuildings,probablyuptothreestoreyshigh).Theystoodateitherendofanorth-southroadjoiningthetwocoastsoftheisland,anexcellentexampleofanisthmusroute,thatisashortoverlandroadbetweentwoshippingcentres.Thisvitalroadwasnaturallywellmaintained:itwaspaved,ranacrossaviaductatthesouthernend,andwasusedbypackanimals–probablymoreoftenthanbythesedanchairsorheavyfour-wheeledvehiclesofwhichmodelssurvive.ThewheelfirstappearedinCreteinabout2000or1900BC,probablyimitatedfromSyriaorMesopotamia.TheroadjoiningKnossosandPhaistossuggeststhattherewas

increasedactivityonthesouthernshoresoftheisland.Thiscouldhavebeenassociatedeitherwithcoastalshippingoneast-westroutestoRhodes,CyprusandSyria;or,moreplausibly,withdirectcrossingstotheAfricancoast,CyrenaicaorEgypt.Generalhistorieshavearguedfortoolongthatnavigationonthehighseasoutofsightofland,inparticulartheRhodes-Egyptcrossing,cannothavebeenundertakenuntilaboutthethirdcenturyBC,intheHellenisticperiod.Itmustsurelybeacceptednowthatthismajorfeat–anditcertainlywasone–hadbeenaccomplishedearlier.ThemodestsailingshipsofMinoshadbeentheboldpioneers.Alatepieceofevidence,butallthesameearlierthantheHellenisticperiod,unequivocallysupportsthisview.Odysseus,arrivinghomeinIthacadisguisedasaCretanmerchant,isdescribedassaying:‘IproposedtogoonavoyagetoEgypt.Iequippednineshipsandmenflockedtothem.Forsixdays,thesebravepeoplefeastedwithme.Ontheseventhwesetsail,andfromtheplainsofCreteafairandfullnorthwindtookusstraightthere,asifonthecurrentofariver.Wehadonly

tositandletthewindandourpilotstakeus.InfivedayswehadreachedthefineriverEgyptos.’Wemightnotethatthisfeatwouldnotbesurpassedevenmanycenturieslater,inthedaysofBarbarossaandtheTurks.Thenorthwindwasthesecretresponsiblefortheseperformances.Onehadtohavethecouragetotrusttoit–buttherewardsmadeitworthwhile:Egyptwasalandofgoldandtreasure.ItisstrikingallthesametonotethatmostoftheCretanseaportsare

onthenorthcoast,betweenKnossosandthegulfofMirabello.Crete’sfunctionwasessentiallythatofastagingpostbetweenEurope,AsiaandAfrica.Tothenorth,theislandfacedcountrieswhichhadbecomemorebackwardthanitself–peninsularGreeceandArgoswithwhichithadmaintainedcontactsincetheAchaeaninvasion–whiletothewestlaytheevenmoreprimitiveregionsofsouthernItalyandSicily.Howfardiditssailorsventuretowardsthesedistantplaces?Wedonotknowwithanycertainty.Andoncemorewearefacedwiththeobscureandcontroversialquestionofthefirstseavoyagesfromeasttowest.Likeallseafaringpeoples,theCretansoftenactedascarriersfor

others,deliveringinforeignportsmerchandisewhichtheyhadnotmanufacturedthemselves.Buttheirownimport-exporttradewasneverthelessconsiderable.TheirfinepaintedpotteryhasbeenfoundinMelos,Aegina,Lernos,Mycenae,Cyprus,SyriaandEgypt.Theyalsoexportedfabrics(theirbrightcoloursweresoughtafterinEgypt,thelandofwhitelinen),jewelsandbronzeweapons:thelatterhavebeenfoundinCypruswheretheCretanswenttobuycopper,althoughtheirownislandhadafewdepositsofit.TheirobsidiancamefromMelosandYali,andEgyptprovidedthemwithmanysemi-preciousstonesandamethysts,usedforengravedseals.Thesetradesindicatethattherewasalargepopulationofcraftsmen.A

citylikeGourniaappearstohavebeenaweavingcentre.The‘industrial’boomwassuchthatCretemayactuallyhavebeenexportingskilledlabour,toEgyptforinstance(fromthenineteenthcenturyBCandmuchlatertoAmarna)andnodoubttoMycenaeaswell.Butevenattheheightofitsprosperity,Cretealsodependedonthelabourofitsforesters,peasants,shepherdsandfishermen.Itexportedwood,especiallycypress,alongwitholiveoilandwine.Yetitseemstohaveimportedwheat–asignofadevelopedeconomywhereeverythingwas

interlinked.

Accidents:interventionbythegods

NeverthelessCretehaditsshareofdramaticincidents,andalwaysfollowingafamiliarpattern:palacesweredestroyed,rebuilt,thendestroyedandrebuiltagain,untiltheyfinallydisappeared.Theexpertsrarelyagreeaboutthedatesandcausesofthesecatastrophes.Buttheycouldonlybeoftwokinds:eitherthegods(ornature)wereresponsible,ortheywereprovokedbymenandtheviolenceofwar.Thetwoeventswhichhavegivenrisetomostcontroversyareonenaturaldisaster,thevolcaniceruptionoftheislandofThera,andoneman-madecataclysm:theconquestoftheislandbytheMycenaeans.TheexplosionoftheislandofThera(Santorini),whichwasfirstidentifiedbyS.Marinatosin1939,hassincethenfascinatedsomanyarchaeologists,vulcanologistsandunderwaterexplorersthatwecanmoreorlessreconstructwhatmayhavebeen‘thegreatestnaturalcatclysminhistory’.Santorini,whichstillseemstobeactive(thelasteruptionwasin19Z5-6),isasortofVesuvius,todaythree-quartersunderwater.Withits‘wallsoflavaandash,alternatelyblack,redandgreen,onwhichareperchedthedazzlingwhitevillages,itisthestrangestlandscapeinthewholearchipelago’.Itwasinabout1500BCthatavolcanowhichhadapparentlybeenextinctforthousandsofyearsstartedtobecomeactiveagain.Aseriesofviolentearthquakes,tracesofwhichcanbedetectedintheruinsatKnossosandPhaistos,hadheraldedaneruptionoreruptionswhichburiedtheCretanorCretan-influencedvillagesonSantoriniitselfunderseveralmetresoflava.Theinhabitantsapparentlyhadtimetoflee.Butallthiswasamereprelude.Inabout1470or1450BC,theislandliterallyexploded–likeKrakatoa,intheStraitsofSundainad1883.

ThescaleofthatmorerecentdisasterenablesustoimaginetheviolenceoftheexplosionofThera–apparentlyfourtimesmoredestructive,ifonemeasurestheamountoftheconeofthevolcanowhichwasdestroyed.Butthescenarioseemstohavebeensimilar:severalyearsofearthquakes,followedbyaseriesoferuptionsandfinallyamassiveexplosion,creatingafantasticcloudofburningash,accompaniedbyatidalwave.InthecaseofKrakatoa,thesixty-foot-highwavesdestroyedthreehundredtownsandvillages,tossingashipandseveralrailwayenginesovertherooftops.AtThera,intheAegean,wheretherelativelyshallowseawasunderenormouspressure,thetidalwavemusthavebeenevenmorefantastic,thewaveshigherandcertainlymuchfaster-moving.Crete,izokilometresfromThera,wasnotonlyhithead-onbythismassiveupheavalofthesea,butalsoshakenbyearthquakes,showeredwithashandoverwhelmedbytoxicgases.Thewholeoftheeasternendoftheislandandeventhecentreweredevastated.AsinglepalacesurvivedatKnossos,damagedbutnotdestroyed.ThecitiesofPhaistos,Mallia,HaghiaTriadaandZakrowerealldestroyedalongwiththeirpalaces;aswereGournia,Palaikastro,PseiraandMochlos.Thevegetationwasannihilated;ashatleasttencentimetresthicklayovereverythinglikeablanketandmadeanycultivationorrebuildingimpossibleforyears.TherewasawaveofemigrationtothewesternendoftheislandandprobablytotheMycenaeanmainlandtoo,asappearsfromexcavations.Drivenbyanorthwind,thetoxiccloudsreachedasfarasSyriaandtheNileDelta.ThebiblicalbookofExodusspeaksofaterrifyingdarknessforthreedays,duringwhichtheJewsheldcaptivebythepharaohtooktheopportunitytoescape.SomepeoplehavetriedtomatchthisuptotheSantorinieruption.Isthattoofanciful?Perhaps.Chronologically,itishardtoreconcilethetwo.Butin1945,IsawwithmyowneyestheblackcloudsarisingfromtheterriblebombingofHamburg:ahundredkilometresaway,weliterallyexperienceddarknessatnoon.TheKrakatoaexplosionplungedplacestwohundredkilometresawayintototaldarkness.Natureisevenmorepowerful,alas,thanmankind.TheexplosionofSantorini,solongunknown,seemsnowtobetaking

onprimeimportanceasahistoricalexplanation.Ithasbeensuggested,inanintelligentlittlebookbyRhysCarpenter(1966)andawell-documentedstudybyJ.V.Luce,TheEndofAtlantis(1969),thatthismayhavebeenthereal-lifeeventwhichformedthebasisforthefamouslegendofAtlantistobefoundinPlato–referringtoagreatisland,hometoapowerfulcivilization,whichvanishedunderthesea‘inadayandanight’.BothauthorsreferthereadertothebeginningoftheTimaeusandtheCritias.Atlantis,accordingtotheaccountoftheSaitehighpriestandtheEgyptian‘templearchives’,wassituatedfartothewest,atthelimitoftheknownworld.PlatothereforenaturallyplaceditbeyondtheStraitsofGibraltar,inthemiddleoftheocean,butfortheEgyptiansoftheeighteenthdynasty,the‘westernlimitoftheknownworld’wouldhavebeenCrete.SowasthedestructionofAtlantispossiblyacombinationoftwoevents,telescopedtogetherintraditionalfolklore:theendoftheMinoanascendancyandtheeruptionofThera?

Events:humanintervention

Thishypothesissuggeststhatthetwokeyeventsmentionedabove,theexplosionofTheraandtheMycenaeanconquest,occurredwithinashorttimeofeachother.Ifthatistrue,theMycenaeanswouldhavearrivedinCreteshortlyafterthecataclysm.TheAchaeansorearlyGreeks,Indo-EuropeaninvaderswhoweretheancestorsoftheMycenaeans,hadinfactarrivedinGreecetowardstheendofthethirdmillenniumBC.TheyhadmostlysettledroundtheedgeoftheAegean,amongthepre-existingpopulationswhomtheysubjugated,destroyingtheircitiesandtheirculture.InLemnos,forinstance,thelayerofremainsimmediatelyfollowingtheburningofthetowncontainstracesofacompletelynewculture:theshapeofthehouses,themodesofburialandtypesofpotteryallchange.Itwouldnotthereforebesurprisingifthenewcomersalsoimposedtheirlanguageon

thearea.Butperhaps,afterall,theAegeancivilizationtheyoverthrewontheGreekmainlandwasastill-fragilegraft,establishedonlyalongthecoastandinafewinlandsites,inaterritorywhichwasnotyetfullysettled.ThesefirstpeopleoftheAegean(thePelasgiansofGreektradition)hadneverthelessleftlastingtraces.Linguisticanalysisoffersunequivocalevidenceinthisrespect.Thenewcomersmayhaveretainedtheirownlanguage,buttheyalsoborrowedagreatdealfromthosetheyconquered.TheGreeklanguagethusinheritedaconsiderablenumberoflocalborrowings.Placenamesandpersonalnamestellusthisquiteforcefully:thenamesofcitiesasfamousasCorinth,TirynsorAthens,theverynameofMountParnassus,abovetheoracleatDelphi,intheveryheartofHelleniccivilization,the‘naveloftheworld’–arenotGreekinorigin.Neither–sadtosay!–arethenamesofHomericheroessuchasAchillesandUlysses/Odysseus,ortheCretannamesofthearbitersoftheunderworld,MinosandRhadamanthus,orofthequeenofthosedarkregions,Persephone.Evenmoresignificantisthenon-Greekoriginofmanywordsconnectedwithagriculture:thenamesforwheat,vines,figs,olives,lilies,roses,jasmineormarjoram.Lastly,termstodowiththeseaareborrowedtoo:theartofnavigationwasagiftmorepreciouseventhanthevineandtheolive-treefromthenon-GreekpeoplesoftheHellenicregiontotheirIndo-Europeaninvaders.Thelatterwerestrangerstothesea:neitherthalassanorpontusareGreekwords!Butthelessonswerequicklylearned.InArgosthenewcomerswereintroducedtothenetworkofestablishedlinks,inparticularwithCrete.Theisland,justthenonthecrestofawaveofprosperity,wasabeaconfortheCycladesandthenearestmainlandcoasts.IntheeighteenthcenturyBC,pottersonbothmainlandandislands,possiblyemigreCretansthemselves,begantoimitateCretanmodels,intheso-calledCamaresstyle:seals,jewels,anddecorativeMinoanmotifswereexportedandcopied.Inthefifteenthcentury,auniformcultureofMinoaninspiration,linkedtotheMiddleEast,spreadthroughoutthesouthernAegean,sothatitisoftenimpossibletotellwhetheranobjectfoundatPhylakopi,say,onMelos,oratAegina,MycenaeorPyloswasimportedfromCreteorproducedlocally.Mycenaeisthemoststrikingexampleofthisprocess.Sincethecity

asserteditselfovertheothercitiesofArgos,thetermMycenaeanhasbecomethestandardnameforthewholecivilization.Infact,thatcivilizationreallytookoffduringtheperiodofthenewpalacesinCrete:witnesstoitssplendouraretheprincelytombsinMycenaewhichhavebeenfoundintact:theydatebroadlyfromthesixteenthcenturyBC(withafewsomewhatolderonesandothersfromtheearlyfifteenth).Itiscurioustofindinthem,alongsidethepreponderantCretaninfluence,verycleartracesofEgyptianinfluencetoo.Itistruethatbetweeni55oandi470-i450,theMycenaeansandCretansseemtohaveengagedinfriendlyexchangeaswellastradingsidebyside,notonlyintheAeolianislands,wheretheirpotteryhasbeenfoundincloseproximity,butalsoinRhodes,wheretheMycenaeansappeartohaveintermingledwiththeCretancolony,andeveninEgypt,wheredocumentsmentionKeftiu(Crete)and‘theIslandsintheMiddleoftheGreatGreen’,atermthoughttorefertoallthenon-CretanAegeanislands,plusthePeloponnese.ThisparallelriseofCretanandMycenaeantradeinthesixteenthandfifteenthcenturiesissufficienttoexplainthewealthofthetombsatMycenae,theabundanceofgoldobjects(thegoldcamefromEgypt)andinparticulartheamazinggoldmaskscoveringthefacesofthedead:thiswasanon-Cretancustom,probablyimported,likethegold,fromthebanksoftheNile.AnotherhypothesisisthatCretansailorsmighthaveactedastransportersforamercenaryforceofMycenaeans,calledinbythepharaohAmosisinabout1580BC,togetridoftheHyksosfromtheDelta.ThesemercenariesmayhavebeenidenticalwiththeHaunebu,theheavilyarmedsoldierswhoselances,helmets,shieldsandlongswordswouldhavemadeshortworkoftheAsianintruders.TheymighthavegonehomeladenwithEgyptiangold.Butthereisnoscientificevidencetosupportthisromanticlegend.Trueornotasthismaybe,theMycenaeansundoubtedlyfollowedinthefootstepsoftheCretans.Boththeircivilizationandtheireconomycannibalizedthecenturies-oldmodelwhichtheyfoundinCreteandwhichtheydestroyed,almostunintentionally.Mycenaeanexpansion,ifIamnotmistaken,followedtheupwardtrendoftrade:itwasasuccessrelatedtotheeconomicclimate.Andsincethatexpansionwasrapid,theareaoftheseacoveredbyMycenaeanshippingandinfluencefirst

duplicatedthenwentbeyondtheareaofCretansway.TheyreachedRhodesandCyprus,elbowingtheirpredecessorsaside,beforemovingontothecoastofAsiaMinor,Syria,PalestineandEgypt,wheretheirpotterywaslandedingreatquantitiesatAmarna.Theyalsotravelledwestwards:‘FragmentsofMycenaeanpotteryaretobefoundalmosteverywhereinItaly’.Thesignsallpointtoarapidandenergeticexpansion,perhapsusingforce,aswasthecaseinthestraitsleadingtothecoastbelowIlium:theTrojanwar,datedabout1250BC,wasintheMycenaeanperiod.TheirventuresbeyondTroyintotheBlackSea(PontusEuxinus)mayalsohaveusedforce.TherecanbenodoubtthatthecivilizationofMycenae,ofTiryns,Pylos,Argos,ThebesandAthens,wasflourishing.Inthefourteenthandthirteenthcenturies,hugepalaceswerebuiltontheCretanmodel,withthesamecolumnsandidenticalstylesoffresco.TheopencentralcourtyardoftheCretanversionwashoweverreplacedbythemegaton,alargeroomwithahearthinthecentresurroundedbyfourcolumns:ithadnochimneyandthesmokewentoutthroughaholeintheroof.Themegarortywemightnote,wasafeatureintroducedfromAsiaMinor.ButitisnotmyintentiontolingerlongoverMycenaeandTiryns,ortodescribethefeaturesofthiswarlikesociety,withitskingsofIndo-Europeantypeanditswarriorswhowenttotheirtombsaccompaniedbysumptuousarmour.WhatinterestsusabouttheMycenaeansistheCretancivilizationwhichtheytookover,andwhichthereforebecameembeddedinwhatwouldbecometheGreekcivilizationoflatercenturies.Mycenaeprovidedtheintermediarystage,animperfectoneasithappened,sinceitcametoadramaticend,buttheonlypossibleone,sinceinabout1400oralittlelater,thefinaldestructionofKnossosmeantthattheentireCretanandCreto-MycenaeanlegacywastobefoundinArgos.ReturningtoKnossosthen,thecitywasundeniablycapturedbytheMycenaeans–butwhen?Thereissomeevidenceforadateof1460–1450,inparticulartheEgyptianpaintingonthetombofRekmireinThebes,whereCretanmenbearingofferingstoRekmirehavebeen‘re-clothed’.Thepainterhaseliminatedtheclassicalcostumewithpenilesheaths–tracesofthemcanstillbeglimpsed–andhasreplacedthemwithaMycenaean-styleloin-cloth,endinginapoint.Inanothertomb

datingfromseveraldecadeslater,‘themenofKeftiuandtheislandsoftheGreatGreen’arestillwearingloin-cloths.Wasthisjustachangeinfashion?OrwasitakindofrecognitionbyRekmire,theministerwhoreceivedforeignersatThebesonbehalfofthepharaoh,thattherehadbeenachangeofdynastyinCrete?Fromabout1400atanyrate,allmentionofKeftiudisappearsfromtheEgyptianinscriptions.OthersignsarethattherepairstothepalaceofKnossos,aftertheexplosionofThera,marktheappearanceoftabletswritteninLinearB,similartothoseinPylos,ThebesandMycenae.Andlastlythereisaclearchangeofstyle,bothinpotteryandburials,betweentheR(ecent)M(inoan)IB(whichenablesustodatethemajorvolcanicepisodesontheisland)andtheso-called‘palacestyle’,RMII,whichappearsatKnossosandKnossosalone.Itislogicaltoconclude,inthelightofrecentworkontheTheracatastrophe,thattheMycenaeanswereabletotakeadvantageofthedesolationproducedinCretetooccupyKnossos,theonlypalaceleftstandingattheheartofCretanpower.Afterall,theislandhadwitnessedthedestructionnotonlyofmanytownswithgreatlossoflife,butofseveralportsandsettlementsintheAegeanislandswhichwereequallybadlyaffected.Therewasavacuumtobefilled.TheCretandiaspora,probablyinalldirections,whichfollowedthesedisasters,contributedinlargemeasuretotherisingstarofMycenae.Creteeventuallyattainedcomparativeprosperityoncemore,butwouldneverthereafterbemorethanaMycenaeanprovince.ButwhothenwasresponsibleforthefinaldestructionofthepalaceatKnossoswhichtheMycenaeanshadoccupied?Herealltheuncertaintiesreturn,includinguncertaintyaboutthedate.OneexplanationisthattheoppressedCretansroseupagainstthenewmastersofKnossosandsackedthepalace,inabout1400BC.Thishasoftenbeensuggestedbuttheevidenceseemstobecontradictory.Forexample,thefactthattheGreeklanguageonthetabletsinKnossosismoredeveloped,andthereforeintheorylaterindatethanthatonthetabletsinPylos,isaproblem.OtherscholarsthinkweoughttoreviseourideasradicallyaboutthedateofthedestructionofKnossos,eitherputtingitinthemidsixteenthcenturyBCandattributingittoenemies,possiblysimplyneighbouringtowns,againstwhomtheMycenaeancitiesbuiltenormousramparts–orelseputtingitmuchlater,inthelatterhalfofthe

thirteenthcentury,inwhichcaseKnossossimplysharedthefateoftheotherMycenaeancitiesandpalaces.Butthatisanotherstory,towhichweshallreturnlater.

ThekeytothefutureoftheMediterranean:Cretancivilization

Intheend,whatwastohavegreatestsignificanceintheoveralldestinyoftheMediterraneanwasCretancivilizationitself.Theproblemisthattousetheterm‘civilization’begsmanyquestions–andwehaveveryfewoftheanswers.OnlyfragmentaryimagesofeverydayCretanlifehavesurvived–ahandfulof‘snapshots’whichanovelistcouldturnintoanarrativeonlybyusingagreatdealofimagination.AsforCretaninstitutions,Ihavealreadyreferredinpassingtothegistofwhatisknown:verylittle.Weknowtherewerepriest-kings,palaces,cities,communitiesofartisans,andseafarers.ButtheorganizationofthissocietyremainsfarmoremysteriousthanthatofBabyloniaorEgypt.Theabsenceofanywrittendocumentsisadauntingobstacle(thedeciphermentoftheLinearBtabletsdidnotremedythis,sincetheyconsistedalmostentirelyofinventories,andinanycasedatedfromalateperiod).Theonlyavenuesopentousarereligionandart.WeknowenoughaboutCretanreligiontobeabletoglimpsesomethingofit,butnotenoughtobecertainofanything,norinparticulartograspitsstructure,whichmighthavehelpedrevealthesecretsoftheisland’ssocialorganization.OncewereachtheperiodwhenthegodsofOlympusoccupiedCrete–whenZeus,escapinghisterriblechild-eatingfatherCronos,tookrefugeinthesacredcaveonMountIda–thenwefindourselvesfacedwithafamiliarmythology:thegodsreferredtoinLinearBareallAchaean.Butwhatabouttheearlierperiod?Amythologyinwhichdivinitiesarelenthumanformneedsimagesofseveralgodsengagingincollectiveexploits.Butinancient

MinoanCrete,thereisabsolutelynosignofthem.Religioussignificancewasclearlyattachedtomanyobjectsfoundinthepalaceswhichwerethehighplacesoftheofficialreligion(therearenotemplesinthemodern,MesopotamianorEgyptiansenseofthewordinCretancities),orinthesanctuariesonmountaintops,incavesorsacredgroves:trees,columns,thetwo-headedaxe,thehornsofbullsandrituallyknottedscarvesallhadsomereligiousimportance.Someanimalsweresacred:thesnakeandthedove,symbolsofearthandheaven.Butonlyonedivinityappearstobeinevidence:theomnipresentgoddess-mother,whosendsusbacktotheearliesthumanmentalities,andthedawnofreligion.SheisdirectlydescendedfromthefleshygoddessesoftheearlyneolithicageinCrete:thesefigures,holdinguptheirbreastswiththeirhands,werepatentlyfertilitysymbols,thatisdispensersofbounty.Afterall,whatcouldtheCretanpeoplepossiblywishfor,sincetheywerenotdividedregionallyamongdifferenthostiletribesanddidnothavelocalgodsinrivalrywithoneanother,exceptthatthegoddessofnatureshouldprotecttheirfieldsandflocks,thelandandsea,theanimalsandthepeopleshehadcreated,andthatsheshouldcurethemfrombodilyills?Thesedoindeedseemtobetheattributesofthemiraculousstatueoftheso-calledgoddess‘ofthePoppies’.Onthisaccount,thetermmonotheismhasbeenappliedtoCrete,perhapscorrectly.Whyshouldonemakedistinctionsbetweenthegoddesswiththesnakes,thegoddesswiththeflowersandthegoddesswiththedoves?Butmonotheismisnormallyconnectedtonewandforward-lookingreligions,whereasnothingcouldbemoreancientthantheEarthMother,queenofNature.Theusualprocesswasthatsheevolvedintoadivinecouple,agodandgoddess(thegodalwaysratherlessimpressive),orintoatrinityprovidingthemwithachild.ThesixthmillenniumBCinCatalHoyiikwas‘monotheistic’bythisreckoning,aswerethestone-agehunterswhoreveredthe‘Venus’oftheGravettianera.IaminclinedtosuggestthattheAegean,whichreceivedallitsculturefromneolithicAsiaMinorratherthanfromthedenselysettledcivilizationsofEgyptandMesopotamia,remainedfaithfultothefertilitygoddessoftheearlyfarmers,insteadofadoptingthepantheonofgodstobefoundinmoreadvancedcivilizations,andfromwhichthemalegodswereforthefirsttimedisplacingthefemalegoddesses.

Theimpressionpersists,however,thatinreligion,asinart,theCretanstookoverandthoroughlytransformedwhateverculturalborrowingscamefromelsewhere.Thepriestess-vulturesinthelugubriousceremonialdepictedonthewallsofCatalHoyiikareafarcryfromthewhirlingyoungwomenrepresentedonsomanyCretanfrescoesorjewels–daintyballerinasdancingwithswirlingskirts.Thisisaquitedifferentapproachtolifeanddeath,asortofescapefromthereligiousdreadwhichwasnaturalamongprimitivepeoples.IfwesurveyeverythingweknowabouttherituallifeoftheCretans:theflockingofthefaithfultothecaveonMountIdaorthecaveofErleithyanearAmnissos;thecrowdsofbelieversthrongingintothecentralcourtyardofthepalacetoattendaceremony;thebullfightsinwhichtherewasnokilling,butaspectacularanddangerousdisplayofacrobatics;themassiveprocessionsatharvesttime,asdepictedonafinevaseofblacksteatite,wherealltheparticipantsareshownopen-mouthed,laughingorsinging;oreventheenigmaticsarcophagusofHaghiaTriada,whichshowsadeadmanstandinginfrontofhistombandattentivelyreceivingthelastofferingsoftheliving:inalltheserepresentations,thereisnosignofpeoplelivingindreadoftheirgods,theirpriests,orthefearofdeath.OnonefrescoinKnossos,womeninlight-coloureddresses,yellow,blueandwhite,dancebare-breastedinfrontofalargecrowdseatedunderblueolivetrees.Anotherpicture,inanonlypartlysurvivingandunidentifiedfresco,showswhatmaybeabullfightinthepalacecourtyard.Seatedintheplaceofhonouraremorewomen,ladiesofthecourtorpriestessesperhaps,andbehindthemhundredsofheadscrowdedtogether.Thecoloursarebright:red,blue,yellow,ochreandwhite.Itisclearthatsomeritualisbeingperformedinbothceremonies,yettheatmosphereisoneofajoyfulpopularfestival,asocietyinwhichmenandwomenmeeteachotherfreely.OnehasonlytocomparethesesceneswiththefrescoatMariknownasthe‘investiture’fresco(eighteenthcenturybc)–inwhichthekingZimriLimsolemnlyreceivessacredemblemsfromIshtar,goddessofwar,inthepresenceofotherdivinities,animalsandhieraticbeasts–tobeconvincedthatthesearetwoseparateworldsdeeplydividedbytheirreligiousattitudesandtheirconceptionoflife.Cretanartconfirmsthisimpression.Itiscertainlythemostoriginalin

theeasternMediterranean,andtheonethatspeakstousmostdirectlyinitsfantasy,itsappetiteforlife,itspursuitofhappiness,andthelibertiesittakeswithformandcolourintheinterestsofexpressiveness.DuringthegreatageofCretanart–thesecondpalaceperiod–beforetheMycenaeanagewhichfrozeallthisfreeexpression,naturalismtriumphed.Plantsandanimalswerepaintedeverywhere,onwallsandvases:hereaspikeofgrass,thereabunchofcrocusesoririses,asprayofliliesagainsttheochrebackgroundofavase,orthePompeianredofawall-painting;reedsarrangedinacontinuousalmostabstractdesign,abranchoffloweringolive,anoctopuswithtangledarms,dolphinsandstarfish,ablueflyingfish,acircleofhugedragon-flies–allthesewereusedasthemes,buttheyarenottreatedwiththebotanicalaccuracyof,say,Diirer’sflowerandherbpaintings.Theyaretheunrealdecorofafantasyworld,whereabluemonkeypickscrocuses,abluebirdperchesonred,yelloworbluerocks,stripedwithquartz,aswildrosesflowerallround;awildcatlurksintheivyinwaitforanunsuspectingbird;agreenhorsepullsachariotinwhichtwoyounggoddessessitsmiling.Frescoesandpotteryalllentthemselvestothisinventivefantasy.Itisremarkabletofindthesameplantormarinemotifshandledinathousanddifferentwaysonsomanyvasesturnedoutbythepotter’swheelandexportedbythehundred–asiftheartistswantedtorelivethepleasureofcreationeverytime.TheoneareawheretheCretansseemtohavebeenillateasewas

sculpture,perhapsbecauseitleaveslesstotheimagination.Theirceramicstatuettesareoftenconventionalandstiff.Someoftheirbeautifulobjectsareneverthelessunforgettable:thelitheformofanacrobat,madeofivory,caughtinmid-leap;severalheadsofbulls;adarkbrownleopardcarvedinschistdecoratinganornamentalaxeinMallia.Evenmoreremarkablearethereliefscarvedonstonevasesandrhytons,thecountlesssealsmadeofgold,amethyst,rockcrystal,agate,cornelianandivory;andtheextraordinaryjewels.Cretanartdoesindeedseemhardtoexplain:itcontainsborrowingsof

everykind,andatthesametimedisplaysall-roundoriginality.Perhapsthisissomethingcommontoislandcultures.CypruswithitsextraordinarypotteryfromthefirstmillenniumBC,andSardiniawithitsstrangelittlebronzesfromthesametime,alsoraisethequestionofthe

uniquenessofislands.Theyareextrememicro-universes,wideopentotheoutsideworld,vulnerabletoinvasionsofpeople,technologyandevenfashion–yetintheintervalsbetweensuchepisodestheymaybequitecutoff,andtheirtrademoresporadicandlessregularthanelsewhere.Everyforeignborrowingdevelopsinanislandasifinalaboratory,exaggeratingfeatureswhichbecomeverydifferentfromtheoriginalmodel.Thisistrueofotherthingsbesidesartofcourse.

Acosmopolitansuperstructure

YetCreteinthesecondmillenniumBC,alongwiththerestoftheAegeanunderitsinfluence,wasanintegralpartoftheMiddleEastinawaythatGreeceneverwouldbe,notevenintheso-calledOrientalperiodorintheheadydaysofHellenisticinfluenceintheeast.AlltheMiddleEasterncivilizationsofthisperiod,despitesomeclashes,stoodonanequalfooting,withopenaccessfromonetoanother.Therewasnoimbalance:tradewentinbothdirections,withmutualexchange.Acrossthewholeareacoveredbythesetradinglinks,thereexistedacuriouskindofcommunity,avastculturalsuperstructure,connectingthevariousregions.W.S.Smithisrighttoseethisastheessentialfeatureofthebronzeage.TheoperativeunitwastheMiddleEasternregionasawhole,ratherthananysinglesector,notevenCreteattheheightofitsbrillianceorEgyptintheeighteenthdynasty.Andindeed,ifoneweretolookforthemostdynamicelementinthisculturalblossoming,onewouldprobablychoosetheUgarit-ByblosaxisinSyria.Asalong-establishedhubofcommunications,itlayattheheartofthisunifiedarea,thisconfluenceofcontacts:fromKnossostoSusaandfromMycenaetoElephantine,thehistoryofMiddleEasterncivilizationinitsfullydevelopedstateisthereforereallyasinglestory.Forsuchfreedomofcommunicationtoexist,anumberofconditions

hadtobefulfilled:aboveall,asnotedearlier,afavourableeconomic

climate,thepresenceofcommunitiesthatwerebothprosperousandacquisitive,andanefficientnetworkofinternationalexchange.Lastly,encouragedbythefavourablecontext,therewasanewspiritofcuriosity,quicklyvergingonanobsessionwitheverythingthatwasforeign:itinfluencedfashionandtechnology,art,architectureandeventhefirststepstowardsdiplomacy.Aninternationalcontextwasbeginningtoappearand,inthisperspective,detailedarchaeologicalresearchtodeterminetheoriginsandtheincidenceofagivenstyleofornament,typeofpottery,architecturaldetailortechniqueoffrescopaintingorgoldsmithing,becomesquitefascinating–especiallyifoneisnottooobsessedwiththatperennialquestion,alwaysthesameinthesestudiesofinfluence:‘whichcamefirst?’InrelationtotheoverallhistoryoftheMediterranean,thisquestionisnotveryimportant.Whatreallymattersisthatanextraordinarycapacityforcomparativelyrapidculturaldiffusionhademergedinaworldwhereshippingwasstillanadventure.TakeMalliaforinstance,onthenorthcoastofCrete,oneoftheoldest

palacesontheisland,restoredfromtimetotime,butnevercompletelyrebuiltlikeKnossosorPhaistos.ItistheonlyonewhichcangiveusanapproximateideaofthefirstCretanpalacesdatingfromearlyinthesecondmillennium.WhenexcavationscarriedoutatMariontheEuphratesuncoveredthemarvellousMesopotamianpalaceofZimriLim,extendingoverseveralacres,withalabyrinthofbuildingsaroundthegreatopencourtyard,itwasnaturaltothinkthatthisfamousedifice–whichpeoplecamefrommilesaroundtovisitduringthereignofHammurabi(eighteenthcenturyBC)–hadservedasamodelfortheCretanpalaces.Itisolderthantheyareandtheoverallplan,asrevealedbyaerialphotographs,looksverysimilartothatofMallia.Thesamefunctionaldemandsareafteralllikelytoproducethesamekindofarchitecture.Andwealsoknow,fromtabletspreservedatMari,thatCretanmerchantswhohadacolonyinUgaritwereengagedinactivetradewiththepowerfulcityofMari,whichhadtradelinksasfarsouthasthePersianGulf.Iftherecouldbecommercialcontacts,whynotculturalones?Butthenin1954-9,excavationsbyaBritishteaminBeyceSultanontheMeanderinAnatolia,turnedupanotherpalace,alsobuiltroundacentralcourtyard.Thisonewassmaller,andlessofa‘labyrinth’,buthadseveralfeaturesincommonwiththepalaceat

Mallia:colonnadesandpillarswhichareentirelyabsentfromMari.Thiscomplicatesthepictureofculturalcross-fertilization,sincethetasteforcolumnsmaybefromEgypt,andweknowthattherewerelinksbetweenEgyptandAnatolia.YetinMallia,acurioushypostyleroomunequivocallypointstodirectEgyptianinfluence.Well,whynot?Afterall,anEgyptianstatue,probablydatingfromthenineteenthcenturyBC,hasbeenfoundinKnossos,andaMinoanvasehasbeenfoundatAbydosinEgyptamongEgyptianobjectsfromthesameperiod.Ihavenointentionofjoininginthisdebateamongspecialists,andwillsimplyconcludethatMesopotamia,Crete,Anatolia,SyriaandEgyptallsharedcertainarchitecturalfeaturesduringthesecondmillenniumBC.Eventhebathhouseswithtiledwallsanddrains,whichwereoncethoughttobeaCretaninvention,havebeenfoundatMari.Andthatisnotall.TheCretanfrescoeswhichonlyappearratherlate

on,inthesecondpalaceperiod(sixteenthcenturyBC),lookasiftheycouldhavebeeninspiredbythefrescoeswhichthelastkingofMarihadhadpaintedfortheZimriLimpalace,beforetheconquestofthecitybyHammurabiin1760.Thetechniquesofmoisteningarethesame,andthecoloursareverysimilar,nodoubtbecausetheywereobtainedbycrushingthesamestones,lapislazuliforinstanceforthebrilliantblueswhichwerestillbelovedoftheEtruscanscenturieslater.Thethemesaresimilartoo:sacrificialprocessions,ritualscenes.Butthereligiousinspiration,asalreadynoted,isverydifferent:inMariahieraticandentirelyMesopotamianspiritinspiresthe‘investiture’scene.Yetonthesamepanel,theSemiticfantasywhichhadalreadyenlivenedtheseverityoftheSumeriandecoration,inthetimeofAkkad,isgivenfullrein:itshowstwotrees,oneadate-palmbeingclimbedbytwomen(probablyfortheceremonyoffertilizingtheflowers),theotheramake-believetree–itstalltrunkiscrownedwithabouquetofflowerslikeEgyptianpapyrus.Betweenthemfliesabluebird.Thatbluebirdalone,flyingbetweenthetwogreentrees,seemstobealinkjoiningMariandCrete.Butyetagain,thecurrentcouldhaveflowedeitherway.Aroundthe

greatpictureoftheking’sinvestitureatMarirunsaborderofregularspirals.Itisusuallyassumedthatthespiral,theimageofthewavesinastormysea,isanAegeandesign,althoughsomepre-dynasticpottery

providesearlyexamplesofthismotif.Butdoesitmatterwhatwastheoriginofafairlycommondesignfeature?Itismoreinterestingtocharttheprogressofthespiral,whichturnsupallovertheplaceintheAegeaninthethirdmillennium:itisfoundonthe‘fryingpans’ofSyros,onhandsomestonejarsinCrete,andonjewelsinTroyII(Priam’streasure,asSchliemanncalledit).Fromabout2000itturnsupsimultaneouslyintheMarifrescoes,ontheceilingsofEgyptiantombsandpalaces,anddecoratingthefantasticanimalsofthefinepolychromepotteryknownas‘Cappadocian’,madeatKanesh(Kultepe)atatimewhenthepre-HittitetownwashometoacolonyofAssyrianmerchants.ThespiralisfoundonEgyptiansealsandjewelleryfromthetwelfthdynasty,onceramicsinCreteandotherislandsintheAegean,onCyprusporcelain,onthetombswiththoloiinBoeotia,andeveninthespiralcurlsinthebeardofagod(orprince)atMari–somethingwhichmightseemquitenaturalofcourse,buttheirperfectgeometricalregularityissurprising.ThegodofwaronthedoorsoftheHittitepalaceofBogaskoy(sixteenthcenturybc)evenhasasortofloin-clothcoveredinspirals.

CreteinspiresEgypt

Thisdetail,insignificantinitself,isatimelyreminderthatculturalexchangescouldproceedbynumerousmodestandunexpectedpaths.Thus,arguingfromtheevidenceofprintedorembroideredfabrics,fromfiguresonvasesandcylinders,Egyptianscarabamulets,orfromtravellers’tales(evenapocryphal),W.S.SmithimaginedthattheCretanstravellingtoByblosasearlyasthetwentiethcenturyBCmusthavegoneontoEgypt,inthewakeoftheCanaanitemerchantsofthetown,andthuscouldhavevisitedtheMiddleKingdomtombscarvedintherock–afterall,thetombshadalwaysbeenopentopublicview.SoEgyptianpaintingmighthavecontributedasmuchasMaripaintingdidtotheartoftheCretanfresco.Buttheoppositeisevenmoreconvincing:Minoan

naturalismcouldcertainlyhaveprovokedthecuriosityofartistsontheNile,leadingthemtoimitateit,anditalsoinfluencedSyria,especiallythenorth.Thisisagoodexampleofculturaltransmission.Butitposesadifficultquestionaboutchronology.Itwasparticularly

inthesixteenthandthenthefifteenthcenturythattheCretanpalacesweredecoratedwithfrescoes,butitwasonlyinthefourteenthcentury,afterCretehadbeenovercomebytheMycenaeans,thatEgyptsawthefloweringoftheso-calledAmarnastyle,whichistooclosetotheMinoanfortheretobeanydoubtthatitwasconnected.AnditwasinthefourteenthcenturytoothatinMittaniinSyriasealswereproduceddecoratedwiththefamiliarlitheandlong-hairedsilhouettesofyoungCretansandthebull-fightingmotifswhicharealsofoundatKahuninEgypt.Therearetwopossibleexplanations,andtheyarenotmutually

exclusive.Thefirstisthepresenceofmigrantlabour:skilledCretancraftsmenmightcertainlyhavechosen,afterthecaptureoftheirhomeland,tofleetonorthernSyria,whichtheyknewwell,ortotheprosperousandsophisticatedEgyptoftheeighteenthdynasty,wheretherewasareadydemandforskilledlabour.Theotherexplanation,subtlydevelopedbyW.S.Smith,hastheadvantageofprovidingamoredetailedstoryofhowtheCretanstylefoundwaysandmeansofinfiltratingtheresistanttraditionsoftheformalEgyptianstylebythesixteenthcentury.InEgyptasinMesopotamia(thinkofthehandsomevaseofWarkaor

the‘standardfrieze’atUroftheChaldees),therewasaveryancientpracticeofrepresentingasceneordecoratingapaintedvaseinsuperimposedstrips(likeastripcartoon).TheonagersinUr,harnessedtoachariotofwar,appearinthefriezeonthreelevels:butratherlikeasequenceofstillsfromafilm,itisreallyalwaysthesameonager(akindofdonkey),hisgentletrotgraduallyturningintoanall-outgallop.SimilarlyinEgyptianreliefs,thecorniscut,loadedontothebackofdonkeys,carriedtosilosandunloaded:thecharactersfolloweachotherthroughthehorizontalstripswhichregularlydivideupthewall,withnobigpicturedisplayingeachelementwithinanoverallcomposition.Theactorsinthescenearelinkedconceptually,notspatially.Movementisthereforesacrificed.Thebackgroundorthelandscapedisappears,andis

evokedonlysymbolically:anearofcornoraflowerpositionedoverabulldenotesacornfieldorameadowonaMesopotamianvase;inEgypt,afewlotusblossoms,afishingsceneandsomeexplanatoryhieroglyphsareenoughtoindicateanestateintheDelta,thepropertyofthedeparted.IntheeasternMediterranean,onlytheAegeanartistscomposepicturesinthesensewewouldunderstandtheterm:theflowersorscrolls,oftenasymmetrical,onavasefromCamares;theCretandancersorMycenaeanwarriorsrandomlyplacedontheovalsettingofagoldring,orthebluebirdofKnossosinarockylandscape:allthesefreelyoccupythespacerecreatedbytheartist.Egyptwentonbeingbroadlyfaithfultoitstraditionalstrip-cartoon

compositionsuntilRomantimes,thatisforaboutthreemillennia.Buttherewereafewinterruptionswhichthereforetakeonsomesignificance.AttheendofthesixteenthcenturyBC,inthetimeofTutmosisI,aperiodwhenforeignfashionswereverypopular,Egyptianartwastemptedbyanewsenseofmovement.Thiswasthefirsttemptation.Animalsinflightfromahunter–undoubtedlyinspiredbythe‘flyinggallop’deartotheCretansandMycenaeans–occupythewholespaceofapicture,thistimewithoutanyhorizontaldivisions.Orsometimesthedividinglinesstarttoundulateormoveaparttodepictahillorafeatureofrelief.Cretaninfluencecanbedetectedtooinamoreimpressionisticuseofcolour:adrawingisobscuredbyapatchofcolour,linesbecomeblurred,apenchantforcurvesmakesaskirtswirlorabannerflapinthewind.Inthelastdecadesofthecentury–inthetimeofAmenophisIII,who

collectedplantsduringhisSyriancampaignsandhadthemcarvedonthewallsofhistombatKarnakandpaintedonthewallsofhispalace–anotherdecorativefeaturefromtheAegeancaughtthefancyoftheEgyptians,theartofflowerpainting.DuringthereignofAmenophis’ssonAkhenaten,whosidelinedalltheancientgodsandworshippedonlyone,thesungod,thetraditionoftombpaintingchangedradicallyalongwitheverythingelse.Theprincebuiltfromscratchanewcapitalcity,Tellel-Amarna.Inthisrevolutionaryclimate,thenewstyletriumphed:itcombinedmovement–birdsonthewing,lionsorgreyhoundschasingagazelle–withplants,flowers,insects,fish,allhandledwiththefreedomandnaturalismoftheCretans.The‘greenroom’inthenorthernpalace

atAmarna,withitspaintedthicketsofpapyrus,wasnothinglikethecountlessmarshlandsceneswhichwerepreviouslyafavouritesubjectofEgyptianpainters.Thenewstyleinvadednotonlypaintingbutporcelain,paintedandcarvedfurniture,andcaskets.Itwascopiedelsewhere:aporcelainrhytonfoundinCyprusmighthavebeenmanufacturedinAmarna,giveortakeafewdetails.Isitsosurprisingthenthattheeclecticartparexcellence,inanageof

eclecticism,shouldhavebeentheSyrianartofByblosandUgarit?Itsluxuryproducts–ivories,bowlsmadeofgoldorchasedsilver,jewels,multi-colouredpottery–weremadeforexporttoforeignplaces.Thiswasthebeginningofan‘internationalart’,consciousofdifferencesinstyleandplayingonthem,shamelesslyborrowingfromeverykindofsourcesimultaneously.Itwasproducedforaforeignclientelewhohadtobecharmedintobuying.

TheuniversalismofAmarna

Onecouldeasilyprolongthisreviewoftheculturalexchangesandinfluencesofthesecondmillennium,especiallyifonewantedtodojusticetothespreadofplants,ofvinesandolivesinparticular,oroftechnologieslikeglassblowing,potteryandenamelling;oreventothespreadofmedicalremedies,ifwearetojudgebytheEgyptiandoctorwhoisdepictedinaThebanpaintingatthebedsideofaSyrianprince.Butinthosefar-offtimes,theessentiallanguageofcivilizationwas

clearlythatofreligion.MesopotamianandHittitemythology,thepoemsofUgaritwouldyieldmanyexamplesofstrangehybrids.GodsandmythstravelledthroughouttheMiddleEast,alongwiththemosteverydayculturalgoods.TheexampleoftheHittitepantheon,inwhichthreeorfourreligioustraditionscametogether,isperhapstoogoodtobetrue.WemightlookinsteadatthecuriouspoeminwhichthemessengersofthegodsofUgaritflytoCretetobringbackthegodofthe

Cretanartisans,theirpatronsaintsotospeak,KotharWa-Khasis:heisthencommandedtobuildthePalaceofBaal.Itwouldalsobeeasy,butperhapsalittlerepetitive,totracethetravelsfromplacetoplace,throughalltheirmetamorphosesandname-changes,ofthegodsoftheweather,thunderandtheheavens.Thenewandexceptionalcharacteroftheculturalawakeningofthe

secondmillenniumBCcanbestbegraspedfromtheexampleofEgypt:herewasthemoststructuredreligion,andtheleastopentotheoutside,ofanyintheMiddleEast.Asanationalreligion,itexcludedallnon-Egyptians,andtheexclusionwasoftenformallysetdown.InthetemplesofKhnum,theram-headedgodwhodispensedthewatersoftheNile,aninscriptionreads:‘DonotpermitanyAsiantoenterthetemple,beheoldoryoung’.TheEgyptiansweretheonlylegitimatebelievers,andindeedtheonlylegitimateinhabitantsoftheworld.ItistruethatinNubiaandcertaincitiesinSyriawhichtheEgyptiansmoreorlesscontrolled,EgyptiantempleswerebuiltwheresomelocaldivinitieswereadmittedintotheEgyptianpantheon,withtheadditionofsymbolslikethehornsofHathororthewingeddisc.Butthatwasjustanotherwayofdominatingandcontrollingcolonialsubjects.Still,BaalandAstarte,whowereintroducedinthiswayintotheranksofEgyptiangods,didgatheracertainfollowingindependentlyofanypoliticalstratagemsorcalculations.Someborrowingdidoccur,andthesecretdoorofreligiousexchangewasatleastpartlyopened.Theprocessbecomesclearerduringthereligiousandculturalcrisis

whichstartedtoappearfromabouttheeighteenthdynastyandcametoaheadunderthereignofAmenophisIV,thestrangestpharaohinhistory,whomwemetbrieflyearlier.Thesungodhadrevealedhimselftothepharaoh,whoproceededtoproclaimtheomnipotenceofthissinglegod,representedinsimpleandsymbolicfashionbyanimageofthesunasadiscwithraysendinginoutstretchedhands.Thisgod’snamewasAtenandthepharaohtookthenameofAkhenaten,meaning‘hewhohasbeenapprovedbyAten’.TherefollowedareligiouswarbetweenAkhenatenandthestiflingpowersofthepriestsofAmun,whohadbeenenrichedbygiftsfrompreviousconqueringpharaohs.ThepharaohwasforcedtoleaveThebes,thecapitalwherethespurnedgodAmunstillreigned,andtocreateanewcapitalcity,builthastilyin

Aten’shonour–thecitywenowknowbythenameofthenearbyvillageofTellel-Amarna.Fragileandlively,itflourishedforameretwentyyears.Butforourpurposes,theinterestingthingisnotthisrevealingepisode

initself,northeunsuccessfulattempttointroducetheworshipofasingledeity,somethingthatwasalreadyintheairbeforethereformingpharaohandwhich,despitesomeimmediatereactionagainsthim,wouldcontinuetotroubletheheartsofthefaithfulthereafter.TheinterestingpointforusisthattheEgyptianreligionshouldhaveshownthatitcouldopenuptoacertainuniversalism,thatitwasforoncewillingtotakenoticeoftheforeignerswhohadhithertobeensoundesirable.Akhenaten’s‘HymntotheSun’actuallycreditsthegodwiththecreationofmanydifferentraces:‘Thetonguesofmenaredifferentwhentheyspeak,andtheircharacterisdifferenttoo,asistheirskin.Thushastthoumadethypeopledifferent’.Buttheseforeigners,providedtheyareguidedbytheBookoftheDead,willbesavedliketheEgyptians,andwillhaveaccesstotheafterworld–althoughbytheirsmell,thegodswillknowthattheydonotcomefromtheholylandofEgypt.Inotherwords,thesunshinesonallmankindalike:allpeoplecanlive

inpeaceunderAtenandhisassociateonearth.ItistruethattheproblemsEgyptfacedatthetime,treacheryandmilitarydefeatinSyriaandreligiousconflictathome,weretooseriousforthesedeclarationsnottocorrespondtosomeunderlyingpoliticalintentions.Ifthesungodwasacceptedbyall,hemightconsolidateandsavetheempire.Buttheseideaswereheldwithinanundeniablespiritualcontext,andcosmopolitanismhadalreadyinfiltratedtheoldhouseofEgyptforseveralgenerationsbeforethemysticalreignofAkhenatenbroughtitbrieflyintothecentreoftheEgyptianreligion.

IllAccidents,developmentsanddisasters

Ifwewerenowtoreviewthepicturepaintedaboveandinsertalltheeventsthattookplaceoverthesameperiod,theywouldcastadarkshadowoverthewholescene.Duringtheendlessbronzeage,theMiddleEastwitnessedallkindsofhardships,upheavals,dangerousdevelopmentsandcatastrophes.Itshistoryisextremelycomplicated,butcanbereducedtoanumberofquiteclearpatterns,akindofgeographyofhumanmigration.

Geographyandhumansettlement

Geographycanbeamarvellousexplanatorytool,solongasweavoidloadingitwithelementarydeterminism.Itclarifiesquestionsandformulatesthem,butitcannotresolvethem.Menandtheirhistorycomplicatethepictureandconfusetheissue.Letussimplifybysayingthatintheearliesttimes,theMiddleEast

couldbedividedintofiveorsixtypesofregion,dependingonwhethertheyattractedandretainedpopulationsor,alternatively,dispatchedemigrantselsewhere.Thesepopulationshifts,whichcouldeasilyleadtocatastrophe,areattheheartofthedarkpictureweshallhavetopaint.Inthefirstplacethereweretheregionsattractivetosettlers,cyclonic

zonessotospeak,whichdrewinthedifferentcurrents.Thesewereareaswhichhadalonghistoryofsedentarization,andalreadypossessedfairlysettledtownsandvillages,andstablepatternsofcultivationandgrazing.Themostpopulousofthese–MesopotamiaandEgypt–werethemostattractive,buttheywerealsowellabletodefendthemselves.Thelesspopulousareas,whichcoveredmuchwiderareasthantheseprivilegedregions,weremoreopentomigrationorindeedinvasion.Theyyieldedtoincomers,withoutnecessarilynoticingwhatwashappening:AsiaMinorinthebroadsenseandarchaicGreecewerebothexamplesofsuchregions.Asopposedtothesesought-afterregionswerethosewheretherewas

strongpopulationpressureandaconstantoverflowofpeople.Itwasnotthatdemographicdensitywasgreatertherethanelsewhere;onthecontrary,itwasinferiortowhatcouldbefoundonthebanksoftheNileortheEuphrates.Buttheseregionswereover-populatedinrelationtotheirresources–hencethedisequilibriumwhichgavethemanunsettledhistory.Theyweresituatedinthemountains,desertsandsteppesandonmanysea-coasts.SeagoingpeopleoftheMediterraneanmightbefarmersandcultivatorsaswell,butthenarrowcoastalzones,usuallyhemmedinbythenearbymountains,werenotasaruleself-sufficient.Theywerealsodependentonthesea.Thedramaticeventsofthebronzeagewerethustheresultofthe

differentzonesintowhichtheMediterraneanwasdivided.Humanpopulationswereasmuchvictimsofthenaturalforcesallroundthemasoftheirowncustoms,desiresandrulers.

Mountain-dwellersandseafarers

Forallthat,theclassicMediterraneanstereotypes–hill-dwellerscomingdownfromthehighvalleys,orseafarerssettingsailfromtheirnativelandnevertoreturn–donotappearsofrequently,orinsuchastraightforwardway,intheMiddleEast,acontinentallandmassnotveryopentotheseaandwherethemountainsaresomewhatperipheral.StructurallytheMiddleEastcontinuesthegreatplatformofancientrocksmakinguptheSahara,interruptedbrieflybytheRedSeathencontinuingonintoIran.FragmentsofthisplatformhadcollapsedtoformtheRedSeaandtheDeadSea,whileothershadbeenraised:themountainridgesofLibyaandArabiaoneithersideoftheNile,andthemountainsofLebanonandtheAnti-Lebanon:Buttherealmountainsaretothenorth,beyondthedoublelineoftheTaurusandZagros.TheyformpartofAsiaMinorandpartofIran,linkingupwiththemountainsofArmeniaand,furthernorth,withthemightyCaucasus.

Sothethreatfromthemountain-dwellerswasconfinedtothenorthofourregion.ItdidnotthereforetakeonthatimmediateandfamiliarcharacterithadinItalyandGreece,wheremountainpeoplesimplyhadtotraveldownhilltofindthemselvesinthecitiesandcultivatedfieldsoftheplains.EmigrationfromthemountainstotheMiddleEastwasoftenalongjourney,punctuatedbyhalts:thepopulationswhichcamefromtheCaucasusstayedforyearsorcenturiesinArmenia,thensettleddownagainintheZagrosorIranbeforereachingtheirjourney’sendinMesopotamia,Syria,orAsiaMinor,wheretheplateauxandthehighandlowplainswerestilldesirablelandstotakeover.Theseemigrantsfromthemountainsareknowntousasaruleattheirpointofarrival,whererecordedhistoryilluminatestheirpresence.Butwhatwastheirhistorybeforethat?TheGutu,forexample,seemtohaveoriginatedintheZagros,thatis

themountainbarriertotheeastoftheMediterranean.Butforallweknow,theymayhavecomefromfurthereast.TheirrapidrisewasfavouredbytheinternalupheavalsoftheAkkadianEmpire.TheythenoccupiedBabylonin2160,settingupagovernmenttherewhichthetroubledtimesrenderedimmediatelyineffective.By2116orsotheyhadbeendrivenoutagain.Sotheirtriumphhadbeenshort-lived.TheHurrians,whoselanguagebearsnorelationtoanyotherknown

languageapartfromUrartian,mayhavecomefromArmeniatowardstheendofthesecondmillenniumBC.Theywereprobablyartisans,bringingwiththemmetal-workingtechniques,aswellasequestrianharnessandthelightwar-chariot.Whoevertheywere,theyscatteredthroughoutthecitiesofMesopotamia,Syria,CappadociaandCilicia.TheysettledinlargenumbersinCarchemishandUgarit,citieswhereindustrywasimplantedearly,andtheytookpart,butasfoot-soldierssotospeak,intheconstructionofthestateofMittaniundertheleadershipofAryanchiefs,betweenthesixteenthandfourteenthcenturiesBC.Ifwetakeanotherfamousexample,theKassites,theiroriginstooare

uncertain.TheymayhavecomefromIran,Armeniaorthefar-offCaucasus,orperhapsfromallthree.TheyarefirstdetectableintheZagros,thelaunchpadfortheirfinalemigration.Theirlanguage,anothernon-Indo-Europeanone,mighthaveprovidedsomeclues,iftheseimmigrantshadnotsoquicklyabandonedit:theyadoptedAkkadianas

soonastheyarrivedinMesopotamiainthesecondmillennium.Theyhadatfirstattemptedtoenteritasconquerorsin1740BC,astheolddynastywascollapsingafterthedeathofHammurabi,butwithoutsuccess.In1708,asecondattemptalsofailed.ButtheKassiteshadadestinyratherlikethatoftheGermanictribesvis-a-visRomeinlatertimes.TheybeganthepeacefulpenetrationofMesopotamiaasmercenariesorevenlabourers.Itwasanaccidentaleventfromoutside(aHittitechariotattack,takingBabylonbysurprise)whichopenedupthegatesofpowertothemonthereboundin1594.AKassitedynastytookoverandreigneduntil1160,whichissomethingofarecordinlength,buttheconquerorshadthemselvesbeenabsorbedbythelocalcultureandlanguagewellbeforetheirvictory.Intheabsenceofanyotherachievements,theydidsucceedinchangingsartorialfashion:itwasfromthemthattherecamethelongtunicwithshortsleeveswhichwastobetheclassicgarmentlaterwornbytheAssyrians.ThehistoryoftheKassitesthenisthatofapoverty-strickenpeoplewhohadseveralstrokesofgoodfortune:theyknockedatthegatesofMesopotamiawhentheywerenotsecurelyclosed;theytookpowerthankstotheexploitsofothers;andtheyreignedwhenthegeneralsituationwasinaprosperousphase.Seagoingpeoplesdonotprovidesuchstrikingexamplesofaggressive

migration.Didtheyshrinkfromtakingonapoliticalrole?Trademerelyrequirestheabsenceofwarandtheco-operationofothers.CretansandMycenaeanshadsettledintheCyclades,atseveralpointsinAsiaMinor,andinRhodesandCyprus.TheSyrianshadseveralsmalltradingcoloniesinEgypt,whichwerecertainlyprosperous,andmayevenhavebeguntoprospectinthewesternsea.Thesesettlementsarenotnegligiblewhenviewedindetail,butcannotcomparewiththegreatwavesofcolonizationofthewesternMediterraneanwhichweretofollowduringthefirstmillenniumBC.Andyet,towarnusagainstmakinghastyjudgements,itwasthe

PeoplesoftheSea(anamegiventhembytheEgyptians)whoweretoplayaleadingroleinthedecisivecrisisofthetwelfthcentury.Theirdisturbanceswerethesignal,ifnotthesinglecause,oftheapproachingcatastrophewhichbroughtthesplendoursofthebronzeagetoaclose.6Andiftheycreatedpaniceverywhere,wasthatnotprimarilybecauseno

onewasexpectingthem?Anentirepopulationcrossingtheseawassomethingastonishing,unheardof!Similarly,theArabinvasionsintheseventhcenturyadwereatotalsurprise:noonehadanticipatedanattackorathreatfromthatdirection,fromthedesertwhichhadforsomanycenturiesseemedempty.

Steppesanddeserts:thethreatfromthenomads

Thedesertisnotthesamethingasthesteppe,butasteppethatseesitsscantygrasslandsdisappearcanquicklyturnintoadesert–andthereverseissometimestrue.TheSyriandesertwasacompletedesert,onthebordersofLowerMesopotamia,isolatingandprotectingittosomeextent,butalsoaffectingitbyitsperpetualdrought.ButitwasprolongedbysteppestowardsnorthernMesopotamia,wherenon-irrigatedagricultureremainedtherule.Today,thisbordersteppeis‘desolateanduncultivable;itgreensoveraftertheshortrainyseasonandathousandflowersbloom:aprecariousgrazingarea,thisistheArabianbadiya’.Naturally,itwasanidealwayintoMesopotamiaforthedesertnomads,whosometimescameaspeacefulvisitorsandhirersofgrazinglands.Butthecontrastbetweensteppeanddesertisnotanessentialoneas

regardspopulationmovements.Noristhatothercontrast,clear-cutthoughitis,betweenhotandcolddeserts:Iran,warm,yetcooledbythealtitudeofitsplateauxandmountains,providesatransitionallinkbetweenthetwokinds.TheimportantthingisthatallthesedesertsoftheAncientWorldformedacontinuousmasstobecrossed,ratherlikelinkedseas,fromtheAtlantictoChina:theyranfromtheSaharatoArabia,totheSyriandesert,toTurkestan–linked,awkwardlybutneverthelessthelinkisthere,bytheDzungariangate,tothedesertsofTakla-Makan,theGobiDesertandbeyonditthesteppesofnorthernMongoliaandsouthernManchuria.TheDzungariangatewasalso

roughlythedividinglinebetweenCaucasiansandMongolians.ButeverywhereinthisgreattractcuttingacrosstheAncientWorld,humanpopulationsfacedthesameimperatives:thescarcityofwaterandgrass,theconstantneedformassivemigration.Intheend,soonerorlater,theyalldevisedthesamedifficultandingeniousresponses,thesametechniquesofnomadism.Nomadiclifecannotbeassumedtohavebeenperfectedatthedawnof

humanhistory–althoughpeopleoftenmistakenlythinkso.Large-scalenomadism,usingfast-movinganimalslikethehorseandthedromedary(andlaterthecamel,fromBactriainTurkey),onlyemergedatalatedate.Ithadtakenalongtimeandmanysuccessiveadaptationstoreachthisequilibrium,whichwasfirstachievedinthehotSyrianandArabiandeserts;andithappenedevenlaterintheSahara,thelastofthefamilyofgreatdesertstobemastered.Anelementaryformofnomadism,almostolderthanagriculture,had

neverthelessgrownupfromtheearlydaysofthedomesticationofanimals.Menanddogsdroveflocksofsmallerlivestock:sheepandgoats.Butitwasthesettledfarmerswhodomesticatedlargerbeasts,theoxandlaterthehorse,creatingamixedeconomyofwhichthesecondtypeofnomadismwasamereby-product.Grazinginthesteppes,wheretherewereplentyofwide-openspaces,representedawayoutforsettledpopulations,wheneverpoorharvests,drought,ortheexistenceoftoomanymouthstofeedmadevillagelifedifficult.Wholecommunitiesthusfoundthemselvesdrivenintoanunbalancedandincompleteeconomy,andcaughtthereafterinawebofobligations.Theyhadtousedifferentgrazinggroundsatdifferentseasons.Inordertofollowtheherds,theirhousesbecametemporaryshelters,tentsorcartsloadedwithwomen,childrenandbelongings.Theirliferemainedprecarious:itonlytookanotherdrought,alostbattleforgrazinggrounds,asurplusofpopulation,oralackofsuccesswhentradingatthemarketsonthefringesofsettledcommunities,togeneratepanic,leadingtomigrationandtheinvasionofcultivatedareas.

Thenorthernsteppes:theIndo-Europeans

Beforethetwentiethcenturybc,thesteppesanddesertsfromHungarytotheBlackandCaspianSeasandtoBactria(Turkestan)wereoccupiedbyIndo-Europeanpeoples.Theyweresemi-sedentary,andknewhowtogrowwheatandbarley,buttheirnumbersortheexhaustionoftheirarablelandregularlyturnedthemintopastoralpeople,wanderingfarandwide.WedonotknowmuchabouttheseIndo-Europeans,whowereprobablydividedintoseveraldifferentpopulations.Butstudiescarriedoutbyprehistorians–oftheso-calledTripolyecivilizationnearKievin3500-1900;oftheUsatovocivilizationnearOdessa(c.1800)andofAfanasievo(3000-1700)andAndronova(after1700)–provideunequivocalevidencethatalltheeconomieswhichhaveleftanytracesweremixed,beingbothagriculturalandpastoralandthereforestillconnectedtovillagesettlements.Herdsoflivestockwere,however,becomingamajorfeature:sheep,goatsandcattle(thoughnotpigs)andlatercamelsandhorses.Theuseofhorseswasobviouslyadecisivefactor,buttheydidnotbecomeavailableovernight.Largeherdsofwildhorseswereinexistenceinthepaleolithic,reachingevenintowesternEurope.TheymayhavebeendomesticatedforthefirsttimeinsouthernRussia,beforebeingtamedelsewhere.Butwhenthechariotfirstappearedinthefourthmillennium,itwaspulledbyteamsofoxen.Theharnessedhorsemadeitsappearanceonlyinthesecondmillennium,probablybywayoftheHurrians,apeopleoriginatinginArmeniawhohadsettledinnorthernMesopotamia.Itwashere,ontheedgeofthegreatplains,thatthelighttwo-wheeledchariotwasprobablyinvented:itwasharnessedtooneortwohorsesanditscomplicatedconstructionwouldhaverequiredanexpertworkforce:thiswastorevolutionizetheconductofwarforcenturiestocome.Thesuggestionthatitoriginatedinthisareaonthebordersofpresent-dayIranandArmeniaisplausible.BetweenLakesVan,SevanandUrmiawasanareacharacterizedbyforestsandmetal-working.ExcavationsbySovietteamshaveestablishedthatthereweremanytwo-wheeledvehiclesintheregion,andlateronfour-wheeledones,atdatesasearlyas–orevenearlierthan–inMesopotamia.These

vehicleshadsolidwheels:spokeswerealaterinvention.ThelightchariotspreadrapidlyacrossthesteppesandhadalongcareerintheMiddleEast,wherethiscostlyandaristocraticinstrumentofwarfarewasastatussymbol.Egypt,aseverlaggingbehind,didnotadoptituntilthesecondhalfofthesixteenthcentury;itappearedinCretealittleearlierthaninEgyptandprobablyithadarrivedevensoonerinMycenae(inthefirstquarterofthecentury).AtthebattleofQadeshinthethirteenthcentury,severalthousandHittitechariotswerepittedagainstthoseoftheEgyptians.Onefinalstephadstilltobetaken,theuseofridersonhorseback,whoareglimpsedasearlyasthefourteenthcentury.Butitwasonlyinaboutthetenthcenturythatthisstrangeculturalphenomenon,soinexplicablylateindeveloping,becameestablishedontheconfinesoftheCaucasusandIran.Whenitdid,itcompletelychangedthebasisofsocialandeconomiclifeinthesteppes:aherdsmanonhorsebackcouldwatchoverhugeflocksofanimals.Thesoldieronhorsebackdidnothavetobeawealthypatricianlikethecharioteerofthepast.Migrationsofpopulationfromeasttowestwerehastened,heraldingthedramaticeventstocome.ThefirstsignswerethedisturbancesprovokedbytheCimmerians,thesemi-nomadic,semi-settledpeoplenorthoftheBlackSea,whohadencampedinwhatwaslatersouthernRussia(nowUkraine).TheyweredrivenoutintheeighthcenturyfollowingviolentattacksbytheScythians,whoseemtome,astheyhavetootherwriters,tohavebeenthefirst‘truly’nomadicpeople.Sointhebronzeage,downto12.00BC,wearestillfarfromthetimeofthegreatnomadicinvasions.TheIndo-Europeanmigrationsoftheperioddidnottakeplacewithoutviolenceofcourse,buttheylackedthepowerfulweaponofcavalry.Thesewereinvaderswhotriumphedbydintofaudacityandwarlikedetermination,whetherinthewestofEurope,inIranorIndia(fifteenthcentury)orinGreeceandtheMiddleEast.Theirinvasionswereoften,infact,long-terminfiltrationacrosssparselypopulatedregions.Thenewcomersmingledwiththeresidentpopulationsandsometimesevenjoinedforceswiththemtomarchon.ThisisperhapshowoneshouldviewtheraidbytheHyksosontheNileDelta,whichtheycontrolledforaboutacentury.TheywereprobablyIndo-Europeansbutseemtohavebeenassociatedwithotherpeoples

too:thenewweaponsofhorseandchariothelpedthemaccomplishtheirfamouslyrapidvictory.AsforthetheorythattheIndo-Europeaninvaderswererichincomerswhodominatedavanquishedpeasantpopulation,likemostgeneralizationsitseemstobeonlyverybroadlyapplicable.TheHittiteswhosettledinAsiaMinoraftertheLuvians,theirbrothersinarms,arrivedthereearlyenoughtohaveadoptedtheancientcuneiformscript.Theirwrittenlanguage,whichiswell-attested,wouldsoononlyhavetwentypercentofIndo-Europeanwords,therestbeingborrowedfrompeoplesonthespotwhowerenon-Indo-European.ThesamethinghappenedtotheHittitesastotheAchaeansinGreece:theybecamesuckedintoaculturalinheritancewhichwasoriginallynottheirownandwhichoutclassedthem.

TheHittitesbecomeHittite

JustastheGreekshadtobecomeGreek,sotheHittites,onarrivalinAsiaMinor,turnedintoHittites.Theyprobablyembarkedupontheirhistoricaldestinybeforethebeginningofthesecondmillennium.Itwasaboutthenthattheyarrived,possiblyfromtheshoresoftheCaspian,orfromThrace,andsettledinthehighmountainousregionsofAnatolia,freezinginwinter,bakinghotinsummer.Sturdyandvigorouspeople,theseIndo-Europeanswhomingledwiththelocalpopulationwererecognizablebytheirlight-colouredhair,blondorauburn,andtheircharacteristic‘Greek’profile,whichsostrucktheEgyptians,thoseconnoisseursofethnictypes.Theywereundoubtedlyafarmingpeoplefromthecontinentalinterior,andforalongtimedeliberatelyavoidedthesea,establishingtheircapitalHattusha(Bogaskoy)inlandinthevalleyoftheKizilIrmak,knowntotheGreeksastheHalys.Itwasherethattheirgoodfortunetookroot.Thereafter,theirenergeticpopulation,theirrulers’ambition,their

thrivingmetalproductionandthemassiveuseofchariotsenabledthemtoextendtheirdominationtolimitswhichcannotbeaccuratelychartedinretrospect,particularlysincetheirempirewasbasedonakindoffeudalsystem,grantingestates,manors,principalitiesandsoon–asourceofweaknesswhichwastohaveseriousconsequences.Forabriefmomentin1595bctheysurprisedthemselvesbycapturingBabylon,butweresodisconcertedbytheirextraordinaryvictorythattheyabandoneditimmediately.ButtheypressedonthroughCarchemish,AleppoandUgarit,sometimesbyforce,sometimespeacefully,towardstheseaandtheFertileCrescent.Thislongperiodofexpansionprovidedthemwithstrengthandfuelledtheirambitions.Mesopotamiatothesouth,dividedbetweenBabyloniaandAssyria,couldhardlyholdthemupforlong;theyalsoovercometheMittaniansonthekeysitesonthebendintheEuphrates,andstooduptotheformidablepowerofEgypt.ThebattleofQadeshin1285bc,asortofmonstrousstand-offbetweentheHittitesandEgyptians,markedtheendoftheseexhaustingwars.Eachsidecouldclaimvictoryandwouldnotbudgethereafter.Therefollowedaperiodofprudence,leadingtothesignaturein1280oftheoldestpeacetreatyofwhichthetexthassurvived.Itwastheresultoflengthydiplomaticnegotiationsandexchangesofmessages.Thesetablets,writteninAkkadian,theinternationallinguafrancaofthetime,havebeenfoundinAmarna,BogaskoyandUgarit.ApostalservicewasmaintainedbythelargerstatesfromAnatoliatoEgypt.Anentirebookcouldbewrittenaboutthisearlyversionofdiplomacy,abouttheexchangesofdoctors,sculptorsandcraftsmen,aboutthepolicyofdynasticmarriagesbetweenprincelyfamiliessotypicalofthefourteenthandthirteenthcenturies,andtheBabylonian,MittanianorHittiteprincesseswhobecametheguaranteesforalliancesandreconciliationsofvaryingsincerity.ThesecontactsbetweenEgyptandtheoutsideworldwereinfactlinkedtoEgypt’sdeterminationtoexpandtowardsSyria,beginninginmilitarytermsinthesixteenthcenturywiththeSyriancampaignswagedbythepharaohsoftheeighteenthdynasty.TheaimwastogetridoftheHyksos,whohadbeendrivenoutoftheDeltabutwerenowentrenchedinthePalestiniancities.Victoriousanddeterminedtoremainso,Egyptwastoexertasortofprotectorate,alwaysneedingreinforcement,overMittaniandthecity-statesofthe

Syriancoast.WhenHittitesandEgyptiansconfrontedeachotherintheseterritorieswhichwereforeigntobothsides,itwasthereforeamatterofimperialrivalry,butwithinacontextofself-consciousinternationalrelationswhichhadneverpreviouslyexisted.Warsanddiplomacysucceededeachotheruntilasemblanceofbalanceofpowerfinallybecameestablished,shortlybeforethecatastrophictwelfthcenturyBC.Hittitecivilizationwasitselfagoodexampleofthecosmopolitanismofthesecondmillennium.Everythingseemstohavebeenborrowedfromelsewhere.TheverynameHattiwasborrowedfromthelocalAnatolianpopulation,asweretraditionalHittitebuildingtechniques,theirredglazedpotterywithmulti-coloureddecoration,theirlibationvasesintheshapeofanimals,theirshoeswithturned-uppointedtoes,theirgodswithconicalheaddressesandsoon.FromtheMesopotamianstheyborrowedmanyitemsofthelegalcode,cuneiformscriptandthepracticeofrepresentingpeopleonhorizontalfriezes.FromtheinternationalstyleofthesixteenthcenturyBCtheyborrowedtheAegeanspiral,thedrawingsofgallopinganimalsandplantsusingspiralmotifs.FromEgypt,viaUgaritnodoubt,theyborrowedcertaindetailssuchastherepresentationofthesunasawingeddisc,whichisfoundinconnectionwithimagesofthekinginthesanctuaryatYazilikayaandelsewhere.Lastly,theHittitepantheonwithits‘thousandgods’acceptedallthelocaldeitieswithoutmissingabeat.Greatestofallwerethegodofweatherandstorms,possiblytobeidentifiedwithAdad,theMesopotamiangodofthunder,andResheforBaal,theSyriangod.ThelatterusuallyappearsridingabullinHittitesculptures.Athissidewasthegreatsungoddess,noneotherthantheindestructiblestone-ageEarthMotherofAnatolia,whomtheHittiteshaddeckedoutwithsomeoftheattributesoftheHurriangoddessHepat.ThefascinationhereliesinbeingabletolookbackmanycenturiestodiscoverthefirstIndo-Europeanpeopletoberecordedfromtheinside,thankstotheampledocumentationfoundatBogaskoy(soampleindeedthatitwilltakealongtimetorecordandtranslateitall)andthankstoototheexamplesofHittiteart,stillrecognizabledespitealltheborrowings,andveryexpressiveinspiteofitsconventions.IsitfancifulofmetothinkoftheHittitesasastraightforwardand

bravepeople,downtoearth,life-loving,fondofdancingandmusic,andkindtochildrenandanimals?Severalengagingsculpturesshowtheyoungprinceplayingashestandsupinthequeen’slap,orbringinghersamplesofhiswritingexercises.Thiswasastill-naivepeople,baskingintheglowofnearbycivilizationsandgraduallyconstructingitsownimperialconventions.ButtheHittitekingneverclaimedtobealivinggodasthepharaohsdid.Althoughrulingoverapeopleofwarriors,hewasneverthelessoneofthosewhochosetousediplomaticchannelsratherthanmakewartoachievetheirends.ObservershavenoticedamongtheHittitestheabsenceofthatwarlikeruthlessnesssotypicaloftheage,eveninEgypt,andwhichwouldlaterbecometrulyterrifyingundertheAssyrians.Thereisonelastsignificantfeatureworthmentioning:theattitudetowardsthestatusofwomen–rathersurprisinglyamongthissoldier-tribe–seemstohavebeenasliberalasinCrete.

Thesoutherndeserts:theSemiticpeoples

InthesecondmillenniumBC,theSyriandesertandthemorearchaicArabiandeserthadnotyetbeendisturbedbytheaggressivewayoflifeoftheBeduin.Thehorseanddromedarywerebothpresentfromearlyon,butneitherwasbeingusedtofullcapacity.Accordingtotheexperts,thedomesticationofthedromedarymayevenhavetakenplaceasfarbackasthethirdmillennium,possiblyineasternArabia,nearertheGulf.Buttheydonotdetectitbeingusedasamajorpackanimalforcaravansuntilabout1300BC(andthisimportantstepusedtobedatedevenlater,inthetenthcenturyBC).Untilthen,caravansconsistedofdonkeyswiththeirdrivers,thehapiruoftheMesopotamiantexts.Thisword–ifitreallydoesmeandonkey-masterandnotsimplymanofthedesert,Beduin,aswasoncethought–wouldprovidevaluableandpreciseevidence:itfirstappearsinthe

twenty-thirdcenturyBC,thendisappearsinthethirteenth.AnEgyptianpaintingfromabout1890BCshowstheSemitesofthe‘Asiatic’desert,wearinglongmulti-colouredrobesastheytraveltoBeniHassaninEgyptwiththeirdonkeys,bringinggiftsforprinceKnumhotep:kohl(eyemake-up)anddesertgazelles.DidtheytaketheroutewhichisthoughttohavelinkedMesopotamiaandEgyptandwhichmightexplaintheprosperityinveryancienttimesofasettledpopulationinSinaiandtheNegev,somethingwhichseemsoddatfirstsight?Theultimatedevelopmentofsea-bornetradewouldhavespelledtheendofthisancientoverlandrouteacrossthestonysurfaceofthedesert.Dromedarieswouldhavebeenabletousethetracksnearerthesea,wherethesandwastoodeepforthesmallhoovesofdonkeys.Butwhywasthevaluabledromedarynotusedearlier?Possiblybecauseoftheproblemofharness:itwasnotuntiltheninthcenturybcthatanewtypeofsaddleforthedromedaryappeared.‘AboutthetimethatthefirsthorsebackridersappearedsomewhereinthenorthernArabiandesert,thedromedarydriversgraduallyacquiredthenewelementsoftherevolutionarysaddlepercheduponthebeast’shump.’Previouslytheyhadriddenwithacushiononthecrupper.ThenewsaddlewasimprovedbyacomplicatedsystemofgirthsintheeighthandseventhcenturiesandthenbythehighpommelswhichcameintogeneraluseinthethirdandsecondcenturiesBC(seeXavierdePlanhol).Onlythendidthesoutherndesertswitnessthe‘secondwave’ofnomadism,whichcameintohistoricalfocusmanyhundredsofyearslater(intheseventhandeighthcenturiesad)withthewaveofArabconquests.Wemightnoteonceagainhowverylongtheseprocessestook.SotheSyriandesertborderingMesopotamiaremainedundisturbedforalongtime.Whatnormallyhappenedwasthatthenomadcamecapinhand,needingtorentgrazingland,toselllivestock,ortohirehimselfoutasacarrierorheavylabourer.Thisistheunchangingstory,recordedinthedocumentsofMari.Large-scaleinvasion,capableoftakingtheformofa‘conquest’,couldhappenonlyifthesettledpopulationallowedit;if,forexample,theyneededlabourtoworktheirlandorhelpinfightinganeighbouringcity,orifinternaldissensionhadunderminedtheauthorityoftheirleaders.Inshort,betweenthesetwoworlds,which

operatedlikecommunicatingvessels,oneratherfull,theotherratherempty,compensatorymovementshardlyevertookaviolentform.ThepeoplesoftheSyriandesertwereSemites,dividedamongmanysmalltribes.TheyweremovingnorthintoSyriaandMesopotamiaasearlyasthethirdmillennium.Thefirstpeopletosettlethere–knownconventionallyandprobablyinaccuratelyastheAkkadians–movedintotheareasroundtheriversnearAssur,KishandMari.Fortunefavouredthem:underSargontheyfoundedtheso-calledEmpireofAkkad(2340-2200).ThesecondSemiticwaveconsistedofCanaanitesandAmoriteswhodecisivelyoccupiedtheSyrian-Palestinianarea,theformertothesoutharoundByblos,thelattertothenorthandeastaroundUgarit,Mari,etc.SmallgroupsofAmoritesalsoinfiltratedthecitiesofMesopotamia,eventuallyseizingpowerafterhavingcontributedtothedestructionofthethirddynastyofUr:HammurabiwasanAmorite.ButbythisperiodtheAmoriteshad,liketheAkkadiansbeforethem,becomeassimilatedintothethrivingcivilizationofMesopotamia,thoughitistruethatinAkkad,MariorByblos,someartworksshowSemiticinfluence.Overthecourseofthecenturies,manyotherSemitictribesweretocrossthefrontierleadingtozonesofstablesettlement,amongthemtheHaneans,theBenjaminitesandtheSuteans.TheinvasionoftheAramaeanswasonalargerscale,becomingnoticeablebythethirteenthandtwelfthcenturiesastheyeventuallyforcedtheirwaythroughthefrontiersoftheMiddleEuphrates,despitethefortificationsputuponthebendoftheriverbyTiglathPileserI(1117-1077BC).TheroletheyplayedintheFertileCrescentandMesopotamiaiswellknown:theirlanguagereplacedAkkadianthereasalinguafranca.ItisacuriousfeatureoftheseSemiticmigrationsthatwhiletheyadoptedvirtuallywholesaletheculture,technologyandartofMesopotamia,theypreservedtheirlanguages(Akkadian,Aramaic)andevenimposedthemonothers,firstinthezonetheyoccupiedinMesopotamia,then,thanksnodoubttothespreadoftheircivilizationfromMesopotamiatotherestoftheMiddleEast,asinternationallanguages.TheHittites,thepharaohs,UgaritandCyprusallusedAkkadianfortheirdiplomaticcorrespondence,longafterthedynastyofAkkadhaddisappeared.Itwastheupheavalscausedbythetwelfth-centurycrisiswhich

ensuredthesuccessoftheAramaeans.SimilarlyitwasinthemidstofthesedisturbancesthattheHebrewssettled,apparentlybefore1230BC,inthesemi-populatedmountainsofPalestine:theCanaanitesandPhilistinesstoppedthemreachingtheplains.BringinguptherearcametheArabs,notedforthefirsttimeinBabylonianrecordsintheninthcenturyBC.Itwouldbesometimebeforetheirdeedsreachedcentrestageinhistory.Thestoryisarepetitiousone,aswesee.Itreflectsabasicsetofhumanrelationswhichremainedunchangedacrossthecenturies.IfnomadsfrequentlycameswoopingdowntoseizethewealthofMesopotamia(wideopentoinvasion,unfortunatelyforitsinhabitants),Mesopotamiainturnwasnourishedbythemassofhungryhumanityoutsideitsgates:desertandmountainwerebasicallyreservoirsofexploitedpeoplewhointheirturnexploitedothers.

ThePeoplesoftheSea:acatastrophetobecomparedwiththefalloftheRomanEmpire?

ThetwelfthcenturyBCbroughtsuchcatastrophesthattheprecedingcenturiesseembenignbycomparison.Cataclysmicchangeshadnotsparedthem,itistrue,buttherewasgenerallysomecompensation:thefragileCretanpalaceswererebuilt;andwhendestroyedagain,theywererebuiltagain;Egyptwasinvadedandattackedbothfromoutsideandfromwithin,butrecoveredunderfirsttheMiddleandthentheNewKingdom;Mesopotamiahadtocontendwithmorenumerousandevenmoreseriousdifficulties,butneverthelessemergedandsurvived.Andthrougheverything,progresscontinueditsforwardmarch.Butaftertheupheavalsofthetwelfthcentury,onlythemostrobustofpoliticalunitssurvived,ifatall,andtheninapiteouscondition.Theexperiencewasdevastatinganduniversal.Soanageofhistorywasbroughttoaclose,as

thingsgenerallyareinhistory:sometimesveryabruptly,withabang,andsometimeshardlynoticed,withawhimper.Atfirstsight,thedramatichistoricaleventsarethefirsttocaptureourattention.Butwhatastrangehistorythisis!Nothingaboutitisimmediatelycomprehensible,andonreflectionthepicturebecomesevenlessclear.ThecollapseoftheHittiteEmpireinabout12.00happenedquietly,withlessdisturbancethanasandcastlesoftlysubsiding.Andwecannotworkoutwhowasresponsible.Aboutthirtyyearsearlier,inabout1230,theMycenaeanpalaceswerealmostalldestroyed,andmanycitiesontheGreekmainlandandislandswereabandoned.Hereagain,thereisnoobviousculprit:thosewhousedtobeheldresponsible,theDorians,thelastIndo-EuropeaninvadersofancientGreece,didnotarriveuntiltheendofthetwelfthcentury,somehundredyearslateratleast,orsoarchaeologynowtellsus.Indeed,asoneserioushistorianhasasked,somewhattongueincheek,wasthereeveraDorianinvasionatall?7AsforthePeoplesoftheSea,thekeyfiguresintheseapocalyptictimes,weglimpsethemonlyonthetwooccasionswhentheEgyptianscrushedtheminbattle.Wemaynotbesurprisedtofindthattheysurvivedthesebloodydefeats.Butwhoweretheyexactly?Theyremainapuzzletohistorians:whenconfrontedbyadramaticdisasterwhichknockedoutseveralcivilizations,andbythealmosttotalshipwreckofthebronzeageitselfr,theywouldlikesomeclearexplanations–butthesearehardtocomeby.Therearefourseparategroupsofeventstodealwith:1)TheHittiteEmpire(theHatti)collapsesinabout1200.

2)TheMycenaeanpalacesaredestroyedandburnedinabout1230.8

3)ThepeoplewhomtheEgyptiandocumentsvariouslydescribeasthePeoplesoftheNorth,thePeoplesoftheIslands,orthePeoplesoftheSea,headforEgyptandaredefeatedtwicein1125and1180approximately(datesofwhichwecanbereasonablysure).4)AlongperiodofdroughtstrikestheMediterraneanattheendofthesecondmillenniumBC.Wasthislastplayer,theclimate,themostimportantofall?Letusconsidereachquestioninturn.

ThecollapseoftheHittiteEmpire,accordingtodocumentsdiscoveredatUgarit(RasShamra),tookplacenotattheendofthethirteenthcenturybutatthebeginningofthetwelfth.Thereisaslightdiscrepancy.ClaudeA.Schaeffer,whowasinchargeoftheexcavationsatRasSharma,wrestledwiththeexplanationfortheapparentlysilentdeathofthiswarlikeempire.Thereareafewcertainties,buttheyarenegativeones:thePeoplesoftheSeafollowedthecoastline,crossedAsiaMinorviathewestandsouth,attackedthevassalstateswhowerealliesortributariesoftheHittites,endingupatCyprus,Cilicia,CarchemishandUgarit.ButthereisnotraceofthemtobefoundintheAnatolianinterior,notablyattheexcavationsatBogaskoy.AfurtherdetailisthattheHittiteking,beforesuccumbinginthismysteriousway,haddefeatedthePeoplesoftheSea,withtheaidofboatsfromUgarit,inanavalbattleoffCyprus.Butthatdoesnotruleoutthepossibilitythatafterwards,bycuttingtheHittitekingdomofffromtheseaanditsvassals,theinvadersmayhavedealtitamortalblow.NeitherwerethePhrygiansfromThrace(anothernegativefinding)directlyresponsibleforthefalloftheHatti.LiketheDoriansinGreece,theyarrivedontheplateauxofAnatoliaafterthealmost-simultaneousdestructionofthegreatHittitecities.Movingonthen,thereareatleasttwohypotheses.ClaudeSchaefferdoesnotacceptthatsomeinvaderdeliberatelyburntdownallthepublicandprivatebuildingsofHattusha(Bogasköy),Kanesh(Kültepe)andAlaçaHöyük.‘Isitlikely’,hewrites,‘thataconquerorofthecapitalcityandtheothercontemporaryurbancentresofHittiteAnatoliawouldhavederivedanyadvantagefromconsigningtotheflamesnotonlythepalacesandfortificationsbutalltheprivatedwellingsintownswhichheintendedtooccupy?’ThelettersfoundinUgaritandBogaskoyseemtohimtoprovethattheHittiteEmpirecollapsedessentiallyfromwithin,fromsomecentralinadequacy,afterbeingweakenedbyAssyrianattacks,byrevoltsanddefectionsbyitsvassalsandallies(startingwithUgarit,whoseloyaltybythelastyearsoftheempirewasinsomedoubt),andlastlybyseriousdroughtandfamine.Thelastking,SuppiluliumaII,askedUgarittoprovidealargeshipequippedtotransportgraintoCiliciafromthevalleyoftheOrontes–‘itisamatteroflifeanddeath’,hewrote–plus‘alltheavailableboatsinthecountry’totransporttheking,hisfamily,hiscourtandhisarmy.

SobythisstageSuppiluliumahadprobablyalreadyabandonedthecapital.Why?Probably,accordingtoSchaeffer,becauseofrepeatedfaminescausedbydroughtandthedevastationofhiskingdombyviolentseismicshocks:evidenceofsuchshocksthroughoutthesecondmillenniumhascomefromexcavationsinTurkey.TheAnatolianregionofTurkeyisanunstablezonewithfrequentearthquakes,andthesecouldalsocausefirestobreakout.AtthetimewhentheHittitecitieswerebeingdestroyedandconsumedbyfire,thearchaeologicallevelcontemporarywithUgaritwasitself,accordingtoSchaeffer,disruptedbysomeextremelyviolentearthquakes.Otherspecialists,however,holdtothetheorythattherewassomeformofhumanintervention,a‘foreign’invasion,whichmightperhapshavejoinedupwiththehumantideformedbythePeoplesoftheSeaonthemoveinthesouth.

TheendofMycenaeancivilizationisequallymysterious.InthethirteenthcenturyBCitwasstillveryhealthy.Itwasbasedonadenselysettledpopulation,largecities,awide-rangingnetworkofoutpostsandflourishingtradingrelations.TheonlyworryingsignwasthatallthecitiesontheGreekmainlandwerereinforcingtheirdefencesandbuildinghugewallsaroundthem.OntheAcropolisinAthens–whichwasonceaMycenaeantown–thePelargiconwalldatesbacktothesedefensiveworks,dictatedeitherbyprudenceorbyfear.InthecitadelsofbothAthensandMycenae,wellsdugtoagiganticdepthhavebeenfound,goingrightdowntoundergroundsprings:thebesiegedcity-dwellerswouldthusbeabletodrinkwaterdrawnfromunderthefeetoftheirenemies.AhugewallwasalsobuiltacrosstheCorinthIsthmus,asortofminiatureGreatWallofChina(someofitstillremainsinthesouth-eastpartoftheisthmus).Allthisisrevealing:theMycenaeancitiesfeltthemselvestobeunderthreat.Theywerecertainlyrivalsamongstthemselves(traditiontellsofawarbetweenArgosandThebes),butsomecommondangerseemstohavebeenloomingoverthem.Weknowthatinabout1230thepalacesweredestroyedforgood,inMycenae,PylosandTiryns,wheretheskeletonsofthedefendershavebeenfoundunderthewallsunderamassofburneddebris.Weknowthatentireregionswereabandoned.SowhatbecameoftheMycenaeans?PerAlin(in196Z)triedtotracethemacrosstheGreekmainland,by

followingatrailofpotteryintheIIICstyle,whichbecameestablishedjustafterthefallofthepalaces.SoonemightconcludethatmanyMycenaeanstookrefugeinthemountainsofthenorthcoastofthePeloponnese(whichkeptthenameofAchaea)andthattheycontinuedtooccupyAttica,whosepopulationandprosperityseemactuallytohaveincreasedafterthedestructionofthepalaces;thataveryfewofthemremainedinEuboeaandBoeotia;andthattheyalmostuniversallydesertedthecentreofMycenaeancivilization,Argos,southernMessenia,Laconia.SeveralislandsinthesouthernAegeanwerealsocompletelyabandoned.InCrete,thelocalpeopletooktothemountains.ThesewereformerMinoans,sincetheirdescendantsintheclassicalperiodwerestillspeakinganon-Greeklanguageintheeastoftheislandandareknownas‘Aeteo-Cretans’,inotherwords‘trueCretans’.Otherislandshowever,suchasCephaloniaonthewestcoast,orRhodes,Kos,KalmosandCyprus(whichseemstohavebeenoccupiedbytheMycenaeansafteranarmedattack),allofthemformertradingcentres,receivedlargercontingentsofMycenaeans.TheyseemtohavesettledinCiliciaunderthenameofDananiyim(Danaoi).Whowasbehindtheseflightsandemigrations?WhodestroyedthegreatMycenaeanpalaces?WhocanithavebeenifnottheDorians?Therearetwopossibletheoriesaboutthisaswell.ThefirstsuggeststhattherewasanIndo-EuropeaninvasionbeforethatoftheDorians:theinvadersmighthavebeenthose‘Greek’peasantpopulationswhohadbeenlivingforsometimeonthenorth-easternandnorth-westernfrontiersoftheMycenaeanworld,inMacedonia,fromwheretheMycenaeansimportedtheirpottery,orinEpiruswheretombsunlikethoseatMycenae(andofatypethatlaterspreadthroughGreeceintheDorianperiod)hadexistedsincethethirteenthcenturyBC.BronzearmourofMycenaeanoriginhasbeenfoundthere.Inthatcase,asSinclairHoodhasremarked,theMycenaeanswouldhavebeendefeatedwiththeirownweapons(justastheGermanictribesdefeatedtheRomansusingRomanweapons).Forweknownowthatneitherthisfirstwaveofinvaders(ifitexisted),northeDorianwave,possessedironweapons–aswasoncebelieved.The‘blackmetal’didappearintheAegeantowardstheendofthethirteenthcentury,butitcameinfromtheEast,viaAnatolia.Nordidthenewcomersbringthepracticeof

crematingthedead,whichalsocamefromAsiaMinor.Iftherereallywasapre-Dorianinvasion,thatwouldsolveatastrokealltheproblemsrelatingtothedestructionoftheMycenaeancentres.Butwecanonlyguessatthis,forwantofabetterexplanation,anditraisesinturnotherproblemswhichevensupportersofthetheorysuchasVincentDesborough(TheLastMycenaeansandTheirSuccessors,1964)cannotresolve.Firstly,thiswarlikeraidhasleftnotracesanywhere:inmanyinstancestherewasnodamage,andinanycase,thereisnotrailofunusualobjectssuchaswouldindicatethepassageofforeigners.Itisimpossibletocharttheitineraryoftheinvaders–somethingwhichwouldhelpusdiscovertheirorigin.Andthereisnosignofthemattheirdestinationeither:whereonearthcantheyhavesettled?MostoftheMycenaeansitesweresimplyabandonedandlaydesertedforalongtime,withoutbeingdestroyedbyhumanhands.Thepalaceswerepulleddown,butthetownsremainedstanding.Theywere,however,desertedandthepopulationleftthemforsomenewdestination,aswenotedearlier,forreasonswhichremaintotallymysterious.Canwereallybelievetherewasaninvasion,whenDesboroughhimselfconcludes:‘Wehavenoevidenceofanysettlement.Thenaturalandlogicalansweristhattheinvadersdidnotsettleinanyofthezonestheyconquered,butmovedon.’RhysCarpentersimplyconcludesthat‘therewerenoinvaders’.Hishypothesisisthatsomenatural,possiblyclimatic,calamitymusthaveoccurred.Iaminclinedtoagreewithhim,havingnotedmyselflongagotheextraordinaryhistoricalconsequenceswhichmayfollowachangeintheclimateinanarealiketheMediterranean,inanagewhenagriculturallifestilldominatedtheentireeconomy.

Theclimateorthe‘returnoftheHeraclidae’.WemightbearinmindaremarkreportedinPlato’sTimaeus,supposedlymadebyanEgyptianpriestinconversationwithSolon:theclimateinclinesperiodicallyeithertowardsrainortowardsdrought,bringingwithit‘atwidespacedandregularintervals’akindof‘sickness’inwhicheitherwaterorfiredestroyseverything.Onthisparticularoccasion,‘thedeviationofthebodiesturningintheheavens’hadunleashedthechainofdisastersassociatedwithdrought.Thislanguageisnotsofarremovedfromthatoftoday’smeteorologists,whothinkthatthereareoscillationsinthe

climate,andthattherearemovementsextendingoverseveralcenturies,possiblyrelatedtosunspotsorthecirculationoftheatmosphere.EverysummerintheAegean,thesystemofAetesianwindsbecomesestablished.Theseblowfromnorth-north-westtowardsEgyptandtheAfricancoast.Ifthesea-crossingfromCreteorRhodestoEgyptwassoeasy,itwasthankstothiswindwhichblewuninterruptedlyformonthsonend:anabsolutelydrywind,blowingoutofaclearsky,butraisingcrestsoffoamonthewaves,andsufficientlystrong,ifyouareisland-hoppingonawindyday,toslowdownthelittleGreekferriesofourowncentury.Itistheapparentmovenorthwardsofthesuninsummerwhichcausesthedevelopmentofthisrelentlessandwell-establishedsystemofwinds.ItbringsdroughtwithitandaffectstheMiddleEast,includingGreeceandtheislands,betweenMarchandSeptember.Inautumn,thedrywindsusuallymakewayforrainfromtheocean,carriedonthewestwind.RhysCarpenter’stheoryisthatthelastdecadesofthethirteenthcenturyBCsawapersistentphaseofdroughtintheMediterraneanreachapeak.ThisconsiderablyextendedthedurationoftheAetesianwindsandthezoneoverwhichtheyblew.LetusfollowCarpenter’shypothesis,thoughofcoursethereisnoevidenceforit.Butifitiscorrect,theHittites,MycenaeansandPeoplesoftheSeawereallvictimsnotofsomehumanaggressionbutofadroughtlastingyearafteryear,extendingthesummermonths,dryingupthecrops,asthevolcanicfall-outofTherahadoncedone.ThecitiesofMycenaeperishedinthislong-drawn-outcrisisbecausetheywereinaparticularlydryzone,aswastheplateauofAnatolia.Theyweresimplyabandoned.Ifthepalacesweresackedandburnedthatwasbecausetheyheldstoresoffoodstuffsleviedfromthetoilofthepeasants,whomhungerdrovetorevoltandpillage.AnditsohappensthatthegrainstoreinthepalaceofMycenaewasthefirstbuildingtobedestroyed.WhatlendscredencetothishypothesisisthegeographicalspreadoftheabandonedareasandthezoneschosenasarefugebytheMycenaeanpopulation.Inatimeofdrought,anyprecipitationcominginfromtheAtlanticonlybenefitswest-facingcoastsandhills:thewindwardmountainsofwesternGreece;thenorthernzones,whichmostlyescapethecurseofthehotdrywinds;regionslikeAtticaintheeast,atthe

naturalmouthoftheGulfofCorinthwhich(accordingtonavigationalcharts)attracts‘stormydepressionsfromMaytoJulyorinSeptemberandOctober’;plusafewislandsunprotectedfromtheincomingrain:RhodesandCyprus.Crete,wherethemountainsruneast-west,islesswellplaced.Plainscutofffromthewestbyhighmountains,orislandsintheAegeanintheleeofthegreatGreekpeninsula,wouldbeparticularlydrought-prone.Andtheseregionswereinfactallabandoned.WheredidtheemigrantsfromMycenaesettle?InAchaeaontheedgeoftheGulfofCorinth;innorthernMesseniaandEpirusinwesternGreece;infavouredAttica,andtheislandsofCephaloniainthewest,RhodesandCyprusintheeast,ThessalyandMacedoniainthenorth.Inotherwords,thegeographyofrainfallfitsthegeographyofMycenaeandispersal.Inthislight,whatwerefertoastheDorianinvasion,andwhatGreeklegenddescribesasthereturnoftheHeraclidaeescortedbytheDorians,maytakeonanewmeaning.TheHeraclidae,sonsanddescendantsofHerakles,wereprobablyMycenaeansfromArgos.TraditionhasitthattheyleftthePeloponneseafterdefeatinwarandonordersfromtheoracleatDelphi,andvoluntarilywentintoexiletoEpirus,thePindusmountains,ThessaloniaandMacedonia.Theyreturnedaboutahundredyearslater,accompaniedbyDorianshepherdsandsoldiersundertheirorders.Findingtheirhomelandvirtuallyuninhabited,theyhadlittledifficultyresettlingthere.ItwasequallyeasyfortheMycenaeaninhabitantsofAttica,whohadneverleft,todefendtheirlandsagainstaDorianinvasion.DidthesemigrationsleadtothediffusionofMycenaeanepics,includingthestoryoftheTrojanwar?Itiscertainlypossible:theoraltraditionwhichledtothewritingsofHomertookshapeataboutthistime.Whatcanbestatedwithcertainty,fromthearchaeologicalevidence,isthatthisreturnofthenorthernersspreadaformofartknownas‘geometric’:recentexcavationsindicatethatthisoriginatedinThessalyratherthanAttica.AhundredyearsofexilehadturnedtheformerMycenaeansintoauthenticDorianpeasantsandtheybroughtbackwiththemthisrusticformofpottery.Amoreseriouseffectoftheirexilewasthattheyseemtohaveforgottentheartofwritingintheinterval.Buttheyhadnotforgottentheirorigins.ThekingsofSpartaknewtheywerenotDoriansbutHeraclidae–andcenturieslaterthedynastyofkingsof

Macedonia,includingAlexandertheGreat,claimedtobedescendedfromHerakles.

TheintractableproblemofthePeoplesoftheSeawould–ifthisversionoftheMycenaeandramaiscorrect–becomealotclearer.Thiswasalong-drawn-outepisode,sincetheEgyptianrecordsinr225

BCdescribethesePeoplesoftheSeaasbeingalliedtotheLibyans,theirworryingneighbourswhowereinvadingthewesterndeltaoftheNile.AmongthemwereLycians,andsomeethnicgroupswhichmaycorrespond(accordingtothenamesgiventhembytheEgyptians)tothefutureSardiniansandEtruscans,aswellasAchaeansandMycenaeans.WerethelatterthepeoplewhomtheEgyptiantextsdescribeas‘ofgreatstature,withtallwhitebodies,fairhairandblueeyes’?Thebattlewasatoughbutdecisiveone.ThousandsofprisonersremainedinthehandsofEgyptians,andthebloodybootyofthewarincludedheapsoftheseveredhandsandgenitalsoftheirslaughteredenemies.ThisdramaoccurredveryshortlyafterthedestructionoftheMycenaeanpalaces;ithappenedinEgypt,acountrywellknowntotheseafarersofArgos;andtheincomerswerealliedtotheLibyans,apeoplewho,iftherehadbeenseriousdrought,wouldautomaticallyhavemigratedtowardstheNile.WemightthereforeimaginethatsomeMycenaeanseafarers,havingbeensuddenlydeprivedoftheirusualtrades,turnedpirate.Afewdecadeslater,dangerloomedagainforEgypt,justasitwasemergingfromalongcrisisofauthorityandthusofmilitarymight:theprofessionofsoldierwhichbyitshardshipsturnedamaninto‘anoldworm-eatenblockofwood’hadbecomeadespisedoccupation.Thenewpharaoh,RamsesIII,enrolledLibyanmercenariesbrandedwithred-hotiron,andsailorspress-gangedfromtheSyriancoast.Thesewereprudentprecautions,sincetheraidlaunchedbythemixedPeoplesoftheSea,whomthelastUgaritdocuments(1200BC)showasbasedinCyprusandCilicia,wouldreachCarchemishandunfurlsouthwards,destroyingUgaritontheway.Sailingshipsfromthe‘islandsoftheGreatGreenSea’(anexpressionwhichprobablycoveredthewholeoftheAegean,includingthemainlandcoasts)accompaniedtheseoverlandconvoyswhichfollowedtheshoreline,men,womenandchildrenandalltheirwordlygoodstravellinginox-carts.In1180,Egyptinflictedtwobloody

defeatsonthesepeople,oneatsea,probablyjustofftheDelta,andtheotheronland,inSyria,probablyintheHalaplainnorthofTripoli.AlthoughtheEgyptianvictorywasuncontested,itdidnotsettlethe

problemforgood.ItseemsthatRamsesIIIeventuallyhadtoallow‘someofthePeoplesoftheSeatosettleascolonistsandmercenariesintheDelta’.AsforthePhilistines,withorwithoutthepharaoh’sconsent,theysettledinthelandtowhichtheywouldgivetheirname–Palestine–whichtheyhadtodefendagainsttheHebrews.Soaccordingtothetraditionalaccounts,theterriblePeoplesoftheSeavanishatastrokeintotheoubliettesofhistory.ThecitiesofSyriawhichhadnotbeenoccupiedweresavedbyEgyptandlaterrecoveredtheirprosperity–exceptforUgarit.ButEgypt,althoughvictorious,hadlostforgooditsAsianempire.Whowerethesedesperatepeople?Theywerecertainlyamixtureof

ethnicgroups,astheyhadbeenontheoccasionoftheinvasionoftheDelta.Amongthemwerethe‘Dananiyim’ofCilicia,alongsidetheAhijjivaandPurasati–inotherwordsAchaeansandPhilistines,thelatterpossiblyfromthenorth,althoughthebiblicalaccount,curiously,hasthemcomingfromCrete.ItseemsabundantlyclearthatsomeMycenaeanswerestillplayingapartinthismigration,butthistimeitwasthosewhohadbeensettledratherprecariouslyforabouttwentyyearsinCiliciaandCyprus.Wemayimaginethattheywereaccompaniedbyothergroups,eitherdrivenonbythedroughtwhichhadruinedtheirfieldsorexpelledfromgoodagriculturallandbyastrongerenemy.TheHittitesdisappearfromourviewalongwiththetabletsofBogaskdyandUgarit.Butwelaterfindaneo-Hittitecivilizationinstalled,asithappens,notontheplateaubuttothesouthoftheTaurusandtheAnti-TaurusandintheplainsofnorthernSyria,atthefootofthemountainswhichprovidedwater,inregionswhichhadoncebeenvassalsoftheempire.Didthevassalssimplyhavetomoveovertomakeroomforemigrantsfromtheplateau,orweretheyexpelledandforcedtojointhepopulationsonthemove?ThePeoplesoftheSeawereveryprobablyamixtureofvariousgroupsdrivenontotheroadbyfamine.AnEgyptianinscriptionseemstoofferafittingaccountoftheoriginsofthisexplosion:‘Theislandsshook,andvomitedforththeirnationsallatonce’.

Onefinalimagecomplicatesthepicture:thereliefsatMedinetHabudepicttheshipsofthePeoplesoftheSeaduringthenavalbattlewithRamsesIII.Thesearesailing-ships,withoutoars,havingbothendsraisedupatrightangles,oneofthemdecoratedwithananimal’shead.FromwhichMediterraneanregiondidtheseboatscome?Oftheimagesknowntoussofar,theonlyonesthatareanythinglikethemarethePhoenicianhippoiwhichwefindseveralcenturieslaterhaulingraftsoftimberbehindthemalongtheSyriancoast;ortheboatswhichKingAssurbanipalusedforhunting;ortheboatswhichbroughttributefromTyre,depictedonthebronzegatesofBalawat,andtheimageofashiponaPhoenicianjewelfoundinSpain.Inotherwordstheonlyparallelscomefromasingleregion:Syria.AndthereforetheymayalsohavelinkswithCyprusandCilicia.

Along-lasting‘darkage’

Theeventsofthetwelfthcenturywerefollowedbyalongdarkage.Lightseemstodawnagain,tosomeextent,onlythreeorfourhundredyearslater.Sothechiefproblemisnotthetwelfthcentury,dramaticthoughitwas,somuchasthisdarkagewhichseemstohavefollowedandwhichseemsconcealedinthethickestofshadows.Themovebackintothepastseemstohavebeenmostmarkedin

Greece.Alongwithwriting,thatjewelamongstachievements,alltheluxuryartsvanishedtoo:jewellery,muralpaintings,engravedpreciousstonesandseals,sculptedivoryandsoon.Onlypotteryturnedonthewheelseemstosurvive,withthelastrelicoftheMycenaeanstylevanishingduringtheeleventhcenturytobereplacedbythefirstproto-geometricalceramics.Atthesametime,alllinkswiththeMiddleEastseemtohavebeen

severedaftertheDorianinvasionandwouldonlyberestoredmuchlaterwhenGreeceandtheAegeaninthefullflushofexpansionbeganto

tradeoncemorewiththeSyrianportsandEgypt,establishingoutpostsonthecoastofAsiaMinor.ButthisMiddleEast,whichfascinatedtheGreekswhentheyfirstsawit,leavingapowerfulinfluenceontheartisticperiodknownas‘orientalist’,haditselfonlyrecentlyandimperfectlyrecovereditsformerprosperityandhealth.Therearenodoubtsomedeep-seatedexplanationsforthisgeneral

relapse,andnotonlythosewemightconnectwithclimaticchange.Aboveall,onemustcertainlyreckonwiththefragilenatureoftheearlyformsoflong-distancetrade,dependentuponluxurygoodswhichservedtheneedsandwantsofaverynarrowcircle,athinupperlayerofsociety.Thedazzlingcivilizationswehaveglimpsedmayhavebeennodeeperthanalayerofgoldleaf.Thepalaceeconomyhadalreadyenteredonaslow,internallygenerateddecline,wellbeforethecatastrophictwelfthcentury.Warwastooexpensive,andsowaslong-distancetrade.Theunder-privilegedwererestlessandtheprivilegedhadlittlesenseofnoblesseoblige.TheHattiEmpirefoughtendlesslyagainstthefeudalregimewhichwasunderminingit.EgypthadthegreatestdifficultymaintainingitspoliticalandeconomicprotectoratesinAsia.AfteritsvictoryoverthePeoplesoftheSea,itwastoloseallofthem.AseriousdeclineinEgyptianroyalpowerfollowed,markedasalwaysbycountlesstomb-robbings,revoltsbythefellahin,anarchy,andadministrativeimpotence.InMesopotamiatoo,thingswerefallingapart,exceptinthepugnaciousstateofAssyria.Ifwearelookingformedium-termexplanations,wefindarecessionlastingseveralcenturiesanddoingsobecauseitcorrespondedtoaparticularlystubbornstructuralcrisis.Weshouldnotbetoohastytocallthiscrisisthe‘crisisofthebronze

age’.F.M.HeichelheimsuggestedlongagothattheendofthebronzeagemeantthatintheMiddleEast–themostadvancedpartofhumanityontheglobe–atransformationofthebasis,theinfrastructuresoflifecameabout.Iron-smelting,whichmayfirsthavebeenaccomplishedbythemetalsmithsofCiliciaandnorthernSyria,mayhavealreadybeenspreadingbeforethetwelfthcenturyBC.ThedisturbancesprovokedbythePeoplesoftheSea,whichcontributedtodestabilize,openupandbringnewelementstolocalcommunitites,probablyhelpeditspreadevenfurther.Andinthelongterm,ironpermittedthewidespreaduse

and‘democratization’ofweapons,bringingtoanendthecenturieswhenbronzehadbeenavailableonlytotheprivileged.Anypeople,howeverpoororhoweverinexperiencedinbattle,nowhadironatitsdisposal.Ironorewasavailableeverywhere.Therefollowed,stillaccordingtoHeichelheim,achainoflinkedmutations.Thenewinventionunderminedthegreatcentralizedstatesofthepast,withtheirextravagantpalaces,theirmercenaryarmiesandtheirdowntroddenmasses.Ironwasakindofliberator.Thismaywellbetrue.Butaunilateralexplanationisalways

dangerousandthisonehasthedisadvantageofanticipatingonevents.Irondisplacedbronzeonlyslowly,justasbronzebeforeithadtakenalongtimetooustcutandpolishedstone,eveninthedecisivedomainofweapons.Themostadvancedpeoplestookcenturiestodigestthenewinvention–asweshallsee.Whenthemutationwasentirelyaccomplished,theentireworldmovedforward.Butthiswouldbeacompletelydifferentworld,andsomeancientwoundsandcracksneverquitehealed.AsW.S.Smithremarks,the‘closeunderstanding’whichhadlinkedtheAegeanandtheeasternworld‘wouldneveragainberecovered’.Therearesomeriftswhichtimecannotheal.

5AllChange:theTwelfthtotheEighthCenturiesBC

Afterthegreatupheavalofthetwelfthcentury,theMiddleEasttookalongtimetorecover.Somelightappearedonthehorizoninthetenthcenturybutrealimprovementdidnotcomeuntilthelongupwardmovementineconomicfortuneswhichbecameestablishedintheeighthcenturyorpossiblyalittleearlier.Nevertheless,afterthetraumaticepisodeofthePeoplesoftheSea,life

wentonsomehow.Arichculturalheritagehadbeensaved.EgyptremainedEgypt,despiteinternalstrife,lowlivingstandardsanddevastatingforeigninvasions.MesopotamiaremainedMesopotamia,despiteallitsdisturbances;thecoastofCanaan,orasweshouldnowcallitPhoenicia,continuedtoplayitsroleofintermediary.Butnow,asignofthetimes,theintermediarywasnolongerasubordinate:atleastitbegantotakesomelibertiestowardsitsformermasters.WheninaboutiioobcUenamun,theenvoyofthepriestsofAmun,travelledtoByblos,hereceivedaratherdustyanswerandfoundithardtoobtainthetimberheneededtobuildthesacredboatforthegod.Sotheworldwentonturning,andlogicallyenoughnewpatternsand

anewworld-mapemergedinthesecenturieswithnoapparenthistory.Whenintheeighthcenturybceverythingmovesintothelight,whenhumanexistencebecomeseasierandmorereadabletous,thenewworldpicturewasnothingliketheonethathadbeenshatteredintheageofthePeoplesoftheSea.

The‘Balkanization’oftheMiddleEast

ThemapoftheMiddleEasthadbecomeextremelycomplicated.ThesimultaneousdeclineofEgyptandMesopotamiaandthecollapseoftheHittiteEmpirehadbroughtintobeingamultitudeofsmallwarringstates,whichoccupiedtheforefrontofhistorywiththeirminorbutnoisysquabbles.InAsiaMinor,Urardhu,centredinArmenia,receivedpartofthelegacyoftheHurrians,thetalentedartisansmentionedearlier.Thiswasamountainstate,energeticandaggressive.Itmadegooduseofitsmetal-working(asrevealedbyRussianexcavationsatKarmirBlur).TheareaunderitsdominationhaditscentreofgravitynearLakeVanandranbroadlyfromthehighvalleysoftheTigrisandEuphratestotheCaucasus.Phrygiahadtakenroot,ataboutthetimeoftheDorianinvasion,ontheplateauxofAnatoliawheretheHittiteEmpirehadfirstbuiltthenlostitsdominion(thePhrygiancapitalGordiumhasbeenbroughttolifebeforeoureyesbytheAmericanexcavationsbegunin1950).Westwards,LydiaoccupiedtheparallelvalleysoftheHermosandtheMeanderandwasexpandingtowardstheAegean,whereinabout1000astringofearlyGreekcitiesappearedonthecoast:theirdecisivemomentwouldcomelater.Tothesouth,someneo-Hittitestatesstillsurvived.ThenoutofthedesertcametheAramaicstates,thechiefofthemcentredonDamascus:weshouldnotunderestimatethemsincetheycontrolledthecaravanroutesleadingtoAsia,whichweretheoverlandcounterpartstothePhoenicians’activeseacrossings.FurthersouthagainwasaJewishstate,whosebriefdaysofsplendourendedinabout930,whenitsplitintotwokingdoms,Judahtothesouth,Israeltothenorth.TheJewshadhadtowintheirratherpoorterritoriesonebyonefromtheSemiticCanaanites,whosetraditions,cultureandlanguagetheyappropriated.TheyunderwentthesameprocessastheHittitesandGreeks:theywereabsorbedbywhattheytookover.Afurtherdisadvantageforthemwasthatdespitehavingaseaboard,theyhaddifficultyreachingnavigablestretchesofthecoastsincetheywere

hemmedinbothbytheirenemiesthePhilistinesandbythePhoenicianswhoweretheirfriendsorindeedallies.ItwasPhoeniciansfromTyrewhohadbuiltthetempleandroyalpalaceinJerusalemintheageofSolomon(c.970-930),andPhoenicianboatswhichhadsailedonbehalfoftheJewishkingtoOphir(insouthernArabiaorIndia?),takingthelongrouteviaEsionGaberontheGulfofAkabaanddowntheRedSea.InthesamecityofEsionGaberandalsointhereignofSolomon,Phoenicianartisanshadbuiltlargemetal-workingfurnacesforsmeltingcopperandiron,themostadvancedintheancientworld,accordingtoW.F.Albright.ThesewerethegoodtimesfortheJewishstate.NobodycouldthenhaveforeseeneitherthehardtimesaheadorthefabulousfutureofthespiritualmessageofIsrael,asitslowlymaturedthroughthevicissitudesofhistory.Althoughitsterritory,hemmedinbytheHebrewsandPhilistinestothesouth,andtheneo-Hittitestothenorth,representedonlypartoftheancientlandofCanaan,Phoenicia1wasneverthelessthefirstpowerintheMiddleEasttorecoveradegreeofprosperity.Itwasasortof‘shelteredsector’,likeHollandinthegeneralrecessionoftheseventeenthcenturyad.Allthistookplacedespitecertainupheavalswhosenatureremainsobscure:theformersupremacyofByblosfellaway,asfirstSidonthenTyregainedprominence,withTyrebecomingtheleadingcityafterabout1000BC.ThePhoeniciancoastlinebegantorevive,thankstothebountyofthesea.TheJewishstatebycontrasthadbuiltitsprosperityaroundthecrossroadsofoverlandroutes,betweentheEuphrates,theMediterraneanandtheRedSea,agoodbetinpeacetimebutdangerousintimeofwar.AndwarwasbecomingendemicintheMiddleEast.Inthisrelentlessandsoonterrifyingseriesofwars,thetinystateofAssyriawastheprincipalactor.Tostartwith,itwasnomorethan‘asmalltriangle’,alimitedareaandapoorlyguardedone,inthehighvalleyoftheTigris,wedgedbetweenMesopotamiawithitsirrigationanditscitiestothesouth,theharshmountainstothenorth,andthedesertwithitsAramaicmarauderstothewest.Assyriawasahouseopentothewinds,itspeopleforcedtoliveinfearandinsecurity.Itcouldachievepeaceofmindonlybythreateningothersandintimidatingtheminturn.WithoutholdinganybrieffortheAssyrians,Ishouldrecordthat

theircrueltywasaresponsetocrueltyfromtheirneighbours,particularlytheAramaeans.Inordertosurvive,Assyriahadtostampoutthoseitconquered,cripplingthemwithtaxesordeportingentirepopulations,bringingthemintoitsownterritorywhere,indaystocome,theirlargenumberswouldmakethemapermanentthreat.ThefriezesonthepalaceatNinevehgraphicallyrecountthewholesadstory.Butintheprocess,Assyriabecamerich:giganticpalacesrosefromthe

ground.Warhadbecomeanindustry,awayofobtainingthewealthwhichpreviouslyhadreachedtheBabyloniancitiesviatrade.Fromtheendofthetenthcenturytotheendoftheseventh,theAssyrianswouldliveoffplunderandtributeexactedfromUrardhu,Damascus,Tyre,SidonandthekingdomsofJudahandIsrael.TheyevencommittedthesacrilegeofdestroyingBabylon,abolishingthecultofMardukandsackingthetemples.ThenitwasEgypt’sturn.In671BC,LowerEgyptwasoccupiedandafewyearslater,Thebeswassackedinindescribablefashion.Whenin630thegreatprinceAssurbanipal,amanoflearningasithappened,diedinhissumptuouspalaceinNineveh(itsgardenswereasmagnificentasitslibrary),theempirewasatitszenith.Butafewyearslateritcollapsedinthefaceofawidespreadassaultbyitsenemiesandsubordinates.In612,theMedesandBabyloniansformedanallianceandstormedNinevehtothegeneralsatisfactionofallthepeoplesinthearea.TheAssyriancitieswerethemselvesdestroyedandthesurvivorscarriedoffintocaptivity.TheybecamethebuildersofthepalacesforthekingofPersia,palaceswhichrecallvanishedAssyriaineveryrespect.ForallthevalouroftheAssyrianarmy,everreadyunderitspriest-

kingsanditswarlordstowageaholywaragainstallitsneighboursatonce,andforalltheefficacyofitstroopsundertheirharshcommanders,withtheirpowerfulsiege-enginesandcavalryarmedwithpikesandarrows,AssyriawouldneverhaveachievedthesebloodytriumphsifEgyptandBabylonhadnotbothgraduallybeendecliningtotherankofsecond-ratepowers,merepiecesinthe‘Balkan’jigsawthattheMiddleEasthadnowbecome.BabylonatthistimewasnotunlikeConstantinopleinthefifteenthcenturyad,theonlylivingoutpostofaByzantineEmpireatitslastgasp.InancientMesopotamia,everythingwasfallingapart,eventheadmirablesystemofirrigationcanals,whichwerenowwornoutandallowingthecalamitousinfiltrationofsalt

water.Egyptwasevenworseoff.Thefuturebelongedfromnowonto‘usersofiron’.ButEgypt,whichhadreceivedironinthepastfromtheHittites,wasembarkingontheironagewithoutowningany.Thelandofthepharaohswouldfromnowon,asanAssyriangeneralironicallyremindedthepeopleofJerusalem,be‘abrokenreed…whereonifamanlean,itwillgointohishandandpierceit’(Isaiah36.6).Thebeswaslootedtodeathandneverrecovered.SotheMiddleEastwasdoomedtoexperienceaviciousroundofconstantalertsandinternalwarfare.Tothiswasaddedanothercalamity,thedramaticappearanceofthehorsemenofthenorthernsteppes.

CavalryfromthesteppesofAsia

BetweentheCaucasus,theUkraine,theloessplateauxofPodolia,andtheimmenseforestsofcentralRussia,changeswerecomingtocompletionwhichweretoaffectlandsfurthersouth,throughouttheMiddleEast.Nomadiclife,whichhadfirstdevelopedcenturiesearlier,wascomingtomaturityhere.Itsessentialrevolutionaryelementwashorsebacktravel;noweverythingwouldechotothehoofbeatsofagallopinghorse.Awaytothesouth,theoldseatsofcivilizationandcountrieswhichwereregainingcivilizedstatusweremorevulnerablethanevertotheincursionsofthenomads.Thefirstsignsofthehurricanecame,aswenotedearlier,withtheCimmerianinvasionattheendoftheninthcentury.TheCimmerianswereprobablyhalf-sedentary,half-nomadicpeasants,whohadbeendrivensouthfromtheirprevioushomeinsouthernRussiabynaturalforces,orratherbypressurefromScythianattackersonhorseback.OftheirformerterritorytheCimmeriansretainedonlytheKubanpeninsulaandpartoftheCrimea,andthisonlyforatime.Fleeingwiththeircartsandchariots,theycrossedthecentreandthewestoftheCaucasus.Theirpursuers,accordingtoHerodotus,tookthewrongturn,crossedthe

CaucasusontheeasternsideandemergedinMedia,whichtheysacked.TheCimmerianinvasionquicklyexhausteditselfinrepeatedraidson

Urardhu,Assyria,Anatolia,thekingdomofPhrygia(whichwasdestroyed),andCilicia.InLydia,thelooterstookSardis,butwereunabletocapturethecitadel;theyinflicteddamageonseveralGreekcitiesontheAegeanbeforefinallybecomingcompletelyabsorbedintothepopulationsofAsia.TheScythians,whomtheyhaddrawnsouthquiteunintentionally,

representeddangerofaquitedifferentorder–skilledhorsemen,andthefirst‘real’nomadsknowntohistory.Theirviolentadventure,whichlastedsomethirtyyears(twenty-eight,accordingtoHerodotus),resemblesthefamiliarimageoftheHunsgallopingacrossEuropeinthefifthcenturyad.TheonlydifferencewasthattheScythianswerewhiteIndo-Europeans,whereasAttila’shordeswerepredominantlyolive-skinned.Skincolourishardlysignificant–thephenomenonwasbasicallythesame.TheScythianraids,devotedtopillage,werecarriedoutatgreatspeedandoverlongdistancesbygangsofdeterminedyoungmen.Sometimestheywerejoinedbyadventurersfromoutsidethe‘royal’tribes.Thiswasa‘democratic’systemofsorts,basedonthefactthatthenewfightingmachine–thehorse–wasavailabletoall,whereaspreviouslythewarchariothadbeentheprerogativeoftherichandpowerful.Thissocialchangeaddedtotheincrediblepoweroftheexplosion.ThesackingofMediabytheScythiansalreadyrepresentedaformidableleapforwardovertheCaucasusandArmenia,buttheypenetratedmuchfurther,intoAnatoliaandevenAssyria,withexcursionsasfarafieldasSyriaandPalestine.PsammeticuskeptthemoutofEgyptonlybybribingtheirchiefswithgold!AndthepermanentthreattheyposedwasdrivenbacknorthwardsonlybytheeventualvictoriesoftheMedes.AtthispointtheScythiansmadetheirwaybackhometotheiroldstamping-ground,theimmensesteppesofsouthernRussia.ItwasherethatHerodotus,withhisinsatiablecuriosity,wasableto

observethemonthespot.HestudiedthemwiththesamecareandthesameastonishmentthathehadbestowedonthestrangecustomsofEgypt.Hedescribesatlengththegreatplainswherethesehalf-civilizedpeopleledtheirnomadiclives:thiswasalandofextraordinaryrivers,

whereprodigiousfallsofsnowinwinterfilledtheairwithflying‘feathers’,whereriversandevenseasfrozeoversothattheycouldbecrossedonfoot.Everythingsurprisedanddelightedhim,themanners,thesoothsayers,thehorsesacrifices,thescalpsorskinsofconqueredenemiescarriedastrophies,theburialrites,andaboveallthelifeofthetribesintheirtents,ontheircarts,alifeofendlesswanderinggovernedbythemovementoftheirherds.Butthemodernhistorianwillnotfindintheselongdescriptionsany

mentionofwhatforusconstitutesthechiefgloryoftheScythians.WhileHerodotuswritesofthemassesofgold,ofjewels,beltsandornamentsonreinsandharnesses,hesaysnothingaboutthebeautyofanartwhichreacheditsmaturityoncetheyhadreturnedtothesouthernRussiansteppes.Itwasaremarkableartofanimalrepresentation,anornate,barbaricart,whosestylewastobeadoptedtowardstheendofthefirstmillenniumBCbyallthenomadichorse-bornetribes,asfarafieldasthedistantbordersofChina.Itisastrangeandsatisfyingsynthesis,drawingatonceontheculturesoftheforestedsteppesofthenorth,onthatofKarasuktowardsChina,andonCaucasian,Anatolian,AssyrianandIranianinfluencespickedupduringvoyagesormoreprolongedsojournsintheMiddleEast.SomeGreekinfluencegraduallymadeitselffeltaswell,becomingstrongerwhentheScythians,drivenbackbytheMedes,returnedtotheirterritoryontheBlackSea.ScythianmotifsandGreekmythologicalfigures–PegasusortheGorgons–sitsidebysideonthegoldenornamentsoftombsintheCrimea,forinstance.HeretheScythianscameintodirectcontactwiththeGreeks.AndinduecoursethiswaswhereAthenswastorecruititspicturesquepoliceforce,theScythianarcherswhoonmeetingdaysmarshalledlatecomerstowardsthePnyx.Eventually,theareasettleddown.Butitwouldbewrongto

underestimatetheseintrusionsofthepeoplesofthesteppes–orindeedtheirsubsequentinvasionsofEuropeandAsia–onthegroundsthattheywerefairlyrapidlywipedoffthesurfaceofthecivilizedworld.Theseviolentincursionshadmorethanmerelymarginalsignificance.Inthefirstplace,theypenetrateddeeplyintothecountriesofthe

MiddleEast,andtheseweretoocloselylinkedforashockreceivedbyonenottobepassedondowntheline,fromAnatoliatothebanksofthe

Nile.ThebalanceofpowerintheMiddleEastworkedintheinvaders’favour:theCimmeriansweresupportedbyEgypt,whiletheScythians,ifwearetobelieveHerodotus,wererelativelyloyalalliesoftheimplacableAssyrians,eveniftheypillagedthemfromtimetotime.Inotherwords,thenomadsincreasedthemilitarycapacityofthevariouspowers,draggingtheMiddleEasteverdeeperintothisgameinwhichtherecouldbenowinners.Moreimportantly,theScythianssubjugatedtheMedes,andthelatterlivedforyearsundertheirruleandlearnedfromthem.TheMediancavalry,whichwastheancestorofthegreatcavalryofPersia,wasnodoubtinspiredinpartbytheserevolutionarywarriorsonhorseback.Andwithoutthatexceptionalcavalry,therewouldhavebeennoPersianEmpire,nounificationoftheMiddleEast,no‘PaxPersica’,perhapsnotemptationforAlexandertheGreat…AslongastheMiddleEastwasabsorbedinitsendlessquarrels,throughoutthelongandmonotonoustragedyofthe‘Assyriancenturies’,ithadbeentoallintentsandpurposesabsentfromworldhistory,whichwasbeingplayedoutinthedistantwesternreachesoftheMediterranean.OncethePersianconquestshadtakenplace,attheendofthesixthcentury,somuchpowerhadaccumulatedintheeastthattheMediterraneanworldsuddenlytippedtowardsitagain.ItwasthispendulumswingwhichtiedthedestinyofGreecetotheeast–tothegreatregretofthepresentwriter!

Thewestnolongertotallybarbarous

Thewestwasnotcreatedexnihilobycolonizationfromtheeast.Duringthemillenniaandcenturieswhichprecededtheirmeeting,immensechangeshadtakenplace.Thewesthadbecomeamajorhistoricalforce,acentralplayerinthedestinyoftheMediterranean.‘West’isanimpreciseterm.LetustakeittomeancentralEurope,

fromtheAlpstotheBalticandtheNorthSea,theItalianpeninsula(ratherthanthesurroundingislands),theterritorythatwouldbecomeGaul,theIberianpeninsula,andNorthAfricainthenarrowsenseoftheterm,fromtheGulfofGabestotheAtlantic.ButthispartofNorthAfricawastoacquireanambiguousstatus:geographicallywestern,itquitesoonbecameculturallyoriental,forthegreatmigrationswhichaffectedthewestduringthefirstmillennium,whileencompassingtheMediterraneanfromAsiaMinortoIberia,didnotreachasfarasthe‘Maghreb’.Theycrossedthegreatrivers,DanubeorRhine,andthemountains,Balkans,AlpsorPyrenees,butstoppedshortatthe‘flowingOcean’,atGibraltar.WasthisbecausethePhoenicianswerepresentveryearlyon–ifnotwithtradingposts,atleastwithcommercialcontacts–fromthebayofCadiztopresent-dayTunisia?Attheheightoftheircolonialprosperityatanyrate,thePhoenicianswerealoneintheiraccesstotheimmenseresourcesofAfrica,asparselypopulatedprimitivelandwherewildbeastsabounded–andtheyexploitedtheirmonopolyshamelessly.TheAfricanpeoples,stillpartlynomadicandstrangerstoprogress,wereeasilytricked.Carthageprofitedinthesameway,andoveralongperiodoftime,fromthenativepeoplessurroundingit,andfromthoseequallyprimitivetribeswhobroughtgolddustacrosstheSahara,whethertothepresent-dayRiodeOroontheAtlanticortotheshoresofsouthernTunisia.SuchtradeimpliesacivilizationcapableofmasteringtheimmensityoftheSahara.Butwedohaveevidenceofsuchacivilizationfromneolithictimes:take,forexample,thewidespreaduseofspecializedstonetools,whosedistributioncoincidessignificantlywiththatoftherockpaintingsshowinghorse-drawncarts.ThelattermusthavederivedfromtheLibyanmercenarieswhoservedintheEgyptianarmyundertheNewKingdom,inthethesixteenthcenturyBC(whenEgypthadjustadoptedthehorse-drawnchariotsoftheHyksos).ThustherewerealreadyroutesleadingfromEgypttoMoroccointhewestandtotheNigerinthesouth.Atcertainpointsalongthem,tradersfromcivilizedcountriescouldobtaingoldonthecheap,thankstotheprofitableandunfairbarterwhichHerodotusdescribessovividly.LeavingNorthAfricaononeside,whatwemeanby‘thewest’isaboveallcentralandwesternEurope,thatentitywhichEmmanuelde

Martonnelikedtodescribeasafunnelnarrowingfromeasttowest:Europe,thatlittle‘promontoryofAsia’,isstillverywideattheRussian‘isthmus’,growsnarrowerattheGerman‘isthmus’,andnarrowerstillattheFrench‘isthmus’.Thesteppehasalwaysdrivenitssurpluspopulationwestward:landlesspeasants,fugitives,shepherdswiththeirfamiliesandtheirflocks.Tothesouth,thefunnelhasaseriesofapertures,awideoneleadingtotheBalkanpeninsula,thentwonarrowgapsleadingtothosepartiallyisolatedworlds,ItalysouthoftheAlpsandIberiasouthofthePyrenees.Anumberofobstaclesthusfacedthepeoplesmovingwest:the

increasingnarrownessoftheEuropeanpeninsula,thebarriersofmountainandriver,thedenseforests,nottomentionthepeasantpopulationsalreadyoccupyingtheland.Butthejourneyfromeasttowest,ontheCaucasus-Atlanticaxis,wasshortenedbytheinventionofrevolutionaryformsoftransport(cart,chariotandhorse),hencethesequenceofinvasionswhichoverthecenturieshesitatedbetweentheMiddleEastandtheEuropeanwest,butalwaysendedupontheshoresoftheMediterranean.Thesepopulationmovementswerestop-and-startaffairs,astemporary

haltsbecamethenextpointsofdeparture.Staging-postsofthiskindwereprovidedbyBactria(Turkestan),theplainsoftheBlackSea,thefoothillsoftheCaucasus,Thracia,theplainofHungaryandtheIllyriancoast.Inthefirstmillennium,theformidableareaofcentralEurope,stillawildcountryofimmenseforestsamongspreadingrivers,ratherliketheSiberianforestsoftoday,wasasortofholdingbayforthewest.Asearlyasneolithictimes,sizeablepeasantpopulationshadsettledthereontheeasilycultivatedloessstrips,clearoftrees.Theseclayeydeposits,followingtherimoftheformerglaciers,formacontinuouscorridorfromRussiatocentralFrance.Clearingswerealsoopenedintheforests,usingstoneormetalaxesorfire.Thusneolithicfarmersoccupiedthisareawiththeirvillages,plants,domesticanimals,primitiveploughsanddraughtoxen.Evenmoresignificantly,themineralwealthoftheregionfavouredtheearlydevelopmentofmetallurgy,whichhadalreadybegunwhentravellingmetal-workers(the‘torque-wearers’)arrivedincentralEuropefromtheeast,viatheAdriaticandtheBalkans,earlyinthesecondmillennium.Withaskilledlabourforce,abundantore,andfuel

galoreintheforests,everythingwasthussetforthispartofEuropetoberadicallytransformedbytheuseofmetals–copper,lead,gold,andbeforelongiron.Forallthesereasons,populationaccumulatedbetweentheRhine,the

Danube,theBalticandtheNorthSea.Thehistoryofthewestdidnotalloriginateinthisregion,butitwasfedbythishumanreservearmyalwaysonthepointofburstingoutofitsconfines,a‘pressurecookerinconstantdangerofexploding’,asithasbeenput,andonewhichdidexplodeontwoorthreeoccasions.Theimageisnotanabsurdone,solongasitisnottakentoimplysomethingrapidandsudden.TheIndo-Europeaninvasionslastedcenturies;theirhistorywasoftenplayedoutinslowmotion.

Indo-EuropeansandtheCelticinvasions

Theendofthebronzeage(twelfthcentury)sawamajornewdevelopmentinthisprehistoryofcentralEurope:thearrivalofnewIndo-Europeanpopulations.Severalpeopleswereinvolved:theydifferedfromoneanother,butoverthecenturiescametointermingle,exchangingmaterialobjectsandevenlanguages.Fromthebeginningtheysharedonecommonfeaturebywhichtheyareknowntoarchaeologists:theyallcrematedtheirdead.Thiswasnotsomethingabsolutelynew–cremationhadalreadybeenpractisedbysomeEuropeans–butthenoveltylayinthescaleofthephenomenon,whichmarkedaclearbreakwithprecedingcivilizations.Throughoutthearea‘urnfields’havebeendiscovered,greatcemeteriesof‘flattombs’inwhichurnscontainingtheashesofthedeadareburiedsidebyside.Theexistingpopulations,thosewhoburiedtheirdead,firstresisted

thisinflux,thengaveground,andabandonedvastareastothenewpeoples.HavingoccupiedcentralEurope,someurnpeople–probablytheUmbriansandtheVillanovans–movedintoItaly,drivingbackthe

Ligurians(touseanoutdatedworddesignatingearlierinvaders,probablyofpre-Indo-Europeanorigin);theynextoccupiedeasternFrance,advancingtotheRh6nevalley,andcarryingonacrossthePyreneesintoCataloniaandtheregionofValencia.TheyreachedasfarasthecoastsoftheBritishIslesinthenorth.Allthesenewcomers,practisingcremation,wereprobablyIndo-Europeans,whomingledwiththeneolithicpeasantstheyfoundinsitu–andtheseencounterspreparedthewayfortheultimatedisappearanceofurnburial.ThismusthavebeenaperiodofturbulenceinEurope.Itstillbelonged

tothebronzeage,buttheninthcenturysawtheappearanceofiron,whichwastohastenthecourseofevents.Theword‘hasten’needssomeclarification,however.Thefirstironagecorrespondstotheso-calledHallstattcivilization(namedafteraresortintheTyrol);butalthoughironwasusedthen,itwasnotofcentralsignificance.Itbecamewidelyusedonlyafterthesixthcentury,inthesecondironage,theso-calledHallstattcivilization(namedafteraresortnorthofNeuchatel),whichlasteduntiltheRomanconquest.AnditwasintheLaTeneperiodthattherealexplosiontookplacewiththetumultuouswavesofCelticinvasions.ThetwomapsinAppendixIIshowingtheexpansionoftheurn-burial

peoplesandthemovementsoftheCeltsgiveanoversimplifiedviewoftheproblem,presentingasdefinitivesolutionswhichstillremainuncertain,buttheydohavethemeritofindicatingcorrectlyandclearlythetwoenormousflowsofbloodwhichcomplementedandoverlappedwithoneanother.Europe,fromBohemiatoGaul,becameapowerfulheart,anditsheartbeatssentpulsesracinginthedistantMediterranean,landofsunshineandvines,sodifferentinnatureandinhistoryfromthenorth.Adialoguebegan,anditwastoproveofcrucialimportance.Thefirstexchangesinthisconversationhadofcoursetakenplacelong

beforetheLaTeneoreventheHallstattperiod.WhentheAchaeanshadarrivedintheBalkanpeninsulaatthebeginningofthesecondmillennium,thegreatmachineformultiplyingandspreadingpeoplewasalreadyinplace.Butinthefirstmillenniumeverythingbegantohappenmorequickly.ThecivilizationsoftheMediterraneandiscoveredthebiologicalpotencyoftheirturbulentandalarmingneighbours.Usingdifferentnames–Celts,Gauls,Galatians–theydescribedthesestrange

people,tall,fair-haired,blue-eyed,courageousandgiventoboasting.Theycameinwaves–wenolongerimaginethemasHenriHubertdid,arriving‘insmallgroups,slippingsidebysideacrossthegreatcontinentalspaces’.AsAndreVaragnacputsit,‘thepre-CelticandCelticinvasionstooktheformofvastpopulationmovements,asdescribedbyCaesarinhisaccountofthemigrationoftheHelvetiiatthebeginningoftheGallicWars’.ItwastheirdemographicweightwhichmadetheCelticinvasionsso

important.Whentheyarrived,thesepeopleswereaturbulentforce;theyhadtobedomesticated,bywarfareifnecessary.Inourhistorybookstheyappearasthelosers,thevanquished.Butthesemassesofpeasantsandskilledcraftsmenputdownlastingroots.ItseemswrongthereforetospeakofthegreatdefeatoftheCeltswho,having‘civilizedEuropeastheGreekshadcivilizedtheMediterranean’,weresupposedlysweptawaybytheRomans.Whatdowordssuchasdefeatandvictorymeanwhenappliedtolivingmasseswhosettledownpermanentlyandarestillrecognizabletoday?Anycivilizationatfullstrengthcanonlysurvivethankstoacontinuoussupplyofpeople.ThesebiologicalnecessitiesmadethemselvesfeltinMesopotamiaandEgypt,asinRome;theygiveadeepermeaningtothesoundandfuryofthe‘invasions’.ButwhiletheCeltspossessedahighlydevelopedmaterialcivilization,

theyremainedbackwardintheirsocialorganization.IntheHallstattera,monarchicalgovernmentshadledtoaconcentrationofwealthinlargefortifiedhouses,asortofpalacecivilization.TheLaTdneperiodwasmarkedbygreater‘democracy’,ormoreaccuratelybytheappearanceofturbulentaristocraticrepublics.IntheCelticworld,powerfultribeslivedsidebyside,makingithardfortownstodevelop.Polybius,describingtheBoyansofCisalpineGaul,portraysthemscatteredthroughthecountrysideateikhistoi,withouttowns;whenthereweretowns,theylackedwalls.Insuchcircumstances,itwasperhapsinevitablethattheseelementarycellsshouldbeswallowedupbythosehigherorganisms,theurbancivilizations,oftheMediterranean.

TheoriginsoftheCelticmigrations

Generalhistoryhasyettoexplaintheoriginsoftheseimmensepopulationmovements.TheCeltsmayhavebeenfleeingfromoverpopulatedregionsnorthoftheAlps,wherefromtheyearioooBCtheclimatewasbecomingmoreorlessthatoftoday.TheincreasingcoldreducedthehabitableareaandperhapsdroveoutsomeoftheurnpeopleoftheHallstattperiod.Whatseemsevenmorecertainisthatthesewerechainreactions,beginningintheeast.TheCimmerianswhosettledinsouthernRussiaintheninthcenturyweredescendantsofthesemi-nomadicIndo-Europeanswhohadestablishedthemselvestheretowardsthesecondmillennium,drivingoutthepeasantpopulationoftheTripolyeculture.ThentheScythianhorsemen,whoreachedtheCarpathiansintheninthcentury,defeatedtheCimmerians,‘somethingwhichcorrespondsremarkablycloselytothebeginningsofthefirstiron-basedculture’,i.e.theHallstattperiod.Severalhundredyearslater,atthebeginningofthesixthcenturyBC,itwasagaintheScythianswhoreturnedenmasseto‘Scythia’,theBlackSeasteppe,amovementwhichcoincidedwiththeLaTeneculture,themigrationsofseveralGermanicpeoples,andthearrivaloftheCeltsinGaul,completewiththeirchariotsofwar;intheChampagneregion,Gaulishchiefshadthemselvesburiedwiththeirchariots,liketheirdistantequivalentsinArmenia.Thisbattlevehicle,althoughsoonfallingintodisuse,keptgoinglongenoughforJuliusCaesartohavethesurpriseofcomingfacetofacewithchariotsofwarinEngland.Toconclude,then,theearliestofthesuccessivewavesofIndo-

Europeans,thosehumanexplosionswecallinvasions,tookplacetowardstheyear2000,originatingintheBlackSearegion,betweentheCaucasusandHungary;thesecondgroup,between1500and1000,beganinHungaryandBohemia;andthefinalsequenceafter600,theCelticinvasions,affectedthelandsbeyondtheRhineandGaul.Thecentreoftheexplosionthusgraduallymovedwestward.Butperhapsthesewereallchaptersinasinglestory.2

Iron-working

Wehavesofarbeenabletosketchoutapictureofthesedarkcenturies(twelfthtoeighthcenturies)withoutsayingagreatdealaboutiron-working.Thecarburizationofiron(themanufactureofhardenedironbyanadmixtureofcarbon),hadbegunintheCaucasusorratherinCilicia,andwaslongamonopolyoftheHittiteEmpire.IfthePeoplesoftheSea,inparticularthePhilistines,ownedirontoolsandweapons,thismayhavebeenthroughtheirlinkswiththeHittitesorCilicia.Itisthuspossible,ashasoftenbeenclaimed,thatthebreak-upoftheHittiteEmpirecontributedtotheworldwidediffusionofironsmithsandtheirmysteriouscraft,oftenseenastheworkofthedevil.Afterallmanypeopleshadablacksmithgodintheirpantheon,oftenadistinctlysinistercharacter.Butiron-workingdependedonunfamiliarprocesseswhichinevitablytooktimetospreadandbemastered.Thetransitionbetweentheoldorder,thebronzeage,andthenewironage,lastedaverylongtime.InMesopotamia,wherethingsnormallymovedfasterthanelsewhere,thecollapseofthepriceofiron,whichisproofofitswidespreaduse,onlyreallybeganinthetenthcentury.InEgypt,widespreaduseofthenewmetaldatesonlyfromc.600BC,ifthat.CentralEurope,withitswealthofmines,remainedambivalentforalongperiod:untilthesixthcentury,bronzeremainedtheprincipalmetalfortoolsandweapons.Thiscreepingprogressoftheiron‘revolution’fitsthegeneralpatternofthisperiodwhichruledoutanyrapidchange.Whatafteralldiditimply?Thereplacementofonemetalbyanother.AlmagroBasch(i960)wasnotentirelywronginclaimingthat‘irondidnotrepresentsucharadicalchangeinthehistoryofcivilizationasthatintroducedbytheworkingofcopperanditsalloys’.Theslowadvanceofironthussupportsascepticalapproachtothematerialistexplanationwhichmightatfirstsighthaveseemedquiteplausible.No,irondidnotmeananimmediatedemocratizationofwarfare;andno,ironweaponsdidnotappearovernight.Somecrucialelementswereverylatetoemerge,forexample,theimportantinventionofsoldering.Accordingtolegend,itwas

inventedinCosontheAegean.Thefirstsolderedobjectweknowaboutisanironhead-rest,foundinthetombofTutankhamunanddatingfromaround1350.Buttheprocessremainedveryunusual,tothepointthatasolderedirontripodwaskeptuntilRomantimesinthetreasuryofDelphiasarareobject.AndwemayrecallthatinHomerictimes(theeighthcenturyBC),theprizewhichAchillesoffersatPatroclus’funeralgamesisanironball!Similarly,irondidnotimmediatelytransformtool-making.Nodoubtitsubsequentlyplayedacrucialroleinimprovingagriculturalyields.Butwhendidthisbegin?ItseemsapieceofriskyguessworktopresentitasthecauseofthefallingrainpricesinAssyriabetweentheeighthandseventhcenturies.Thesepricesdependedonsomanyotherfactors:security,foreignimports,theseasons…RhysCarpenterwouldnodoubtpointoutthattheeighthcenturysawthereturnofawetterclimate!

Theinventionofthealphabet

Thealphabetisanotherrevolutionthatbelongstotheseobscurecenturies.ThewholeoftheMiddleEasthadknownwritingsystemsinthebronzeage:hieroglyphicsinEgypt,cuneiformscriptinAsiaduringtheprecedingcenturies,LinearAandLinearBinCrete,LinearBalonein‘Minoan’Greece.Thesewereallalreadysimplifiedsystems,buttheyremaineddifficultandcalledforexperthands.Thescribesformedaliteratecaste,determinedtodefenditsprerogativesandtheprestigeofitsprofessionbyinsistingonitsmysteriesanddifficulties.ItisnotentirelysurprisingthatthiscostlyluxuryshouldhavedisappearedvirtuallyovernightinthelandthatbecameGreeceaftertheendoftheMycenaeanperiod.AsimplertechniquemighthavebeenmorereadilyacceptedamongtheIndo-Europeanbarbarians.Itwasintheendsuchatechniqueofwonderful,revolutionarysimplicitythatevolvedsometimebeforetheendofthesecond

millennium,toemergeintothefulllightofdaywiththelinearalphabetwecallPhoenician.Thetwenty-twosymbolsofthisalphabetcorrespondedonlytotheconsonants,whichformasweknowtheessentialstructureoftheSemiticlanguages.WhentheGreekscopiedthePhoenicianlanguageintheeighthcentury,theyneededsignscorrespondingtothevowelsinordertoprovideanintelligiblenotationoftheirlanguage.SotheyusedforthevowelsthesymbolsforanumberofSemiticconsonantswhichdidnotexistinGreekand,heypresto,acompletealphabetwithbothconsonantsandvowels.Butitwastheculminatingpointofalonghistory.ItwasinSyria(broadlyunderstood),andparticularlyinUgaritandByblos,thattherevolutionarysimplificationhadfirstbeenworkedoutcenturiesearlier.Allmanneroftrades,languagesandpeopleshadcometogetherinthesetwobusycitiesthroughoutthesecondmillennium.Butthemerchant,notpossessingthecostlyservicesofascribewithhisstylus,neededarapidmeansoftranscribinghiscontracts,bills,accounts,andletters.Soacomplicatedwritingsystem,thegrandiosecreationofthestate,gavewaytoanacceleratedformofscript,thelogicalcreationofthemerchants.Theearliestoftheseexperiments,theUgariticofthedocumentsofRasShamra,usescuneiformsignsforitsthirty-letteralphabet.ThisABC(theoldestknowntoman)hasbeenfoundonatabletdatingfromthefourteenthcenturyBC.AlinearalphabetwasdevelopedatthesamesametimeinCanaan,betweenthefifteenthandtenthcenturies.SomeexpertsbelievethatitsoriginslieinaformofwritingusedinthesecondmillenniumbytheSemiticworkersintheEgyptianturquoiseminesontheSinaipeninsula.Thiswasahalf-hieroglyphic,half-alphabeticalscript,inthatitemployedtheprincipleofacrophonia:theuseofaconsonant-plus-vowelsymboltorepresenttheconsonantalone,sothatitisineffectagenuinealphabeticalletter.TheideaislikethatofspellingoutthenameRobinsononthetelephonebysayingRforRichard,OforObadiah;ortheAbel,Baker,Charliesystem.TheSemiticpeoplesproceededinthesamewaytochoosenamesfortheirletters:thesignBeth–meaninghouse–becomestheletterBinthealphabet(BforBeth),whenceinduecoursetheGreekbeta.ThisverygradualprocessculminatedinthePhoenicianscriptwhich

becamewidelyusedinthefirstmillennium.Itwassimple,andcouldberapidlywrittenwithabrushonarollofleather,parchmentorpapyrus,orwithasharppointonaleadtabletorawax-coatedwoodenboard–akindof‘slate’whichcouldeasilybescrapedcleanandrecoatedwithwax.Theoldestexampleofthescriptisaninscription,probablyfromthetenthcentury,carvedonamucholdersarcophagus,thatofAhiram,kingofByblos.Asearlyasthetenthcentury,Hebrewinscriptionswerecopyingthisscriptexactly.AsfortheGreeks,itwaspossiblyinAl-Mina,acityoriginallyfoundedatthemouthoftheOrontesbytheGreeksofEuboea,butwhichbecamePhoenician,thattheylearnedtousethealphabetatthebeginningoftheeighthcentury.Atthesametime,astheinscriptionatGordiumshows,theneighbouringPhrygiansalsoadoptedanalphabetderivedfromthePhoenician.AGreekcupfoundatPithecussaeontheislandofIschianearNaples,anddatingfromthelateeighthcentury,carriesaninscriptioninverse,anditwasthisChalcidianalphabet(namedafterChalcis,capitalofEuboea)thatwaseventuallyadoptedbytheEtruscans.ItispossiblethereforethatitwasCumae,aEuboeancolony,thatpassedonthenewwritingtoItaly.However,nothingiseyerentirelysimpleinthesegradualtransfers,andanivorytabletwithtwenty-sixPhoenicianlettershasbeendiscoveredatMarsilianad’AlbegnainarichEtruscantombdatingfromaround700BC.ItcloselyresemblesPhoeniciantabletsofthesametypefoundatNimrudinAssyria,andamongtheobjectsfoundnearbythereisalittlebox(pyxis)andacombsentbyamerchantofTyre.Onecanseeinthisakindofinvitationtousethealphabetforcommercialcorrespondence,andinanycaseproofthatthePhoenicianalphabetwasavailabletotheEtruscansthroughdirectcontactsaswellasinaGreekadaptation.Nowhere,infact,wasthespreadofthealphabetsimpleorrapid,anymorethanthatofironorbronze.Indeed,itwashardlyanymorerapidthanthespreadofagriculture,andcertainlynofasterthanthegradualspreadofmoneyandamoneyeconomy.Yetwhocouldfailtodescribetheinventionofthefirstalphabetastruly‘revolutionary’?

PARTII

Figure6Phoenicianwarshipswithramsandroundshipscarryingfreight.Drawingafterabas-reliefinSennacherib’spalace(704-681BC),Nineveh.

Aftertheparticularlyobscurecenturiesbetweeniiooand700,Mediterraneanlifeemergesintothefullglareofhistoryandeverything

seemsmuchsimpler.Thedramacanbesaidtounfoldinthreegreatacts:•ThecolonizationofthewesternMediterraneanbypeoplesfromtheeast(Phoenicians,Etruscans,Greeks),amovewhichprovidedtheInlandSeawithdynamicunityforthefirsttime.•TheriseofGreekcivilization,foundedonsea-powerbuteventuallycomingtogriefaftertheover-ambitiouswarofconquestagainsttheAchaemenidPersians.•ThevictoriousdestinyofRome,whoseempirebecamecoterminouswiththeMediterranean.Thesearethreeclassicstories,sofamiliarthatitwillbedifficulttoretellthemhere,giventhewealthofattestedfactsandthenumberoftheoriestheyhaveinspired.Butweshallconsiderthemfromaveryspecificpointofview,thatofthesea.Broadly,wearefacedwiththreegreatmovements:first,theMediterraneanexpandedwestwardswiththecolonizationofthewesternseas,thenthebalanceswungbacktowardstheeastwiththeinsaneconquestsofAlexandertheGreat,andfinallyRomecreatedasortofequilibrium.ButtocontrolthewholeoftheMediterraneanworldfromeasttowestforcenturiesonendwasanarduoustask,andevenRomecouldnotmaintainitspowerforever.Thisverysimpleviewofthingsisnotwithoutitsproblems.Thehistoryoftheancientworldmaybeseparatedfromusbytwomillenniaormore,butitcontinuestoarousestrongfeelings.InthepreviouschapterswehavealreadyencounteredpartisansofMesopotamiaandofEgypt,admirersofCreteandGreece,advocatesofthewestandpassionatedefendersoftheeast.Ideally,ofcourse,Iwouldliketostrikeabalance:toavoidbothuncriticalpraiseoftheEtruscansandover-adulationoftheGreeks;toavoidjoiningthechorusofhistorianswhocriticizethePhoeniciansandcondemntheCarthaginiansfortheirchildsacrificestothegods;toresistbeingendlesslydazzledbytheGreeks(thoughheavenknowsthereisreasonenough!)ortemptedintorepeatingHegel’schargethatRomewasthe‘proseofhistory’–asifprosehadnobeauty.Inshort,Ioughtnottoleantoonesideortheother,buttokeepanopenmind.Butisthisalwayspossible,orevendesirable?Thesecontradictorypassionsaretheflamethatkeepshistoryalive,boththehistorythatistoldtousandthehistorywetrytocreateinturn.Andaswedoso,howcanweavoidfeelingsofpainor

enthusiasm,eveniftheseareasinagainstthesacrosanctrulesofimpartiality?

6Colonization:theDiscoveryoftheMediterranean‘FarWest’in

theTenthtoSixthCenturiesBC

Colonizationisanambiguousword.Itisonethingtocastanchorinacreekanddoalittletradingbeforesailingoffagain,quiteanothertosettlepermanently.Thewordcolonizationwillhererefertothelatteractivity,whichmayhavecomelongaftertheformer.Inbroadterms,fromthetenthcenturytothesixth,ifweleaveasidetheoccupationoftheBlackSea(essentiallybytheIonianGreeks),itwasthecentralandwesternMediterraneanwhichwerecolonized.This‘FarWest’,hardtoreachandharderstilltotakepossessionof,wasfoughtoverbyPhoenicians,EtruscansandGreeks.Allofthemcamebearingasuperiorcivilizationfromtheeast.(TheEtruscansareaspecialcase,infact,sinceweknowlittleabouttheiroriginsorthechronologicalandgeographicaldevelopmentoftheircontactswiththeeast.)ThereisnomysteryaboutthePhoeniciansortheGreeks.TheformercamefromthecoastalregionsoftheLevant,thelatterfromtheAegeanandfromamaritimecityofcentralGreece,Corinth;1bothhadbehindthemanadvancedcivilization.Thisconformstotheusualpatternofcolonization,wherebytheweakaredominatedandinstructedbythestrong.Strengthinthisinstancemeantcivilization,theintenseactivity

ofthecities,techniquesofnavigationandmetal-working,thepracticeoftradingandthepowerofthemarkets.TosetoutfromtheMiddleEastatthistimewaslikesettingoutfromall-powerfulEuropemanycenturieslater,afterthevoyagesofdiscoveryofthefifteenthandsixteenthcenturiesad.Thecolonizersofantiquity,whentheysetuptheirtradingpostsandtheirtownsondistantshores,didnot,admittedly,havetoconfrontadvancedcivilizationscomparabletothoseoftheAztecs,theMayas,theIncasandtheGreatMogul.ButlikemodernEurope,theOrientofantiquityexportedtodistant

placesnotonlyitsstrengths,butalsoitsinnerdivisions,itsconflictsofinterestanditsinveteratehatreds.Thesegod-givenlands,wherethecolonizerandthemerchantcouldimposetheirwillwithouttoomuchdifficulty,andwheretownssprangupovernight,wouldeventuallybedividedupbetweenrivalmasters,whobroughtwarintheirtrain.

IThefirstinthefield:probablythePhoenicians

ScholarshiphasnotyetprovidedalltheanswersinthisareabutifIwereputtingmoneyonthefirstshipstoarriveinthewest,mychoicewouldbe:Phoenicians,Etruscans,Greeks,inthatorder.Butweusethelanguageofbettingonlywhenwehavenorealevidence.Inanycase,theorderrefersmainlytotheearliestvoyages,thefirstattemptsatbarteringalongthecoasts,thereallypioneeringventures.Theserioussettlementsandfirsttownsappearedmoreorlesssimultaneously.Theybeganintheeighthcentury,atthetimewheneconomicactivitywastakingoffagain,andtheymayhavecoincidedwiththespreadoftheribbedhull,thehigh-sidedshipbetterabletoweatherstormsatsea.ThisopenedupawholevastareainthewesternMediterranean–andopenedittoallcomers.Halfacenturyago,ourcurrentfavouritewouldnothaveseemeda

likelywinner.EverythingthatwassaidinthePhoenicians’favour(by

theadmirablewritersVictorBerardorEduardMeyer)wasimmediatelyruledoutas‘Phoenicia-mania’or‘Herodotomania’.TheGreekswereflavourofthemonth.Recentastheyare,thesedaysarenowgone–thoughperhapsnotforgood.

ThePhoeniciansaspioneers

Forsomespecialists,twoorthreesmallpiecesofevidencehavebeenenoughtounderminethecaseofthe‘Grecomaniacs’andthereluctanceofthearchaeologistswhountilquiterecentlyhadfoundnotangibletraceofaPhoenicianpresenceinthewesternMediterranaeanbeforetheseventhcenturyBC.Naturally,thesethreetracesofevidencearecontroversial.FirsttherewasthediscoveryintheMuseumofCyprusin1939ofadamagedinscription,unnoticeduntilthen,whichcanbedatedtotheninthcenturyBC.ThescriptonitprovidedaneatexplanationofastrangePhoenicianinscriptiondiscoveredlongago(in1773)inSardinia,nearPula(Norainantiquity)andnowinthemuseumofCagliari.ItsarchaiccharacterhadbeenrecognizedbyR.Dussaudin1914.ButaccordingtoW.F.Albright(1941)thescriptisidenticalwiththatontheCyprusinscription,andmustthereforebelongtothesameperiod.Sincethen,twosimilarfragmentsofinscriptionshavebeenfoundinSardinia,datingpresumablyfromthefirsthalfoftheninthcentury.Puttingupmonumentalinscriptionsisnotofcoursethefirstpriorityofsailorsonvoyagesofdiscovery.ItisthereforepossiblethatthefirstvisitofthePhoenicianstoSardiniacouldgobacktothetenthcenturyorevenearlier,sinceitwouldbenormalforcolonialsettlementsorevenseasonaltradingpoststobeprecededbyalongperiodofsailingfromharbourtoharbour,withtheshipactingasakindofmobiletradingpost.Ifwetakethisview,wemightevenreturntothetraditionaldates,probablytooearlythough,givenforthe‘foundation’ofthePhoeniciancolonies:Gades(Cadiz)inc.1100BC;LixusinMoroccoearlierstill,if

wearetobelievePliny;Uticaalittlelater;andCarthage(whichmeansnewtown)in814-813.Ontheotherhand,deepexcavationshavefoundnoforeigninfluencebeforethesixthcenturyatLixusorbeforetheseventhatMogador.Sometracesapparentlybelongingtotheperiodoftheearliestvoyages(tenthcentury)havebeendiscoveredinSpainbythearchaeologistB.Nazar(1957),andPierreCintas(1949)hasnotedonSalammbobeachnearCarthagesomeveryfragmentaryindicationsofavisittherebysailorsfromCyprusatthebeginningofthesecondmillennium.Inaword,thereisasyetnodefiniteprooffortheexplanatory

hypothesesofSabatinoMoscati(1966),whicharebasedessentiallyonthefactthatafterthearrivalofthePeoplesoftheSea,theonlypowertosurvivemiraculouslyintactwasthatofPhoenicia.Threecenturies–theeleventh,thetenth,andtheninth–separatethefallofMycenaefromthefirstbeginningsofGreekexpansionwestward.‘Itisnatural’,writesMoscati,‘thatPhoenicianexpansionshouldhavefilledthishistoricalgap’.Andindeed,nothingpreventsusfromimaginingthatduringthiseclipseofGreekseafaringthePhoenicianshadaclearfieldtoexploitthedistant–andempty–sea,launchingsimplemaritimeexpeditionsofakindverycommoninhistory;andthenthattocounterGreekcompetitionfromtheeighthcenturyon,theywereobligedtoconsolidatetheirpresenceatkeypointsofthisvastnetwork.Thusapurelycommercialpresencemayhaveprecededgenuinecolonization.Thishypotheticalaccounthastoansweranumberofcommon-sense

objections.Whatabouttheso-calledlogicalsequenceofagradualwestwardexpansionofPhoeniciandiscoveriesandsettlement,bysuccessivemovesalongtheNorthAfricancoast?Inthatcase,UticaandCarthagewouldhavetobeolderthanGadesandLixus–whichwouldbringusbacktotheshortertime-span.Butitisquiteconceivable,contrarytothistheory,thatthePhoenicianspreferredtousetheopensearoutesandsettlefirstinthewest,closetothesilverofSpainandtheAtlantictrade;onlylaterwouldtheyhavefelttheneedtostrengthentheirintermediatestaging-posts.Thismakesalongtime-spanmoreprobable,theessentialthingafterallbeingtofindoutwhathappenedintheearliest,mostdistantstages.Onlythearchaeologistscandecidethequestion,soonlytimewilltell!

Phoenicia:aseapowerbyforceofcircumstance

Beforetryingtounravelthislongthread,letusreturntoPhoeniciaitself,averylongthinstriprunningbetweenthemountainsandthesea.FromAccointhesouthtoAradosinthenorth,itswidthvariedfromaboutsevenmilestohardlymorethanthirtymiles.Itwasinfactastringofsmallports,setamonglittlevalleys,steephillsidesandtinyoff-shoreislands.Communicationbetweenthetownswasdifficultonland,butexcellentbysea.Eachoftheseportssawitselfasanautonomousworld.Havingsited

themselvesoneasilydefendedheadlandsorislands,theyturnedtheirbacksontheirmountainoushinterland.Tyre,whichisnowconnectedtothemainlandbyalluvialdeposits,wasoriginallybuiltonanarrowisland.Thisgavethecitywhatitmostneeded:defenceswhichdefiedallattackersexceptintheendAlexandertheGreat;twoharbours,anaturalonetothenorthlinkingthecitytoSidon,anartificialonetothesouthfortradewithEgypt;andfinally,locatedintheseaitself,abubblingspringoffreshdrinkingwaterwhichcouldeasilybetappedseparatelyfromthesurroundingsaltwater.Everythingelsehadtobebroughtinbysea.Thereafter,thePhoeniciansconstantlystrovetorecreatethisidealurbangeographyintheircolonialsettlements,situatingthemwherepossibleonislandsorpromontories.OnthestripofcoastdominatedbythemountainsofLebanon,these

strangeurbanexcrescenceswereanancientCanaanitelegacy.ThepeoplewhomtheGreekscalledPhoenikes,theRedPeople(nodoubtbecauseoftheirfamouspurplecloth),andwhomwecallPhoenicians,weredirectlydescendedfromtheSemiticCanaanites,whohadlongbeensettledontheSyrian-Palestiniancoast.TheoriginalPhoeniciawaspartofCanaan,thepartwhichsurvivedtheonslaughtofthePeoplesoftheSea.Allitstownsthushadtheirrootsinthedistantpast.Bybloswas

tradingwiththeNileDeltabeforethebeginningofthethirdmillennium.Egyptstillexertedmuchinfluencethereatthebeginningofthefollowingmillennium,butitwasasyetthatofanimportantcustomer,

admiredandevencopied,ratherthanofapoliticalmaster.IntheseventeenthcenturyBC,theCanaanitecitiesmanagedeventoescapethethreatoftheHyksos.Indirectly,though,itwastheHyksoswhoputtheirfreedominjeopardy.From1580on,theEgyptianNewKingdom,whiledrivingtheinvadersoutoftheDelta,felttheneedtoguaranteeitssecuritybycreatingstrongholdsinAsia.AfterthebattleofMegiddo(1525),EgypttookcontrolofthecitiesofCanaan.Quitesoon,itistrue,thiscontrolbecamemorenominalthanreal.AlthoughthearmyofRamsesHIhelpedtodefendtheCanaaniteportsagainsttheonslaughtofthePeoplesoftheSea,Egyptdidnotmaintainmuchauthoritytherebeyond1200.Canaanwasonceagainfree.ThiswasthetimewhenSidonenjoyedacertainsupremacyovertheothercitiesofthecoastbeforebeingoustedaround1000byTyre,theproudcitydescribedbyEzekiel.MeanwhileBybloshadbecomeasecond-ranktown.Amidthegeneraleconomicrecession,though,Phoeniciaremaineda‘shelteredsector’.TheseCanaanites,thoughfavouredbyfortune,nowhadonlyamuchreducedterritory.Tothesouth,thePhilistineshadtakenthesouthernlittoralfromthem,butwithoutreallycompetingwiththem,sinceasiron-workersandfarmersthePhilistinestendedtoestablishtheirtownsinland.Tothenorth,theSyro-HittitesandtheAramaeanskeptthemawayfromthecoastofnorthernSyriaandthestrategicmouthoftheOrontes.Evenso,Phoenicianinfluencewasstronglyfeltinthisarea,atAl-Minaforexample,orfurthernorthatKaratepe,wherePhoenicianwasspoken.Totheeast,theHebrewshadseizedthehinterlandofCanaan,butthemaritimecitieswerenotgreatlyconcernedbythelossofthispoorland,muchofitoccupiedbyasemi-nomadicpopulation.WhenSolomonofferedseveralGalileantownstoHiram,kingofTyre,asarewardforhisloyalservices,thekingwenttoinspectthemandturnedtheofferdown,preferringtoaskSolomonforanannualsupplyofgrainandoil.Sothiswasatinybutindependentcountry,forcedbytheproximityofthemountains,byitsneighbours,andbyitsownwayoflifetomakedowithapoor,barelyexistentterritory,afewcornfields,somebeautifullycultivatedorchards,theoccasionalforestandalittlegrazingland.Theover-populatedcitieshadtobuyfromabroadthefoodtheylacked,to

compensatefortheirdisadvantages.

Industry:anecessity

IndustrywasthusindispensabletothePhoeniciancities.Theyallcontainedanactivebodyofartisans,weavers,ironworkers,goldsmithsandshipbuilders.Theseskilledworkerswereoftencalledonbyforeignstates,asengineersareinourownindustrialage.The‘industries’ofPhoeniciaexcelledineverything.Theirwoollenclothswerefamous,asweretheirdyes,extractedfromtheshellsoftheMurextrunculusortheMurexbrandaris,withshadesrangingfrompinktopurpleorviolet.Thisessentialindustrywaskeptwellawayfromthetowns,sincethefleshofthemolluscshadtobeallowedtodecomposeatlengthintheopenair,producingdisgustingsmells.Enormouspilesofmurexshellsmarkedthepresenceofnumerousdyers’workshops,bothinPhoeniciaitselfandinitswesterncolonies.Theweavers,themosthighlyskilledofallcraftsmen,producedpreciouscarpets,usingatechniquestillemployedtwomillennialaterintheGobelinstapestryworksinFrance,aswellasthemulticolouredfabricswhichareoftenmentionedinHomer.Thesearethecolourfulclotheswornbythe‘Asiatics’whoareseenbeingtrampledunderfootbythevictoriousTutankhamuninpaintingsonwoodencaskets,orbytheprisonersofRamsesIIIdepictedontheenamelledtilesofthetempleofMedinetHabu.OthertraditionalartswereextensivelydevelopedbythePhoenicianswithaviewtotheexportmarket.LargenumbersofintricatelycarvedivoryplaquesinlaidwithgoldandcolouredstoneshavebeenfoundatNimrud(Assyria),Samaria,KhorsabadandArslanTash,butalsoatSamosinGreeceandinEtruria.Mostoftheseivories,whichdateforthemostpartfromtheninthtotheseventhcentury,havebeenattributed,followingtheworkofR.D.Barnett,tothePhoenicianworkshopsat

HamatontheOrontes.SomemaycomefromSyriancentresfurthernorth,andafewreflectalocalAssyrianorevenIranianstyle(Ziwiye),butthesepeoplewereinspiredbytheworkofPhoenicianswhohadbeenbroughtinvoluntarilyorinvoluntarily.2Thestylederivesdirectlyfromthe‘internationalstyle’ofthebronzeage,withamixtureofdisparateinfluencesfromEgypt,Mesopotamia,Syria,theHittiteEmpire,Assyriaandelsewhere.Wefindthesamecontinuityofstyleinthesilverorgoldcupswhich

havebeenfoundinAssyria,Cyprus,Greece,andCrete,orinItalyincountlessEtruscantombs.Theirarchaeologicalcontextdatesthemfromtheseventhcentury,buttheycouldeasilybemistakenforworkofthesecondmillenniumwiththeirrepoussetechniqueandtheirvariedmotifstakenfromthestockimagesoftheorientalpeoples.ThiswasaPhoenicianspeciality;Homerspeaksof‘craters[bowls]fromSidon’,whenoneofthesepreciousobjectsispresentedtoMenelausorgivenasaprizeatthefuneralgamesafterthedeathofPatroclus.ButtherewasonenewelementintheproductionsofthePhoenician

craftsmen:glass–seeninthecountlessbaroqueglobules,amulets,pendantsandbeads,theglassphialsandlittlemulticolouredvases,allofthemsoldbythethousandallaroundtheMediterranean.Thisdidnotcallforanynewtechnicalinvention.Theproductionofglass–whichwasoriginallysimplythepotter’sglazewithoutitsearthenwarebase,inotherwordsopaqueglass–haddevelopedindependentlyandsimultaneouslyinEgyptandMesopotamiabeforethesecondmillennium.Thetechniquesweresimilar,eveniftherawmaterialsandcolouringagentsdiffered.Glass-blowingremainedunknownuntilGraeco-Romantimes,butglasswassometimesmouldedorevenhollowedoutfromasolidmass.Morenormally,anucleusofclayeysand,compressedinamouldoffineclothandmountedonacopperrod,wasplungedintotheliquidglasstocoveritwithalayerofglaze.Beforeithardened,littlepiecesofcolouredglasswereinsertedintoit(thecharmingpatternsoflinesandfestoonswhichoneseesonsomanyEgyptianorPhoenicianvases),thenthewholesurfacewassmoothed,usuallybyrollingitonatable,andhandlesandornamentswereattached.Onceithadcooled,itonlyremainedtoremovethecoreofsandandtheclothsurroundingit.

ThePhoeniciansandCypriotsimitatedtheEgyptianglass-workersatfirst.Butfromtheseventhcenturyon,thePhoenicianandlaterthePuniccitiescreatedahomegrownglassindustry,developingamongotherthingstransparentglass(whichinEgyptmadeitsappearanceratherlate,fromthetimeofTutankhamun).Ontheotherhand,beingthesensibletraderstheywere,the

PhoeniciansnevertriedtocompetewithEgyptinthefieldofceramics,wheretheEgyptianswerethemselvesengagedintheindustrialproductionoftrinkets.Theycontentedthemselveswithselling,alongsidetheirownglassware,theinnumerableamulets(ofcat-orcrocodile-headedgoddesses,figuresofthegodBesoreyes)andscarabswhichEgypthadlongbeenexportingtotheAegeanandwhicharefoundingreatnumbersintheearliesttombsofCarthage.3

Similarly,althoughtheyhadhadsettlementsinCyprussinceatleastthetenthcentury,theydidnottrytocompetewiththelocalspeciality:extraordinarypaintedpottery,aMycenaeanlegacytransmutedbyorientalfantasy.Nor,unliketheEtruscans,didtheyimitateGreekpottery,eventhoughtheysolditallovertheMediterranean.Theyremainedfaithfultotheirownceramictradition,withitspolishediridescentredpotsfromtheLebanesecoast.ThiswasimitatedbythetownsofIsraelinthetenthcenturyintheelegantcrimsonpitchersandcupsknownas‘Samarianware’.ThemostwidespreadPhoenicianvessel–thepear-shapedpitcherwhichisfoundinbothCarthageandPhoenicia–wascopiedinothermaterials:glass,bronze,silver,andevenivory.ButtheartofpaintedpotterywasneveradoptedbythePhoenicians.

Theimpactofmaritimetrade

Industrywouldhavebeennothingwithouttrade.ThePhoenicianports,crowdedwithships,wereobligedtoengageinlarge-scalecommercialactivity,stretchingfromtheRedSeaandtheIndianOceantoGibraltar

andtheAtlantic.ThewholeoftheMediterraneanwascaughtupinthisfar-reachingnetwork.Broadlyspeaking,therewerethreeroutesfromtheeasttothewestern

Mediterranean.Thefirstkeptclosetothenortherncoasts,goingbyGreeceandtheGreekislandsasfarasCorcyra(Corfu).Fromthere,withafavourablewind,alightsailingvesselcouldcrosstheStraitofOtrantoinlessthanaday,andthenfollowtheItaliancoastlinetotheStraitsofMessina.ThisnarrowpassagewasthefinaldestinationoftheearliestGreektravellers,andnodoubtoftheshipsofCreteandMycenae.InduecoursetheTyrrhenianSeawastobethecrossroadsbywhichtheGreeksailingshipsreachedthewest,thoughnotwithoutdifficulty.ThesouthernroutefollowedtheAfricanshorelinefromEgypttoLibya

andwhatwenowcallNorthAfrica,anendlesscoastalnavigationleadingfinallytothePillarsofHerculesandtheStraitsofGibraltar.Onthislengthyroute,thePhoenicianshadportsofcallinfriendlycountries,forinstanceintheNileDelta,andtradingposts,suchasthoseonthecoastofCyrenaicaortheMaghreb.Theyalwayschosesiteseitheroninshoreislands–NorainSardinia,CadizoppositethemouthoftheGuadalquivir,MotyainSicily,UticaatthemouthoftheBagradas(Medjerda),MogadorinMorocco–oroneasilydefendedisthmuses.Carthage,onthehillofByrsabetweenitstwolagoons,wascomparedbyAppiantoashipatanchor.Thethird,shorter,routewentstraightacrossthemiddleofthesea,by

wayofachainofislands:Cyprus,Crete,Malta,Sicily,Sardinia,theBalearics.Twomillennialater,atthetimeofPhilipIIandDonJohnofAustria,thiswasstillthe‘straightandrapid’route,theonefollowedbySpanishshipsfromSicilytotheBalearicsortheBalearicstoSicily;furthereast,fromSicilytoCrete,CyprusandSyria,itwasthecentralaxisofthefamousLevanttrade.Sailingonthedirectrouteobviouslymeantabandoningcoastalnavigationforthehighseas.DidtheshipsofthePhoenicianstakethiscentralseapassage,farfrom

thecoasts?Probablytheydid,sincethereareclearindicationsthatthePhoenicians,andlatertheCarthaginians,atleastcalled,andpossiblystayed,atalltheislandsalongthisroute.Moreover,thePhoenicianshadearnedthereputationofoutstandingseamen:‘Thywisemen,OTyrus,thatwereinthee,werethypilots…thyrowershavebroughttheeinto

greatwaters’(Ezekiel27;myitalics).AccordingtoStraboandAratos,thePhoenicianstaughttheGreeksasuremethodoftellingthenorthbytheLittleBear(ratherthantheCharioteerandtheGreatBear).Theysailedevenbynight,venturingfarfromthecoastandoutdoingallothermarinersofthetime,whoonlysailedbyday.Inaddition,theyhaddrawnupmarinechartsandmadetablesofdistancesandwinds;thedetailedaccountofthevoyageofHannodowntheAfricancoastwaspubliclydisplayedinatemple.4

Itisprobablethatofthetwocoastalroutesthenortherlyonewasthesaferforsailingboatsandforoarsmen(tojudgebythepracticeoftheTurksinthesixteenthcenturyad,whentheycontrolledbothroutes).Thelandprovidedshelterfromnortherlywinds.Butthesouthernroutetoowaspossibleandinitswesternsectoroftenpreferable.Inthewest,thenorthernroutehadtocrossthewideseasbetweenItalyandSpain;thePhocaeansandlatertheMarseillaisonlyovercamethisveryrealdifficultybyusinglargerships.Asforthecentralroute,itofferedspeed(relativelyspeaking),space,andliberty:thelargeexpansesofwaterbetweentheislandsgaveshipstheprotectionofanemptyseaandsafetyfrompursuers.NowonderthenthatthePhoeniciansandtheCarthaginiansweresodeterminedtoholdontotheislandsfromCyprustotheBalearics,includinginvaluableSicily,andtokeepcontrolofthe‘Sicily-Balearicbridge’.OnceRomehadcapturedSicily,thatwastheendofCarthage’snavalsupremacy.TheprosperityofPhoeniciathusdependedonlongseavoyages.A

passageintheBibleindicates,ifourinterpretationofitiscorrect,thatagivenship,fittedoutbyKingSolomonandsailingwiththePhoenicianfleet,couldgotoTartessosinfar-offSpainandbackinthreeyears.ThiswasaboutthetimetakenforareturnjourneybetweenSevilleandSpanishAmericainthesixteenthcenturyad.BoththevoyagetoTartessosandthattoAmericaimpliedthe

existenceofcitieswithrichcapitalresources,capableofwaitingyearsforareturn,andprofitsproportionaltotheimmenseinvestmentoftime.Inbothcases,itwassilver(plustinarrivingfromthenorthinAndalusia)whichallowedthemiracletotakeplace.AgreatdealofSpanishsilvermusthavebeencirculating,becauseinEgyptthegold:silverexchangeratewentfromi:ztoi:13!Theremustindeedhavebeenaglutofsilver

ontheEgyptianmarket,astherewasinEuropeinthesixteenthcenturywiththearrivalofsilverfromAmerica.FromSpain,the‘conquest’oftheminesseemstohavemovedtoSardinia5whichwasalsocolonizedearlyon,andwheresilvermineswerethefirsttobeworked;thecopperminesoftheBarbagiaregionwereestablishedonlyinabouttheeighthcentury,andthecoppertheyproducedwasmostlyconsumedontheisland.DiodorusofSicily,forhispart,hasnohesitationinattributingthepowerofthePhoenicianstothetradeinthesilvertheyextractedfromSpainandSardinia.

Themiraclesofbitumen(pitch)

ThemiracleofthePhoenicianvoyages,thefirstsystematicuseofthesea,wasatfirstsightduetohumanskillandcourage.Butperhapstherewassomethingelse.ThePhoenicianspossessedabundantsuppliesofbitumen,ifonlythatofthenearbyDeadSea,whichhadbeeninusefromtimeimmemorial.PierreCintaswrites:‘Iaminclinedtobelievethattheirsuccessatseawaslargelyduetotheuseofbitumenforcaulkingtheirvessels.’Leaksandinadequatewatertightnesswereindeedtheenemiesofearlynavigation.Inthosefar-offdays,shipswereinvariablypulledupoutofthewater,eitherontothesandforthenight,orinport,wherethehullcouldbeexposedtotheairforcheckingandcareening.Bitumen,akindofnaturaltar,wascertainlyusedforthispurposebythePhoeniciansailors.IndeedthearchitectsinCarthageusedittoo.Theclaywallsofthetall

houseswereoftentarredontheoutside,andPlinyspeaksoftheir‘pitch-coveredroofs’.Thereinliestheexplanationfortheterriblefireof146BC.TheRomanswouldneverhavebeenabletoburnthecitydowntogroundlevelhaditnotbeenforthehighlyinflammablebitumen,whichisstillbeingfoundbyarchaeologistsin‘littleplaques’inthelayerofashescoveringPunicCarthage.

Carthage:anewleaseoflifeforPhoenicia

CommunicationsbetweenTyreandCadizintheFarWestoftheMediterraneandependedonafragilethread–fragilebecauseofitsgreatlength.FormanyyearsthesystemsurvivedthankstothepresenceofCarthageasahalfwayhouse.Itcollapsedonlyintheseventhcentury,foranumberofdifferentreasons.Firstly,thePhoeniciansnolongerhadtheMediterraneantothemselvesasintheearlydays,6butfacedcompetitionfromtheEtruscans(whichwasmanageable)andthentheGreeks.Secondly,PhoeniciawasunderattackfromtheAssyrians,whotookCyprusin709.Arados,Byblos,SidonandTyreresistedforalongtime,buteventstookadramaticturnwhentheAssyriansoccupiedEgyptin671.Thereafter,the‘kings’ofthePhoeniciandtieswereobligedtomanoeuvre,submit-ting,schemingandlaunchingvainattemptsatrevolt.‘Yakimlu,kingofAradosinthemiddleofthesea[Aradoswasindeedonanisland]hadnotsubmittedtomyroyalancestors’,saysatextofAssurbanipal,‘butImadehimwearmyyoke.HehimselfbroughthisdaughtertoNinevehwitharichdowrytobemyconcubine,andhekissedmyfeet’;healsopaidatributeof‘wooldyedpurpleandviolet,fish,andbirds’.The‘BaalofTyre’hadsimilarlytohandoveroneofhisdaughtersandevenhisson,whomAssurbanipalreturnedtohim.In574,almostfortyyearsafterthefalloftheAssyrianEmpire,wheneveryonemighthavebeenabletobreathefreelyagain,theBabylonianNebuchadnezzarinturnconqueredTyre.Thesewars,andfurtherupheavalsincitieswherethekingsweregivingwaytosuffetes(magistrates),causingdisruptiontotrade,didnotimmediatelywipePhoeniciaanditsshipsfromtheworldmap.ButtheyimpelledCarthagetobecomeapowerinitsownright,allthemoresobecauseitdidnothavetofreeitselffromthebondsofcolonialpowerinthemodernsenseoftheword.WhatlinkedittothemothercountrywasthecommonworshipofMelkartinTyre,andbusinessconnectionsbetweengroups.TheselinksslackenedoftheirownaccordwithoutCarthageoritsrulingaristocracyofmerchantshavingtostrugglefor

independence.ThecentreofPhoenicianlifenowshiftedtoCarthage,whichwasbettersituatedthanTyre,attheexactmeetingpointofthetwoMediterraneansandoutofreachofforeignaggression.Phoeniciancivilizationcontinuedthere,atoncethesameanddifferent,ratherlikemodernEuropeancivilizationinAmerica.Thedifferenceswereaccentuatedbydistance,bytheinevitablegapbetweentwosetsofculturalpractices,andnotleastbythemixedoriginsofthetown.PierreCintaswentsofarastosaythatCarthagewasfoundedbyvariouspeoples‘fromthesea’asmuchasbythePhoeniciansthemselves.PerhapsthisistogivetoomuchweighttotheevidencefromtwoearlyCarthaginiancemeteriesdatingfromtheseventhcentury;one,atDarmeschtothenorth-eastofthecity,wasreservedforthosewhoburiedtheirdead(Phoenicians),whiletheother,onthehillofJuno,wasforthosewhopractisedcremation(weretheyGreeks?).Cintasconcludesthatatthetimeofthefirstpermanentcolonialsettlements,therewasamixofdifferentpeoplesemigratingwestward.Unfortunatelythisallremainsunclear.AndinanycasethePhoenicianswerethemajority;theysetthetoneanditwastheirlanguagethatwasspoken.Nevertheless,beinganewcitywhichhadsproutedlikeanAmericantown,Carthagewasalsoameltingpot.Itwas‘American’too,evenmoreso,initsmaterialistic,down-to-earth,fast-movingcivilization,preferringthesturdytotherefined.Thiswasapowerfulcity,attractingsailors,craftsmenandmercenariesfromfarafield.Acceptingmanydifferentcultures,itwasbynaturecosmopolitan.Forsevencenturies,itmadeitshard-feltmarkonMediterraneanAfrica,butatthesametimeitprobablyabsorbedintoitsveinsallkindsofAfricanblood.Thecolonizingpowerwasinitsturncolonized,andthiswaswhatdestroyeditinthelongrun,sinceitwasthetreacheryoftheNumidiansandtheircavalrywhichdestroyedCarthageonthebattlefieldofZama(202).Butmoreofthatlater.

CarthageandAfrica

ThethingthatmostofalldistinguishedCarthagefromPhoeniciawasitsrelationtoadensehinterlandwhichitcouldnotignore.OfcourseCarthagelivedontheseaandfromtheseaasadventurouslyasthesailorsofTyre.TheTyrians,settingofffromtheRedSeainabout600,veryprobablycircumnavigatedAfricaontheordersofthepharaohNecho.Similarly,Carthaginianshipsinsearchoftinsetoffinabout450BCundertheleadershipofHimilco,andsailednorthuptheAtlanticcoastsofEuropeasfarastheBritishIsles(theCassiterides).Aquarterofacenturylater,Hannowasexploringsouthwardsinsearchofgolddust,followingtheAtlanticcoastsofAfricaasfaraspresent-dayGabonandCameroon.ThenewcitycouldthushavefollowedthePhoenicianexample,turningitsbackonthedesolatecontinentbehindit,haditnotbeenforthefactthatitstradingroutewasalongtheNorthAfricancoast,dottedwithobligatoryportsofcall.Theseportsofcallgavebirthtovillages,andthentolargetowns(forinstance,onthecoastofwhatisnowAlgeria:Collo,Djidjelli,Algiers,Cherchell,Guraya,Tenes)whichallgraduallyturnedtowardstheirhinterlandtoincreasetheirprosperity.Induecourse,theeconomicdownturnofthefifthcenturyobligedCarthageitselftolooktoNorthAfricaandtoinstallontheplainssurroundingitanefficientformofagriculture,towhichweshallreturn.Therewasthusanincreasingsymbiosiswiththelifeofthenativepeoples.ThispartofNorthAfrica,whichhadbarelyemergedfromthestoneagewhenthePhoeniciansarrived,receivedalmosteverythingfromitsnewmasters:fruit-trees(theolive,vine,fig,almondandpomegranate,allofwhosefruitswereexportedtoItaly),techniquesofagricultureandwine-makingandmanycraftprocesses.Carthagewasitstutor,andthelessonswentindeep.Manycenturieslater,inthetimeofSaintAugustine,whentheRomanEmpirewascollapsing,theAfricanpeasants,Augustine’scompatriots,werestillspeakingPunicandcallingthemselvesCanaanites:‘Undeinterrogatirusticinostriquidsint,punicerespondentes:Chanani…’.E.-F.Gautier,agreathistoriannowundervaluedorrathermisunderstood,claimedthatthis‘orientalizing’PunicinfluencehadleftanindeliblemarkonthedividedcontinentofNorthAfricaandSpain,sothatwhentheArabsinvadedintheseventhandeighthcenturiesad,thisage-oldcomplicityworkedintheirfavour.

Specialistshaveattackedthisboldtheory,pointingoutthatthereisnoimmediateevidencebasedoneventsofthetime.Thisistrue,ofcourse,butthehistoryofcivilizationsisfulloftime-bombs.Thelightofdistantstarssometimesarrivesonourplanetlongaftertheyhavedied.ThisexplanationisallthemoreattractivebecauseCarthage,agenuinefragmentoftheOrient,wasnotcontaminatedbyIndo-Europeaninfluences.Itspositionpreserveditfromanyinvasionfromthenorth.Ifpeopleandculturescirculated,itwasfromeasttowest,byseaorwestwardsfromtheNilebyroutesovertheSahara.Logicallythen,wefindtheCarthaginiansdressedinorientalgarb:longtunicswithwidesleeves,longtravellingcloaks,skullcapsontheirheads.E.-F.Gautierseesinthesetheprototypesofthefez,thegandouraandtheburnousoftoday.OnPunicsteles,onefindstheimageofarighthandextendedwithopenpalminagestureofbenediction(anothereasterntrait),somethingverylikethe‘handofFatma’,apopularamuletoftenreproducedoverhousedoorwaysinmodern-dayNorthAfrica.Similarly,manyaspectsofeverydaylifeinancientCarthagearereminiscentofthelifeledtodayonthesamespot.ExcavationsoftherustictombsofpoorpeoplefromthePunicperiodatSmiratin1941revealedawayoflivingmuchlikethatofthepeasantsoftoday:‘Aroom,afewstoragevessels,anamphoraforwater,andamattosleepon’(G.andC.Picard).

Barterandmoney

SituatedatthemeetingplaceofthewesternandeasternMediterranean,itwaseasyforCarthagetotakeadvantageoftheimmensedifferenceintheireconomicandculturallevels.Thewestwasbarbarianandunder-developed.Carthagecouldobtaineverythingcheaplythere,includingmetals:tinfromtheCassiteridesandnorth-westernSpain;lead,copperandaboveallsilverfromAndalusiaandSardinia;golddustfromsub-SaharanAfrica,broughtnorthbycaravans(ofhorses,notdromedariesat

thisperiod);andfinallyslaves,wherevertheycouldbecaptured,attimesevenonthehighseas.Allthesedealingsweretransactedbybarter.TheCarthaginian

merchantsbroughtfromtheeasttheirownmanufacturedproductsandthoseofothers,orelsespicesanddrugswhichhadcomefromtheIndiesbytheRedSea,andexchangedthemforingotsofsilverwhichtheycouldsellbackintheeast.ThisiswhyactualmoneywaslatetoappearinCarthage,notuntilthefifthcenturyinPunicSicilyandthefourthcenturyinCarthageproper,inordertopaythemercenaries.ShouldweshareSabatinoMoscati’ssurpriseatthis(1966)?No,becauseitwasnotasimplematterofignorance.TyreandSidonhadtheirowncurrencies.TheonlypossibleexplanationisthatCarthagehadnoneedformoney.Thesamethingwastohappen,mutatismutandis,inChina,which,forallitsinventivenessinthisdomain(money,evenpapermoney,wasknownthereveryearlyon),wasveryslowtomakeuseofit.LikeCarthage,Chinawassurroundedbyeconomiesintheirinfancy(Japan,Indochina,theMalayArchipelago),easytodominateandwellusedtobarter.Thisdoesnotmeanthattheabsenceofmoneywasnotintheenda

weakness,whenCarthagefounditselfincompetitionwithothereconomies.IftherewasaGreek‘boom’beginninginthefifthcentury,withevenCarthagebuyingthefancygoodsproducedbyitsrivals,apossiblereasonforthis,thoughnottheonlyoneorthebest,maylieinGreekmonetarysuperiority.OneisonsafergroundinsayingthatbackwardnessinthisfielddeprivedCarthageoftheadvantagesofbankingandacreditsystem,whichappearedveryearlyintheGreekcities.Likeultra-richPersia(thoughherecoinsmarkedwiththeheadofDariuswereincirculation),Carthageaccumulatedgreatquantitiesofpreciousmetals,gold,silver,andevenbronze,butwithoutputtingthemtowork.Inthesameway,whilesomewritersarerightlysurprisedatthe

undevelopedstateofmetallurgyinCarthagewhenthecitycontrolledsomanymines,canthisreallybeattributedtotheshortcomingsofthelabourforce?Allthatwaslackingwasthewill.ButCarthage,absorbedinitsextraordinaryseafaringactivity,choseheretootheeasysolutionsofferedbytheundemandingroutinesofcommerciallife.Inthestrugglesofhistory,earlywinnersfinishupbyrestingontheirlaurelsandmay

loseeverythingiftheypersistintheiroldways.SothearrivalinthecityofGreekmerchandiseinthefifthcenturyseemstometobeattributabletotheCarthaginianwayofdoingthingsratherthantoanydecisivecommercialsuperiorityonthepartoftheGreeks.Fromthebeginningoftheseventhcentury,CarthagehadbeenimportingCorinthianpottery,EtruscanbuccherovasesandavarietyofEgyptianmanufactures.ThiswasbecauseCarthaginiantradewasparticularlyactiveinCorinth,EtruriaandEgypt.Inthesameway,inthesixteenthcenturyad,itdidnoharmtoVenicetoimportandthenre-exportmanufacturedgoodsfromsouthernGermany.TheDutchdidthesamethingintheseventeenthcentury,carryingmerchandiseoverthesevenseas,buyinghere,sellingthere,andengaginginprimitivebarterwheneverpossibleintheMalayArchipelago.Likethem,theCarthaginianswerecarriers,intermediaries,buyingwithonehandandsellingwiththeother.Doesthismeanthattheintermediaryisinevitablyinapositionof

weakness?Notnecessarily,sinceCarthagewasabletodefenditsessentialassets,andinparticularits‘monopoly’onmininginSpain:itsucceededinkeepingtheEtruscans,theGreeksandthentheRomansawayfrommostoftheprofitablepartoftheIberianpeninsula.Itmanagedalsotodefenditsmostimportantmaritimeportsofcall,itsluxuryindustries(wovenfabricsasrenownedasthoseofPhoenicia,aswellasivoriesandfurniture)anditsday-to-daytradingactivities,notablythewholesalegraintradeandthethrivingsaltfishindustry.Tothisenditsetupfisheriesandsalt-pansinmanydifferentplaces,andinparticularatCadizandawholeseriesoflittleharboursalongthewestcoastofSpainandPortugal,facingtheAtlanticOceanwithitsrichfishingwaters.WhentheRomansaltingindustrycameheresubsequently,allithadtodowastakeoverthePhoenicianlegacy.NorwasthepowerofCarthageaffectedbythefactthatneithertheart

northelifeofthegreatcitywasabletoescapetheinfluenceofGreekculture,whichtoagreaterorlesserextentpermeatedthewholeoftheMediterranean,botheastandwest.Itwasalong-standingPhoeniciantraditiontoadoptthedominantstyleofthemoment(earlierithadbeenEgyptian).TheinfluenceofGreekartwasfeltonthePhoeniciancoastaswellasinCarthage,particularlyinfunerarystelesandinarchitecture,andalltheCarthaginiancoloniesfollowedsuit,inSicily,Sardinia,Spain,

andontheAfricancoast.TheGreekimpactonSpanish-Carthaginiansculpture,inthefourthcenturyforinstance,orevenattheendofthefifth,showsclearlythatoneshoulddistinguishbetweentheculturalinfluenceofGreeceonthePunicworldanditseconomicinfluence.CarthagewashappytoimportfromGreeceitstown-planning,itscharacteristichouseswithcentralcourtyards,itsornamentedvases,itscementandhydraulicconcrete(seeChapter8forexplanation),itssarcophagi,someofitsgods(DemeterandKore,aroundtheyear396),butalsoitsPythagoreanphilosophyandsomeofitsexponents.ItwastheexampleofAlexandertheGreatwhichinspiredHamilcar,thefatherofHannibal,toembarkontheconquestofSpain.HannibalhimselfwasimbuedwithGreekculture,andevenhisuseofelephantscoveredwithbrightlycolouredtrappings,whichterrorizedtheRomansoldiery,wasborrowedfromtheHellenisticworld.

Theebbandflowofhistory

Carthage,livingofftheMediterranean,wasinevitablyaffectedbyitsfluctuations,itsshiftingfortunes.ThehistoryofthecitywasshapedbytherhythmsofMediterraneanlife.Intheseventhandsixthcenturiesbc,theGreekswereeverywhere.In

about600,thePhocaeansfoundedMassalia(Marseille);theyestablishedthemselvesatAmpuriasinCataloniaandperhapsalsotothesouthofMainake(Malaga).ThisrepresentedathreattotheminingmonopolyofthePhoenicians.ButCarthagetookthingsinhand,drivingthePhocaeansoutofAlaliainCorsicaafteraseabattlebetweentheGreeksandthejointfleetsofEtruriaandCarthage(540–535).Itwasnottheendofthestruggle,butthistimetheCarthaginianscameoutontop.In525,PersiaseizedEgyptandconsequentlyacquiredtheuseofthe

powerfulPhoeniciannavywhichthepharaohhadfittedout.However,DariuswasdefeatedatMarathon(490)andXerxesatSalamis(480),and

inthesecondofthesebattlesatleast,itwasthePhoenicianshipsthatwerebeaten.Thesameyear,thePunicarmyandnavywerecrushedatHimerainSicily,andafewyearslatertheGreeksdestroyedthenavyoftheCarthaginians’EtruscanalliesatCumae(474).ThiswasthebeginningofadramaticperiodfortheCarthaginians;acrisisthatwasatoncepolitical,religiousandeconomic.TherulingMagodynastywasremovedfromofficeandthearistocracyseizedpower.Tanit,thetutelarygoddessofthecity(likePallasinAthens),becamethechiefdeity.Carthagereactedvigorouslytoitseconomicdifficulties:importswerereduced,anausterityprogrammewasputinplace,andrelationswithsub-SaharanAfricaandtheCassiterideswerestrengthened.Aboveall,CarthagefellbackonNorthAfrica,takingoveravastsurroundingareaforlivestock-raisingandorchards.ThenativeLibyanpeopleswhohadbeendrivenoutofthislandcontinuedtoproducebarleyandwheat.ThelongcenturywhenCarthagewasonthedefensiveallowedthecity

togainnewstrengthandtakeadvantageoftheweaknessofAthensfollowingthefailureoftheAthenianexpeditionagainstSyracuse(415–409).Immediately,CarthagebegantowagewarferociouslyagainsttheSicilianGreeks,attackingtheirtowns,capturingtheinhabitantsandthusacquiringaslavelabourforcewhichwastotransformtheeconomyofthecityitself.TheconquestsofAlexander(334-323)broughtnewalarms;theverylifeofthecityseemedindanger.ButthealmostimmediatedisintegrationofAlexander’sexcessivelylargeempireallowedCarthagetobreatheagain,sincetherewasnowlesstofearfromthedividedempiresoftheeast,whichweretoofarawaytodomuchdamage.Andindeed,wasitpossiblefortheeasttodowithoutthewest?ThePtolemywhoseizedtheeasternMediterranean(includingPhoenicia)afterAlexander’sdownfalladoptedthePhoeniciansystemofmeasurementandquicklyrestoredthefavourablesituationofCarthage.Intheendthedangerthatwastoprovemostfatalmaterializednearer

home,atRome,theultimatecatastrophecomingin146BC.Itwasatragicending.Whoinhisheart–andeventheimpartialhistorianhasaheart!–canfailtogrieveatthedelendaestCarthagoofCatotheElderandthepitilessdestructionorderedbyScipioAemilianus?Thiswasthefinalsilencingofaveryspecialvoice.

Aglimpseofthecity

Carthagedidnotdieintheusualway.Asaresult,itisdifficultforarchaeologiststoreconstitutemuchofthelifeandsocietyofthecity.Allwehaveisindirectknowledge,madeupofrandomfragments.ThankstoAristotle’scuriosity,weknowsomethingofthePunic

constitution.Originallyruledbykings,Carthagelateradoptedanaristocraticformofgovernment.Theprincipalfamiliesofthecityprovidedtwosuffetes(etymologically,judges),chosenannuallybypopularsuffrage,aswellasthemembersoftheSenateandofthecommitteeswhodealtwiththeactualtasksofgovernment:asortofVeniceavantlalettrewithaCouncilof104whichwasasmuchfearedastheVenetianCouncilofTen.Howmanygeneralswerecrucifiedonitsorders!Itishardtodaytoimaginethecityitselfasitoncewas,onthehillof

Byrsa(nowthehillofSaint-Louis,plusthehillofJunoandtheplateauoftheOdeum),withitstemples,thetophet,itsnarrowstreetsandtallmany-storeyedhouses,asinalmostallPhoeniciantowns(Appianspeaksofsix-storeybuildingsbetweentheforumandtheacropolisofByrsa),itswatertanksandthefreshwaterspringknownasthefountainofathousandamphoras.Thehandsomevaultingoverthefountain,althoughmuchalteredbytheRomans,istheonlyremainingpieceofgenuineCarthaginianarchitecture.Recentexcavationshave,however,uncovered,threeorfourmetresbelowtheRomancity(whichwasbuiltontheruinsofCarthage),apartofthePuniccitydatingfromtheHellenisticperiod.ItisthuscertainthatatthistimeCarthagehadstraightandpassablestreets,linkedbyflightsofsteps,andadrainagesystemsimilartothatfoundinthetownsofSicily.Thehousesaresimplyidenticalgroupingsofanumberofrooms.OnthebeachofSalammbothereweretwoharbours,arectangularone

formerchantshipping,andlinkedtoitacircularonewherewarshipswereoftendrawnupoutofthewater,underthevaultsoftheArsenal.Anislandinthemiddleofthemilitaryharbourhousedtheheadquartersoftheadmiralcommandingthenavy.

Enormouswalls,doubleoreventripleonthelandwardside,surroundedthecity,withitsfortressonthehillofByrsa,andthecrowdeddistrictsaroundtheharbour.HalfwaybetweentheharbourandByrsawasapublicsquare,akindofagora.FurthernorthwasthesuburbofMegarawithitsgardens,orchardsandaristocraticvillas.Fromthetopofthehill,onelookednorthtothesalt-waterlagoonsofSebkhaerRianaandsouthtothelakeofTunis.Thecityhadahugepopulation,perhapsasmanyas100,000.Alongsidetherichgoverningminoritylivedaplebeianmassofcraftsmen,labourers,slaves,sailorsandsometimesmercenarysoldiers–allformingadistinctlyvolatilecrowd.Carthagewasoftenshakenbyinternalriots.Thecitywassurroundedbyafinelykeptcountryside.Therichclearly

tookpleasureinwell-cultivatedland,beautifulgardens,thegraftingoftreesandthebreedingofanimals.ACarthaginianagronomist,Mago,fragmentsofwhoseworkhavereachedusindirectly,givesscoresofmethodsforplantingvinessoastopreservethemfromexcessivedrought,formakingfinewines,cultivatingalmond-trees,keepingpomegranatesinclayforexport,choosingtherightqualitesinbreedsofoxen,etc.,etc.Headdsapieceofadvicetorurallandownerswhichisnotwithoutsignificance:‘Themanwhobuyslandshouldsellhishouse,lesthefindlivinginthecitypreferabletolivinginthecountry.’ItseemsthattheCarthaginiansofthethirdcenturyresembledtheTuscansofthefifteenthandsixteenthcenturiesadintheirkeennesstobuylandoutoftown.

UnderthesignofTanit

ExtensiveexcavationsatthesiteofCarthagehavefoundnothingbutthousandsofbodies,buriedorcremated,andtheobjectswhichwenttothegravewiththem.Therearehundreds,eventhousands,offunerarycippiorstelesmonotonouslylistingthenamesofthegods;scholarshave

evenattemptedamathematicalcalculationofthemostworshippedgodsaccordingtotheirfrequencyandtheorderinwhichtheyarenamed!Thisisnotmuchhelpifwearetryingtogettotheheartofareligion

whosestrangenesshorrifiedtheRomans(thehorrorwasoftenquitegenuine)andwhosemythology,theology,structureandvisionoftheworldremainunknowntous.IfweknewbetterthePhoenicianreligion,fromwhichthatofCarthagederives,wemightbeabletomakesenseofthefewdetailswehave.Unfortunatelythisisnotthecase,inspiteoftheunexpectedlightcastonthematterbycertainUgaritictexts,somewritingsinCanaanite,andwhatwefindintheBible.EachPhoeniciancityhaditsowngods,thoughsomeofthesewere

commQntoseveralcities.Butitisdifficulttobespecificaboutthenamesofthesegods.El,Baal,AdonisandMelkartareinasensegenericterms:ElmeansGod;BaalandAdonismeanLord,andMelkart,kingofthecity.SoMelkart,the‘kingofTyre’,caneasilybecalledBaalMelkart.Thegodsarethusenvelopedinvaguenameswhichdonotcorrespondtoanyeasilyrecognizabledivinefunction.Generallyspeaking,thePhoenicianpantheonisdominatedbythree

figureswhosenamesvaryfromtowntotown:agod-king,amother-goddessorfertilitygoddess,andayounggodwhoeveryyearmustbeborn,dieandbereborn,likevegetationastheseasonschange.InSidon,thetrinityconsistedofBaal,AstarteandEshmun(assimilatedbytheGreekstoAsclepios-AesculapiusinLatin);atByblositwasEl,Baalat(afeminineversionofBaal)andAdonis,whosemythweknowviatheGreeks.AdoniswasalsothenameoftheriverwhichdescendedfromLebanonandranclosebythecity;asanctuarymarkeditssourceinthemountains.Everyyear,asthedust-ladenwindsreachedit,itswaterssuddenlyturnedredlikehumanblood;thiswasthesignalforByblostogointomourningforAdonis.InTyre,itseemsthatthefunctionsoftheyounggodwhodiesandisrebornwereassumedbyMelkart,the‘Baal’ofthecity,andtherewasafestivaltomarkhisresurrection.Everycityprobablyadaptedmythsexplainingtheworldandits

creationandthedestinyofmantosuititsownlocalgods.InthetextsofUgarit,forexample,Mothfiguresatonceasdeath,astheterribleheatofsummer,andastheripeningcorn.Hemustbeputtodeatheveryyear,sothatnatureandhumanitymaylive.Differentfunctionsclearlygave

birthtodifferentgods:BaalLebanonwasthegodofLebanon;BaalShaminthelordofheaven;Reshefthegodoffireandlightning;Dagontheveryancientgodofwheat;Chusorthegodwhoinventediron,andsoon.ThisreligionwasrootedintheancientworldoftheSemitic

imagination,closetotheearth,themountainsandthewaters;itssimple,cruelritualswerethosewhichanomadicpeoplehadlongagocelebratedintheopenair.Sacredwoodsandhillsneartothecitiesservedassanctuaries,thoughofcoursetherewereindoortemplestoo.Thealtarwassimple,withverylittleifanythinginthewayofanthropomorphicimages;apillar,columnorraisedstonemightrepresentthedeity.SiliusItalicushasleftusadescriptionofareligiousservicestillconductedintheancientPhoenicianmannerinGadesduringtheRomanperiod:barefoot,shaven-headedpriests,dressedinlinen,officiatedinabaresanctuarydevoidofsacredimages,whereaperpetualfireburned.ThereligiouslifeofCarthagewasatfirstmodelledmoreorlesson

thatofTyre.ThedominantgodwasBaalHamon;themother-goddess,sisterofAstarteoroftheIshtarofMesopotamia,wassoontobecomeTanit,whosename,unknownelsewhere,remainsamystery;theyoungdeity,godofthesunorofvegetation,waseitherMelkart,theTyriangod,orEshmun,thehealergod,confusedwithbothApolloandAsclepios,asMelkartwastobeconfusedwithHeracles.Fiercecompetitionbetweenthetwocultsdidnotresultintheeliminationofeither.MelkartwastobethefavouritegodofthegreatBarcidaefamily,inwhichtherecurringnamesofBomilcarandHamilcarwererelatedtothatofthegod.ThetempleofEshmunontheacropolisofByrsa,themostbeautifultempleinCarthage,wastobethelastbastionofthedefendersofthecityin146.Apartfromthesedominantgodsthereweredozensmore,Phoenician,

EgyptianorGreek.ThepantheonofCarthageseemstohavebeenaswelcomingasthatofEtruria,whichissayingsomething.Later,duringtheperiodofdifficultiesandculturalassimilation,BaalHamoncouldeasilybecomeCronosorSaturn,andTanitHeraorJuno.ThedistinguishingfeatureofthereligionofCarthagewasthe

sensationalgrowthofthecultofTanit,whichtookontheappearanceofaspiritualrevolution.Fromthefifthcentury,thegoddesscameto

dominateallotherdivinities,supplantingtheoldgod,BaalHamon.Carthagelivednowunderthe‘signofTanit’,whichlikethegoddesswasalmostentirelyconfinedtothewest.7Itconsistedofadiscontopofatriangle,withahorizontallinebetweenthetwo.Thewholesignreadilysuggestsahumanfigure,especiallywhenthehorizontallinebendsupwardateachendliketworaisedarms.OthersymbolsassociatedwithTanitcamefromtheeast,inparticularthe‘bottle’andtheopenhand,thecrescentmoonjoiningwiththesolardisc,whichisperhapsarepresentationofBaal.Thesearealldoubtlessallusionstomythswhichremainamysterytous.Butitisnotsomuchthesemysteriesthatcreateaproblemasthe

obsessiveweightoftheCarthaginianreligion,anenduring,terrifyingandimperiousreligionspringingfromthedepthsofaprehistoricpast.ThehumansacrificesofwhichtheRomansoftenaccusedtheirenemieswereonlytooreal:thetophetofSalammbdhasyieldedupthousandsofvesselscontainingthecharredbonesofchildren.WhenCarthagewantedtoavertadanger,itsacrificedtoitsgodsthesonsofitsmostnotablecitizens.ThisiswhathappenedwhenAgathocles,intheserviceofSyracuse,invadedtheterritoryofthecity.Certaindistinguishedcitizenshavingcommittedthesacrilegeofbuyingchildrenasasubstitutefortheirown,asacrificeoftwohundredchildrenwasorderedbywayofexpiation.Religiousfervourincreasedthenumbertothreehundred.Prisonersofwarweresacrificedtoo,oftenintheirthousands.DoesthebloodofthesevictimssullythenameofCarthage?Infact,all

primitivereligionshavehadsimilarpractices.InthisrespectCarthagewasfollowingtheCanaanitesofByblosortheSemitesofIsrael;wasnotAbrahamonthepointofsacrificingIsaac?TheastonishingthingisthatwhiletheCarthaginianeconomywassoforward-looking,itsreligiousliferemainedcenturiesbehind,andevenits‘revolutions’–thecultofTanitinthefifthcentury–didnotfreeitintheleastfromthisinhumanandfearsomepiety.ItisastrikingcontrastwiththeopennessoftheGreeks,whosoughtharmonybetweenmanandthenaturalworld.InCarthage,anintenseeconomiclife,whichahistorianwouldnothesitatetodescribeas‘capitalist’,wasnotincompatiblewithabackward-lookingreligiousmentality.WhatwouldMaxWeberhavethought?8

IITheEtruscans:anunsolvedmystery

TheEtruscans,theoriginalcreatorsofItaly,werenotcolonizersinthenormalsenseoftheword.Weretheyindeedcolonizersatall?Theyposeafascinatingproblem,whichremainsunanswered.Inspiteoftheprogressofknowledgewecannotbesurethatthemysterywilleverbeclearedup.

Anunknownlanguage

ThefirstmysteryistheEtruscanlanguageitself,anon-Indo-Europeanlanguage.Itcanbedeciphered–sinceitusestheGreekalphabet–butitremainsincomprehensible.Perhapsonedayabilingualinscriptionwillbefoundthatexplainseverything.Butforthistohappen,weshouldneedaninscriptionwiththerightkindoftext,forsuchafindhasalreadybeenmadeandhasprovedofnohelp.Onthreestripsofgoldfoundin1964atPyrgi,theportoftheEtruscancityofCaere(present-dayCerveteri)threeinscriptionswereindeeddiscovered:oneofthem,inPunic,correspondedtooneoftheothertwo,whichwereinEtruscan.ButthePunictextitselfwashardtointerpret.ItconcernedthededicationofatempletoAstartebythekingofCaereinaround500,provingyetagainthecloserelationsbetweentheCarthaginiansandtheEtruscans,andthewillingnessofthelattertoacceptforeigngods,AstartebeinginthiscaseassimilatedtoUni(Juno),oneoftheEtruscandeities.Butasfarasthelanguagewasconcerned,thecomparisonofthesetwoshortinscriptionsproducednodefiniteresults.Forthetimebeing,Etruscanhastobedecipheredonitsownterms,bythejuxtapositionofknownfragments,usingwhatiscalledthe‘combinatory’method–betterdescribedas‘divinatory’accordingto

AlbertGrenier.Nevertheless,thevocabularyofEtruscanisgrowingyearbyyear:clan(son),sec(daughter),puia(woman),ati(mother),lupu,lupuce(hedied),svalce(helived),avil(years).Zi7,meaning‘togovern’,giveszileorzilath(magistrate);purth,thechiefzilathofacity,correspondstotheRomanpraetor;lucumonisthekingofacity…Aboutzoowordshavebeenrecognized,buttheydonotyetexplainagreatdeal.Andevenifthelanguagewerecompletelydeciphered,itisnotcertainthatthehistorianwouldbeanybetteroff.Indeed,theEtruscantextswepossess(almostentirelyfuneraryinscriptions)aretooshort,toodevoidofwhatonemightcallserioushistoricalcontent,forustoabletoarriveatanyreliablereconstructionoftheearlyhistoryofTuscany.TheonlylongtextknownsofarisoneinthemuseumofZagreb;itiswrittenonthetwelvewrappingsofanEgyptianmummyoftheGraeco-RomanperiodfoundinAlexandria.Thereare1500wordsinall.Itseemstobeareligiouscalendar,butsofarithasdefiedinterpretation.Thesameistrueoftwoinscriptionsofover100words,knownasthe‘Capuatile’andthe‘Perugiacippus’.Andinanycase,evenifallthesetextscouldbeinterpreted,wouldtheygiveusmorethanafewvaguecluestoritualsandbeliefs?

TheoriginsoftheEtruscans

WheredidtheEtruscanscomefrom?WhendidtheyarriveinItaly?Thesetwoquestionsoftimeandplaceremainunanswered.Consequently,everyhistorianrisestothechallenge,turningadvocateorevendetective.Itwouldnodoubtbewisertosteerclearofsuchfruitlesscontroversies,butwisdomisnotsuchfun.Therearemoreoverthreeorfourundisputedfacts:i)Thelanguage,religionandsociallifeoftheEtruscansinsistentlyremindoneoftheeast.

z)TheincontrovertibleevidenceofthetombfurnishingsshowsnosignofthebrilliantcivilizationoftheEtruscansbeforetheseventhcenturyBC.3)SincetheGreekssettledasearlyas750inthebayofNaples,itisdifficulttoenvisageEtruscansarrivingafterthemfromthesouth,astheywouldsurelyhavebeenstoppedintheirtracksbytheGreeks.4)TherethusseemtobetwochronologicallimitstothearrivaloftheEtruscans:theearliestasearlyasthetwelfthcentury,thelatestaslateasthesixth.9

Theprobleminpresentingtheconflictingtheoriesisthatthediscussionhasbeengoingonforsolongthatneitherpartyiswillingtodobattleanylonger.Thetwobasictheories–theeasternandtheautochthonous–arethustendingtoconverge,butstillwithoutprovidinganydefinitesolutiontotheessentialmystery.NoonetodaydoubtsseriouslythattheEtruscanswereofeasternorigin,aswasclaimedbyalltheAncientsexceptDiodorusofSicily.In1886,twosixth-centuryfuneraryinscriptionswerefoundatKaminiaontheislandofLemnostothesouthoftheDardanelles;theyarewritteninanon-Greeklanguage(theAtheniansonlyhavingconqueredtheislandin510).AccordingtoRaymondBloch,theyshow‘wordendings,wordformations,andeventerms’foundintheTuscantexts.IfthelanguageisnotEtruscan,itis,asJacquesHeurgonsays,‘atleastthelanguagemostcloselyresemblingEtruscantohavebeenfoundoutsideItaly’–inotherwords,arelatedlanguage.Inaddition,objectsresemblingthoseinthetombsofEtruriahavebeenunearthedinanecropolisoftheeighthorseventhcenturynotfarfromKaminia.Etruscanjewellery,whichisunusuallybeautifulandoriginal,displayscertaindetailscomparabletoLydianjewels.Andfinally,whatweknowofEtruscanreligionsuggeststheeast.ThustheEtruscansinItalywerealwaysconsideredexpertsindivination,includingtheinterpretationofportentsandtheartofreadingthefutureintheentrailsofsacrificialvictims.AbronzemodelofaliverfoundinPiacenzain1877isakindofteachingaid,withsomefortydivisionseachcorrespondingtothedifferentzonesoftheskyandthedeitiesincontrolofthem.Similarmodelsmadeofterracottahavebeendiscovered

inexcavationsinMesopotamiaortheHittiteEmpire.Andthereareotheranalogies,thoughlessconclusiveones,sincetheymightbeexplainedbytheinfluenceoforientalizingartviatheMediterraneanandGreeceintheseventhcentury.Allthisbeingso,whynotsimplygobacktothewell-knowntextofHerodotus(I,94)?Accordingtohim,theEtruscanswereemigrantsfromLydia,whohadbeendrivenoutoftheircountrybypersistentfamineinthethirteenthcentury.ThisgrainshortageinAsiaMinorrecallsthebeginningsofthestormyepisodeofthePeoplesoftheSeaandthedesperatecomplaintsoftheHittitekinginc.izoo.Theseemigrants,goesonHerodotus,‘madetheirwaydowntoSmyrna,wheretheybuiltshipsforthemselves.Theyputonboardalltheequipmenttheymightneedandsailedawayinsearchoflandandlivelihood.Theirjourneytookthempastanumberofpeoples,buteventuallytheyreachedtheOmbricians[peopleofUmbria],wheretheyfoundedsettlementsandstilllivetothisday.’ThistextgivessuchastrangedescriptionofwhatwetaketohavebeenthelamentableadventureofthePeoplesoftheSeathatoneistemptedtocompleteitasfollows:inthecourseofthisinterminableexodus,theEtruscansmightevenhaveattemptedtoentertherichterritoryofEgypt.TheycouldhavebeentheTurshawhomthepharaohclaimedtohavedrivenoutoftheDelta,togetherwithotherinvaders.ItseemsstraightforwardenoughtomovefromthisnametothenamesTyrrhenesorTyrsenesgiventhembytheGreeks,andTusciorEtruscigiventhembytheRomans.Butiftheysetoffsoearly,howandwhendidtheyeventuallyarriveontheshoresoftheTyrrhenianSeatowhichtheygavetheirname?Didtheystopinotherplaces?Nooneknowstheanswer.Thosewhoargueforanearlydatethusfindthemselvesfacedwithasizeableproblem,sincetheEtruscans,havingsupposedlysetoffinthetwelfthcentury,onlyreappearfivecenturieslaterwiththefirstsumptuoustombsdatingfromaround650.Perhapsthestartingdateisimpossible,then?PerhapstheEtruscansleftAsiaMinoraslateastheseventhcentury,asA.Piganiolsuggests,andweredrivenout,notbyfamine,butbytheCimmerians.Thatispossible,butdoesnotaprioriruleoutanearlierexodus.AlthoughCarthagewasfoundedintheeighthcentury,refugeesfromTyrehadbeenarrivingthereovertheprevious

twocenturies.WhatisclearisthattherewasnosuddendisruptionoflifeintheItalianpeninsulaintheseventhcenturywhichmightsignifytheabruptarrivalofanaliencivilizationalreadyattheheightofitspowersandimmediatelycapableofdrainingtheplainsandbuildingthecitiesofTuscany.Inanycase,whateverthedateoftheirmigration,wecanbesurethattheorientaloriginoftheEtruscansconnectedthefirst‘Tuscans’toanancienteasterncivilization,butthatthismingledwithan‘Italic’civilizationwhichwasitselfarchaicincharacter.Itseemstomeimpossiblethattheculturalinfluenceoftheeast,howeverstrongitwasintheseventhcentury,couldhavebeenthesolesourceofthelanguage,religionandcustomswhichcontinuedtomakeEtruriasodistinctiveapresenceinItaly.Thisiswhathaspromptedamodifiedversionoftheso-calledautochthonoustheory.Accordingtothisviewofthings,theEtruscanscametoItalyataveryancientdate,inthesecondmillennium,aspartofaconqueringwaveoforientalcivilization.TheywerethenconqueredintheirturnbytheincomingIndo-European‘urnpeople’ofVillanova.ThusforcenturiesaverydeeplayerofMediterraneancivilizationlaybeneaththesurface,submergedbutnotdestroyed.Attheendoftheeighthcentury,thislayercametothesurfaceagain,kindledintolifebyGreekandPhoenicianinfluenceandbythegenerallevelofprosperity.Isthisnarrativeanyclosertorealitythantheonejustoutlined?Iwouldn’tbankonit.Notthatsuchrevivalsareimpossible,farfromit–andthistheoryhastheadvantageoftakingonboardtheorientaloriginoftheEtruscans,whilesituatingtheiradventurefirmlyonthehomegroundofItaliansoil,theonlyplacewhereitcanbeproperlyexplainedandgivenitstruemeaning.Foriftheycamebyseafromtheeastinveryancienttimes,theEtruscanswouldatbesthavebeenahandfulofpiratesandadventurers(liketheVikingsintheMiddleAges),whoforcedthemselvesontheresidentsasanaristocraticminority.Butheretoothereisasnag.RecentexcavationshavegonedownbeneaththeVillanovanleveltofindanearliercultureknownastheApennine(itseemstohavedevelopedallalongthemountainousaxisoftheItalianpeninsula).Andthisnewworldisvastbutundistinguished,withnosuggestionofthewondersoftheeast.

Intheend,thereisnowayofdecidingonewayortheother.Allwecansafelysayisthatanoldcivilizationoforientalcharactersuddenlyappearsinallitsgloryatthebeginningoftheseventhcentury.ThemetalsofTuscany–copper,tin,iron–alloweditgrowrichquickly.Evenmoreimportantly,itgainednewsplendourfromtheincreasingproximityoftheGreekcities.Etruriaremainedpermanently‘colonized’bythiscivilization,whichitabsorbedwithunflaggingenthusiasm.EventhoseachievementsofEtruscanartwhichonceseemedthemostoriginal(becauseweusedtoknowverylittleaboutGreekpaintingbeyondwhatwasreportedintheliteratureofthetime),thatistosaythetombpaintings,maybecalledintoquestion.ThediscoveryofthepaintedsarcophagusofPaestumknownastheTomboftheDiver,whichseemedtoheraldarichprogrammeofexcavations,10wasthesignalforfiercedisputesaboutwhocamefirst,sincethisGreekpaintingiscontemporarywiththeEtruscanfrescoes.ButifweacceptthattherewasGreekinfluenceinEtruria,thatwillraiseoncemorethequestionoftherelationbetweenGreeceandtheeast.ThefewfragmentsdiscoveredintheeastandanalysedbySmithsuggestedtohimtheexistenceofanorientaltraditionofwall-painting,goingbackalmostuninterruptedlytotheAssyrians.WhatiftomorrowthecitiesontheTigrisorEuphrates,orinCyprus,hadsurpriseslikethatofPaestuminstoreforus?

TheoriginalTuscany

EtruriacorrespondstoTuscanyinthebroadsense,fromtheArnototheTiber,fromtheApenninestotheTyrrhenianSea,whoseverynamerecallstheEtruscans.ThisoriginalTuscanycontainedapartofwhatistodayUmbriaandLazio[Latium].Tothewest,borderingonthesea,itincludedlow-lyingstonyplains,inpartsmarshy,theSieneseMaremmaandthePisanMaremmawiththeirsandywatercoursesandthorn-bushes;totheeast,asoneapproachedthebluelineoftheApennines,

theirsummitspickedoutinsnow,wasalandofhillsandnarrowplains.ThiswastheessentialEtruriafelix,withitsrichharvestsanditsorchards,stilltodaythemostbeautifulrurallandscapeintheworld.PlinytheYoungerlaterbuiltherehischarmingcountryresidenceofTifernumTiberinum.Sometwentytowns,relativelyindependentofoneanother,constitutedthedurablestrengthofEtruria.Accordingtotradition,twelveofthemformedafederation,theLeagueofTwelvePeoples,theprecisemembershipofwhichremainsuncertain.Theoldest,suchasCaereandTarquinia,withtheirnarrowterritories,laytothesouth.Thesefirsttownswerenotfarfromthesea,butnotactuallyonthecoast;theywereconnectedtoharbourssuchasPyrgi,whichservedasanoutletforCaereandevenatonetimeforRome.Allwerebuiltonheights,‘onthecountry’sback’,thusmakingthemeasytodefend(theywerewalledinthesixthandfifthcenturies)andsettingthemabovethemiasmasoftheplain,wheretherewasprobablymalaria.Thegrowthofthetownswasaccompaniedbythedrainingofthesurroundingplainsandtheexploitationofthemineralresourcesoftheregion.IfPopuloniawassituatedonthesea,thiswastheexceptionthatprovedtherule,thereasonbeingthatthecrudeironofElbawasconstantlybeinglandedonthequaysofthissmoke-blackenedindustrialcity.Later,whenEtruriadeclined,itwasdriventodependmoreonitscereal-growingplainsintheeast,anditshillsidescoveredwithvinesandolives,wherethereremainedaprosperousaristocracyofrurallandowners.ThismovementeastwardmeantthatArezzo,withitsagriculturalandindustrialwealth,becamethecentreofgravityofEtruriaatthetimeofScipioAfricanus(its‘lucumons’wereancestorsofMaecenas).Theothertownsstagnated,includingstubbornTarquiniawithitsfieldsofflaxandmanufacturersofsailcloth.

EtruriabeyondTuscany

Etruria,colonizedbymysteriousincomers,spreadbeyonditsoriginallimitsandinturncolonizedthesurroundingregions,bothtothesouthandtothenorth.11

Fromveryearlyon,theEtruscanshadreachedtherichsouthernplainofCampania,wheretheGreekshadarrivedbeforethem.EtruscanCapuaflourishedalongsideGreekCumae.LiketheGreekcities,Capuacouldonlysurvivebydefendingitselfagainstitshighlandneighbours,theOscansandtheSamnites,whoseever-presentthreateventuallytriumphedoverallthecitiesoftheplaininthefifthcentury.Untilthistime,however,assuccessfulexcavationshaveshown,Capuaenjoyedaperiodofgreatprosperity.Builtonthebroadplain,thecity’sgrid-plandevelopment,imitatednodoubtfromtheGreeks,metnoobstaclecomparabletothoseencounteredbytheoldEtruscantowns,hemmedinbymountains,orbyearlyRome,hamperedbyitssevenhills.Capuabeinga‘bridge-head’,itwasnecessarytohaveeffectivecommunicationsbetweenthissoutherntownandthe‘motherland’ofEtruria.ThebestplacetocrosstheTiberwasinRome,oppositetheIsolaTiberina,onthesiteoftheoldSulpiciusbridge.WeknowthatRome,despitethepiousfalsehoodsoftradition,wasdominated,recreatedandreshapedbytheEtruscans;thisstrenuoustutelageleftanindeliblemarkonthecity.Inmanyaspectsoftheirreligion,institutions,games,townplanning,andtheexternaltrappingsofeverydaylife–thelictorsmarchinginfrontoftheconsuls,thecurulechairofthesemagistrates–intheirfoodandintheirmusic,theRomansweretoremainpermanentlymarkedbyEtruria.

Northwards,EtruriawasexpandingacrosstheApennines12asearlyastheeighthcentury,andthisexpansionhadincreasedgreatlybythesixthcentury.Themountainswereaformidableobstacle.ThesplendidautostradafromFlorencetoBolognaallowsustoadmirethebeautiesofthelandscapetodayandforgetabouttheproblemsitposed!Inantiquity,itwaspossibletocrosstherangeonlybywayofthedeepvalleyscuttingintoit;therearemanyofthem,itistrue,butonehastomakethecrossingfromonetoanother,forexamplefromtheTiberortheArnovalleystothevalleyoftheRenowhichrunsdowntoBologna,thePodeltaandtheAdriatic.

TherewasatimewhenspecialiststalkedofanEtruscanEmpireinthePovalley,a‘LeagueofTwelvePeoples’tomatchthatinEtruria.Todaytheyaremorecautious:inMantua,MilanorAtria(Adria)ontheAdige,thereisnoevidenceofanypoliticalcontrol,orofanythingmorethanmereeconomicorculturalexchanges.Howeverthatmaybe,Marzobotto(whereexcavationshaveuncoveredanancientcitywhosenameremainsunknown),Bologna(formerlyFelsina),andSpinaatthemouthoftheReno,wereallstronglymarkedbythepeopleandartsofTuscany.Marzobottowaslaidoutonagridplanandextendedacrossioohectaresonitsinsulae(165metreslongby35,40and68wide),withcanalsandhighpavements.Inthishugespacehowever,thehouses,shopsandworkshopswerenotparticularlyimpressive.Spina,datingfromthefifthcentury,wasakindofVenice,todaysub-mergedunderthewater;onecanstillmakeoutarectilineargrandcanal,withsubsidiarycanals,andaperfectgridplan.ThiswasaGreekaswellasanEtruscantown,whichnodoubtexplainswhyinthefifthcentury,whenlesspotteryfromAtticawasbeingimportedtoEtruria,moreofitwasreachingSpina.ItwasbythisroutetoothatEtruscantradersreachedtheAlps,tomeettheamberandcopperofcentralEurope.

ThedeclineofEtruria

Etruriawasdoubtlessattheheightofitspoweratthetimewhenitsnavy,inassociationwiththatofCarthage,defeatedthePhocaeanfleetoffAlaliainCorsica(540-535).ThiseffectivelydeniedtheGreeksaccesstotheTyrrhenianSea,whichbecamean‘Etruscanlake’.Butthissituationonlylastedhalfacentury.In474HieronofSyracusewonadecisivevictoryovertheEtruscanfleetoffCumae.AlmostimmediatelyCapuawasabandonedtoitsfateandforcedtodoadealwiththeOscans.TheEtruscanpresenceinRomecametoanendsoonafterwards.Traditionallythishappenedeitherin

507,withtherevolutionculminatingintheproclamationoftherepublic,orin504,withtheendofthereoccupationofRomebyPorsenna,kingofClusium(Chiusi).Thesedatesof507and504arequestionable,however.TheRomanrevolutionwassurelysimilartothatofotherEtruscancitieswhichhadalsogotridoftheirkings.ItseemsprobablethatRomerecovereditsfreedomalittlelater,whentheSyracusans,aftertheirgreatvictoryatCumae,weredevastatingtheEtruscancoastsandeventheAdriaticports.Etruriamayhavebeenonadownhillslope,buttheserepeatedblows

didnotdestroyit.Thegradualprocessofitsdisappearancetookmorethantwohundredyears.TheCelts,whohadbeenattackingitsstrongholdsbeyondtheApennines,tookFelsina(Bologna)in360.ThenRome,whichwasfightingallthepeoplesofItaly,engagedEtruriainawarofattritionpunctuatedbydeceptivereconciliations–akindofcivilwar.Veiiwastakenin396,Volsiniiin265,Faleriiin240.Thislastdatecouldperhapsberegardedasthefinalstageinthisverycomplexprocessofannexation.TheEtruscancitiesstillretainedtheirmagistratures,theirclaims,theiraristocracies,theirpeasantpopulationschainedtothesoillikeserfs,theirharshlytreatedminers.ButRomancivilizationandtheLatinlanguageweretakingaholdthatwouldlastforcenturies.WhatRomecreatedwithsomedifficulty–theunityoftheItalian

peninsula,asapreludetotheconquestoftheMarenostrum–couldalsohavebeenachievedbyEtruria.Intermsofpoliticalstrategy,itsmisfortunewastohavetoomanyenemiesatonceandtobeitselfdividedamongtownsalljealousoftheirindependence–theannualassembliesoftheEtruscancities,attheFanumVoltumnaeontheterritoryofVolsinii,werereligiousgatherings,notthemakingsofapoliticalbody.EtruriasufferedfromthesameweaknesswhichcausedthedisastersoftheGreekcities.Likethem,however,itdidsurviveafterafashion:Tuscanyhas

remainedaworldapartinItaly.Isitjustanillusionthattoday,inthestreetsofOryieto,TarquiniaorFlorence,oneseemstorecognizeinthemenorwomenonemeetsthesmilingfacesandstrongfeaturesoftheEtruscantombs?Anart-lovingfriendofmineusedtosayoftheItaliansoftheRenaissance:‘TheyareEtruscans,notTuscans’,anideaborneoutbytheportraitoftheEtruscanwefindinJacquesHeurgon’sdescription

ofMaecenas,adescendantofthe‘lucumons’ofArezzo,‘ministeroftheinteriorfortheemperorAugustus’,protectorofHoraceandVirgil.Hisnonchalanceandsubtlety,hiseasy-goingwayoflife,tastefortheornate,passionformusic,scornforvulgardistinctions,acuteunderstandingofhisfellowmenanddeterminationtoreconcilethem–oneistemptedtoseeallMaecenas’sattractivequalities,leavingasideafewdarkerelements,asalegacyoftheancientcivilizationofTuscanywhichlayburiedbutnotdeadbeneaththegloryofRome!

Ever-presentgods

PerhapsweshouldfeellessfrustratedbytheenigmaoftheEtruscansifweknewmoreaboutthereligioncentraltotheirlivesthanthehintswefindinlatersourcesofdoubtfulreliability.Itwasareligionofthebook,orratherofseveralbooks,butwedonotpossessthesebooks.Wehaveafewextractsfromthem,andsomecommentariesfromRomantimes,butnothingreallytorevealthekindof‘structure’whichwouldorganizeitallintoacoherentworld-system.Withitsoriginsinthearchaiceast,thisEtruscanreligionwasvery

muchalive.Thepantheonwasovercrowded(theforty-foursquaresonthebronzesculptureofaliveratPiacenzaarenotenoughtocontainallthegods)anditwelcomedforeigndeitiesalmostindiscriminately–Italic,GreekandoccasionallyPhoenician.ThepresenceoftheItalicgodswith‘deformedbutrecognizable’Latin

namesraisesanumberofproblems.UnicomesfromJuno,NethunsfromNeptune,MarisfromMars,SatrefromSaturn,butitwasnodoubtMenrva,anEtruscangoddess,whogavehernametotheLatinMinerva.AndastheGreekgodsfloodedin,theirpersonalities,mythologies,andspectacular,complicatedromanticadventuresbecameidentifiedwiththoseoftheEtruscangods.Tinia,thesupremegodofEtruria,whoisshownholdingasceptreandbrandishingathunderbolt,isinevitably

seenasacopyoravatarofZeus.Menrvaisnaturallybornfromtheheadofthekingofthegods.TheEtruscanHermeshashisownEtruscanname–Turms–buthewears‘thechlamys,petasosandcaduceusofHermes’.AsforHerakles,hewassimplytransformedintoagod,thegodofwar,travellersandsea-voyages,aswellastheadmiredconquerorofHades.ThespecificfeaturesoftheEtruscanreligionarehiddenbehindthis

confusingmedleyofGreekandItalicnamesandtheseimageswhichheraldthepantheonoftheRomans(Tinia,UniandMenrvaaretheessentialtrinity,comparabletothatoftheCapitol).OnewouldliketoknowmoreaboutVertumnus,animportantyounggod,whochangedhiscostumewiththeseasonsandaccordingtoRomantraditionabandonedtheEtruscancauseforthatofRome.Butwheredidhecomefrom?Thereisinanycaseonesuresignwhichpointstoanorientalorigin:unlikethoseofGreeceandRome,Etruscanreligionwasarevealedreligion.ItssacredbookstransmittedtherevelationutteredbythenymphVegoiaandbyTages,thechildwithanoldman’swisdom,whoemergedonedayfromaploughman’sfurrowinTarquinia.Butitwasonlylateinthedaythattheorallytransmitteddisciplina

etrusca,astheancientscalledit,wasgivenafixedforminthebookswhichsofascinatedtheRomansofCicero’stime:thelibriharuspicini,ontheartofexaminingtheentrailsofvictims;thelibrifulgurales,ontheinterpretationofthunderandlightning;andthelibrirituales,libriAcheruntici,anEgyptian-typemanualonthevoyageofthedead.Inaword,itofferedacompletesystemofprotectivemagicfordivining(andthusnotcrossing)theredoubtablewillofthegods;forforetellingthefuturebyconsultingtheentrailsofvictims;andforinterpretingportents,particularlylightninginitsvariousforms,dependingonwhereitappearedintheskyandwhetheritstruckonceorrepeatedly,etc.Thesystemgaverisetorulesapplyingequallytothelifeofindividualsandtheexistenceofthestate.Withallthesethingstoworryabout,theEtruscanswere,accordingto

theAncients,themostcowedandreligiousofpeople.ButthatisonlyincomparisonwithRomanorGreekreligion.Perhapsweshouldsimplysaythattheydidnotescapethemagiccirclesoforientalreligionwithitsfearsandformalrituals.Etruscanreligionweighedheavilyonthefaithful,butdoesnotseemtohavesetoutanyethicalsystemorpromise

ofrewards–thoughtherewerepunishmentsenough,asweshallshortlysee.Butwasthisnotequallytrueofmanyorientalreligions?

Canthedeadspeaktous?

TheEtruscancities,withtheirmainlynarrowstreetsandtheirgreatwallsofstoneblockspiledupwithoutmortar,havealmostentirelydisappeared.Butthemanyhundredsoftombshavetheirownstrangestorytotell.Theearliest,datingfromtheVillanovanperiod,weremerepits

containingbi-conical(orhouse-shaped)urnswiththeashesofthedead.Butsoonburialbecamegeneral;firstcamelengthwisegraves,andthen,fromtheseventhcentury,chamberedtombsfortherich,cutintothevolcanicrock.NearthesiteoftheancientcityofCaere,outsidethecitywallsaswascustomary,therearethreenecropolisescoveringatotalareaof350hectares,sothatthecityofthedeadwasbiggerthanthatoftheliving.AndCaerewasnoexception.Manyofthesetombshavebeenrobbedovertimeortheirmaterialsusedforotherthings.Recently,inordertodiscoverthebestplacestoexcavate,archaeologistshavedevisedaningeniousmethodofprospecting:aperiscopeloweredintothetumulusallowsonetoseeinadvancewhetheragiventombcontainsanythingvaluable,orperhapssomewallpaintings.Thisisawiseuseofinadequateresources,butthepaceofworkremainsslow,alas.Fromtheeighthtothefifthcentury,thesetombsareourbestevidence

forEtruriaitselfandforthecomplexmovementsofinternationalart.TheobjectsfoundinthemgiveacondensedpictureoftheMediterraneantradeinartefacts:potteryvasesandamuletsfromEgypt,silvergiltdrinkingvesselsandglasswarefromPhoenicia,countlesspiecesofproto-Corinthian,Corinthian,Ionian,Attic,andLaconianpottery,perfumephialsfrommanysources.AndthegeneraldevelopmentofMediterraneanstyles,fromtheorientalizingperiodto

thatofgradualHellenization,fromthesmilingartofarchaicGreecetothesevereclassicalstyle,fromblack-figurevasestored-figurevases–alltheseperceptiblechangesinfashioncanbetracedintheinnumerableobjectsfoundinEtruria:weapons,mirrors,tripods,bronzechests,so-calledbuccherovasesmadeofblackclaytolooklikemetal,imitationsofGreekpottery,goldsmiths’work,sculpture,andarchitecture,especiallythatofthetemples.ThegreatestperiodofEtruscanart,whenitwasatitsmostpowerfulandmostoriginal,runsfromtheearlydaysintheseventhandsixthcenturiestoabout475.Thiswastheperiodofthefinestjewellery,orientalinstyle,ofthegreatestsculpture,themagnificentterracottastatues(latesixthcentury)whichadornedthetempleofApolloatVeii,andofthemostcharmingfunerarypainting.‘Charming’isindeedthewordthatcomestomind.Avisittothe

housesofthedeadinTarquiniaisajoyfulpilgrimage,asonegoesfromonetothenext,constantlymeetingthecoloursandsunshineofspringtimeinTuscany.TheEtruscansbelievedinafuturelifeinaquitematerialsense.Thedeadpersonwasgoingtoliveinthetombitself,inoneormoreofthesechambersadornedwithbenches,carvedstonefriezes,or,fromthefirsthalfofthesixthcentury,frescopainting.Thewholesettingwasdesignedtosuggestaprivatehouse,toconjureuparoundthedeadpersonthebrightlycolouredworldoftheliving.Letustakeasanexampletheso-calledTomboftheLeopardsin

Tarquinia;itisnotthemostbeautifulorthebiggest,butitisoneofthebestpreserved.Astaircaseleadstoasquareundergroundchamber.Onthewalloppositetheentrance,threecouplesarestretchedoutoncoucheseatingandtalking,withservantsinattendance.Onthesidewalls,servantsandmusicianswalktowardsthetricliniuminasettingoffloweringtree-branches.Abovethediners,onthepediment,thetwoleopardsafterwhichthetombisnamedstandfacetoface.Thecharmoftheensembledoesnotdependontheartisticqualityoftheoriginal.Thedraughtsmanshipisinfactsomewhatcrude,thegesturesclumsyandthehandsrathergraceless,particularlyifonecomparesthemwiththeastonishinglydelicateandconfidentdepictionofdancersinthecontemporaryTomboftheTriclinium,orwiththeextraordinarymovementofahalf-nakedcoupledancingawilddanceintheso-calledTomboftheLionesses,constructedsomefiftyyearsearlier.Evenso,as

onelooksatthecrudelyappliedcolours,violentlycontrastingblues,reds,greens,andblacks,thesuggestionofatheatricalsceneplayedoutbetweenthedinersandaservantbrandishinganemptyjug,theblonde,fair-skinnedwomen,theyoungmenwiththeirdarkhair,thewholethingisfullofjoy,spontaneityandlife.Thereisnothingconventionalaboutthethemes.Theyvaryfromtomb

totomb.Thedeadaresurroundedbywhatgavethempleasureinlife:grandbanquets,whichsuggestfuneralritesnodoubt,butalsotherevelsoftheliving;music,athletics,attentiveservants,wilddancing;afineshipinharbour,anakeddiverplungingfromaredandbluereefintothemidstofamulticolouredflockofbirds,ridersonhorseback,extremelybeautifulanddelicatehorseswiththeslimlegsofracers,andbackgroundsfullofplants,animalsandfish.Allthisisdonewithgreatfreedomofcolourandcomposition.ItwouldbeinterestingtoimaginehowtheEgyptianswouldhavetreatedthethemeofthepaintingsintheEtruscan‘huntingandfishing’tomb:theseaisalivewithfish,afishermanishaulinghisnetintohisboat,overheadfliesacloudofbirdsasahunteraimsatthemwithhissling.ThesamesubjectcouldbefoundinEgypt,butthisisanotherworld,fullofjoyandasenseofhumour,oftheridiculouseven,whichonealsofindsincertainEtruscansculpturesvergingoncaricature.InalltheancienttombsofEtruria,thedescenttotheunderworldisahymntolife,howevermuchtheEtruscansmayhavefearedthegodswhomtheysawastormentingthem.Everythingchangedmysteriouslyinthefourthcentury,ormaybeeven

alittleearlier.Thestylesuddenlybecamedignified,sometimespompous,borrowingthemesfromGreekclassicalmythology,thoughsometimeswithlovelydetailssuchasthefamousportraitofVeliaintheTomboftheOgre.Atthesametime,thecharmingscenesfromdailylifedisappeared,tobereplacedbydemonswhoarenotthemostcheerfulfiguresintheEtruscanpantheon.ThereisTuchulcha,forinstance,withthebeakofabirdofprey,longears,andtwomenacingsnakesrearingupoverhishead;orCharun(whoisGreekinnameonly),anevenmoresinisterfigurewithahorriblebluishfaceandrottingskin,ahookednose,horse’sears,andamalletwhichhewieldswithmonstrousjoytobatterthemortalwhoselasthourhascome.ThesemalevolentbeingsbelongedtotheancientstockofEtruscanpopular

beliefs,butthiswasthefirsttimetheyhadappearedonthewallsoftombs.Theytormentedthedeadpersonduringthefrighteningtransitfromlifetodeath,averyunpleasantstagebeforehisfinalarrivalatthepeaceandperpetualdelightsoftheunderworld–anunderworldrepresentedhereforthefirsttimeintheGreekmanner,withHadesandPersephonepresidingoverthebanquetsoftheafterlife.Thesesombreimagesbecamemorefrequentinthefourthcentury,as

theEtruscanslosttheirmaterialwell-being,andnightfelloverTuscany.

IllColonizationbytheGreeks

GreekexpansionpresentsthesameproblemsandambiguitiesasPhoeniciancolonizationorthehistoryoftheEtruscans.Ourknowledgehereisgreater,butastothechronologyandmotivationoftheGreekcolonizerstherearemanymoregreyareasthanaboutthefoundingofCarthage,andourquestionsoftenremainunanswered.Anexcessofinformationmeansanexcessofdifferentopinions,andtheearlyhistoryofGreeceisalltoorichinboth.Notlongagothishistoryseemedrelativelysimple.Citiesinfairly

closeproximitytooneanothercreatedanetworkoftownsfromtheCrimeatoSpain,alllinkedtotheirmothercities.Barringafewexceptions,eachnewfoundationwastheresultofadeliberatevoyage,generallyundertakenontheadviceoftheDelphicoracle.Theexpeditionwasledbyafounder,theoikistes,actingontheordersofthehomecity;withtheprotectionofthegodshechosethesite,supervisedtheworkofthesurveyorsandthedistributionoflandandadaptedtheconstitutionofthehomelandtofitthenewcity.Thenhebecametheruler,oftentheabsoluteruler,andleftbehindhimthememoryofahero;allofthistookplaceinafar-offagewhenkingsanddemi-godsstilllivedamidstacolourfuldecorofmythandlegend.Andalways,theemigrantstookwiththemfirekindledatthehearthofthemotherland.

Theproperunfoldingofthisscenarioalsocallsforanothersetofcharacters:thenativesmightopposetheinvaderinhonourablecombat,orbewiseenoughtosubmit,orbecomesodazzledthattheyofferedtheirking’sdaughtertothefounder.Protis,oneofthefoundersofMassalia(Marseille)inabout600,marriedGyptis,daughterofthekingoftheSegobriges.TheSpartanPhalanthosfoundedTarentumagainstthebarbariantribeoftheIapyges(hadnottheDelphicoraclecounselledhimtobethe‘scourgeoftheIapyges’?).SettingofffromtheislandofThera,andguidedbyLibyannomads,BattosfoundedCyrenein631,ontheharshNorthAfricancoast,butonaspotwhere,wonderofwonders,therewasadequaterainfall,or‘holesinthesky’.Thenativesalsoprovidescopefortheoccasionalspotofmockery:thustheCarians,inthehinterlandofMiletus,arecalled‘barbarians’becauseoftheirwayofmanglingtheGreeklanguage–whichdoesatleastprovethattheyspokeit.Ofcoursetherearealso‘noblebarbarians’astherewouldlaterbe‘noblesavages’,forinstanceonthenorthshoresoftheBlackSeawhere‘theCimmerians,ScythiansandSarmatiansaregenerallymorewelcomingtothelonianswiththeirfinewinesandbeautifulvases’.Therearehundredsofsuchstories,eachbetterthanthelast,inthe

writingsofHerodotus,Pausaniasandafewothers.Itwouldbeunwisetotakethematfacevalue.True,thetraditionalchronologyhasoftenprovedcorrect,butsincearchaeologyhascomeontothescene,itsfindings,andparticularlytheshardsofpottery,havegiventhelietocertainfoundationdates.Andsincethesedatesareallinterconnected,everychangeaffectsthewholechain,sothatnoonecananylongerbesureaboutthechronology.Ofcoursethelanguageofarchaeologyneedsinitsturntobeinterpreted.Letusimaginearchaeologists,oneortwomillenniahence,patientlyreconstitutingthelostpastofFrench-colonizedAlgeriawithoutanywrittendocumentstohelpthem:thecaptureofAlgierswouldbeasobscureasthatofKnossosbytheMycenaeansorthefoundationofTarentumbytheDorians.ForancientGreece,whatwasatstakewastheinitialemergenceof

civilizationasitfreeditselffromthemagmaofits‘MiddleAges’.AstheGreekssawit,everythingdependedonthismomentofliberation.

Theobscuredaysofpre-colonization

HistoryhastendedtodistinguishbetweentwoperiodsofGreekcolonization,thefirst,from775to675,beingagricultural,thesecond,from675to600,essentiallycommercial.Butthisisrathertooneatanaccount.Inthefirstplace,theGreekadventuredidnotbeginpromptlyin776or775,theyearofthefirstOlympiad,andtherewasnosharpboundarybetweenagriculturalandcommercialcolonization.AllthemorereasonfortryingtoseewhathappenedintheobscureperiodbeforethefirstOlympiad.Suchaquestisboundtoleadus,byuncertainrouteswhichmaybelongorveryshort,totheoriginsofthemovementswhichimpelledtheGreekstoleavetheirvarioushomelands.InItaly(inthebroadsenseoftheword),thereisampleproofofa

Mycenaeanpresence.Butasfarasweknowatpresent,thistooktheformofcolonizationonlyinthecityofTarentumanditshinterland.InthisprivilegedspottherewasevenakindofcontinuitybetweenMycenaeandtheGreekcolonialpresence.13ItalywasthusnotcompletelyterraincognitatotheGreeksintheeighthcentury.Inthefarwest,longbeforethefoundationofMarseille(600),shipsfromRhodeshadsailedasfarasthecoastsofGaulandSpain.ThiswasapparentlytheoriginofRhode(Rosas),Agathe(Agde)andRhodanousiaatthemouthoftheRhone.14Butweknowlittleaboutthesesettlements.Thereisasimilarproblem,thoughmuchmorecomplex,forthe

AegeancoastofAsiaMinor.TherearetracesofMycenaeanmerchantsandtradingpostsallalongthiscoastline.GreekwasnodoubtspokeninRhodes,Cosandthenearbyislands,aswellasinCiliciaandCaria;aMycenaeansettlementexistedatMiletusattheendofthebronzeage.Here,though,aselsewhere,everythingcloudsoverinthetwelfthcentury.Subsequently,GreekrefugeesreachedtheeasternshoresoftheAegean.Townsgrewup,thoughonlysmallones:Smyrnaaroundtheyear1000,Miletusprobablyalittleearlier.TheoriginalSmyrnawassurroundedbyawallwhichaccordingtooneexpertwas‘massiveandwellbuilt’,evidencethatthecitywasunderthreatfromwithout;insidethewall,however,therewereonlyveryprimitive‘curvilinear’houses.It

wasonlytowardsthemiddleoftheseventhcenturythateverythingchanged,andveryquickly,atleastinthe‘twelvecities’ofIonia,thelargestofwhich,PhocaeaandMiletus,weretoplayadecisivepartincolonizationbothneartohomeandfarafield.Inthespaceofafewdecades,theybecamethemostbrilliantcitiesoftheGreekworld.However,theirmodestbeginningsimplytheexistenceofsomeactivity

intheintermediateareaoftheAegeananditsislands,allofwhichwereinthehandsoftheGreeks,fromCreteinthesouthtotheSporadesinthenorth.AndtheysoonsettledonthestilluncultivatednorthcoastoftheAegean,fromtheThermaicgulftotheHellespont.EarlyGreekculturethuspermeatedthewholeoftheAegean,notparticularlystrongly,butremainingunchallenged.The‘geometric’styleofthenewcivilizationemergingonthepeninsulahasleftitsmarkinmanyplacesontheislandsandthecoastsofAsiaMinor.ThesanctuaryofApolloonDelosattheheartoftheCyclades,whichlatershoneoutlikeabeaconoverthesurroundingsea,wasalreadyinexistencebytheeighthcentury.

GreeceandtheLevant

AsiaticGreecewasthusnotreallyacolonialterritory,sinceitwasasold,ornearlyasold,asGreeceproper,whichwascomingbacktolifeaftertheDorianinvasion.Itscitieswerenot‘founded’bymothercitiesontheothersideoftheAegean,butgrewupindependently,inparallelwiththecitiesoftheGreekpeninsulaandtheislands.ThereweresimilarlymixedpopulationsoneithersideoftheAegean,withgroupsofDorians,lonians,AeoliansandafewAchaeans.OnlygraduallydidthepartofAsiaMinorwhichkeptthenameofIonia(Ioniaofthetwelvecities)cometodivergeinitscivilization,itswayoflifeanditsartfrompeninsularGreece.Anditwaslaterstillthatthe‘Ionic’orderwasdistinguishedfromtheDoricorderwhichcameintoexistenceontheothersideoftheAegean.

InfactAsiaticGreecebecameprosperousinthecourseoftimeonlybecauseofitslinkswiththerestofAsia.Theselinkswereslowtoappear,andwhentheybegantospreadsouthwardsinthedirectionofSyria,itwasnotsomuchtheGreeksofAsiaMinorastheloniansofEuboeaandtheislandsoftheAegeanwhowereresponsibleforthenewsettlements,notablyatAl-Mina.Ioniaitselfprobablytooknopartinthisnewtradeandtheorientalizationofartandthoughtthatresultedfromit.Curiously,itwasatCorinth,inabout725BC,thatthisfirstbecameapparentinproto-Corinthianpottery.AsiaticGreece,ontheotherhand,freeditselffromthegeometricstyleonlytowardsthemiddleoftheseventhcenturyBC.Fromthispointofview,ifthehistorianweregrantedjustoneareafor

whichhewouldbegiventhecompletepicture,hewouldperhapsdowelltochoosethesouthcoastofAsiaMinorasfarastheSyrianfrontier:itwouldincludeRhodesandCyprus,formerbastionsoftheprosperityofMycenae,nowitslastrefuges;Tarsos,whichhadlinkswithRhodesandtheCycladesasearlyastheninthcentury;andinparticularAl-Mina,atradingpostatthemouthoftheOrontes,whereneo-HittiteSyriareachedthesea.Thiscitywasdiscoveredbythearchaeologistsin1935,andwestilldonotknowitsprecisefoundationdate–perhapsthebeginningoftheeighthcentury.Itwastobeacruciallyimportantcolony,representingasitdidthefirstopeningupofGreecetoSyria,Palestine,theneo-HittiteandAramaeanstates,Assyria,UrardhuandallthecaravanroutesofthecontinentalMiddleEast.ThecitywasmoreoverlargelypopulatedbyPhoenicians.ItisnotthereforesurprisingthatitisincreasinglyseenasthecitywhereGreecemettheeast;itwasherethattheGreeksbecameacquaintedwiththePhoenicianalphabet,heretoothattheorientalizingphaseofGreekartoriginated,thefirstchallengetothegeometricstyle.Moreimportantly,Al-Minasetanexampleforotherstofollow.The

Mediterraneanwithitsendlessshoreswasborderedbycountrieswhichmightberespectivelybackward,developed,orover-developedfortheirtime;somestoodhighonthescaleofcivilization,someverylow.Buttradecouldonlybereallyprofitableiftherewasavigorousandspontaneouselectriccurrentpassingbetweenhigh-voltageandlow-voltagepoints.Al-Minawasclearlyahighpoint,acommercialpinnacle,

situatedasitwasonthelinelinkingthestill-backwardGreecewithcountriesofancientcivilizationwhichhadnotlosttheirsuperiority,thoughtheyhadlostsomeoftheirwealth.AsimilarhighpointlateronwasNaucratis,aShanghaiavantlalettreontheNileDelta,whichPsammetichusIcededtoGreekmerchants,inparticularIonians.Itwasfoundedbefore600,probablyaround63o.ItwasthenthatthenetworkofGreekcities,bothancientandmodern,really‘wentlive’.

Landortrade?

Landwasofcoursethebasisofeverything.Atthetimewhenitspeoplebegantospreadfarandwide,Greecewasaratherpooragriculturalcountrywithanarchaiceconomicsystem.Therewaslittlearableland,andevenlessofanyrealquality.Assoonasthepopulationgrew,theneedforinternalcolonizationappeared,buttherewaslittlescopeforexpansion.Thepick-axesofthepioneershadtocopewithstonygroundandknottytreeroots;itwashardtomakemuchofalivingoutofthismarginalland.Tryastheymight,ploughingthesamelandseveraltimesover,breakinguptheclodswiththeirprimitivehoes,theycouldnotcoaxthesoilofGreeceintofeedingthemadequately.Inaddition,theclearingofthelanddestabilizedthesoil,sothatastormwasenoughtowashitdowntothebottomofthehill.ThewholeofGreecesuffered,asitstillsuffers,fromthisendemicmalady.Thedifficultycaneasilyberestatedinsocialterms.Excessivenumbers

ofpoorpeasantscompetingforameagrelivingmadethemeasypreyforafewbiglandowners,turningthemintohectemoroi–tenantfarmerswhohadprobablytohandoverfive-sixthsoftheircropeveryyear–drivingthemintodebt,andeventuallymakingthewholeterritory‘slaveland’.Eighth-centuryGreecewasalreadyfullofpeasantsontherun;Homer’sworldiscrowdedwithvagabonds.Hesiod,inWorksandDays,tellsoftheendlesstoilofthepeasant,chainedtohissmallpatchofland,worn

downbybitterquarrelswithhisneighbours,hisfamily,andthe‘kings’,i.e.themastersinthetowns.HecouldbesavedonlybythejusticeofZeus–orbyrunningaway.Otherwisehehadtoresignhimselftobeingthe‘nightingaleinthetalonsofthesparrowhawk’.Legislatorsmightattempttoimprovethings;suchwastheachievementofSolon.Buttheprocesswouldbeginagainsoonerorlater,underoneformoranother.Itisobviousthatthissituationmightgiverisetocolonialexpansion.It

gaverisetomuchelsebesides:theswollencities,thehordesofcraftsmen,andthewretchedfateofthemercenaries,similartothatoftheSwissguardsandGermanmercenariesoftheRenaissance.GreeksoldiersweresellingthemselvesinEgyptinthesixthcenturyandtheywerestilldoingsointhePersianEmpireinthefifthcentury.ButflightcouldalsotaketheformofaPhoenician-styleadventure,

andthereiseveryreasontosupposethatitdid.Inthosedaysofrudimentarysailingskills,thepeasantcouldeasilybecomeasailor,andmightwellpossessaboat.Inwinter,when‘theblastsofeverywindrage’,HesiodadviseshisbrotherPerses,apeasantlikehim:‘donotkeepshipsonthewine-facedsea,butworktheearthassiduously,asItellyou.Pulltheshipontolandandpackitwithstonesallround…takingouttheplugsothatheaven’srainsdonotcauserot.Layawayallthetackleunderlockinyourownhouse,tidilystowingthewingsoftheseagoingvessel;hangthewell-craftedsteering-oarupinthesmoke;andwaittillthetimeforsailingcomes.’Everythingthusconspiredwiththeprocessofpauperizationtodrive

mentodistantshores.IfBoeotia,AtticaandSparta(exceptatTarenturn)didnotplayamajorpartinthefirstwaveofGreekcolonization,itwasperhapsbecausetheyhadnotyetexhaustedthepossibilitiesofinternalcolonization,becausetheystillhadvirginlandstoclearandcouldliveonthegraintheyproduced,orinthecaseofSpartaongrainfromnearbyMessenia,whichtheyhadsubduedafterahardstruggle.IfthecitiesofAsiaMinororMegarasetaboutexploitingtheBlackSeaandestablishingtradingpoststhereinthesixthcentury,itwasinordertogetholdofthegrainofthesparselypopulatedlandsofsouthernScythia.IntheMiddleAges,Genoaappliedthesamereasoningandcameinsearchoffoodtothesameregion.Thisgrainallhadtobepaidfor,generallywithwineandoil–luxury

agriculturalproducts–orwithmanufacturedgoods.Butsuchexchangesofgrain,potteryvasesormetals,oncetheyattainedacertainvolume,couldnottakeplacewithoutprofessionalmerchants.Almostfromtheveryfirstwaveofemigrationthen,onemustsupposetheexistenceofmerchants,commercialcalculations,andevencolonizationmotivatedbycommercialimperatives.WouldtheGreeksofChalcishavebeenimpelledin770BCtosettleontheislandofIschiainthebayofNaplesbypurelyagriculturalconsiderations?Suchameagrerewardwouldhardlyhavejustifiedsuchalongvoyage.Itis,infact,nocoincidencethatthisfirstobservationpost(emporion)setupbytheGreeksbeyondtheStraitsofMessinaintheeighthcenturywasavantagepointontheEtruscansea,withinrangeofEtruscanmetal.MetalwasaconstantconcernoftheChalcidians.SimilarlythegoldofLydiaorEgypt,thesilverofSpainandcopperingotshadaparttoplayinthecalculationsofthefirstcolonizers,whethertheGreeksoranyoneelse.

Theoverallpicture

CanweseeGreekexpansionfromtheeighthcenturytothesixthasasinglestory?Nodoubtthecitiesscatteredalongtheendlesssea-coastsdidnotformasinglecloseduniverse.Theslowspeedofcommunicationsandthestrengthofcertainlocalnetworksmightpartiallyrelegatethisorthatcitytothemarginsofthemainstreamcircuits.Evenso,thesecircuitsexisted,andtheyaretheessentialelementinthe‘structure’wearetryingtoreconstruct.Thereadercannotethemajordeparturepointsonthemapin

AppendixII.Chalcis,Eretria,MegaraandCorinth(leavingasideforthemomentMiletusandPhocaea)werethefirstcentresofactivityinancientGreece.ThecentralaxisofactivityinthecountryranfromtheEuripuschannel,whereChalcisissituated,totheSaronicGulfandtheisthmusofCorinth,aslimbarrierwhichfromtheseventhcenturywas

crossedbyadiolkos,atrackwithman-madegrooves(concaverails)andwoodenrollerswhichallowedshipstobehauledacrossfromtheSaronictotheCorinthianGulf.Withitstwoports,LechaeumandCenchreae,Corinthwastheendpointofthisaxistowardsthewest.AthensandAtticawerenotcloselyconcernedinthisgradualcolonizationprocesscarriedoutbysmallgroupsofexplorers.Ifoneconsiderstheresults,onecanquiteeasilydistinguishbetween

threezonesorratherthreetypesofventure:i)Thosewhichwereveryeasy(thoughinthefullnessoftimeneither

unimportantnorunproductive)–acquiringlandsdesertedoronlysparselyinhabitedandpoorlydefended.2)Theessentialones–thecoloniesestablishedinsouthernItaly

(MagnaGraecia)andSicily.3)Theriskyall-or-nothingexpeditionsfartothewest.Themost

importantofthesewastheremarkablecreationofMarseilleinabout600.

CyrenaicaandtheBlackSea

Virtuallyuninhabitedcoasts,easytocaptureandsometimesevenhospitable,includedCyrenaica(whichwasonlysettledinonesmallarea);thenorthernAegean;andtheBlackSeabeyondtheHellespont,whichwascontrolledbyMiletusfromAbydos.OneithersideoftheBosphorustwoMegarianwatchposts,ByzantiumandChalcedon,facedoneanother,butafter650MiletuswasalmosttheonlycitytoestablishtradingpostsallaroundtheBlackSea,whosestormywaterswere‘alwaysenvelopedinfogsandmists’.(TocalltheseaPontusEuxinusor‘thehospitablesea’wasaeuphemism.)TheretheMilesiansfoundpreciousgoods,wood,saltfish,horses,slavesandgrain.WhenMiletuswentintodecline,Athenstookitsplaceonthisprofitablesea.

ItalyandSicily

InthecentralpartoftheMediterranean,mattersweremoreserious.ThefailureoftheGreekstomaketheInlandSeatheirownlakewastheresultofwhathappenedinthisarea.Attheoutset,theseafavouredtheirventurestowardsItalyandSicily.

ThereisacoastalcurrentrunningnorthwardsalongtheBalkanshoreline.LeavingthiscurrentbehindintheregionofCorfu,andifonewaspreparedtomakeadirectcrossing,itwaspossibletosailinadaytotheItaliancoast,theretopickupanothercurrentflowingsouthward.Avirtualsalt-waterriver,drivingalongthecoast,itcarriedshipstotheGulfofTarantoandpasttheshoresofCalabria.FromthereitwasnodistancetotheSiciliancoastacrosstheStraitsofMessina,whichwerenotaninsuperableobstacle.TheGreekswerethereforeabletosettlealmosteverywherealonga

coastalstripfromtheGulfofTarantototheshoresofSicily.ItisworthremarkingthattheywerelesstemptedbythemorenortherlypartsoftheAdriaticcoast.CorinthoccupiedCorfu(Corcyra),itistrue,conqueringthisstrategicpositionfromtheEretrians;italsoseizedApolloniaandEpidamnus(Durazzo),twoportsshelteredfromtheseverewinterweatherbythemountainouscoastofEpirus.Buttherewasnoattempt(exceptbythePhocaeans,towhomweshallreturn)toreachthenorthernpartoftheAdriatic,withitsmanycoastalislandstotheeastanditsflatplainsandriverstothewest.ThepiecemealandapparentlyhaphazardeffortsoftheGreekcitieswereaboveallaimedatfindingaroutetothewest.Thisdidnot,however,preventthecolonizersfromstoppingattimes,whenitwaspossibletocometoanagreement,whetherbypeacefulmeansorbyforce,withthelocalpopulations,Iapyges,Oscans,SicelsorSicans.Thedrivewestwardwithlittleregardfortheinterveningplacesis

clearlydemonstratedbythechronologyprovidedbybotharchaeologyandtradition.ThefirstGreekcolonieswerenotinTarentumorMetapontum,SybarisorSyracuse,butbeyondalinerunningfromTarentumtoSyracuseandontheothersideoftheStraitsofMessina,at

Pithecusae(Ischia)inabout770.TheChalcidiansandotherpeoplesofEuboeahadthusimmediatelyembarkedonaracetothemostdistantplaces.SubsequentlythisforwardpositionwasreinforcedlocallybytheoccupationoftheislandsofCapreae(Capri),PandateriaandPontia,andbythefoundinginabout740ofthekeycityofCumae(atadatemuchlaterthanthetraditionalversion,1052).Inthewakeofthesefirstsettlements,hastilyestablishedasfarwestaspossible,cameothertowns,Naxos(734),Zancle(730),whichwithRhegium(c.720)commandedtheStraitsofMessina,Syracuse(733),foundedbyCorinth,andTarentum(706).ThepatternisverylikethatofthePhoenicians,whosefirstobjectivewasfar-offSpain.Atfirstthingsseemtohavegonequitesmoothlyinareasthatwere

eitherunoccupiedoratleastnotdefendedbycompetitorsofanyconsequence.SuchrivalsonlyarrivedlaterontochallengetheGreeksforpossessionofkeysites.Inthesixthcentury,theEtruscanswereconsolidatingtheirpositionsinCampania:theGreekswentnofurtherthanthis,andforalongtimehadaccesstothewideTyrrhenianSeaonlywhentheirrivalsallowedit.TherewasadivisionofspoilswiththeCarthaginians,whokeptfirmcontroloverwesternSicilytothewestofalinebetweenPanormusandMotya(beingsoclose,itwasunthinkableforCarthagetogiveupthis‘bridgehead’).Broadlyspeaking,theGreeksandtheCarthaginianssharedoccupationoftheislandfrom750to650,theformerontheeast,thelatteronthewest.ButtheGreeks’greattriumphwastohavebeenthefirsttoseizethehazardousStraitsofMessina.Itwasnotatotalvictory,however,sincetheEtruscansdominatedtheTyrrhenianSeaandtheCarthaginians,byclingingontothenarrow,ruggedregionofwesternSicily,keptpossessionofanessentiallinkintherouteleading‘bywayoftheislands’toSpain.Inaword,theGreekshaddesignsonthewestwardroutegivingaccesstometals,butwereunablereallytosecureit.ThisdidnotpreventthecolonialGreekcitiesfromflourishing,no

doubtbecauseoftheirextensiveandfertilehinterlands.Varroassertsthatthegrainyieldherewasahundredtoone.Wemayremainsceptical,butcertainlythethreefoldtriumphofwheat,oil,andwine,inwhichDiodorussawthecauseoftherapidgrowthoftheSybariteeconomy,explainsthesplendourofthesecolonialcities.

Theirwealthcamealsofromtradeandindustry,butprincipallytrade,sincethesecitiesofthecentralMediterraneanwereaboveallplacesofexchange.IfHimeraandSelinusmintedthefirstGreekcoinsinSicily(Himerainabout570-560)thiswasbecausetheywerethefirstcitiestocomeintocontactwithSpanishsilver,eitherviaMarseille(foundedbythePhocaeansin600)orperhapsevenviatradewithCarthagewhichwasamajorproviderofsilver.Atthisearlystageintheirhistory,mostwesternGreekcitieswerestillcloselylinkedtotheirmothercities,whichhousedartisans,carriersandmerchants.Theproductsoftheindustryofthemothercitieswereakindofcurrencywhichcouldbeinvestedinthewest.Thusitseemsprobablethatthefine,multicolouredfabricsofMiletusreachedEtruriabywayofthelandroutesovertheisthmus,fromtheGulfofTarantototheTyrrhenianSea.SybarisowedpartofitswealthtothefactthatitdirectedthismuletraffictowardsitscolonyinLaos,ontheTyrrhenianSea.Theroad,whichwasquiteadifficultonethoughitwentnohigherthanathousandmetres,couldonlybeusedforlight-weightpreciousgoodssuchaswovencloth.Asfortheheavytrafficinpottery,whichwascarriedintheholdsofships,archaeologistscannowgiveusmoredefiniteinformationandevensuggeststatistics.Therewasacontinuousmovementoftrade,carryingpotsoverenormousdistancesforhouseholdorfestiveuse:vases,amphorae,craters,drinkingvessels,rhytons,hydriae,aryballoiandevenordinarykitchenware.Andgiventhattherearemanydifferenttypesofpottery,varyingaccordingtoperiodandplaceoforigin,andthatwesometimesknowthetrademarksoftheworkshopsandthepainterswhodecoratedthem,thepiecesandfragmentsunearthedinexcavationsarevaluableevidencefordates.Inaddition,theirimmensevarietycantellussomethingaboutthetraderoutesandindeedthewaythistradealteredovertime.IfwelookatGeorgesVallet’s1958studyofZancleandRhegium,wecanmakesomegeneralpoints.Betweenabout625and570,therewasanincreasingflowofCorinthianpottery,butfrom570to525itwastheblack-varnishedpotteryofIonia(particularlyPhocaeaandMiletus)whichdominatedthescene,tobeoustedinitsturn,fromabout550,byproductsfromAttica.Sowehavethreeages:theCorinthian,theIonian,

theAttic.Thefirstoftheselaunchedanewkindofcommerceofacolonialtype,likethatofearlymodernEurope.The‘crockery’exportedtothewestbyCorinthwastheresultofmassproductionandintendedtobeexchangedforgrainwhichwasthentradedthroughoutcentralGreecebythemanufacturingcity.ThistypicallycolonialtradewasdesignedsimplytoservetheinterestsofCorinth,whichenjoyedtheadvantageofitsgeographicalpositionatthecrossroadsoftheroutesthroughtheisthmus.OnceIoniaandAtticajoinedin(thelatterbeforethedisastersof494andthePersianconquestofIonia),thiscolonialtradegavewaydefinitivelytoaninternationalformofcommerce.Ifhistorianshavedescribedtheseexchangesintermsof‘accumulation’,itisinordertosuggestthatthiseconomictake-offintheancientworldmayalreadyhaveinvolvedatypeofmerchant‘capitalism’,withallthetensionsthatimplies.In1911,thebiggestarchaictreasureeverfoundinthewestcametolightinTarentum:over600coinstogetherwith‘sixkilogramsofunmintedsilverintheformofcastorhammeredplates,andcrude,worncoinagecutupbeyondrecognition,inrodsandbars,andafewfragmentsofsilvervasesandutensils’.Itallseemstohavebeenburiedaround480,theyearofHimeraandSalamis.Itbearseloquentwitnessto‘accumulation’,tooeloquentperhaps–todayitissuspectedthatthearchaeologistsof1911mayhaveaddedafewcoinsfromelsewheretothecollection.15

MarseilleandtheFarWest

ItwasintheareabeyondSicilyandsouthernItalythatGreekcolonizationlauncheditsriskiestventures,startinginthelateseventhcenturyandcarryingonintothefirsthalfofthesixthcenturyBC.Thereisnoneedheretopursuethediscussionofancientsources,sinceMichelClerchasalreadydonesoinhisclassicstudyofMarseille

fromitsoriginsuntilthefifthcenturyad.Hisconclusionswerenotinvalidatedbythe1967excavationsinthearearoundtheBourse,althoughthesedidyieldalotofinformationabouttheportofLacydon(largerthanthepresent-dayVieux-Port),aboutthestonejettiesatwhichthevesselstiedup,thereservoirfromwhichtheydrewfreshwater,andthefortificationsoftheancientcity.16

Thefoundinginabout600ofMassalia(MassiliawastheLatinname),wherethetraderoutesupanddowntheRhonemetthesea-passagetothewest,isasignofthePhocaeans’greatboldness.Theircity,thelargestinIoniaapartfromMiletus,grewrapidlyattheendoftheseventhcenturyandafter,untilitwastakenbythePersiansin549.ButallthecrucialoreasilyaccessiblepointsonthegreatmapofthewesternMediterraneanwerealreadytaken.Asthelastcomersinthewest,thePhocaeanshadtotravelfurtherthanthefoundersoftheChalcidianorCorinthiancities,beyondCorcyraandEpidamnus,ZancleandRhegium,beyondCumaeeven.Theyhadonetrumpcard:thespeedoftheirships.BeinggoodsailorslikealltheIonians,theyhad–accordingtoHerodotus–inventedanewwayofcarryinggoods,notinroundshipspoweredbysail,butinlongpentecontorswithfiftyoarsmen,whichtheGreeksandotherMediterraneanpeoplesnormallyusedonlyforwarfare.Wemightseeananalogyherewiththegalerademercatoinfifteenth-centuryVenice,ashipequippedwithbothsailsandoars.Inanycase,theslim,fastPhocaeancargoshipswereunusuallycapableofdefendingthemselves.Wecanpicturethembeingusedforpiracyaswellastrade.ThusthePhocaeansfirstreachedthenorthoftheAdriaticandthecityofAdria.Itwouldthereforehavebeenpossibleforthemtomakeuseofthe‘Germanisthmus’,whichlayclosetohand.Iftheychosenotto,itwasnotbecausetheypreferredtheFrenchisthmusandtheRhoneroutewhichtheGreekmerchantswerequicktodiscover,butbecausetheywantedtosailwesttowardstheAtlantic.Everythingsuggests,indeed,thatMassaliawasnottherealobjectiveofthePhocaeansandtheGreeksofAsia,theSamiansandRhodians.ToquoteHerodotusliterally(1.163),thePhocaeans‘openeduptheAdriatic,Tyrrhenia[i.e.,Etruria],IberiaandTartessus’.NotawordaboutMarseille.Onceagain,therefore,itwasthesilverandcopperofSpainwhichtookpriority,togetherwiththetinwhichwasalreadybeingshippedalongtheAtlanticcoasttoAndalusia.

WemightconcludethereforethatMainakeandHemeroscopionwerefoundedbeforeMassalia.Unfortunately,weknownothingabouttheformerandthelatterisregardedasrelativelyrecentbythearchaeologists.Marseillemusthavegraduallyputdownrootsandgaineditsautonomy.ThiscanonlyhavebeenconsolidatedbythefallofPhocaea,whichwastakenbythePersiansin549andabandonedbymostofitspopulation.Adifficultperiodfollowed,sincetherefugeesfromPhocaeaweredeniedaccesstoAlaliabytheCarthaginianandEtruscannavies,whilesouthernSpainwassystematicallyandthoroughlycontrolledbyCarthage.17Evenso,thePhocaeanshadcertainlyattemptedtofighttheirwaytothesilverofSpain.

Unequalsystems

Inabout700BC,thegeneralrenewalofactivityhadfavouredcolonizationandeconomicexchanges,totheadvantageequallyofthePhoenicians,theCarthaginians,theEtruscansandtheGreeks.Adegreeofprosperityopenedupnewpossibilities.Inabout600,eventsandexchangesseemtogatherpace.InaMediterraneanworldthatwasbynowthoroughlyexploredanddividedup,theGreeksystemhadreacheditszenithwiththefinalventuresfromMiletusintotheBlackSeaandfromPhocaeatothewesternMediterranean.Itwasinabout630thattheEgyptianpharaohcededthecityofNaucratistoGreekmerchants,andinabout600thatthePhocaeansfoundedMarseilleatthemostdistantpointoftheirexpeditionstothewest.Naucratis,aswehaveseen,wasasortofShanghai,aconcessionenjoyedbytheAsiaticGreeks.TheMilesiansweretherealongsidetheAeginetansandlargenumbersofGreeksfromChios,Rhodes,

Tinos,Phocaea,Clazomenae,HalicarnassusandMytilene.PerhapstheGreekscametounderstandtherethattheMediterraneanbelongedtowhoevercouldembraceitfromendtoend,linkingupthehighpointandthelowpointofcommerce,NaucratisandMarseilleinthiscase.Thosewhocontrolledthetwoextremitiesdominatedtheentiresystem,andAsiaticGreecethusbecametheheartoftheGreekcommercialsystem.NottheheartoftheMediterranean,however,sincetheseawasnoone’sexclusiveproperty.Ithadroomforthreesystemswhichsometimesworkedtogether,butmoreoftencompeted,usingforceifnecessary.ThemostfragileandleastimpressivenetworkofthethreewasthatoftheEtruscans.EvenatthetimeoftheirvictoryatAlalia,theircommercedidnotcoverthewholeoftheMediterranean.Theywereameetingpointofeastandwest,astheirprosperityindicates,buttheydidnotcreatetradelinksbelongingexclusivelytothem.Andinanycasetheirfirstgreatdisaster,thenavaldefeatatCumae(474),dealtthemanirreparableblow.ThePhoeniciansystemwasaltogethermoreextensive.PhoeniciaandCarthagewereabletoresisteverythingthatfortunethrewatthem.ThecrushingdefeatssufferedatthehandsofAssyriaandthenNebuchadnezzardidnotdestroythePhoenicianfleet,whichrosefromitsasheswiththepharaohsoftheSaitedynasty;then,in525,itpassedintotheserviceofPersia.CarthagemadeasimilarrecoveryafterthedisasterofHimera(480).Andsoitwenton.Nothingseemedabletogetthebetterofthisadaptablecreature.WeshouldnotthereforebemisledbytheomnipresenceofGreekculture;theMediterraneanneverbecamea‘Greeklake’.InzEgyptescapedGreekcontrol,CambyseshavingputastoptothetradingactivitiesofNaucratis.In494,Ionia,thedrivingforceofthesystem,wasconqueredbyPersia.ThencamethePersianwars,Marathon(490),Salamis(480)andtheturbulentgloryofAthens.Butcontrarytowhatthehistorianskeepsaying,thePersianwarswerenotwonbytheGreeks;theirrealconclusioncamein404withthefallofAthens,whichwastheworkofPersiangoldratherthanofthePeloponnesianarmies.Whatismore,thegiganticanduninterruptedeffortsofGreekindustrycanbeseenasaproofofthedifficultyofthesituationandtheneedtoovercomeobstacles.TheemigrationofGreekcraftsmenandartists,to

Etruriaforinstance,issurelyamovementsimilartothatofthemercenariesmakingfortheMiddleEast.AllthisactivityledtoaninevitablespreadofGreekculturalinfluence,eveninCarthageandCarthaginianSpain.Buttherivalsystem,thatofCarthage,remainedundoubtedlytheleaderintermsofcommerce.InadditiontoSpanishsilver,ithadAfricangold.Thesearemaineddividedthen–noneofthethreesystemscouldgaincompletecontrolofitorprofitfromtheadvantageswhichthiswouldhavegiventhem.WeareafarcryfromthetriumphantunityofRome.

7TheMiracleofGreece

Letusstartthischapterbyimaginingadialoguebetweentwopeople,oneofwhombelievesin‘theeternalgloryofGreece’whiletheotherdoesnot.Thenegativeviewwouldgosomethinglikethis:‘Whyinsistsomuch

onthesplendourofancientGreece?Itisdazzlingonlyfromclosequarters.Thehistorianhasadutytostandbackandkeepsomedistancefromtheobjectofstudy.AplaybySophoclesorEuripidescertainlystirsechoesinme,goingbacktomyschooldays,buttheirworldisquiteforeigntome.Itisnotourworld.Ibelieve,likeWilamowitz,thatweshould“stayinsidetheGreekworldandthinkinaGreekwayaboutwhatisGreek”;orasHeideggersaidaftertryinginvaintotranslatealinebyParmenides,that“weshouldallowGreekwordstotelluswhattheyhavetosayintheirownlanguage”.Anyconfusionbetweenpresent-daywesterncivilizationandthatofancientGreeceisananachronisticdevice,suchasonefindsinaGiraudouxplay.ThecoherenceoftheGreekworlddependedonitsbeingacloseduniverse.Ifwetrytopenetrateit,itwillcrumbleawayintodust.’Theotherspeaker,whoisperfectlyateaseinadmiringancient

Greece,andcaninhabititinhismindwithoutfeelingastrangerinhisowntime,wouldreply,quotingthesplendidaphorismofLouisGernet,‘“Thereisnohistorythatdoesnotrelatetothepresent”.Inotherwords,ancientGreeceisalivingpresenceforus:theGreeksofantiquitycanstandforacertainbasichumanitywhichhaschangedlittleacrosstheages.AndlikethesoulsofthedeadwhowerebroughttolifebyOdysseus’sacrifices,Greekthoughtisconstantlybeingreincarnated,transmittedtous.ItwastobefoundinMiletusinthegreatdaysoftheIonians;inAthenswhenSocrateswasteachingthere;inAlexandriain

Egypt,beforethebrilliantageofArchimedesinSyracuse;itwasstillaliveinRome,sincethepatheticreductionofGreecetoaRomanprovincein146bcwasintheendaspiritualtriumphbytheconqueredovertheconquerors;itwasapreciousbloomcherishedinahothousebyByzantium,thatsecondRome;itfloweredoncemoreintheFlorenceofLorenzode’MediciandPicodellaMirandola;anditisstillalivetoday.AsLouisGernetputit,“ItwasinGreecethatthefirstframeworkforphilosophicalreflectionwasdevised,andithasbecomecommonplacetoobservethatourapproachtotheessentialproblemshaschangedverylittlesincethen”.AndperhapsoneissayingbothtoolittleandtoomuchifoneagreeswithamodernBritishhistorianwhohasarguedthat“theIonianphilosophersblazedthetrail,andallsciencehadtodoafterthatwasfollowit”.’Nevertheless,whatreallyattachesustoGreekthoughtisscience,reasonandourownintellectualpride.Ourpassionsandillusionsdotherest.Surelytheplacethat‘theGreekmiracle’holdsinourmodernwesternworldresultsfromtheneedofeverycivilizationorhumangrouptochooseitsorigins,toinventforefathersofwhomitcanbeproud.Beliefinthisancestryhasbecomeavirtualnecessity.

IGreece:alandofcity-states

ThefirstembodimentofGreecetobeconsideredtakesusfromthearchaicperiod(eighthtosixthcenturiesBC)totheclassicalperiod(fifthtofourth)–inotherwordstheageoftheextraordinaryfloweringoftheGreekcity-states.Uniquethoughitwas,thisageisnotwithoutanalogies,inparticularwiththeItaliancitiesoftheRenaissance.Likethem,theGreekcitieswereself-governing:archaicandclassicalGreecewasdividedupintomanypoliticalunitsofsmalldimensions.Whereverittookplace,theappearanceofsuchautonomousurbancentresisonlyconceivableintheabsenceoflarge-scaleterritorialstates,

whichalwayshavegargantuanappetitesforconquest.TheItaliancitiesintheirprimeinthefourteenthcenturyadwouldhavebeenunimaginablewithoutthegreatrecessionsoftheMiddleAges,whichdealtamortalblowtothosetwopoliticalgiants,theGermanicHolyRomanEmpireandthePapacyasoperatedbyInnocentIII.ItismybeliefthattheancientGreekcitieswouldnothaveseenthelightofdayifithadnotbeenfortherecessionofthetwelfthcenturyBC.TheygrewupduringthedarkagesfollowingtheDorianinvasion,sincewhathadcollapsedwiththeendofMycenaeancivilizationwasthepalace-centredstate,withitsmightyrulersandtheirall-powerfulscribes,agreedystateassomanyotherswereinthesecondmillenniumBC.Butthesecitieswhichgrewupafterthestormremainedfragileconstructs,unprotectedagainstpossiblethreatsfromtheogre.TheogreforthecitiesoftheItalianRenaissance(althoughtheimagedoesnotfitterriblywellatfirstsight)tooktheformofthelittleFrenchkingCharlesVIIIwhenhecrossedtheAlpsinSeptember1494.FortheGreekcities,nemesismighthavetakentheformofthePersianEmpireundertheAchaemenids,onwhomthesuntookalongtimetoset:ithadtherequisitemonstrousproportions–butinfactthiswasnottobe.TherealmenaceturnedouttobethebarbarianofMacedonia(atleasthespokeGreek!).

Theinfluenceofgeography

Greecewasacollectionofcity-states.InmarginalorremoteareaslikeEpirus,Arcadia,Aetolia,orinthemorebackwardnorth,urbanlifewasprobablynotverydeveloped.ButwithintheconfinesoftheGreekworldproper,thecityprovidedthemodel,withitspettyquarrels,itsfreedoms,itsirreplaceablewayoflife.Thisdispersionintosmallpoliticalunitsseemedlogical:fortheGreeksitwassimplythewaythingswere.ThenaturalfragmentationofthereliefmapofGreece,andthesmall

sizebutlargenumberofplains(zopercentoftheoverallsurface)seemedtopre-ordainthispoliticalcrystallization.ForAubreydeSelin-court(TheWorldofHerodotus,1962),Greecewasapatternofislands,whetherrealislandsintheseaor‘islandsondryland’.EachoftheGreekcity-statesoccupiedalimitedterrain,withafewcultivatedfields,twoorthreeareasofgrazinglandforhorses,enoughvinesandolive-grovestogetby,somebaremountainslopesinhabitedbyherdsofgoatsandsheep,anindentedcoastlinewithaharbour,andacitywhichwouldbeforelongbuildramparts–alittleworldcutoffbybothmountainsandsea.Yes,Greecewasindeedapatternofislands.Anaccidentofgeographywasoftenenoughtoalterthebalanceof

powerbetweenthesetinyunits.Afewveinsofgoldandsilverwereenoughtomakesea-girtSiphnosaprosperousisland;quarriesyieldingsomeofthefinestmarble,andinsuchquantitiesthatpeoplesaiditgrewagainafterbeingextracted,madethefortuneofParos;theintensivetrafficofafewshipsmadeChalcis,Eretria,MegaraandAeginatheenvyofothertowns;theexportofpotteryvasesandoliveoilsetAthensontheroadtogreatnessinthedaysofPisistratus‘thecleverestofpoliticians’,‘themostrepublicanoftyrants’,asortofforerunneroftheenlighteneddespot.Allthingsbeingrelative,therewereofcoursesomelargerunits.

Sparta(8400sqkm)addedtoitsoriginalterritoryofLaconia,thelandofolive-trees,theneighbouringstateofMessenia,acolonyinthemodernsenseoftheterm,conqueredsobrutallyandexploitedsocruellythatarebellionseemedlikelyatanymoment.Comparedtotheothercity-states,Spartahadacomparativelylargearea–thefirstbutnottheonlydifferencebetweenthem.Buteventhisareashouldnotbeexaggerated:itwastheequivalentoflessthantwopresent-dayFrenchdtpartements,andthatincludedbleakmountains,coveredinsnowinwinter.Another‘monster’,Athens,coverednomorethan1400sqkm–aboutthesizeoftheGrandDuchyofLuxemburgtoday.ThefourplainsmakingupAtticawereofmodestproportions.AthenianswouldhavehadplentyofopportunitytogofromEleusistoMarathon,orfromOroposinthenorthtoCapeSunioninthesouth.ThereoverlookingtheseastandsthetempleofPoseidon,whereweknowthatPlatolikedtowalkandtalk,surroundedbyhispupils.WhenSocratesandPhaedo

followedthecourseoftheriverIlissos,whichinsummerhadshrunktoatrickle(takingofftheirsandalsandwalkinginthestreamtocooloff),theycouldleavetheAthenianplainbeforetheywereawareofit,circleroundthebackofMountHymettusandreachtheplainofMesogea.Thedistanceswereallquitesmall:whensmokerosefromthePnyxtoannouncethenextmeetingoftheAssembly,thepeasantcitizentookuphisstaffandwalkedintotown,summonedbybothdutyandpleasure.SoGreekcitiesalwayshadhumandimensions,andcouldbecrossedonfoot.Mostofthemhadfewerthanfivethousandcitizens.Iftheyhadarich,tranquilandwell-balancedhinterland,intheorytheycouldleadanuneventfulandcontentedexistence.Spartatriedinvaintomaintainaself-containedprosperityofthiskind.Thebes,despitetheexistenceofitssturdycavalryandhoplites,didnotgoinformilitaryglory(short-livedintheevent)untiltheageofEpaminondasandPelopidas:theBoeotianplainwassimplytooprosperousintheareaaroundLakeCopaisanditsirrigationschemes.Andsincesuchthingstendtobelinked,theBoeotiancountrysidealwaysfollowedthedevelopmentoftheGreekworldwithsomedelayandatadistance.Thefashionfortheorientalcamelatehere,andarchaicgeometricaldesignspersistedlongerthananywhereelse,givingitsdecorativeartacertainrusticcharmwhichismissingfromthegreatamphoraeandcratersofAttica.Citieswithlessinthewayofadvantagestendedtolookoutwards.Soonerorlatertheyhadtosailthesea,to‘marryit’asVenicedidinalaterage,toenterintoconflictwiththosewhostoodintheirway,andtosailtotheendsoftheearth.Andforgoodorill,therewasnoshortageofthiskindofcity.

Citiesshapedbytheeconomy

UntiltheeighthcenturyBC,wemayimagineGreeceasasomewhatbackwardregion,suchasThraceorEpiruswereevenintheclassicalperiod,withisolatedvillages,placesofrefugewhereastilltribalwayof

lifesurvived,andafewoverlordswhopossessedland,underlings,rights,andinsomecasesreligiousprivileges.ItwassomethinglikeArcadia,stillinatime-warpevenintheageofPausanias,orlikeIthacaunderOdysseus,reignedoverbyfarmer-kingswhofacedunrulychallengers,alsofarmers,whilethemassofcountrypeoplelookedoninsilence.Therewerenotownsinthosedays,ofcourse.WhentheMycenaeanculturecollapsed,theoldurbansuperstructurehaddisappearedalmosteverywhere.Time,andfavourablecircumstanceswhichstartedthingsmoving

againaftertheeighthcentury,wererequiredforthecitytoriseaboveitsruralandquasi-feudalorigins.Infact,thecriticalfactorwasaverylongcrisis–economic,social,intellectualandreligious;itsoriginsandhistorywerecomplexandmany-sided.TheGreekcitywasasortofprototypewhichappearstohavedevelopedintheGreekpartofAsiaMinoralittlemorerapidlythanelsewhere,beforespreadingtotherestoftheGreekworld.SincetheareacoveredbyGreekinfluencewasaheterogeneousone–GreaterGreecewasmuchlargerthanGreeceproper–thegeographicalexplanationoftenputforwardisofonlypartialvalueinitsuncomplicateddeterminism.Similarly,economicfactors,howeverimportanttheymayappear,canonlyexplainoneaspect(asignificantone,itistrue)ofthatcuriousphenomenon,thecity-state.Inthefirstplace,thepopulationhadgrown.Asaresult,theareaof

landundercultivationneededtoexpandandthetownsbornofunionsbetweenvillageshadtoabsorbthepeoplewhomthecountrysidecouldnolongerfeed,providingahomeforanywhodidnotemigrate.Atthesametime,thenewdivisionoflabourrequiredmoreartisans.Intheeighthcentury,metal-workingwasspreading,andindustrywastendingtoclusterinthepoorerdistrictofthetowns.Colonizationalsoboostedthegeneraleconomicadvance.Thewheelsoftradeperformedmiracles,oratanyratechangedwaysoflife.Themostimportantfactorwasprobablythearrivalintheportsof

mainlandGreeceofgrainfromoverseas,eitherfromGreaterGreeceandSicily,inwhichcasethedistributioncentrewasCorinth;orfromtheBlackSea,inwhichcaseitwashandledbythemerchantsandshipsofMiletus,andlaterAthens.Evenbeforethis,grainhadbeenshippedinfromEgypt.Thischeapforeigngrainwasitselfakindofrevolution

whosemeaningisclear.Itwasarevolution,sinceimportedgrainreducedwhataneconomistwouldtodaycalltheactivityoftheprimarysector,neververyprofitableinitself.Withthisgrain,carriedin‘hollowships’totheportofZea(asectionofPiraeusharbourusedonlybythegraintrade),thefieldsofAttica,eveninthetimeofPisistratus,couldbedevotedtomoreprofitableproducesuchasolivesandvines,whileitsindustrycouldbedeveloped:aprocessfamiliarinhistory.HollandintheseventeenthcenturyadembarkedonitsgoldenageonlywhenitstartedtoimportBalticgraininlargequantities.Thatiswhythegraintradewasrevolutionary:itmodifiedthestructuresoftheGreekeconomyandsubsequentlythoseofsociety.Evenagreat‘feudal’lord,asLouisGernetwouldsay,wouldthusbecomea‘gentlemanfarmer’,watchingcommoditypricesonforeignmarkets.Twoother‘acceleratorsofchange’werethedevelopmentof

thealphabetandofcurrency.Theadoptionofanalphabetreintroducedwritingintoaworldwhichhadlostit.Andoncewritingwaswithinthegraspofall,itbecamenotonlyaninstrumentofcommandbutatooloftrade,ofcommunicationandoftenofdemystification.Secretlawsbecamepublicthankstothealphabet;andliteraturebegantoplaytheimmenseroleitlaterassumed.Asforcurrency,theneedforithadbeenfeltbeforeitappeared.There

hadbeenaseriesofprimitiveformsofmoney.IntheIliad(VI,236)Diomedes’armourisdescribedasbeingworthahundredoxen;whilea‘womanskilledatdoingmanytasks’wasworthonlyfour(XXIII,705).Goldingotswerecertainlyused,aswerebronzeingotsintheshapeofoxhides,thoughthesewerelessnumerousthanironroastingspits(obeloi).Itwasinabout685BCthatauthenticmoney(coinsmadeofelectrum,amixtureofgoldandsilver)appearedforthefirsttimeinhistoryinLydia,therichrealmofCroesus;itwasinabout625,thoughthedateisdisputed,thatAeginamintedthefirstGreekcoins,soontobeimitatedinallthecitiesoftheAegeanandPhoenicia;andin592thatSolon,thelegislatorofAthens,devaluedby33percenttheAtheniandrachmawhichhadpreviouslybeenalignedontheAeginastandard.Socurrencymanipulationbeganalmostassoonasmoneywasinvented.ButmostspecialiststhinkthatatruemonetaryeconomywasnotinplaceuntilthefourthcenturyBCandtheachievementsoftheHellenistic

period.Intheeighthandseventhcenturies,thisstagewasstillalongwayoff.Nevertheless,throughouttheAegean,thingswerestirring.Havingbeenlongcutofffromtheeasternworld,GreecenowmadecontactwithitagainthroughthecitiesontheSyriancoast,inparticularAl-Mina.TheluxuryofthisareadazzledtheGreeks,whosewayoflifewasstillmodest.AlongwithartefactsfromPhoeniciaandelsewhere–ivories,bronzesandpottery–Greecebegantoimportanewstyleofliving.Foreigndecorativeartcameasacontrasttothestiffgeometricalstyle.Withworksofartcamefashions,thefirstelementsofGreekscience,superstitions,andpossiblythebeginningsofDionysiaccults.AllroundtheAegean,theGreekcitiesbegantogrow:tinyindependentworlds,basicallysimilarbutcompetingwitheachotherasrivals.

Cityandcity-state

TheGreekcity-statewasastrangelittleworld,verydifferentfromthemedievaltowninwesternEurope.Thelatterwasquiteseparatefromthecountryside:itwasself-contained,withpoliticalandeconomicbenefitsreservedtotheprivilegedtownspeoplewholivedintramuros.TheGreekpolisontheotherhand,while‘linkedtoanurbancentre,wasnotidenticalwithit’.The‘citizens’wereresidentsofaterritorygreaterthanthecityitself,whichwasonlyoneelementinthestate,thoughanimportantoneofcourse,sinceeveryonemadeuseofitsmarket-placeoragora,itscitadelasaplaceofrefuge,anditstempledevotedtothedivineprotectorofthepolis.Politicallyhowever,itwasofapiecewiththesurroundingterritory.EvenCorinth,theguardianoftheroadsacrosstheisthmus,andamajortradingandindustrialcentre,had,‘likealltheGreekcitystatesaneconomybasedonagriculture:theexistenceofacitywasinconceivablewithoutasurroundingterritory,thedivisionofwhichamongthecitizenswasthebasisofcivicidentity’(E.Will).

DuringthefirstyearsoftheterriblePeloponnesianwar(whichbeganin431),theSpartanswouldarriveinserriedranksonthepassaboveEleusiseveryspring,assoonastheanemoneswereinbloom,readytoattackAttica.AccordingtoPericles’planofcampaign,therewasnopointindefendingtheoutlyingterritorywhichwassoregularlyinvaded.Thepeasantshadtoabandontheirhomesandfields,leavingtheinvadertoenteranemptycountryside.ThepopulationwouldtakerefugeinsideAthensandthere,fromthehighwallsofthePelargicon,withnothingmoretooccupythem,theycouldwatchtheenemyarrivinginthedistance.Thecity,enclosedwithinitswalls,andlinkedtotheharbouratPiraeusbytheLongWall,wasanisland,safefrominvasion:atthispointstateandcitybecameone.

Tamingthenobility

ThedualnatureoftheGreekcity-state,unitingcityandcountryside,helpsustounderstandtheprobablepatternofitscreation.TheprocessbeganaftertheDorianinvasion,assoonaspeasantlifeoncemorepickedupthethreadsofanexistencewhichstillsurvivedintheclassicalperiodintheformofthereligiousfestivalsfollowingoneachother’sheelsallwinter,whennatureandhumanhandswererestingfromtheirlabours.Theytooktheformoffeasts,dancing,processions,bonfires,sacrificialholocausts,allveryancientcultsattachedtotheEarthMother.Thispeasantsocietywaslinked,aftertheDorianinvasionandpossiblyevenearlier,toasystemofclans,patriarchalfamiliesknownasthegene.Eachgenoswasasmallprimitivegroup,self-sufficientandquarrelsome:theslightestdisputecausedconflictbetweenneighbouringclansandinthissocietywithoutaregularsystemofjustice,thevendettaorlawofbloodbecamethecodeofhonour.Eachunithaditsgods,itspretensions,itsmyths,itschieftainswhoboastedoftheirownexploitsorofthoseoftheirancestorswhohadbeenthesons

ofheroes,inotherwordsdemi-gods.Thisall-envelopingmythologyisinfactthemostirrefutableproofoftheancientnatureoftheclans.Thisall-powerfularistocracycanbeglimpsedatthedawnofGreek

history.Quitenumerous,theseclans,the‘substantial’,‘thebest’,the‘well-born’(theeupatridaeofAttica),derivedprestigetoofromtheirpriestlyfunctions,thewealthoftheirdomainsandtheirmanyflocksoflivestock.Aroundthemgravitatedafollowingofclients,day-labourersandvillagersinsemi-serfdom.Agenosorpatriamightjointogetherwithothergenetoformaphratrythusunitingseveralcantons.Sothenobleswerethefirstpotentialbasisforthefoundationofastatewhenexpandingtrademadeitdesirableornecessarytocreateone.Theywouldthenbethefirstpeopletooccupythecity,whichturnedintoausefulcommandpost:fromheretheycouldsurveytheirlandandtheirpeasantsfromaconvenientdistance.Acityatitsbeginningsoftenhadaking,butkingship(basileia)was

soonpowerlesswhenfacedwithgreatindependentlandowners,rivalkingsthemselves.Theyweretheonlyones,withtheirchariots,whocoulddefendthecityintimeofwar.Theyweretheonlypeoplewithsufficientleisuretodevotethemselvestopublicaffairs,inwhichtheycouldalsomaketheirownrightsprevail.Andtheyalsohadthepowerofthepriesthood.Therestofthepeople–thedemos–wasotherwiseoccupied.Sotheearlyeliminationofkingshipwastothebenefitofthepatricians.InAthens,theroyalpowerwasfinallydividedamongninemagistrates,thearchons:thebasileuswhopresidedatsacrifices;theeponymousarchon,thechiefmagistratewhogavehisnametotheyear;thepolemarchoswhocommandedthearmy;andthesixthesmo-thetaiwhorenderedjustice.ThisaristocraticgovernmenteventuallyledtothepermanentinstitutionknownastheAreopagus,inwhichtheformermagistratestooktheirplace.Asalways,togovernwastocreateresentment.Itcouldariseinthe

firstplaceamongthepeasants,whoweremoreorlessreducedtoserfdombythepropertyrightsofthenobles.Thenthereweretheincreasingnumbersofnewcomerstothecity,drawninbytheexpansionoftheeconomy:therewasasortof‘bourgeoisie’,ifthetermisallowable,madeupofthenewrich,andontheotherhandanurbanproletariatofthetes:paidlabourers,impecuniousartisans,metics

(foreigners)andslaves.Theconditionswerepresent,ifnotforaclassstruggle,atleastforaseriesofsocialtensionsandhostilities.ThiscrisiswasendemicthroughouttheGreekuniversewherepatternstendedtorepeatthemselves;politicalfragmentationdidnotpreventastrongculturalunityfromemerging.Theworstconflictwassoontobethatbetweenthecityasacollective

unitandthearistocracy.Forthenewkindofcitytoemerge,itwouldhavetoliberatethepeasantry,andabolishthereligious,legalandpoliticalprivilegesofthe‘toppeople’.Thistookalongtimeandrequiredmanycompromises,especiallyinthereligioussphere.Forthecitydidnotsimplyrepresentanewpoliticalandgeographicalorder;itwasalsoameetingofcultsandgods,areligiousworldorderwhichwasnowtobegovernedbythecollectivewillratherthanbythesecretandarbitraryactivityofthegene.Butthelatterwerenotabruptlydestituted,asthestrikingandratherlateexampleofEleusisdemonstrates.EveninAthens,whichmightseemtousthemostrevolutionaryofcities,totakeoneexamplefromahundred,theEteobutadaeretainedtheprivilegeofprovidingthepriestessofAthenaPoliasandthepriestofPoseidonErechtheus.Inthiswaythepastandtheprestigeofthegreatpatricianfamilieswerepartiallymaintainedunderthenewdispensation.Athensindeeddrewonthelordlycultureoftheeupatridaeandassimilatedtheirprideofidentity.‘ThemoralityoftheGreekswasanaristocraticmorality’,asLouisGernetputit.AthenswasakindofprefigurationofthearistocraticPolishrepublic.

Troubledcenturies

Thegreaterinvolvementofthecitizensinthegovernmentoftheirownaffairswasneverthelessamajorrevolution,andonewhichdevelopedinaclimateoftensionandanxiety,butalsoofenthusiasm.Thisenthusiasmgaverisetoakindofviolentcity-centredpatriotism.

Withitsmanageablecompass,itscentralfocusontheprytaneion,itsagora,itsuniversallyrecognizedlaws,anditsrepeatedproclamationoftheequalityofallcitizens,thecitywasnolongeranabstraction.JulienBendaoncewroteabookentitledHistoiredesFrançaisdansleurvolontedeformerunenation{HistoryoftheFrenchandtheirDesiretoFormaNation).WhowillgiveusahistoryoftheancientGreeksandtheirdesiretocreateasetoflimitedpoliticalunits,ofhumandimensions?Thepassionatelovetheyboretheirlittlehomelandsvergedonthepathological,goingwellbeyondthereasonable.Theyusedatermmeaningsexualdesire,himeros,torefertoit:citiesmightbeknownas‘Salaminosthewell-beloved’orAthens‘crownedwithviolets’whichallits‘lovers’willcometodefendatPericles’call.Nowhereelseinworldhistoryhasthisloveforthenativesoilbeentakentosuchextremes,withtheresultthatlovecouldyieldonlytohatred.AGreekcity-state,likeanItaliancityoftheRenaissance,haditsfuorisciti,thebanished,orperhapsoneshouldevensaytheexcommunicated.Exilesweredrivenbydesperationtotreason,murder,liesandeven,horrorofhorrors,enteringtheserviceofPersia!Theturmoilwasnotconfinedtopolitics.Thetumultousreturnof

Dionysiaccultsgaverisetoasortofmedievaloutbreakofflagellation,firstofallinthecountryside,thenoverwhelmingthecities.Anotherobsessionwasthatofcollectiveguilt,ofthesacrilegewhichcoulddefileanentirecityasthecrimeofoneindividualreboundedonall.TheAlcmaeonidae,agreatpatricianfamilyofAthenstowhichCleisthenesandPericlesbothbelonged,wereonthreeoccasionsbanishedforhavingahandintheassassinationofthealliesoftheusurperCylonwhentheyhadtakenrefugebythealtarsontheAcropolis.Thecitybecamequieteronlyinabout590,whentheCretanEpimenidesappearedthereasapurifyingprophet,abletoassuagethegods:hesacrificedblackandwhiteewestothem,aswellas‘twohumanvictimswhoapparentlyvolunteered’.Sicknessesrequiredhealers,thaumaturgi,prophets,tyrantsandwisemen,whowouldbecomesocialarbitrators(suchasLycurgus,SolonandCleisthenes)orcharlatanswhoexploitedpopularcredulity.EmpedoclesofAgrigento,aphilosopherborninabout490,‘proclaimedhimselfagodandappearedbeforethecrowddrapedinpurpleandcrownedwithflowers’,practisingvariouskindsofsorceryand

resurrectingthedead.InAthens,acordingtoHerodotus,Pisistratusreturnedtopowerforthesecondtimethankstoacertainamountofstagemanagement.Achariotwentbeforehim,andinitrodeawoman,tall,beautifulandarmedfromheadtofoot:Athenainperson.Thatthismiraclewasbelievedisasortoflitmustest.Itwasalsointhisperiod,theso-calledpre-Socraticage,thatthe

Philosopherappearedasafigure.TheageoftheHeroeswasfollowedbytheageoftheSages.AccordingtotraditionthereweresevenSages:ThalesofMiletus;SolonofAthens;Periander,thetyrantofCorinth;CleobulusofLindos;BiasofPriene;PittacusofMytileneandChilonofSparta,whoembodiedthe‘laconicspeechoftheLacedaemonians’.ButthereareplentyofothernamesonthelistofSages:oneHellenisthascountedtwenty-two,includingMysonofChen,theobscureor‘unknownsage’,chosenforhisvirtuousmodesty.Allthisperiodissomewhatopaquetousnow,buttheseindividualsdidexistbeforebeingabsorbedintoamorallegendwheretheyaresupposedabovealltoincarnatethepersuasivewisdomofpopularsayings:knowthyself;nothinginexcess;andsoon–inotherwordscommon-sensemottoesforanxiousmenintroubledtimes.

Hoplitesandoarsmen

WarfareinthearchaicagemeanttheAthenianeupatridaeridingoutonhorseback,orbetterstillinchariots.Bytheseventhcentury,thehoplitebegantobetheregularsoldier.Thehoplitewasaheavy-dutyinfantryman,equippedwithabronzebreastplate,ashield,greaves(cnemides)andalonglancewhichheheldinhisrighthand.Headvancedtowardstheenemyalongsidehiscompanionsinasolidphalanx:severalrowsofmenshouldertoshoulder,presentingaprotectivelineofshields,liketheplatesofbodyarmour.Thewholetroopmarchedasoneman.OntheChigivase(c.640)weseealongside

thehoplitesamusicianplayingadoubleflute:heisbeatingtimeandmakingthewholephalanxmarchinstep.Thisdisciplinewastheresultoftraininginthegymnasium.Accordingly,theprimemilitaryvirtuewasnotthebraveryrequiredtoengageinsinglecombatbuttechnicalproficiencyandself-discipline.Warwasakindofgame,withitsrulesandits‘ludicaspects’.Theadversarieswouldsometimesagreeonapitchforthebattle.SuchwastheconflictintheseventhcenturyBContheislandofEuboeabetweenChalcisandEretria,anditwasfromthisexperienceofwarfarethatthetacticsofthehoplitesseemtohavespreadtootherGreekcitiestowardsthemiddleofthecentury.InSparta,theyoungmenweredividedintotwoteamstotraininoneoftheEurotasIslands:thelosingsidefounditselfpushedintothesea.Afteranagewhenwarwasdominatedbyaristocratsonhorseback,the

hopliteusheredintheageofthefoot-soldier–arevolutionarydevelopment,hereaseverywhere,whetherinancientGreece,inChinainthesixthcenturyBC,orintheSwisscantonsinthesixteenthcenturyadinthedaysofCharlestheBold.Thehoplites,whosuppliedtheirownarmourandbecamefullcitizens,wererecruitedfromthepeasantsinthecountrysidesurroundingthecity.Apoliticalandsocialrevolutionfollowedonfromthis,withonlyformaldivergencesfromonecity-statetoanother.InSpartaforinstancethehoplitesmadeupaprofessionalarmyknownastheEquals.Itwasinthelogicofsuchdevelopmentthatmilitarysocietywouldbeintegratedinsomeformintopoliticalsociety,imposingonthelatteritsownrequirements.TheAthenianpeasant,ownerofhisownplotofland,hisklerosyexpectedthecitytorespecthisrights:ithadtoprotecthim,anddeliverhimfromthebondsofdebtwhichattachedhimtogreatlandowners.Theresolutionofthisdifficultproblembroughtaboutsomenewformsofgovernment.Solon’sgreatestsuccesswastheseisachtheia,theoperationwherebyheenabledthepeasantliterallyto‘shakeoff’hisburdenofdebt.Thesoldier-citizenhadbeenborn.HerodotusandThucydides

comparedtheGreeksoldier,fightingforfreedom,tothePersiansoldierdrivenintobattlebylashesofthewhip.Butthepeasant-soldieralsobroughttoacitylikeAthensacertainnumberofruralprejudices,forinstancethattoilontheland(andtheaccompanyingleisure,whetherthatofthegreatlandownerorthatofeveryoneinwintertime)wasthe

onlyactivityreallyworthyofaman.Anyotherkindoflabourreducedone’sstatus:theartisan,theminer,themerchantorthesailorweresocialinferiors.Yettradeandindustrywereexpanding:foreigners,slavesandlandlesspeasantshadtotakeonthemenialtasksofthecityandtheportofPiraeus.Someofthemmadefortunes,others,remainingeternallypoor,becamethefourthestateofSolon’sclassification,thethetes.Buttheytoowouldbenefitfromwars,eventuallyobtainingbasicpoliticalrights(thatofattendingthePeople’sAssembly)inthefifthcentury.TheirimportancewasconfirmedwhenAthens,ontheeveofthesecondPersianwar,becameamaritimepower.ThesilveroftheminesofLaurion,onlyrecentlydiscovered,helpedbuildtwohundredtriremes.TheywinteredinthenavalportofCantarosinPiraeus;buteveryspringanarmyofoarsmenwasrequiredtolaunchthemontheseaoncemore.Thetriremewasafloatingbatteringram,designedtostriketheflankoftheenemyvessel.‘Asasailingship,ithadfaults;unabletotack,itcouldonlysailwithafollowingwind.Sothesailwasonlyanextraformofpowerandinanavalbattlethesail(akataeion)washoistedonlyinordertoescape.’Thetriremewasabletoplayitsroleasawarshiponlywhenpropelledbyamassofhumanbrawn.Crammedintotheirvessels,abletostretchouttosleeponlywhentheboatwasdrawnuponland,theoarsmenhadatoughjob,sotoughthatitwaslaterdoneonlybyforcedlabour.Yetinthesixteenthcenturyad,inthedaysofAndreaDoriaandDonJohnofAustria,therewereenoughpoorwretchestoprovidevoluntarylabourforthegalleys,thebuonavoglieastheywerecalledinItaly.PovertymusthavehadthesamebalefulinfluenceinthedaysofPericles,sincetheoarsmenwerefreemenandwerepaidwages.AndwhenthePeloponnesianfleetlaterbeattheAtheniannavy,itwaswithcrewswhomtheyhadbeenabletolevythankstoPersiangold.Buttheseoarsmenreceivedtheirshareofanybooty,sotheyhadthechancetomaketheirfortune,tobuyapieceoflandandaslave,andaspireeventuallytothatleisurewhichinAthensconferreddignityontheindividual.Inaword,thephalanxhadintroducedthepeasanttopoliticalsociety,andtheoarhadbroughtinthethetes,previouslymoreorlessuntouchables.IfAthensadoptedthesenewmethodsitwasperhapsa

signthattheywereirresistible.Corinthdidhoweveropposethismassphenomenon,andfoundadifferentsolutiontoitsinternaltensions:itsagreementwithSpartaprovideditwithapolicemanatthegate.Atthefirstsignoftrouble,thepolicemanreportedforduty.Athenshadchosendemocracyinstead.

Democracyandslavery

Butweshouldclarifywhatwasmeantbythisterminantiquity.ThereformsofSolon(595)andCleisthenes(509)hadlimitedtherightsoftheoligarchsandgivenprideofplacetothepowersoftheekklesia,theAssemblyofcitizensmeetingonthePnyx.Inthelawcourtsoftheheliaia,citizenswerealsojudgesduringtrials.Exceptforthestrategoi,orgenerals,whowereineffectivecommandofthearmyandwereelected,allmagistrateswereappointedbythedrawingoflots.Andallcitizens,whethertheyweremagistrates,attendedtheAssembly(fromthefourthcentury),satinthelawcourts,orwenttotheamphitheatre,wereentitledtodrawanallowance.Thiswasthesystemofcitizen-wages.Everycitizenwas,aswewouldputit,astateemployeeandtheoreticallyall-powerful.Buttherewerelimitsonthispower.Theekklesiawasobligedtotaketheadviceoftheboule,asortofintermediarycommitteeof500magistratesofwhomfifty(replacingeachotherbyrotaeverythirty-fivedays)satinpermanentsession.Andtheprestigeofpatricianfamiliesweighedheavilyhere.PericlesbelongedtothearistocraticdynastyoftheAlcmaeonidae.OnlyafterhisdeathdidAtheniandemocracyfinditsownleaders,ofwhomthefirstwasCleon.Evenso,this‘democracy’wasfarfromcomplete.Yes,thecitizenshadtheright,realorimaginary,tobeheldasabsoluteequals.ButonlyafewofthemenofAtticahadtherighttothetitleofcitizen.Inabout431,therewasacitizenclassofi7z,ooo,includingmembersoftheirfamilies,

orinotherwords40,000menwhowereactuallycitizensoutofatotalpopulationof315,000.Democracywastheprivilegeofthisgroupwhostoodinauthorityoveramassofforeigners(metics)andslaves[nottomentionwomen,SRj.Thenumberofslaveswentongrowinginlatercenturies.MoreoverAthenswasable,becauseofitsstrength,toexploititsAegeanalliesintheDelianLeague,makingthemsubjectsandtributaries.Thecityalsoexploiteddistantmarkets,byexportingceramics,fabricsandoilinexchangeforthegrainitneededtosurvive.Inshort,Athenswasaprivilegedcitywhichoppressedothers.EnoughatanyratetomakeusdisagreeentirelywithJ.-L.Borgeswhenhewritesthat‘AthenswasonlyarudimentaryversionofParadise’.Earthlyparadisesarealwaysrudimentary,buttheirgatesarenotopentoallcomers.

Thecityasofficialstructure

Theuniversecreatedbythecitycontrolledthelifeofitscitizens,shapingtheirthoughts,theiractionsandtheirart.Thisroleofmatrixoperatedeveninthesphereofphilosophyandreligion:thewaythenaturaluniverse,itsoriginsanditsequilibriumwereunderstoodbyphilosophersreflectedthecityanditsownparticularorder.Thedeclineofthesacrosanctpatricianfamilies,allied,asthepriest-kingsofthepasthadbeen,tothedarkforcesofthesupernatural,hadreturnedofficialreligiontotheauthorityofthecity,makingitanaspectofpublicaffairs.Thesacredandthemysterioushadbeenexpelledtothemarginsofsociety.Inthesameway,cremation,whichhadcomewiththeDorianinvasion,hadseparatedthedeadfrompreviousformsofancestor-worship.Withtheestablishmentoftheearthlycity,centredontheagora,andnolongeronthesacredAcropolis(towhichPlatowishedtoreturnit),religionhadbecomealessconstrictinggarment.MoreovertherewasnoclergyhereastherewasinEgyptorBabylon:anyGreek

couldofficiateaspriestandnoonewasnormallyappointedpermanentlytothepriesthood.Thecitiesfoundthatthismadetheirtasksconsiderablyeasier.Theywerefreetoorganizefestivals,toeffectasurfacereconciliationbetweencultswhichwereapparentlyincompatible,ratheraswenoworganizetownsforthesafetyofpedestrians.ThusEleusisbecamethepointofdeparturefortheprocessionofthePanathenianstotheParthenonontheAcropolis,inhonouroftheofficialcultofAthena,usingthesacredway,withthegroovesforthechariotslaiddowninadvance.BeingthuslinkedtothedaughterofZeus,thetutelarygoddessofthecity,theEleusinianmysteriesbecamemoreofficial,andlostsomethingoftheirautonomy.TheDionysiacritesbecameanoccasionfortheatricalperformances,ameetingpointbetweenreligionandurbanlife,thusdefusingapotentiallyexplosiveconflict.Aeschylus,SophoclesandEuripidesportrayedintheirplaysthegreatfiguresofHomericepic,givingthepublicexactlywhatitwantedfromthem–suchwastheconditionofanysuccess.Itwas,however,onlytobeexpectedthatpeopleofsensibilityshouldlookbeyondtheseover-consensualcultsandtheirroutineritualsforamoreauthenticreligiouslife.Themysteries,withtheirpurificationrituals,themarvellouspromiseofsalvation,andthesoul’sjourneytowardsaneweternallifeexertedastrongattraction.TheoriginsofthePythagoreanrevoltareonlytoocomprehensible.Takingrefugein525inCroton(asortofGenevaavantlalettre)Pythagorasintroducedthereareignofjusticeinwhichtheessentialaimwasthesalvationofsouls,notthatoftheearthlycity.Thisattitudewasregardedasscandalous:theasceticlifeandfastingofthePythagoreans,theirattemptstoadaptOrphiccults,ledallcitiestocondemntheirstanceasakindofderelictionofcivicduty,comparablewithalittleexaggerationtothatofaconscientiousobjectortoday.Therewasnooneatthetime–thesixthcenturyBC–capableofseeingthePythagoreans’embryonic‘science’,theirpursuitofgoldennumbersandmathematicalratios,asapositivecounterweighttothecivicethos.InAthensafterthedefeatof404,Socrateswasaccusedofeverycrimeagainsthisfatherland.WhatdidtheAthenianswishtopunishhimfor–hisfriendshipwithAlcibiadesandCritias,opponentsofdemocracy,hispursuitofOrphicandPythagorean

ideas,oreven(andthismightexplainthe‘Socratesmystery’)hispositionasdefenderofindividualperfection,ofaneffortwhichwasintrinsicallyasinagainstthecollectiveworldofthecity-state?Greekartwasgraduallylockedintothesamestraitjacket.Theart

whoseoriginalfloweringonesoadmires,freedfromimitationofforeignersorfromthepatronageoftherich,anartwhichhadacquireditsownself-confidence,finallyenteredbagandbaggageintotheserviceofthestate.TheageofPericleswasanageofofficialart:theworkshops,sculptors,stone-masonsandforemenwereallworkingforAthens.OnecannotcomplainaboutthissinceitbequeathedustheParthenon.Butallofficialartisalreadysecretlycontaminated:itpreferstodefineitsrulesandcanonsandtosticktothem,soondegeneratingintorepetitionandpaleimitation.Bythelawwhichmakesclassicalandromanticmovementsalternateinturn,GreekartendeduplapsingintothebaroqueexcessesoftheHellenisticstyle,withamannerismthatwasbyturnsbothcharmingandtragicallygrandiloquent.

Alogicaloutcome,orshouldweblamePericles?

ThedestinyofGreecewasdecidedbywar:firstthePersianwars(from499,thedateoftheIonianuprising,tothepeaceof450)thenthePeloponnesianwar(431-404.)Thingsmighthaveturnedoutdifferentlyinbothcases.ThehandfulofAthenianandPlataeanhoplitesmighthavebeendefeatedatMarathon(490);theGreekfleetmightnothavetriumphedin480inthenarrowchannelbetweentheislandofSalamisandthemainland.Lateron,AthensmightnothaveyieldedtothesuddenpassionwhichdroveittolaunchtheinsaneSicilianexpeditionof415;andwhilewearerewritinghistory,whynotimaginethattheAtheniansmightevenhavewonthebattleofSyracuse?But,asweknow,Greecewasfragmentedintoapatchworkof

independentcity-states,allofwhichwereliabletofallpreytotheiroftenextremepassions.Andthesepassionswereintheendfatal.Wasitconceivablethatthisconstellationofautonomousworldscouldliveinharmonyandmutualrespect?AubreydeSelincourtthoughtso,ashewrotethelastpagesofhismovingandalmostalwaysconvincingbook.Butsurelythisistoasktheimpossible.DeSelincourtisshockedthatone

Greekcitycouldsetaboutdestroyinganother,thatCrotonshoulddestroySybaris,orAthenssubdueAeginaorMegara.Worsestill,AthensfirstconcludedanalliancewiththefreecitiesoftheAegean,thenin454transportedtoitsowncitytheLeague’streasure,whichhadpreviouslybeenheldonDelos,theislandofApollo.Alreadybeforethisdate,Athenshadbeenthrowingitsweightabout.Butin454anyillusionsvanished:theallies(summachoi)hadbecomesubjects{hupekooi).Itwasabetrayal.Thissaid,anditisallquitetrue,isitfairtoblamePericles,whowas

thenembarkingonalongpoliticalcareerwhichwouldendonlywithhisdeathin4x9?Thegodlikeleadercertainlydidnotinventimperialismingeneral,norAthenianimperialisminparticular.HispredecessorThemistocles,creatoroftheAtheniannavy,aregularfightingforce,mustcertainlytakesomeresponsibilityforthat.Buthistoriansprefertoputprominentfiguresinthedock.EverythingwehavebeentaughttovalueaboutPericles–hisintelligence,hisrefusaltofollowthecrowd,hiselegance,hiseloquence,thequalityofhisfriends,hisunusualincorruptibility–allsinglehimoutasagoodcandidateforreappraisal.OfcoursePericleshaddreamedofAthenianhegemony.AccordingtohisfriendAnaxagoras,mind(nous)rulestheworldandAthenswastobecomethatmind,guidingtheimperfectbodyofGreekstates.ThisidealcouldneverbereachedwithoutfightingtheobscurantismofSparta,thejealousyofCorinthandtherancoursoftheallies.Periclessawthiswarcomingandworkeditoutinadvance:theAtheniansshouldabandonthelandandholdontothesea.TheplanbroughtneithervictorynorthesalvationofGreece,itistrue.Butisitsauthoronthataccounttobeheldguilty?Tokeepthedebatebrief,letonehistorianspeakascounselforeither

side.ForReneGrousset,whoiscertainlynograndinquisitor,PericlescouldhavemaintainedpeacewiththecomplicityoftheactiveandsincereArchidamus,thepro-AtheniankingofSparta,buthedeliberatelylettheoccasionslipandchosetogotowar.AlfredWeberontheotherhand(1935)wasperhapstoomuchtheprisonerofacertainGermanhistoricalliteraturewhenhewrotethatPericlestookamasterlyviewofthesituation:choosingtofightonseawastherightchoiceforvictory,buttheAtheniansweresimplynotuptothegrandiosestrategy!

Myownversionwouldprobablydisappointbothadvocates.Itissurelyanillusiontobelievethatgreatmenholdthedestinyofthestateintheirhands,sincedestinydealswiththemasitdoeswitheveryoneelse,andinsomewaysrelievesthemofresponsibility.ItisfarfromclearthatthebattlewhicheventuallytoreGreeceapartwasoneofthoseconflictsthatmighthavebeenavoidedwithalittlecommonsenseandagreatdealofmagnanimity.AunifiedGreecewasneverpossibleinpeaceorwar.ThemajorexplanationofPericles’actionisthatAthenshadcometoassumequitedisproportionateimportancewithinthefragileGreekconstellation,becauseofapastwhichPericleshadinheritedandnotcreated.Itwastheresultofatradingcombinationwhichbroughtthecitymuchadvantage,sincethegrainandsaltfishoftheBlackSeawereshippeddirectlytoAthensandthischeapsupplyoffoodnourishedtheexpansionofthecity,alloweditsindustriestoexpandandinparticularmadepossibleacapitalismwhichdependedonalow-paidworkforce,asitfacedgrowingeconomicdifficulties.ThedramaoftheGreekcity-stateswasratherlikethatofthecitiesof

theItalianRenaissance.Noneofthem,notFlorence,norVenice,GenoaorMilan–wasableintheendtounifyItaly.Athensin404openeditsgatestoLysander.ButneitherthevictoryofanachronisticSparta,northeephemeralriseofThebesunderEpaminondaswouldthrowupanyforcemorecapablethanAthensofconstructingGreekunity.Theend-pointoftheprocesswasthearrivalofthegreatbarbarianofMacedonia.Hiscominghadbeenpreparedlongbefore.

IIAlexander’smistake

ThetitleofthissectionshouldnotleadthereadertoexpectacriticalanalysisofAlexander’sAsiancampaigns.Inhis‘meteoric’adventure,whathappenedintheeasttendstodistractusfromwhathappened–oroughttohavehappened–inthewest.Alexander’sgreatmistake,inmy

view,wasthathefailedtorecognizethevalueofthewesternMediterranean.Hethrewhimselfintoabrilliantcourseofactionlaidoutforhiminadvance,andwhichledtheotherway.

Hellenismrunsoutofsteam

ThesubjectionofGreecetotheMacedonianyokewasaconsequenceoftheveryexpansionofGreekcivilization.AllthenorthernfringesofGreekculture–Macedonia,Thrace,Pontus,theBosphorusandBithynia–hadforgedaheadinthefourthcenturyBC.Macedonia,aninhospitableregion,snow-coveredinwinter,floodedinspringtime,withitsfreepeasantryanditswarlordsaccustomedtosortiesonhorseback,wastheonethateventuallytookthelead.Thiswaslogicalenough,sincethemalaiseoftheGreekcity-stateshadcreated–ascouldalsobesaidoffifteenth-centuryItaly–acycloniczoneoflowpressure,intowhichcurrentsweredrawnfromallsides.PhilipIIofMacedon(c.383-336)hadturnedtohisownadvantagethesquabblesoftheGreekcities.TheywereforcedundertheMacedonianyokeonthefieldofChaeroneain338.WeneednotenterintothedetailofthisfamiliarstoryortakesidesfororagainstDemosthenesandAthens.Norshouldwemourntoomuchforthelatter:itwassparedbytheMacedonianconqueroronaccountoftheAthenianfleetwithwhichhehopedtoreachtheshoresofAsiaMinor.ButPhilipneverrealizedhisdream,sincehewasassassinatedin336.HissonAlexander,agedtwenty,inheritedthetask.ScarcelypausingtobringunderhisswayfirsttheEpirotsandthentheThebans,whosecityherazedtotheground,AlexandercrossedtheHellespontin334,accompaniedbythecontingentsofthepan-HellenicLeagueasreinforcements.Inthatspringof334,thefortunesofHellenismfromtheSpanishcoast

totheAegeanandtheBlackSeawerefarfrombeingtragicorcatastrophic.Theywereuncertainperhaps,andnotparticularlypromising.Dangerslayaround,butnoneofthemwasnew.ProbablyGreeceitselfinthenarrowsensewastheleasthealthyoftheHellenicregions.Inthewesternsea,GreeksandCarthaginianswerestillskirmishing.

Theywouldfight,makeatreatyandstartagain.Therewas,itistrue,a

newthreatintheformofRome,whichhadtakencontrolofrichCampaniain341andofLatiumin338andwasalreadylookinglikea‘lairofwolves’waitingtopounceontherestofItaly.ButtheGreekcitieswerenotasyetfullyawareofthisdanger.Theotherconflict,totheeast,wastheendemicwarfarewiththe

PersianEmpire.TheGreatKingcontrolledtheessentialsea-crossingsbetweenAsiaMinorandEgypt.Thelatter,howeverreluctantly,wasamonghismostprofitablepossessions.SincethedaysofthepharaohNecho,a‘Suezcanal’hadlinkedtheRedSeatotheNile.AndthegiganticPersianEmpire–whichittookthreemonthstocrossfromSardistoSusa,bytheRoyalRoad–extendedtotheIndianOceanfromwhereitimportedraremerchandisefortheMediterranean.Indeed,duringthetough‘nationalist’reignofArtaxerxesIII(358–337)thebalanceoftradehadswungagainstGreece,whichhadtopayforPersiangrainandmanufacturedgoodspartlywithsilver.Outoflassitude,asortofpeacefulbutwaryco-existencehad

developedbetweentheGreeksandthePersians.GreekshipsandthePhoenicianvesselsintheserviceofPersiahadcometoobserveasortofmodusvivendi,withtheirownreservedareas.AndthePersianEmpirewasroutinelyrecruitingGreekmercenaries.Thisnon-hostilesituationmighthavecontinued.Ifwearguewithhindsightintermsof‘historical’strategy,wecanacceptthatin334orso,therewereatleasttwopossibleoptions:eithertheovercrowdedBalkanpeninsulacouldhaveattackedthegreatAchaemenidEmpireinanewTrojanwar,thistimeonagrandscale,ortheforcesofGreececouldhaveturnedinsteadagainstCarthage,theItalicpeoplesandRome.Thiswouldhavebeenalessgloriousoption:therichprizesandgrandcivilizationslayintheOrient.Thewest,forallthePunicandGreeksuccessesthere,didnotappealtotheimaginationinanythinglikethesameway.ButletusallowourselvestoimagineaGreekversionofthe‘prosethatwasRome’:GreecewouldhaveconqueredtheentireMediterraneanfromeasttowest,turningitintoaGreeklake,insteadoftheRomanlakeitbecameafteraconquestwhichrantheotherway,fromwesttoeast.

APyrrhicdefeat?

Thinkingofthisdestinywhichnevercameabout,oneistemptedtoagreewiththestillstimulatingbookbyUlrichvonHassel,DasDramadesMittelmeers(1940),whichconcentratesontheamazingadventuresofPyrrhosofEpirus(letusgivehimbackhisGreekname)acoupleofgenerationsafterthedeathofAlexandertheGreat(323).ThekingofEpirushadbeencalledonin280tohelpTarentum.When

hearrivedtherewithsomethirtythousandmenandthirtyelephants,healreadyhadaneventfulcareerbehindhim.AhostageinAlexandriainhisyouth,hehadmarriedanEgyptianprincess;thenhavingbecomerulerofCorcyra(Corfu)andbrieflyofthewholeofMacedonia,heactedasasortofcondottiere,readytogoanywhereformoneyifitsuitedhisfancyorhisinterest.HiselephantscreatedhavocamongtheRomanlegionsatHeracleainthesummerof280;thefollowingyearherepeatedhisexploitatAusculum,butwithmoredifficulty;in278helandedinSicily,probablythelandofhisdreamsandambitionsandrelievedSyracusefromasiegebytheCarthaginians;in277heenteredAgrigento.ButGreekSicilywaswar-weary.Inautumn276,PyrrhosreturnedtoItaly;in275hewasharassedatBeneventumbytheRomans,andleftthepeninsula;andin272hemetanaccidentaldeathinArgos.Pyrrhos’Italianadventuresaretrivialcomparedtothefantastic

conquestsofAlexandertheGreatfiftyyearsorsoearlier.Butinasenseandwithhindsight,theyprovideaverdictonthem.Pyrrhos’eventualfailure,whichstandsforthefailureofGreeceagainstRomeonthecentralaxisofthesea,wasadirectcorollaryofthe‘wrong-headed’conquests(asIseeit)oftheMacedonianWunderkind.WithAlexander,Greecehadswungroundtofaceeastandsouth,towardsAsiaMinor,SyriaandEgypt.ThelastemigrationoftheGreekswestward–somesixtythousandpeopleapparentlyinresponsetoadesperateappealbyTimoleon,therulerwhorestoredthefreedomofSyracuse–datesfromabout338.Admittedly,AlexanderisthoughttohavecontemplatedattackingCarthage,whichlivedinfearofsuchanassaultforyearsonend.Butin323AlexanderdiedinBabylonandhisempirebegantofall

apartatonce.WhatwouldhavehappenedtoItalyifAlexanderhadignoredAsiaand

turnedhisforcesonthewest?VonHassel’squestionisthekindthatcomesunderfireforseekingtorewritehistory,butitistemptingallthesametothinkofSyracuseasthecentreofaGreekEmpiretriumphingoverbothRomeandCarthageandbequeathingaGreekculturetothewestdirectly,withoutRomesteppingintoactasintermediaryandscreen.Butthewarwhichnevertookplacewaseffectivelylost.Likeitornot,theissueofwhowastoruletheMediterraneanwasalreadybeingdecidedatthatpointinhistoryinthecentralareaofthesea,betweenthetwobasins.

Darius’empireiscutofffromtheMediterranean

NoonehaseversatisfactorilyexplainedAlexander’sconquestofPersia.Itistheapparenteasewithwhichheaccomplisheditthatpuzzlesone.NeitherthefamiliarclaimsforthestrengthsofMacedoniaandGreecenorthoseconcerningtheweaknessorevendecayofthePersianEmpireareparticularlyconvincing.Thelatterhadbeeninexistenceforacentury,butacenturyisnothing

inthelifetimeofsuchanorganism.Andthemonsterlookedquitehealthy,despiteafewinternalproblems.Theroadswerebusy,theadministrationasefficientasitcouldbeinthosefar-offdays.Asregardsbeliefs,Persiawasalreadytolerant,asIslamwastobeinlatertimes.TheadventureoftheTenThousandbynomeanspointedtoanyfatalweakness.WhenCyrustheYoungertriedtodethronehisbrotherArtaxerxes,the‘TenThousand’wereGreekmercenariesinhisservice:theywerevictoriousatthebattleofCunaxa(401)butthedeathofCyrusonthebattlefieldcancelledouthistriumph.TheGreeksthenmanagedtopersuadeArtaxerxestowithdrawtowardstheBlackSea:theymiraculouslyescapedthetreacheryofthePersians,thankstothe

energeticactionofXenophon,andfinallyreachedtheBosphoruswheretheytookship.TheepisodepointedtointernalPersianconflictsandtothesuccessofagroupofdeterminedmen,butitalsorevealedthepovertyofGreece:itwasapparentlycondemnedtoexportitssurplusmen,thevagabondswhosoworriedIsocrates,totherichstateofPersiawhichcouldaffordtoemploythem.TheepisodeoftheTenThousandastoldinXenophon’sAnabasis,while‘anadmirablepieceofwarreporting’,isintheendthestoryofaretreat.AsforthepolicyofcorruptionpractisedinGreecebythebasileis,the

GreatKings,thisisevidenceneitherofstrengthnorofweakness.ItenabledthePersiansindirectlytodefeatAthensin404,andtheyalsobenefitedfromtheiralliancewithSpartatoimposethepeaceofAntalcidas(386)whichgavethemcontroloftheGreekcitiesinAsiaMinor.Whatdoesallthissignify?Iwouldliketopointtotwoexplanations,

oneofthemoftenputforwardandobviouslycarryingsomeweight,theothervirtuallyunknown,althoughitwasfirstformulatedlongago.Thefirststressesthelogicalconnectionbetweenthefirstcampaignsof

Alexander:in334hewasvictoriousattheGranicus,andin333inIssusandTyre,whichhecapturedafteralongsiege.ThenheoccupiedEgyptwithoutafight.Duringtheselightningcampaigns,thevictoriousarmysimplyworkeditswayroundtheshorelineoftheMediterranean.Thusasifwithasurgeon’sknife,thehugemassofthePersianEmpirewasdetachedfromtheMediterranean:itsroadswerecut,andnowlednowhere.ThesymbolofthissurgicaloperationwasthecaptureandphysicalandhumanliquidationofTyreandGaza,whichhadputupadesperatedefencebutwhichtheconquerordestroyedleavingnostonestandingnordefenderalive.Withoutitsfleet,thegreatempirewasblind.In331,afterthisoperation,AlexanderfoughthiswayeasttowardstheheartofthePersianEmpire.ThefateoftheempirewassealedonthefarsideoftheTigris,atthebattleofGaugamela.CompletionoftheconquestmeantpursuingDarius,bringingtoheelthesatrapseastofIran,anddescendingupontheIndus–fantasticjourneysanddifficultfeatsofprowess;butby331,thePersianEmpirehadbeenbroughttoitsknees.

TheMacedoniancavalry

ThesecondexplanationwassuggestedbyE.-F.Gautierin1930.ThestrengthofAlexander’sarmy(andofthelittlegroupofMacedonianswhoformedhisgeneralstaffandthecoreofhiscompanionsinfighting,drinkingandgeneralroistering)layinthecavalry.UntilthentheGreekhoplite,afoot-soldier,hadneverhadtheeffectiveprotectionofarealcorpsofcavalry.ThePersians,whobycontrasthadexcellenthorsesandhorsemen,hadhadtorecruitinfantrymenfromtheothersidetoprotectthemselvesagainstGreekincursions.In334thearmytheyfieldedinthefirstencounterswithAlexanderwascommandedbyaGreek,Memnon,andlargelymadeupofGreekmercenariesfightingasfoot-soldiers.ThenewelementintroducedbyAlexander,alongsidethephalanx,

whichremainedaformidableandrespectedforce,wasthereforethecorpsofcavalry,basedonselectivehorse-breedingandeffectivelyawayoflifefortheMacedonianwarlords.HorsesprovedtobetheidealwarmachinetoconquerthegreatexpansesofthePersianEmpire.Inlatertimes,inthedaysofCrassus,AntonyandTrajan,RomewasunabletoconquertheParthians,forwantofagenuinecavalryforce.WemightreflectthatthereconquestoftheBalkansfromtheTurksintheeighteenthcenturyadwasachievedthankstotheAustriancavalry,alatedevelopmentwhichprovidedPrinceEugenewiththekeytovictory.ThePersians,ofcourse,hadperfectlygoodcavalryoftheirown:the

Persiannobleswerebornhorsemen.ButtheMacedonianforcehadthedoubleadvantageofbeingheavy,wellprotectedandwellarmed,thecavalrymenwieldingbothlanceandsabre.Itwasalsodividedintosquadrons;inotherwords,efficientlycommanded.ItwasthisdisciplinewhichledtoitstriumphattheGranicus,IssusandontheTigris.Persiawasconqueredinarapidmovement,justasinthepastithad

conqueredothers–MesopotamiaorEgypt.Itcollapsedafterasinglecampaign,asortofBlitzkrieg,likeahealthymanstruckdownsuddenlybyillnessintheprimeoflife.SimilarepisodesoccurredduringtheMuslim,MongolandTurkishconquests.Oneachoccasionspeed,whetherofhorsesorcamels,wasavitalfactor.Wemightreflectthatin

1940,France,neitheradecadentnorapoornation,wasdefeatedinalightningcampaignbyGermanarmoureddivisions,thetwentieth-centuryversionofcavalry.Historyisfullof‘unkindstrokesoffate’.

Along-termcolonization

OnAlexander’sdeathinJune323,hisempirefellapartalmostatonce.Itwouldbealongstorytodescribewhathappenedtothesefragments,Macedonia,SyriaundertheSeleucids,andEgyptundertheLagids,betweenthisdateandtheestablishmentofthePaxRomana.Apartfrompoliticalevents,theretookplacewhatonehastocall,forwantofabetterterm,acolonizationoftheMiddleEastbytheGreeks,asapeopleandadominantculturebecameestablishedthere.Thiscolonization,whichRomeinherited,lastedabouttencenturies,untiltheMuslimconquestsoftheseventhcenturyad–whichareashardtounderstandatfirstsightasthevictoryofthe‘younggod’Alexander.Tencenturieselapsed–inotherwords,enoughtoembracethewholeoftheknownhistoryofFrance.Andyet,‘aftertencenturies,atonestrokeoftheArabscimitar,everythingcollapsedovernight:Greeklanguageandthought,westernpatternsofliving,everythingwentupinsmoke.Onthisterritory,athousandyearsofhistorywereasiftheyhadneverbeen.Theyhadnotbeensufficientforthewesttoputdowntheslightestrootsinthisorientalsoil.TheGreeklanguageandsocialcustomshadbeennomorethanalayer,apoorlyfittingmask.AlltheGreekcitieswhichhadbeenfoundedandgrownup,fromthebanksoftheNiletotheHinduKush,anyrealorapparentimplantationofGreekartandphilosophy,allofithadgonewiththewind.’Well,perhapswehavetoacceptthat.Andlookingatitfromtheotherendofhistory,aftertheattemptsatEuropeancolonizationonIslamicsoil,thehistorianmayconcludethatnoconqueringcivilizationcaneversucceedincountrieswithaveryancientculturalidentity.Impenetrable

‘walls’preventacculturationtakingplace.Perhapstheexpansionofcivilizationsisonlypossiblewhentheyencounterprimitivecultures.Itwasinordertoemphasizethislong-termproblemthatthetitleofthissectionreferredrathercondescendinglyto‘Alexander’smistake’.IfHellenism,withallthevigourandcriticalmassitpossessedatthatmoment,hadturnedtowardsthewestanditscomparativelyunknownlands,mightitnothavepre-emptedthedestinyofRome?

Greeceisconqueredin146bc

Letusmoveonseveralcenturies.In148BC,MacedoniahadbeenreducedtoaRomanprovince.Twoyearslater,followingagitationfromCorinthandtheAchaeantrouble-makersyetagain,Romeintervened,Corinthwasrazedtotheground,andGreecetoowasreducedtothestatusofaprovince.OnlySparta,AthensandDelphihadtheprivilegedstatusoffederatedcities.ThissubjugationtoRomewassimplyonelinkinalongchain.SyracusewascapturedbyMarcellusin212;TarentumwasoccupiedbyFabiusMaximusin209.AndthelaststagesinthischronologyweretobethereductiontothestatusofRomanprovincesofSyriain63andEgyptin31.Bytheendofthisprotractedprocess,theGreeksphereofinfluencehadbeenincorporatedbyRomeintoaMediterraneanunitwhichwasforcenturiestocometobethebasisofRome’smightanditsdailyexistence.Gradually,soonerorlater,themenfromItalyestablishedtheirrule,administeringandgoverning,puttinganendtothefreedomsandturbulenceoftheoldcity-statesandthepretensionsofformerkingdoms.TheMediterraneanbecameacalmerplace,lulledintosomnolencebythebenefitsandthedangersofthe‘heavyuniformityofthePaxRomana’.Yetatthesametime,GreekimmigrantsflockedtoRome,asthecapitaloftheworldwas‘Hellenized’.Thevanquishedweretakingtheirrevenge.

IIIGreekscienceandthought(eighthtosecondcenturiesBC)

Inwhatfollows,specialemphasiswillbeplacedonscience,theroadtothefuturewhichtheGreekssobrilliantlyopened.Butsciencewaspartofagreaterwhole:itwascontainedandsurroundedandtranscendedbyGreekthoughtinamoregeneralsense,andthatinitsturnwaspartofacomplex‘setofsets’:whatwewouldtodaycallGreekcivilization.Inthisgalaxy,everythingwasconnected.Butthisverycoherenceisproblematic.Itisconcealedunderagreatmassofscholarship,andahugeliterature,whichtacklesonlyonesectoratatime.WehavemanyhistoriesofGreekliterature(onecanstillconsultwithprofitthatbyA.andM.Croisetdatingfrom1887–93);andthereareplentyofhistoriesofphilosophy–everygenerationrewritesthisforitself.HistoriesofGreekart,thankstotoday’simprovedtechnology,captivateuswiththeirmagnificentillustrations;therearesomeexcellenthistoriesofreligion,andevenhistoriesofeverydaylife.Butwhatislackingintheendisanoverallwork,acomprehensivesynthesis–andperhapsitisimpossibleeventoenvisageanysuch,sincewecannotyetgraspwhatitsunderlyingconceptwouldbe.ClaudeLevi-Straussoncejokedtomethatafewminutes’conversationwithPlatowouldtellhimmoreaboutGreekthoughtthanallthebooksonhisshelves.Well,Iamnotsosure:tofindoutaboutitonthespotwouldmeanahundredinterviews.WhatonewouldreallyliketodoisspendayearinMiletusinabout600BC,anotherinSamosin550andsoon,jumpingacrosstimeandspace.MyownpreferencesgototheearlystagesofGreekthought–longbeforeHerodotus,SocratesorPhidias,orevenThalesofMiletus.Perhapsthisisamatteroftaste:thegreatcompositionsofclassicalartarenotmyfavourites.Butitisalsoaquestionoftactics.ThemostobscureproblemaboutGreekcivilizationishowdiditallbegin?

Originsandperiodization

Todistinguishbetweenthedifferentperiodsisofcourseanecessarystep,althoughasomewhattediousone.ThehistorianalwayspreferstodivideupthedifficultyandfindsecurityinwhatBenjaminFarrington(1965)calls‘akindofscaffolding’.HedistinguishesbetweenthreestagesinthegeneraldevelopmentofGreekscience:from600to400BC,whenforthefirsttimeinhumanhistory,‘ascientificconceptionoftheworldandofsciencewaselaborated’;theyearsfrom400to320,withPlatoandAristotle,whichsawthemajorfloweringofphilosophy;andfinallytheyearsfrom320to120,underthepatronageofthePtolemiesinthegreatcityofAlexandriainEgypt,whenthevariousbranchesofthesciencessetuptheir‘stateoftheart’compendia:thiswasthetimeoftheencyclopedia,thesummaandthetextbook,thetimeforfinalreckoningswhichissooftenasignalthatsomethingiscomingtoanend.Thisperiodizationisdebatableofcourse.Thedateschosen(especiallythefirstone:Iwouldmyselfprefertotake800BCratherthan600)couldbedifferent.Butitsvalueliesinsettingupaneasilyunderstooddialecticfromoneperiodtoanother,whichallowsustodetecttheoverallprocess,withtheverybeginning,the‘Greekspring’sotospeak,beinginmyviewthekeymoment.Thecenturiesfrom800to400sawtheriseofthecitiesandthefloweringofart,withasuccessionofstyles:fromthegeometricaltotheorientalizingandtheclassical;itwasthetimeofgrandsculptureandarchitecture,thetimewhentheDoricandIonianordersweredefined,bythesixthcentury,tobefollowedbytheCorinthian.Anditwasalsothegreatageofliterature.Duringthesefourcenturies,everykindofwritingappearedandflourished,startingwiththeepic.FirstcameHomer,thenHesiod;lyricversewasscarcelypresentatfirstbutreachedapinnaclewithPindar(514-438),bywhichtimewehavealreadyreachedthefifthcenturywiththearistocraticpoetofThebesandthepassionatedevoteeofDelphi.ItwasonlylongafterHesiodthatthereligiousfestivalsinAthensgavebirthtotragedyandcomedy,duringthereign(gloriousinspiteofeverything)ofPisistratus(560-517).Thisorderofsuccessionwastheregularpatternonefindsinmanynationalliteratures.InthecaseofFranceforinstance,ournationalliteraturestartsmoreorlesswiththeSongofRoland,andourtheatrewasbornoutofmysteriesandpassionplays.

Butwhatdoesthisdevelopmenttellus?Itisatthispointthat,consciouslyornot,allcommentatorsbegintointroducevaluejudgementsaboutthemeritsofGreekartandphilosophy.WouldNietzschehavecausedsuchascandaltodayashedidin1871bypronouncingthatthedecadenceofGreecestartedatleastwithEuripidesandwascleartoseewithSocrates?HeputsthehighpointatthemomentofthebirthoftragedywhenApolloandDionysuswerereconciled:‘theApolloniannotionofbeauty’whichisaclearconsciousness,atranslationofthe‘worldasitappears’intoanaestheticandrationalvision,andtheDionysiacspiritofmysticecstasyandintoxication,withtheorgiasticmusicoftheBacchanalianchorusesovercomingclarityandself-consciousness.Butthisreconciliationonlylastedforawhile.Intheend,‘theambiguousgodofwineanddeathyieldedthestagetoApolloandthetriumphofrationality,totheoreticalandpracticalutilitarianism[inotherwordsscience]aswellasdemocracy,whichwasacontemporaryphenomenon’:thesewerethe‘symptomsof[the]ageing’ofGreekcivilizationandforNietzschetheyforeshadowedthedepressingspectacleofthemodernwesternworld.Thelanguageheusedmayhaveageditself,butnotperhapstheideathatGreekthoughtwasmostvigorousinitsyouth.‘EverythingIwrite’,saysAubreydeSelincourt,‘tendstorejecttheverywidespreadideathatthepinnacleofHelleniccivilizationcoincidedwiththe“AgeofPericles”.Brilliantthoughthatagemayhavebeen,Iconsideritonthecontrarytomarktheendofmanythingswhichwereamongthemostpreciouscharacteristicsofthatremarkablerace’.Iamstronglyinclinedtosharethisview.Hencemychoicesofperiodization.IwouldprefernottoextendthegoldenagefarbeyondHerodotus,theextraordinaryfatherofhistorywhowasalsothefoundingfatherofgeographyandanthropology;andtosetasideThucydides,thescientifichistorianoftheshortterm,despitehisexceptionaltalents;Iwouldincludeinthosemarvellousspringtimeyears(despitealittleproblemwiththechronology)HippocratesofCos(?46o-?377),thefatherofscientificmedicine,andevenProtagorasofAbdera,thefirstoftheSophists(thosetravellingoratorswhoclaimedtoteachtheartofgovernmentandwhomPlatosodisliked,butinwhomwemightdetecttheveryfirstsociologists,marginalthoughtheywere);andIwouldfinallydrawaline

beforePlatoandAristotle.Imaybeburntasahereticforsayingso,butinmyviewbythetimetheycameonthescene,everythingworthwhilehadbeenaccomplished.

Thelegacyoftheeast

GreeceinAsia,whereGreeksciencefirstbeganinthesixthcentury,wascloselylinkedtoanAsiaMinorwhichhadrecoveredquicklyfromtheScythianandCimmerianinvasions,aswellastoneo-HittiteSyria,toPalestine,Egypt,whichcouldbereachedbysea,andtoAssyria,thenewandviolentbutverylivelyincarnationofancientMesopotamia.ThalesofMiletuswasreputed,rightlyorwrongly,tobethesonofaPhoenicianwoman,andtohavetravelledinEgyptandMesopotamiawherehelearnedgeometryandastronomy.ThesedetailsmightnotmatterifwedidnotnowknowforcertainthatEgyptandMesopotamia,andbeforethemthevariedculturesoftheMiddleEast,alreadyhadsolidfoundationsinscientificenquiry.ThemeasuringoffieldsinEgypt(whichhadtobedoneeveryyearafterthefloods)andtheastronomyoftheBabylonians,basedonaritualandmeticulousobservationofthestarsandplanets,gaverisetosubstantialprogressinbothalgebraandgeometry.WemightamuseourselvesbytryingtosolvetheproblemswhichtheEgyptianssolved,butusingothermeans.Whatnumbercomesto19ifyouaddoneseventhtoit?answer:16+½+⅛(tryitwithdecimals).Provethatthesidesofahexagoninscribedwithinacircleareequaltotheradiusofthecircle.Apieceofstringdividedintothreepartsintheproportions3,4and5willformaright-angledtriangle.Forthevalueofpi,whiletheyoriginallyadopted3,whichmeantidentifyingthecirclewiththeperimeterofthehexagon,theyfinallyarrivedataprettycloseapproximation,3.1604.TheBabyloniansalsoresolvedproblemsrelatingtosurfacearea:giventhesurfaceareaof600unitsofanysize,whatistheirlengthandbreadth,iftheirdifference,squaredandmultipliedby9,isequaltothesquareofthelength?Answer:length30bywidth2.0.ItisdoubtfulwhetheronecouldarriveunaidedatthemethodofreasoningadoptedbytheEgyptiansortheBabylonians.Butthedetailofthesecomplexcalculationsislessimportantthantheknowledgeandreasoninglying

behindthem.Alongsidethisearlymathematics,therewassomepioneeringchemistryinBabylon,medicineinEgypt,andastronomyinMesopotamia,wheretheskyhadbeenobservedforcenturiesfromtheziggurats.ThedocumentsamassedtherewereofgreathelptoThalesandprobablyenabledhimtopredicttheeclipseofthesunon28May585,fortunatelyvisiblefromAsiaMinor.Inshort,theGreekmiraclewasfoundedonasolidbasisestablishedlongbefore.ButGreeksciencedidnotsimplydeveloptheworkofitspredecessors.Ithadtoinventanewcastofthought,anewwayofaskingquestionsabouttheworldandinterpretingobservations,andtoclaimtherighttodecidebetweencompetingexplanations.TheGreekmiracle–whichwemightidentifywiththeacceptanceoftheworldofhypotheses–waspartofthedemystificationofthesacredwhichhadoccurredwithintheGreekworldview.Butasinallcasesofintellectualinnovation–whichoftenscandalizecontemporaries–thisdidnothappenovernightoreveninaclearandfullyconsciousmanner.Thebirthofscienceobviouslyinvolvedawholesocietyanditstechnology.Egyptiansocietyhadbeenbuiltintheageofbronzeandgreatempires.Greeksciencewasbornintheageofironandcity-states.

TheIonianbreakthrough

ItwasMiletus(ratherthanEphesus,althoughtheremarkablephilosopherHeraclituswasborninthelattercity)thatsawthefirstpioneeringformofGreekscience.Sincethesixthcentury,thecityhadhadahundredorsotradingpostsontheshoresoftheBlackSea.InItalyithadapowerfulcolonyinSybaris,whichre-exporteditsindustrialmerchandise,anditwasalsopresentinEgyptinthevitaltradingcentreofNaucratis.SoMiletuswasanimportantcommercialcity,oneofthemostsignificantoftheHellenicconstellationinthesixthcentury.Scienceisalwaysthedaughterofleisure,possibleonlyinasocietywherethereareprivilegedpeoplewithfreetimeontheirhands,notablyingreatcities.AlltheIoniangiantsofphilosophy–Thales,Anaximander,Anaximenes–areexamplesofthisrule.Unfortunatelyweknowverylittleabouttheirwork,whichiswhythey

arealwaysmentionedinthesamebreathratherthanindividually.Theywereallindeedconcernedwithattemptingtoexplaintheuniverse,theproblemthateverycivilizationencountersfromthestart.Thequestionhaseithertobedismissedoransweredtothebestofone’sability.EgyptandBabyloniahandledthequestionbyappealingtomiraculousexplanations,thegodsalwaysbeingtheretobackuptheirreasoning.Ionian‘positivism’gotridofthegods,expellingthemfromthenaturalworldandrelyingratherontheelementswhichwerethoughtofasactinginthemselves,beinglivingmatter.ForThales,everythingderivedfromasingleprinciple:Water.Afterall,theBabyloniansusedtosaythatMardukhaddrawnmudandearthoutoftheoriginalmightywaters.‘ButThalesignoredMardukandimaginedauniverseformedoutofwaterbyanaturalprocess’.Anaximander’screationhypothesisisbetterknown:heimaginedfourelements:Earth,Fire,WaterandVapour(notAirasissometimessaid),whichweredisposedoneontopoftheother.Fire,ontheoutsidesurroundingtherest,madesomeofthewaterevaporate,thentheearthsplitapartandturnedintowheelsoffire.Thisviewissometimesdescribedascomparingthecreationoftheworldwithablacksmith’sforgeorapotter’sfurnace.InfactAnaximanderhadageometricimageoftheuniverse.Theelements,howevertheystruggledandwhateverformstheyassumed,hadtobeinsomekindofequilibrium,an‘equalityofpower’.Allofthemderivedultimatelyfromtheinfiniteindeterminatesubstancewhichhecalledapeiron,aneutralmaterialfromwhichbinaryoppositionsemerged:darkandlight,hotandcold,dryandwet,thickandthin,aswellasWater,VapourandFire.Theseelementsinturncombinedtogiverisetolivingcreatures,plants,animals,humans,accordingtoanaturalorderwherebynooneelementdominatedtheothersinanyformofdunasteiaormonarchia.AdoctorandPythagoreanphilosopher,Alcmeon,repeatedintheearlyfifthcenturytheimagewhichbythenhadbecomecommonplacethat‘healthwasabalanceofpowers,isonomiatondunameon,whilesicknessresultedonthecontraryfromthedominationofoneelementovertheothers’(J.-P.Vernant).Inshort,thiswasaviewofacosmoswithoutahierarchy,wherenooneelementfullyobeyedanother,aworldinwhichconflictsbalanced

out,remindingusirresistiblyofthesocialandpoliticalstructureofthepolis.Governmentwasnolongerinthehandsofgodsorkingsbutinthehandsofmenwhohadequalrights.Anaximander’suniversereflectedtheidealizedequilibriumofthecity-state.Theworldviewchangedbecausetheworldhadchangedanditbecamepossibletoprojecttheeverydayworldontothecosmos.J.-P.Vernantsumsitupasfollows:‘WhenAristotledefinesmanasapoliticalanimal,heispointingtosomethingthatdifferentiatesReasonintheGreeksensefromthatofourtime.IfinhiseyesHomosapienswasHomopoliticus,thatwasbecauseReasonwasitselfpoliticalinessence.’Thereislittlehereofcoursewhichrelatestothe‘empiricalreasoning’ofmodernscience,basedonmethodicalobservationfromwhichthelawsofnaturecanbededuced.ButIonianphysics,basedontheoryratherthanonexperimentaltruth,wasneverthelessthefirststeptowardsmodernscience,fortworeasons.Inthefirstplaceitwaslookingforareasonableexplanationandwasexperimentingwiththelanguageofmathematicswhichisitselfaformofrationality.Iftheearth,inAnaximander’ssystem,wasinperfectbalanceatthecentreofthecosmos,anddidnotneedtobesupported(bywater,asThalesclaimed,orbyacushionofair,whichwasAnaximenes’explanation)thatwasbecauseitwastrulyinthecentre,andsustainedbyequalpressurefromeveryquarter.Secondly,oncethegodshadvacatedthefieldastheexplanationoftheuniverse,everyhypothesiscouldbeentertained:humanshadbecomefreetoseekandimagine;andfromnowontheywouldnotceasetodoso.AnaxagorasofClazomenae,whoapartfromhisownmeritswasthemanwhointroducedMilesianthoughttoAthens(from460),believedhehadconfirmedtheearthlynatureofthestarsbystudyingthehugemeteoritewhichfellatAigosPotamosin468or467andwhichwasstillbeingstudiedintheageofPausanias.Attheheartofallthis,onewouldliketoknowmoreabouttheobviousroleexperimentaltechnologymusthaveplayedinthe‘new’cityofMiletus,whetherthefurnaceorpotter’skiln,thetradingship,orthemoney-changer’sshop!OnecanatleastmarvelatthefirstoverallmapoftheMediterraneandrawnupformarinersbyHecataeusofMiletuswhohadsailedin500asfarasthePillarsofHercules.Allthegood

fairiesstoodaroundthecradleofGreekscience.Theirgiftswere:foreigninfluence,mathematics,technologicalexperiment,acertainabsenceofreligiousconstraintsandatasteforgeneralization.

HeraclitusofEphesus

FromnowonalltheGreekthinkerswouldtrytocomeupwithanexplanationoftheoriginsoftheworld,andtheirsolutionsfollowedonandcontradictedoneanother,fromonecitytothenext.Interpretingthemisoftenverydifficult.WhowoulddaresayhehasunderstoodHeraclitusofEphesus,poet,prophet,philosopher,andwell-deservingofhisnickname‘theObscure’?Socratesissupposedtohavesaidthattoventureintothisdeliberatelycomplexthoughtsytem,oneoughttobea‘diverofDelos’andhavethesameagility!Whatismore,onlyafewmoreorlessauthenticfragmentshavecomedowntous,oftenstrangelybeautifulin‘theiroracularbrevity,[notunlike]Pascal’sPensées’.Onecouldwonderforever,whenreadingthesefragmentsorthecommentariesonthembyancientphilosophersandhistoriansofthought,whatitwasthatHeraclitusreallythought,orevenwhatdirectionhisthoughtwastaking.Washeaphysicist,amystic,aninitiateoftheOrphicandDionysiacmysteries,alogicianoranaturalphilosopher?Everyinterpretationhasbeenputonhisthought.Whatisclear,however,isthatHeraclituswassearching–inthe

authenticallyMilesianway–foralogicalinterpretationofnature.Forhim,firewasthekeytransformingagent,‘thelightningthatdrivestheuniverse’:‘FirecomestolifebythedeathoftheEarth,andAirbythedeathofFire;WaterlivesbythedeathofAirandtheEarthbythedeathofWater’.‘Everythingflows’throughthemetamorphosisofoneelementintoanothersothat‘allbecomingisastruggle’and‘theworldisaharmonyoftensions,byturnstautandrelaxed,likethestringsonalyreorabow’.Thisisthelanguageofavisionary.Itisnotsurprisingthat

‘thegreatHeraclitus’wasforNietzschethesymbolofthe‘Dionysiacprofundities’.ButHeraclitusbelievedthateverythingobeyedanimmutablelaw,by

meansofwhich‘theambientmilieuisprovided’withreason.‘Thereisonlyonewisdom:toknowtheThoughtwhichguidesallthingsthroughtheWhole’,andhewhopenetratesthe‘heartoftheuniverse’willbeabletocuretheillsoftheuniverseandeventheillsofhumanbeings.Surelythisideaofasuperiorlaw,intelligibletohumanreason,whichthesagemustpursueinordertocontrolnature,correspondsfairlypreciselytoourmodernideaofscience,theexplanationofaworld‘uniformlyconstitutedforall,notcreatedbyanygodorman,butwhichhasalwaysexistedandalwayswillexist,afirecontinuallyburning,flaringupanddyingdownindueorder’.

Thezigzagprogressofscience

Afterabout530,Ioniawasnolongerprosperousandindependent,butthetorchwhichhadbeenlittherehadbarelydieddownbeforeitwasrekindledelsewhere,inthecitiesofSicilyandGreaterGreece.ThesewerethecentresfortheparallelendeavoursofPythagorasandtheEleaticSchool,idealistreactionsagainstIonianpositivism.Pythagoraswasborninc.582andleftSamosin532.Fleeingfromthe

Persians,hetookrefugeatCrotonwherehebecamenotonlytheleaderofaschoolofthoughtbutalsotheleaderofareligioussect,whosecentralconcernswerepurificationandasceticism.Hisexplanationoftheoriginoftheuniverse–hehadhisown,needlesstosay–neverthelessledfromPythagoreanismtothatmostabstractofsciences,mathematics.ForPythagorasandhisdisciples,numberwasthekeytotheuniverse,

asFirehadbeenforHeraclitus.Numberhadanexistenceofitsown,outwiththehumanmind,‘andeverythingwhichcanbeknown’,asafourth-centurycommentatorputit,‘possessesaNumber,withoutwhich

itcanneitherbecomprehendednorknown’.ThismythdirectedthePythagoreanstowardsthestudyofthepropertiesofnumber:luckyandunluckynumbers,numberssquaredandcubed;themiraculousnatureofthenumber10whichisthesumofthefirstfournumbers1,2,3and4.Thisledthemtodiscoverproportions(ratios),arithmetical,geometrical,harmonic;ingeometry,‘theycalledthepointOne,thestraightlineTwo,theplaneThreeandthesolidFour,accordingtothenumberofpointsittooktodefineeachitem,apoint,aline,anareaandavolume’.Suchreflectionsevenledthemtocalculatetheorbitsofthesunandtheplanets,toaccountfortheirrealasopposedtotheirapparentmovements,tostudyacousticsandmusic,andtoassertthattheearthwasasphere.Theirbest-known,thoughnotmostimportantdiscovery,waswhatweknowasPythagoras’theorem,accordingtowhich,ineveryright-angledtriangle,thesquareofthehypotenuseisequaltothesquaresoftheothertwosides.Butonedaytheapprenticemathematiciansfoundthemselvesfaced

withtheenigmaoftheirrationalnumbers.Anumberisirrationalinrelationtoanotherwhenithasnocommonmeasurewiththelatter,andnoquotientwhichcanbeexpressedineitherawholenumberorafraction.Forexample:therelationbetweenthediameterofacircleanditscircumferenceisanirrationalnumber.Infactitwastheright-angledisoscelestrianglewhichrevealedtheexistenceofirrationalnumbers.Letussupposethatinsuchanisoscelestrianglethetwosidesoftherightangleareoneunitlong.Thehypotenusewillbeequaltothesquarerootofz.Thissimpleanswer,whichishowwewouldputit,wasnotavailableatthetime,butitcouldeasilybedemonstratedthatthehypotenusewassmallerthan2(thesumofthetwoothersides)andlargerthan1soitcouldnotberepresentedbyawholenumber.Andneithercoulditberepresentedbyafraction(thiswouldtakelongertodemonstrate).Itfollowedthatonanygivenvector,thenumberofpointswasnotfinite,asthePythagoreanshadpreviouslythought:aswellaswholenumbers,fractionsandirrationalnumberscontinuedintoinfinity.Butinthatcase,reducingtheworldtonumberscannolongerbeseen

assimplifyingitsimage,ifthenumberofnumbersisinfinite.‘MathematicswasbornfromPythagoreanism’,onehistorianconcludes,‘andlikeaboomerang,itreboundedonit.’

Thereactionwasnotslowtoappear,anegationofthePythagoreanviewofnumbers,fromthecityofEleaorVeliaonthecoastofLucaniainthefirsthalfofthefifthcentury.Parmenides(bornc.530)centredhisenquiriesonBeing,anoverallimmutabletruth,tobedistinguishedfromopinion,orNon-Being,whichwasmerelytheappearanceofthings.Herejectedthe‘multiple’,thatisthetheoriesoftheIoniansandPythagoreans,asbelongingwithappearances–hencethecontroversy.Itwasindefenceofhismaster,andindefianceofcommonsense,thatZenocameupwithhisfamousparadoxes:Achillescannevercatchupwiththetortoise;thearrowneverreachesitsdestination,etc.Itwouldtaketoolongtoexplainhowtheseimagesarebothabsurdandnotabsurd.TheybecomealmostreasonableiftheyareviewedasarejoindertoPythagoreanideas,anattempttodemonstratethatthelatterwereabsurd.Reasoninginthiswayabouttheabsurdmarksthebeginningoflogic,ordialecticasAristotlewouldcallit,andoncemorethezigzagprogressofsciencebenefited.Afterthisorgyoflogic-chopping,wemightnotethereturntothe

concretewiththeexperimentsofEmpedoclesofAgrigento(500-430),whichdemonstratedtheroleofair,thepressureitexertedandtheneedtosubstituteairforvapouramongtheelements.ThesamewouldbetrueoftheargumentsofDemocritus,whowasthefirstphilosophertospeakoftinyinvisibleparticles,or‘atoms’,ortobeprecise‘theindivisibles’.Thelivingarchitectureoftheworldwasmadeupofaprofusionofatomsratherthanaprofusionofnumbers.Inthelightofpresent-dayatomicphysicsandchemistry,hisworldview,asrevealedbyaturnofphrasehereandthere,sometimesseemsdeceptivelymodern.

ScienceintheageofPericles

BythefifthcenturyBCatanyrate,theproblemofsciencewasunambiguouslyposed,whileatthesametimeaconflictarosebetween

pureandappliedscience.SocratesandPlatowereidealists:theirquarrywasthattimidand

elusivebird,thehumansoul,imprisonedonlybrieflyintheworldofmen.Scienceforthemwassimplyaformofmeditation,aroadtowardsaneternalanddisembodiedthought.NoonewasallowedintoPlato’sAcademyunlesshewasproficientatgeometry.Whenasked‘WhatdoesGoddoallday?’hereplied‘Geometry’.Butpracticalorappliedsciencewasanathematohim.IntheGorgias,Platohaddescribedthemeritsofamilitaryengineer:‘Yetyoudespisehimandhisskill,youcallhimengineerasaninsult,andyouwouldnotwishtomarryyoursontohisdaughter,normarryhisdaughteryourself.’WhenArchytasofTarentummadewoodendovesflyintheair,andbecameenthusiasticaboutothermechanicaltoys,Platofumed:‘Heiscorruptinggeometry…strippingitofdignitybyforcingittodescendfromtheimmaterialandpurelyintelligibletocorporealandembodiedobjects;tomakeuseofvilematterwhichrequiresmanuallabourandisusedforserviletrades.’Theseareanecdotesbutthetaletheytellisclear.ThisdivorcebetweenGreekscienceandtheurgetomakemechanical

experimentscorrespondedtoarecentchangeinGreeksociety.MichelRostovtzeffnotedthat‘Greekartofthearchaicandclassicalperiodsneverneglectedthedepictionoftrades’.Potterythusoffersusaseriesoftableauxofeverydaylife,butartwouldsubsequentlyturnawayfrom‘mechanical’subjects,deemedcontemptible.‘Whatareknownasthemechanicalarts’,Xenophontellsis,‘carryasocialstigmaandarerightlyscornedinourcities.’PublicopinioninAthenswasunsympathetictoscientificexperiment

forotherreasons.Astronomersandscholarsappearedtobemenlackingpiety,inotherwordstheydemystifiedtheheavensandthestarswhichweretraditionallyreveredasdeities.Protagoraswasbanished,andAnaxagorasputinprison,whichhewasabletoescapeonlywiththehelpofPericleshimself:buthesubsequentlyleftAthens,whichwasnohavenoffreethought.EvenSocratesthoughtitwaspointlesstoaskquestionsabouttheorbitsofstarsandthemovementsoftheplanetsortheircauses.ItistruethatPlatoprobablyhelpedgiveastronomyabettername,butonlywhenhecameroundtotheviewofhisdisciples,namelythattheobservablemovementsoftheplanetsmayseemrandom(the

wordplanetinGreekmeanswanderer)butthisisonlyapparent:theirrealmovementsareperfectlyregularandtherefore,likethestars,obeysomedivineorder.Whythencondemnastronomy,whichwasmovingawayfromthetiresometheoriesofthePythagoreansand(since‘thenaturallawswereoncemoresubordinatetotheauthorityofdivineprinciples’asPlutarchputit)wasreturningtoitsstateofinnocence?ButPlato’sapprovalofastronomyisambiguousandstilldisregardstheresearchoftheIoniansintonaturalcauseswhichmightexplainthestructureoftheuniverse.ThedesacralizationoftheGreekworldwasthusneithercompletenorrapid.Fifth-centuryscienceneverthelessbenefitedfromthefruitfulresultsof

thoughtwhichturnedinwardsandnottotheoutsideworld.ThePlatonicdistinctionbetweentheroleofthoughtandthatofperceptionasinstrumentsofknowledgewastobeessentialtothefutureofscience.ThesamewastrueoftheacutesenseofmathematicalabstractionwhichbroughtPlatonicphilosophytogetherwithpurescience.Butonecannotaltogetherescapetheimpressionthatatthemostcreativehighpointofphilosophicalthought,therejectionofempiricalandexperimentalscienceclosedoffcertainpathswhichhadpreviouslybeenopen.

AristotleofStagira

InasenseitwasAristotlewhosavedforposterityasubstantialpartofancientscientificthought.BorninStagiraontheMacedoniancoast,thesonofadoctorwhotrainedhiminmedicalpracticefromanearlyage,AristotlewastheninitiatedintoPythagoreanmathematicsandthephilosophyofPlato,hismaitreapenser,inAthens.Hedevelopedthequasi-theologicalsideofPlatonicastronomy,butintheendabandonedmathematicsforhumanscienceandbiology.Thisoddtrainingexplainstheencyclopedicnatureofhisreadilycomprehensiblework,apedagogicalsummawhichwasforcenturiestobeasourceofinspiration

forIslamandthenthewest.Medicine,mathematics,logic,physics,astronomy,naturalsciences,politicalpsychology,ethics–allhumanknowledgewastackledbyAristotle.Inthefieldofzoologyhewasevenanoriginalthinkerandintwoofhisbooks,theMechanicsandtheMeteorology,heveeredtowardsexperimentalscience.Itistruethattheseworksmaywellbespurious.ButthegeneraltruthremainsthatAristotledefinitelymovedawayfromPlatonicidealismandpoetry.Theemphasiswasnolongeronthesoul,thatdivinespark,butonthehumanbeingasathinkingandmortalbeing,andevenonthephysiologicalbasesofthemovementsofthesoul,theimagination,thememoryandthepassions.TheIdeanolongerhadanindependentexistenceapartfromitsmaterialsupport.Finally,Aristotelianphysicsformedforthefirsttimeacoherent

system,‘ahighlyelaboratedtheoryeventhoughnotmathematicallyformulated’.Itwasofcourseafalsetheory:Aristotlehimselfwasconfusedbythedistinctionbetweennaturalmovementsandviolentmovements.Therearenaturalmovementswhichareperpetual,ashesawit,suchastherotationofthecelestialspheres.Andsinceintheorderofthecosmoseverythinghaditsplace,naturalmovementtendedtoreturnittothatplace:thestoneIholdinmyhand,ifIdropit,willtrytoreturntothecentreoftheearth,andwillstopontheground:vapourbeinglighterthanairwillfloatupnaturally,andsoon.Violent,non-naturalmovementrequiredtractionorpropulsion.Thismightseemlogical,exceptofcoursethateverydayexperiencetendstocontradictit:ifastoneisthrown,itshowstheanomalyofamobileobjectcontinuingitscoursewithoutanagent.Aristotlewasnottroubledbythisandexplainedtheanomalybyareactionoftheambientenvironment,awhirlwindactionwhichpropelledtheobjectonward.‘Abrilliantexplanation’,accordingtoA.Koyre,‘despiteitserroneousness,sinceitrescuedthesystem;anditwasthankstothisthatscientificthoughtmanagedtosurvivethevicissitudesofhistoryuntiltheageofGalileo’.Itwouldbecenturiesbeforetheprincipleofinertiawasformulated.

ThesplendourofAlexandria

Alexander’sconquestsledtoaprodigiousexpansionoftheHellenicworld.Surveyors,geometers,engineers,geographersandastronomersallbenefitedfromthissuddenopeningupofgreatspaces:theynowhaddirectaccesstoBabylonianandEgyptiansources.Greeksciencenowdiscoveredmuchmoreaboutthedistancesbetweenheavenlybodies,theprecessionofequinoxesandthegeographyofdistantlands.ShouldweagreewithS.F.Mason(1953)thatAlexander’sconquestspushedGreeksciencetowardsthepracticalandtheapplied,ashappenedtoFrenchscienceaftertheNapoleonicconquests?Alexandria,foundedbyAlexanderin332,becamethecapitalofan

independentEgyptin323.UnderPtolemyISoter,whoreigneduntilZ85,andhissonPtolemyIIPhiladelphus(282-246)thismetropolisuponwhichtheteeminglifeofEgyptconcentratedhadsoonbecometherichest,mostdenselypopulatedandmostethnicallyvariedcityintheMediterranean.Thenewpharaohs,whowerehungryforprestigeandsympathetictotheartsandsciences,soonbecamepatronstoscholarsfromthroughouttheAncientWorld.TheycreatedinAlexandriawhatonemightcallaCentreforScientificResearch.Thedatesofthefoundationofthemuseum(theTempleoftheMuses)andthelibrariesarenotknownforcertain.Buttheresourcesavailable(countlessbooks,dissectionrooms,zoologicalandbotanicalgardens,anobservatory)offeredscholarsboththeirlivingexpensesandthemeanstodotheirresearch.Themuseumwasakindofresearchacademy.EverybodywhowasanybodywenttoAlexandria,justasintheeighteenthcenturynoEuropeanintellectualcouldaffordtoignoreParis.AfterAristotle,Athensstillhadsomefinedaysaheadofit:itcould

boastAristotle’sownsuccessorsattheLyceum(Theophrastus,directorfrom322to287,wassucceededbyStratonwhohadspenttimeinAlexandria);Epicurus;ZenoofCitium,thefounderoftheStoicschool(bornin335inCitiuminCyprus,diedc.264inAthens);PyrrhonofElis,theearliestoftheSceptics,whocametoAthensin336anddiedinabout290.AndRhodeswasalsoanotablecentreuntilabout166,aswas

PergamuminAsiaMinor.Allthesame,thecriticalmassofHelleniccultureandsciencehademigratedtothenewcosmopolitancityofAlexandria.WhatismiraculousisthatthisAlexandriansplendourshouldhave

survivedatsuchahighlevelfortwohundredyears,twocenturiesofanintellectuallifesorichthatitsachievementscannotbesummedupinafewlines,especiallysincescientificthoughtmovedawayfromthetraditionalsynthesesandbegantobranchoutintodifferentsciences.Thinkerswerenolongerreferredtoassagesorphilosophers,butasmathematicians:Euclid(c.300),Archimedes(287-212),whoonlypassedthroughAlexandria,ifhewasthereatall;ApolloniusofPerge,c.200;grammarianssuchasDionysiusThrax,c.290;atomistssuchasHerophilusandErasistratusataboutthesametime;orastronomers,likeAristarchus(310-230),Eratosthenes(273-192)andHipparchus(fl.125).Thisburgeoningofindividualsciencescorrespondedtoimmense

advancesinknowledge.Afteraslowprocessofmaturation,therewasanexplosionineverysector.EuclidinhisElementsattemptedasystematicpresentationofmathematics.Archimedes,alongsideboldstatementssuchas‘givemeapointofleverageandIwilllifttheworld’,inventedthemeasurementofthecircumferenceofthecirclebyapproximation:iftwopolygonsareimagined,oneinscribedinsidethecircleandtheotheroutside,andifonethenimaginesthemashavinganinfinitenumberofsideswhichcanbemeasured,soonerorlatertheirperimeterswillcoincidewiththecircumferenceofthecircle.Healsoprefiguredinfinitesimalcalculus.ApolloniusofPergeworkedonconies.Mechanicswasborn–Archimedesagain–whileAristarchusmeasured,ortriedtomeasure,thedistancebetweentheearth,themoonandthesun,andEratosthenesmeasuredtheterrestrialmeridian.Hipparchuswasabletopredicteclipses.Herophilusin300distinguishedbetweenveinsandarteries,Isistraidentifiedthelymphaticchannels.ThemostsensationalofalltheseachievementswasprobablythatofAristarchus(c.3io-z3o):accordingtoArchimedes,hepronouncedthattheearthrotatesonitsaxisinadayandgoesroundthesuninayear.AccordingtoareportbyPlutarch,hehadtosufferconstantinsultsandnarrowlyescapedbeingtriedforimpiety.Thesetwodetailsmaybeaccurateandmaybeconnected:thenotionofthesunbeingatthecentreoftheuniversewas

infactabandonedbecauseitclashedwithreligiousviewsatthetime.

‘Spartacus’revenge’

Despitealltheseachievements,Alexandriansciencereachedadeadend.TheproblemaboutthefateofscienceduringtheRomanperiodhasoftenbeenposed.Takingmycourageinbothhands,letmesaythattheusualanswersseemquestionable.MyfirstwitnessisRichardOppenheimer,thefatheroftheatombomb:

‘IfwethinkofthecultureofancientGreeceandtheHellenisticandRomanperiodsthatfollowed,itseemsveryoddthatthescientificrevolutionshouldnothavehappenedthereandthen’.By‘scientificrevolution’weshouldunderstandafull-scaleindustrialrevolution,whichdidnotofcourseoccuruntiltwothousandyearslater,inthelateeighteenthcentury,startinginEngland.WeretheelementsofsucharevolutionpresentinAlexandria?Thedebatecentresonanengineerofgenius,HeronofAlexandria,

whowasactiveinaboutiooBC.Hewastheinventorofhundredsofdevicesandcomplicatedmechanisms,suchasawater-bottlewithasiphonwhichcouldbemadetopourornotatwill,gearingmechanisms,cogwheels,screws,andarotatingmachinepoweredbysteamfromaminiatureboiler.Healsoinventedanauthentictheodolite(calledadiopter),andanyreaderwhohaseverhadtotaketopographicalbearingswillrecognizetheprofoundsimplicityofthisinvention.Wastherenotinallthisthepromiseofafutureappliedscience}We

canrecognizethattheuseofsteam,eventopoweratoy,wasasignificantstep.Butthenthesteam-enginedevisedbyDenisPapin(ad1681)didnotsparkoffanindustrialrevolutioneither:itwouldtakeanotherhundredyearsbeforethathappened.Thetechnicaldiscoveryinitselfdoesnotnecessarilyleadtoanindustrialrevolution.NeitheramIconvincedbythekindof‘endogenic’explanationwhichsuggeststhatthe

Alexandrianengineerswerefrivolous.LouisRougierhasdescribedHeronas‘theVaucansonofAntiquityandnottheJamesWatt’.ButVaucansondidmorethaninventtoys:heworkedonimprovementstotechniquesofweaving.Ithasalsobeensuggested(andthereisperhapsmoretruthinthis)thattherich‘patrons’ofAlexandriaaskedengineersnottoperfectworkingmachines,evenforuseinwar(atwhich,incidentally,theydonotseemtohavehadmuchsuccess),butrathertoprovidemiraculoustrickstodazzlethefaithfulintheGraeco-EgyptiancultofSerapis:puttingofficialstatescienceattheserviceofofficialstatereligion,asonehistorianremarks.Well,possibly:butisthatenoughtoexplainthestagnationoftechnologythroughoutallthecenturiesoftheRomanperiod?Historianshaveoftenadvancedanotheranswer,takenupby

philosophersandexpertsontechnology.Everytechnologicalrevolutionhasalwaysbeenunderminedbytheexistenceofslavery,ascourgewhichspreadthroughouttheancientworld.Athensinthethirdcenturybecameakindofdormitorytownwithitsgreatlandowners,itsworkshops,anditsslaveswhoworkedbothinthefieldsandthecity.Fromabout166BC,DelosbecameanimmenseslavemarketfortheentireOrient–astrangedestinyforasacredisland.‘IfHeronofAlexandriadidnotthinkofbuildingasteamenginetoeasethelabourofmen’,writesLouisRougier,‘itwasbecauseslaveryexisted.’Thisthenwas‘Spartacus’revenge’.Noonewilldenythatasocietymaybeslowtoperfectandadopt

technologies(eveniftheyareknownabout)aslongasthereisnorealneedforthem.Thisisreallytheheartoftheproblem.Wasitthentheslave-owningmentality,theindifferencetothetoilofhumansworkinglikebeastsofburden,thatwastoblame?ItisunlikelythattheEnglishandthenEuropeanindustrialrevolution,whichledtodecadeupondecadeofmarkeddeclineintheconditionsoftheworkers,wasreallyinspiredbythedesireto‘relievehumantoil’.Perhapsonthecontraryithadbecome‘profitable’foragivensocietyorgrouptoprovidemenwiththeassistanceofamachinesothattheyshouldproducemore,notnecessarilybyworkinglessorinanybetterconditions.Ofcourse,sinceourviewsonthisarenotthoseofthepast,we

canhardlyavoidfeelingratherpleasedat‘Spartacus’revenge’,asortof

restrospectivemoralvictory.Slaverywasnotonlyacrimebutalsoamistake,sinceitmeantthathumansweredoomedtoeconomicstagnation.Butwhydidtheindustrialrevolutionthathadnottakenplaceinantiquitynothappenintheseventeenthcentury,inPapin’sday?OrperhapsinRenaissanceItaly,inLombardy,whereallthescientificconditionsseemtohavebeenunited?Therewerenoslavesinthatsociety.WheninEnglandinthe1780stherereallywas‘take-off’,tousetheexpressionpopularizedbyW.W.Rostow,theexperiencehadbeenprecededbyalong-termeconomicanddemographicupturn.Theeconomicfusewasnodoubtoneoftheindispensablefactors.Canweimagineretrospectivelythatthiswasthemissingelementin100bc?

Hellenisticcivilizationasawhole

Intheprecedingpages,Ihavegivenprominencetoscience,whichwasanessentialfeatureofHellenisticcivilization.Butitsotherfeaturesinterestustoo,formanyreasons,amongthemthatRomewastoimitatethislatefloweringofGreekcultureandprolongitbyabsorbingitintoitsowncivilization.Athensduringthisperiodwascertainlynotplungedindarkness.It

wasstillaplacewhereonecouldfindthesamesubtleanddelicatesensibility,thesamehumanizationofthecountryside,thesamemonumentalsplendours,andthesameactivityintheportofPiraeus.Asauniversitycity,Athensattractedplentyofrichyoungmen,anditremainedtheundeniablecapitalofphilosophicalthought.TheAcademyandtheLyceumstillhadtheirscholarchs.Aswesaw,Theophrastus(322-287)andStraton(387-269)succeededAristotleattheLyceum.Theophrastus’Charactersachievedlastingpopularity,andnewandenergeticschoolsofphilosophyemergedwithZeno,EpicurusandPyrrho.Butclassicaltragedywithitschorusesandsinginghadseenitslast

days.TravellingplayersnodoubtstillperformedtheplaysofEuripidesupanddowntheEuropeanandAsiaticregionsofGreece.Buttragedywasnolongeracreativeforce.Thetheatrenowconsistedlargelyofcomedy,whichhadembarkedonanewcareer,basedoneverydaystoriesofAthenianfolk.Menander(c.342.~c.z92),whoremainedfaithfultoAthensandresistedtheblandishmentsofPtolemySoter,wastheacknowledgedmasterofthisgenre.Foralongtimeallweknewofhiswritingswereafewfragments,ortheversionsofhisplaysproducedbyPlautusandTerence;thenin1959acompleteplay,Diskobolos,wasdiscovered–asortofrusticversionofMolidre’sMisanthrope.ButAthenswasnolongerthecentreoftheGreekuniverse,whichhad

beenhugelyexpandedbyAlexander’sconquests.Pergamum,Rhodes,Tarsus,AntiochandaboveallAlexandria,wereitstriumphantrivals.Intheend,whatvanishedwiththeancientgloryofAthenswasthepredominanceofthepolis,withitspopular‘openair’literature,intendedforthemassofcitizenssittingonthestepsofthetheatre.Fromnowonintellectuallifewouldbedominatedbyprincelycourts,librariesandscholars,deliberatelyrestrictedcirclesofspecialists,thegrowingnumbersofschools,allanxioustofollownewtrends,andevenakindof‘bourgeoisie’whoseexistenceisexplainedbythegrowthoftheeconomy.Itwasaworldwithmanyandvariousstructures.Greekthoughthad,however,toconfrontthenativecultureofthese

colonizedregions,whichremainedforeigntoit.Itwascaughtupinanimperialmissionwhichobligedittoassertitsunityinthefaceoftheother.Thusacommonlanguage,alinguafrancaorkoineytendedtoreplacethedialects.ThekoinewaschieflybutnotentirelyofAtticorigin.Itwasthelanguageofteachers,thevirtuallyunchallengedlanguageofprosewriting.Therewereotherchangestoo:withtheendofpublicfreedoms,

eloquencedisappeared,logicallyenough,sincetherewerenocrowdstoconvincebystrategemsorthepoweroftheword.Atmost,menwerefreetoofferdiscreetpraiseoftheirmasters,ortotastethedelightsofliteraryescapism.Theycouldescapeintoscholarship,history,theimaginarytaleswhichwerealmostaprototypeforthenovel,orintothefrequentlyallusiveandcaricaturalplayletsknownasmimes.ThoseoftheSyracusanHerondaswerefamous:writteninracyverse,they

presentedsketchesofeverydaylife:aslave-traderexplainstheirregularityofhisaccountstoatribunal,amotheraskstheschoolmastertobringhersonintoline,amatchmakerbustlesaboutorashoemakerdoesthehonoursofhisestablishment.Theplotdoesn’tmatter:everythingisintheskilfuldialogue,punctuatedwithjokes.AnotherformofescapismperhapsweretheEpigrams,Idyllsor

lovesongsofTheocritus(borninabout300BC,probablyinSyracuse,beforemovingtoCosandeventuallyAlexandria).Heimaginesalifefarfromthecity’sclutches,amongmagicallandscapesandflute-playingshepherds,poetsthemselves,whoaskthepoetashewandersthroughtheislandofCos:‘Whereareyougoing,Similchidas,intheheatofthenoondaysun,wheneventhelizardissleepinginthedrystonewallsandthecrestedlarks,friendsofthetombs,haveceasedtheirplay?’AnotherformofescapismwasthestylisticoriginalityoftheAlexandrianpoets,searchingforthereconditeword,thesibyllineallusionknownonlytoinitiateswithinthemagiccircle.Inarttoo,thisperiodrevealedanewGreece,bothromanticand

baroque,eagerfornovelty.ThepursuitofthenewledinAlexandria,asitdidinPergamumorRhodes,eithertoapreferencefornaturalism(thedenialofacademicbeautyorevenofanybeautyatall),ortoagrandiloquentemotionalismwhichisreminiscentofwhatwewouldcallthebaroque,ortoarathersugaryorpreciouselegance.ThegreatGreekpaintingofthelateclassicalera,knowntous,alas,onlythroughcommentators,andwhichhadalreadyinspiredtheschoolofSicyonandthesculptorLysippusinabout350,wasprobablythesourceofthismovement.Indeed,paintingcontinuedtoenjoygreaterprestigethansculpture,andinnovationinpictorialcompositionwasaspassionateandsophisticatedasthestylisticexperimentationoftheAlexandrianpoets.Onewouldliketoseesomeexamplesoftheseefforts:atableorastonefloorwithathree-dimensionalrepresentationofamealforinstance:theymaybetheoriginofsomeofthefinestilllivesonefindsinPompeii.AsatPompeii,paintingandmosaicwerethepreferredformof

decorationinthehouseholdsoftherich.AlongsidetraditionalreligiousarchitecturewhichdrewonboththeIonicandtheDoric(thoughasoftenedandmellowedkindofDoric),privatearchitecturealso

developed,ascanbeseeninthegreathousesexcavatedonDelos,withtheircolonnadedcentralcourtyards,theirmarblestatues,fountainsandpreciousmosaics,andtheirpaintedstuccoes.TownplanninghadalsocomeintobeingasaconsciousartinthefifthcenturyandindeeditwasHippodamusofMiletus,theclassicalarchitectofPiraeus,whowasclaimedastheinspirationofHellenistictownplanning.Butthegreatcitieswhichsprangupsoquickly,suchasAlexandria,AntiochorPergamum,helpedtosetthepatternforanurbanorderatoncefunctionalandaestheticallypleasing.Fromourdistantvantagepoint,thisrich,teemingcivilizationofthe

Hellenisticworldseemslikeacivilizationperchedontheshouldersofconqueredandenslavedpeoples–acivilizationonlyprecariouslybalanced.Thatmenshouldtravelfromtheeasttosamplethisdominantcivilizationwasasignofitssuccess.PeoplewouldalsocomefromAfricatoRome,asinlatercenturiestheydidtoFrance.Butsuchconquestscouldnotconcealthefactthatbeneaththesurfacethelanguagesofthevanquishedwerestillalive:Aramaicforinstancewasincreasinglywidelyused.Andreligiouslifewasevenmoresuccessfulatprotectingitsoriginality.IteventookoversomeoftheGreekcults,whichafterthedisappearanceofthereligionofthepolis,weremoreopenthanevertosectsandritualsfromtheeast.Perhapsthisexplainsthepoweroftheobstacleagainstwhichtheeffortoftheconquerors’civilization,thoughprolongedovermanycenturies,wouldintheendexhaustitself.

8TheRomanTakeoveroftheGreaterMediterranean

Initsbroadoutline,thedestinyofRomeisdevastatinglysimple.Viewedfromcloseup,people,eventsanddetailscomplicatethestory.Oneshouldaboveallavoidassumingthatthismightyempirecame

aboutbysomeautomaticprocess.TheMediterraneandidindeedoperateasamechanismtendingtobringtogetherthecountriesscatteredrounditsimmenseperimeter.Buttheseadidnotitselfspinthewebinwhichitwascapturedalive.Romeachievedthatparticularfeat.AndRomemighthavebeenwell

advisedtosettlefortheMediterraneanalone,fortheexpanseofbluewaterandthefringeofcountriesarounditsshores–tosettleforthesun,thevineandtheolive-tree.Instead,Romeembarkedonaverydifferentcourse.FirstCaesarconqueredGaul,thenGermanicustookonthegreatforestsofGermania–andsubsequentlyEuropewastolamentwithhimthelossesofhislegions.AgricolacompletedtheconquestofBritaininad77-84,andhisson-in-lawTacitussetaboutdescribinghistriumphs.TrajanwentinpursuitofDaciangoldandinturndiscoveredonthebanksoftheEuphrateshowpowerlessRomewaswhenfacedwiththemysteriousAsiaoftheParthians.TheRomanprovinces,wherethebenefitsofthePaxRomanasoon

becameevident,infactremainedfairlyremotefromthepoliticsoftheCapitol,andfromthetragediesplayedoutinRomeitselforontheEmpire’sdistantfrontiers.Thepraetorianguardmightslaughteroneanother,thesentriesmightbefacingdramaticalarmsalongthelimes>theimperialfrontier,butnoneofthatgreatlyperturbedthestay-at-homeprovincial.Distanceprovidedhimwithacomfortablebufferof

complacency.ButtheveryfactthattheMediterranean,whileinthralltoRome,wasstillalivingentitywithahealthypulseofitsown,meantthatallitsculturalgoodscontinuedtocirculate,minglingideasandbeliefs,andbringingaboutauniformityinmaterialcivilizationwhichhaslefttracesstillvisibletoday.TheRomanEmpirewasanareashapedbyexchange,ahugeechochamberinwhicheverysoundwasamplifiedworldwide;an‘accumulation’whichwouldonedayturnintoalegacy.TheRomanizationoftheAncientWorld,itsmilitaryandculturalconquestbyRome,isthecentralfocusofRomanhistorywithintheMediterranean.WhatinterestsusatthispointisthemomentwhenitssuccessesfirstcreatedthepatternforanuniversalempirearoundtheshoresoftheMarenostrum.

IRomanimperialism

Imperialismisnotawordtobeutteredlightly.Itimpliesaconsciousdesiretoconquer,andifitistocarryweightinthehistoricalbalance,itmustleadtosomespectacularandenduringachievement.ThatthewordshouldbeappliedtoRome–andinantiquitytoRomealone–istheargumentoftheopeninglinesofJeromeCarcopino’smagnificentbookTheStagesofRomanImperialism(1934).OnecannotspeakinthesamewayofAthenianorMacedonianimperialism,sincebothweresoshort-lived.Athenscollapsedin404BC,whileAlexander’sempire,createdalmostovernight,fragmentedontheconqueror’sdeath.OnecanhoweverspeakofPersianimperialism;andtheBritishEmpirecanalsobeclearlyidentified–bothbeforeandafterPalmerston,themanwhosoproudlyifanachronisticallyproclaimed‘Civisromanussum’.Ifweacceptthesedefinitions,therewasnoRomanimperialismtospeakofuntilperhapsthefirstoreventhesecondPunicwar(218-204BC).Thelattermarkedthecriticalturning-point,afteraseriesofconquestswhichwerecertainlylargeinscale(coveringthewholeof

Italy!)butnotasintentionalasmightappearinretrospect.ItwasnotuntillaterthatRomeassumeditstrueidentity,andembarkedonitschosenroute.

ThefirstunificationofItaly

IntheearlydaysofRome’scareer,nothingseemedtosingleoutforgreatnessatownwhichlonglaydormant.TherewasnothingtodistinguishitfromtheothertownsinLatium:AlbaLonga(ofwhichitwouldlaterbesaidthatitwasRome’salmamater)-,Ardea;Preneste;Lanuvium;Tibur(Tivoli),onitsveryfertilesite;orLavinium(todayPraticadiMare),atownwhichaccordingtoRomanlegendhadbeenfoundedbyAeneasduringhisflightfromtheflamesofTroy.Inthelast-namedtown,possiblyonthearchaicaltarsdiscoveredduringthe1960s,‘thepeopleveneratedthePenates,carriedtherefromTroy,aswellasVesta,goddessoffireandthehearth,acultofGreekorigin,aswasthatoftheDioscuri,CastorandPollux’.Sowemustlookbeyondtheoriginaltown,althoughitistemptingforthehistorianfacedwiththeRomeoftoday,aseaofbuildingsandbustlingcitylife,toimaginetheprimitivevillageswhichonceexistedonitssacredhills.Itishardnottofeelsometugattheheartwhenonepicturesthosefirstlong-agosettlements,consistingofafewhundredshepherdsandtheirfamilies.Wemustthenimagineatowntakingshape,founded(orperhapsre-founded)bytheEtruscans,whentheysetouttocontrolthebestcrossing-placeontheTiber,commandedbytheInsulaTiberina.TraditionallythelastthreekingsofRomewereEtruscan:TarquiniusPriscus,ServiusTulliusandTarquiniusSuperbus.Accordingtotraditiontoo,Romerebelledagainstthelatterin509BC.Thisrevolt,whichcreatedtheRomanRepublic,governedbyconsuls,theSenateandthegreatpatricianfamilies,thepatriarchalgentes,mayinfacthaveoccurredsomewhatlater,inabout470BC.Itssignificanceis

stillnotclear.DidRomehaveitsown‘fifthcentury’asthehistorianJacquesHeurgonwondered?Thepiousfictionsoftraditionalhistoryrecountasiftheywereepicconflictswhatwereprobablyminorskirmishesbetweenneighbouringtowns,foughtwithderisoryforces.Intheseobscuretimes,RomewasalliedwiththeothertownsinLatiumintheLatinconfederation,andthebattles,whichtookplaceregularlyeverycampaigningseason,werelittlemorethaninternalsquabblesovercattlerustling,theownershipofawatersource,orafewfields.TheinvasionbytheGaulsin390or387BCwasanothermatter.But

thisviolentconfrontationwasalsoshort-lived.DefeatedonthebanksoftheAllia,theRomanswereunabletosavetheircity,whichfellintothehandsoftheSenonesunderBrennus.ButtheCapitolstoodfirm,theconquerorsretreatedanditwassoonbusinessasusualintheLatinconfederation.ThekeydatemustbethecollapseoftheconfederationunderpressurefromRomein338.TheLatincitiesweresubjugatedandRome,nowunfettered,wastobecomerulerofItalywithinseventyyears,thelastdateinthissequencebeingeitherthefallofTarentumin272,orpossiblythatofRhegium,anotherGreekcity,in270.Atthispoint,theconquestofEtruriawascomplete.Volsiniifellin265.Theearlystagesofthisirresistiblerisetopowermayperhapsbe

explainedbyRome’sassociationwithCampania,inparticularwiththelargecityofCapua.ThispartnershipencircledLatium.Capua,thefocalpointofimmigrationfromthemountainsandthecountryside,placedatRome’sserviceapoolofadventurerswhosecontributionwasnotnegligible.HavingafootholdinCampaniameantmakingcontactwiththeGreeks,reachingtheseaandbenefitingfromtrade(assomeoftheearliestcoinsattest).Evenmorecertainly,itmeantaconfrontationwiththeSamnites,thewarliketribesoftheApennineswhoformorethanahundredyearshadbeenterrorizingtherichlowlands.Romenowembarkedonalongandtestingstruggle,butalsoenjoyed

itsfirstmajortriumph.Bydecidingtofightagainstthemountainpeople,thecitywasassertingitsleadershipoverthelowlands,whichithelpedpreservefromharassingthreats.Victorywastherewardofperseverance,sinceconflictsbrokeoutseveraltimes,in343–341,326–304and298‘I290.Awarwagedinthehillsmeantthattroopswereconstantlyatthemercyofambushes,supplyfailures,amissedrendez-vous,orthe

rashoverstretchingofthemarchingcolumns.Indeed,theRomanlegionswerehumiliatedattheCaudineForksin321.ButRomeveryquicklylearnedtousemobileunitsandtoblockadetheenemyinthemountainregions(asusedtohappeninpre-warFrenchNorthAfrica).Thiswasawarofattrition,witheachsidescoringindirectvictories.WiththeoccupationofApuliain320BC,notonlydidRomeacquirethelastgreatplaininthepeninsula,butalsotheareaintowhich,inwinter,alltheherdswouldcomedownfromtheAbruzzi,theveryheartofSamnitecountry.Theseweremajorsuccessesthen,butprogresswassufficientlyslowforthehopesofRome’senemiestoberegularlyrekindled.IntheendSamnites,GaulsandEtruscansjoinedforces.ButtheircoalitionwasdefeatedbytheRomanlegionsatSentiuminUmbriain295.Thewarwasnowvirtuallyover,withEtruriamoreorlesssubjugated,thePovalleyreached,andtheAdriaticcoastoccupied.TheGreekcoastalcitieswouldshortlyhavefallentoo,haditnotbeenforthebrilliantrearguardactionledbyPyrrhosonbehalfoftheTarentines.Oncethisepisodewasover,however,thetownacknowledgeddefeatin272.TheRomanssoonafterwardsoccupiedRhegium(ReggiodiCalabria)ontheStraitsofMessina,oppositeSicily.‘Italy’,ageographicaltermoriginallyappliedtowhatwetodaycallCalabria,andlaterextendedtoallofsouthernItaly,wouldsooncometomeanthewholepeninsula.Wordstoocanbeaformofimperialism.

WhywasRomesosuccessful?

Inthisprocessofconquest,Romebenefitedfromitscentrallocation,whichgaveittheadvantageofoverlandcommunications.RoadsbuiltoutwardsfromRomehelpedtoreinforcethisnaturaladvantage.In313BCthecensorAppiusClaudiusopenedtheAppianWaywhichrantoCapuaandeventuallytoBrindisi;theViaSalariaandtheViaFlaminia

rantotheAdriatic,andtheViaCassiacrossedEtruria.Romealsohadthegoodsense,inthelightperhapsofitscomparative

weakness,totreatitsconqueredpeoplesleniently,deliberatelyadoptingapolicyofpatienceandtosomeextentfairdealing.ThosepopulationsseenasethnicallyandlinguisticallyclosetoRomewereeventuallyadmittedtofullRomancitizenship.Tusculumwasthefirsttoreceivethisprivilegefromthequasi-legendarydictatorCamillus.Tothoselessclose,asortofhalf-citizenship,underLatinlaw,wassometimesoffered.Onthesitesofformercities,oronlandnotyetsettled,colonieswerecreated,eitherRoman(inwhichcasetheywerepeopledwithRomancitizens),orLatin(withsomeautonomybutfewerrightsthantheformer).Anotherpossiblestatuswasthatofally,sociuSywithorwithouttreatiesgrantingequalrights.AsIsuggestedabove,thoughwithsomehesitation,thismightbe

describedasa‘fair’policy.ButwasRomanbonafidesperhapsamythinventedaftertheevent?Romecertainlymadeapointofrespectingtheletterofthetreaties,puttingmoralityandlegalityonitsside.Buthypocrisywasneverentirelyabsentfromastrategywhich,afterdividingRome’senemies,nowsetaboutdevisingdifferentlevelsofstatusforitsnewassociates.Acentrallocationandacommon-sensepolicywouldneverthelessnot

haveamountedtomuchwithoutthebackingofmilitarymight.ForgedinthecourseoftheLatinwars,theRomanlegionwastheinstrumentofvictory.Thefirstcitizensbelongingtothefive‘Servian’classesfoughtintheheavyarmouroftheGreekhoplites:helmet,breastplateandroundshield;otherclassesadoptedlighterarmour,withpectoralsinsteadofbreastplates,andlongovalshields.Legionarieswithlowincomes,andthereforepoorlyequipped,hadbeengrantedpaysincethesiegeofVeii(IsolaFarnese).TheRomanfoot-soldierborrowedfromtheSamnitestheuseofthejavelin(pilum,alongslenderbladesetinawoodenshaft).Thepracticebecameestablishedofdisposingthelegionariesaccordingtosocialstatus.Themostlightlyarmed,themisleadinglynamedhastati(misleadingbecauseinfacttheydidnotcarryspears)formedthefrontlines;thencametheprincipesandfinallythetriarii,areservearmyofheavyinfantryinthethirdline.ThisorderwasmoreflexiblethanthatadoptedbytheGreeks.Romansoldiersdidnotfightincloseformation:

agapseparatedeachmanfromhisneighbourandsuccessivelinesweredrawnupinquincunxes,sothatinretreatonelinecouldfillthegapsinanotherwithoutdifficulty.Disciplinewasstrict,eventhoughthiswasnotaregulararmy.Everynight,themenhadtopitchcamptoprotectthemselvesagainstsurpriseattacks.Cavalrymenwereasarulesuppliedbytheallies,butwerefewinnumber.Finallyandsignificantly,Romebenefitedfromdivisionintheenemy

ranks:internalquarrelskeptAlexander’ssuccessors,theGreekkings,atadistance,andtheCarthaginiansandGreekswereateachother’sthroatsinSicily,oblivioustotheworldaround.RometookadvantageofthesedistractionstoembarkontheconquestofItaly,patientlyweavingitsweb,andconstantlyrepairinganydamage.Intheend,itemergedstrongandself-confident,amatchfortheGreeksandCarthage,greedilyeyingSicilyacrosstheStraitsofMessinaandbeyondittherestoftheMediterranean,towhichtheislandheldthekey.

RomeversusCarthage:thewarformasteryoftheMediterranean

WiththethreePunicwars(264-241,218-202and148-146BC)RomeandCarthagebecamelockedintoaHundredYearsWar.ControloftheMediterraneanatoncebecametheissueinacontestwhichwouldendonlywiththedeathofoneoftheadversaries.WhenRometookRhegiumin270,theCarthaginiansplacedagarrisonacrossthewaterinMessina.Thetwopoliticalmonsters–ononehandItaly,unitedfromthePovalleytotheGulfofTarentum;ontheotherNorthAfrica,fromnorthernCyrenaicatopresent-dayMorocco,backedupbysouthernSpain–eyedeachotheracrossthenarrowstraits.Theywerewell-matchedadversaries,capableinfactofcomingtoterms,asearliertreatieshaddemonstrated.Itwould,moreover,beinaccuratetodescribetheir

confrontationasonebetweenasortofgadfly(Carthage,themaritimepower)andtheheavy-footedsoldier(theRomanlegions).CarthagewasnolessexpertthanRomeatbuildingroadsandbridges,anditsagriculturewaswelldeveloped,whileRomehadbeeninterestedintheMediterraneansincewellbefore264bc.IthadhaddealingswiththecitiesofGreaterGreece,andmerchantshippingwasactivealongItaliancoasts.AsforRome’sfleet,thenormalcomponents,triremesandquinqueremes,longvesselswiththreeorfivesteppedrowsofoarsmen,tookonlyashorttimetobuild.In260,attheoutsetofthewars,Romelaunchedafleetof100quinqueremesandthirtytriremes,plussomeotherships,allinthespaceofsixtydays;in254,theRomanslaunched220vesselsinsixmonths.Weneednottakethesefiguresquiteliterallyperhaps,buttheshipswerecertainlyassembledveryrapidly,probablytooquicklyfortheirqualitynottosuffer,ashadalreadybeenthecaseinGreece.Asaresult,thesenaviesdidnotlastlong,sometimesonlythespaceofasinglecampaign.Earlyinthewar,somesourcesreport,theItalianshipyardshadcopiedaCarthaginianquinqueremewhichhadfallenintoRomanhands.Thatisnotimpossible.Thequinqueremewasamonstrousship,developedinCyprusorPhoeniciabeforeAlexander’scampaigns.OfthewesternGreekcities,onlySyracusehadbuiltquinqueremes.Butitwaschild’splaytocopythedesign.SuppliesoftimberwerenoproblemforRome:thepeninsulastillhadmanyforests.TheGreeksintheGulfofTarentumhadtimberforboatbuildingdeliveredfromtheSilamassifinBruttium.TheRomanshaditfloateddowntheTibertoOstia.Inthisrespect,Carthagewasatadisadvantage,sinceithadtolooktoSardiniafortimbersupplies.Theselongshipsmightbeeasytobuildbuttheywerecostlytooperate,particularlysincetheycouldbeusedonlyoncalmsummerseasandovershortdistances,suchasbetweenItaly,Sicily,Malta,theLipariIslands,theEgadiIslandsandthenearestpointsontheNorthAfricancoast.Whatwasmore,theyrequiredhugenumbersofmen:sailors,oarsmen,soldiers–asmanyasfourhundredineachship,accordingtoPolybius.Overall,thiswasanextraordinarilyexpensivewar:withbothsidesequallycommitted,itwasboundtobecomeamatterofattrition.

In264BC,RomehadeffortlesslyoccupiedMessina,havingbeencalleduponbythethenrulersofthecity,theMamertines,aratherremarkablebandofadventurerswhohadbetrayedtheCarthaginiangarrison.AfterimposingapeacesettlementonHieronofSyracuse,theRomansbeganthesiegeofthewesterncities:Agrigentumfellduringthewinterof263-262,and25,000captivesweresoldintoslavery.In254,almosttenyearslater,itwastheturnofPanormus(Palermo),anotherCarthaginianstronghold:here10,000oftheinhabitantswerereducedtoslavery.Atsea,in260,oneRomanfleetwasdefeatedofftheLipariIslands,butasecondone,underthecommandoftheconsulC.DuiliusNepos,wasvictoriousoffMylae(Milazzo),thankstothegrapplingironsandboardingplankswhichtheRomansailorsusedagainsttheenemy.TheCarthaginianvessels,whichwereeasiertomanoeuvre,werethuscheatedoftheiradvantageandboardedbyforce:thenavalbattlebecamehand-to-handcombat,justasifitwerebeingfoughtonland(andthiswastobetheruleforcenturiestocome,inencountersbetweengalleys).Fromnowon,RomefeltsufficientlyconfidenttoconfrontCarthaginianvesselsalongtheAfricancoast.In256,anexpeditionaryforcewaslandedonCapeBon.ItwinteredinTunis,butwascrushedthefollowingyear:theunfortunatecommanderwastheconsulAtiliusRegulus.ThetidedidnotyetturninCarthage’sfavour.However,thecityhadfoundinHamilcarBarcaacommanderofgenius,whohaddughimselfinontwofortifiedandimpregnablemountaintopsinSicily:MountHeircte,nearPalermoandMountEryxnearDrepanon(Trapani).Histroopslaunchedraidafterraid,andthePunicshipsalsoengagedinsomefruitfulpiracy.Thislow-keywarworkedagainstRome’sinterests.TheRepubliclost700shipstostorms,piratesandtheenemynavy.Carthagenowlaunchedamassivefleet,butRomansandGreekscombinedinastupendouseffortandcrusheditin240offtheAegatesInsulae(Egadi),offthewesterntipofSicily.ThedisasterbroughtHannoandthepeacepartytopowerinCarthage.Romewasabletoimposedraconianpeaceterms.SicilywasnowinRomanhandsandRometookimmediateadvantageofCarthage’sgraveinternalproblemstolayhandsonSardiniaandCorsica.WeakenedbyanuprisinginLibyaandasavagerevoltbyitsownmercenaries(whowere

owedlargesumsinbackpay),CarthagewasobligedtoacceptRome’sconditions;itmanagedtoretaintherightsonlytolevysoldiersandloadgraininItaly.AftertheSiciliandisaster,however,andthecrushingofthe

mercenaries’revoltin238,HamilcarBarcahadgonetoSpainwiththeremnantsofhisarmyin237.ThusbegantheconquestofSpain,effectedbythepowerfulandproudBarcadynasty.TheoperationmeantcapturingtheGuadalquivirvalleyandthehighplainofCastulo,forcingapassagetotheMediterranean(thelaterrouteoftheViaAugusta)andestablishingastrongholdineasternSpainwhereNewCarthage(Cartagena)wasfoundedbyHamilcar’sson-in-law,Hasdrubal.Inc.225,RomemadetheCarthaginianspromisenottocrosstheEbroordisturbtheRomancolonieswhichhadbeensettledfromMarseillealongwhatisnowthelittoralofCatalonia.ButtheoccupationoftheIberianpeninsulaalongitstwomajoraxes,theGuadalquivirandtheeasternseaboard,gaveCarthagedirectaccesstothepreciousSpanishsilverminesandthepossibilityofcorneringtheirproduction.AfewyearslaterthemintinCartagenawasturningout300silverpoundsaday.InCarthageitself,beautifulcoinsstampedwithfineimagesofanimals–horsesandelephants–testifytothisageofprosperity.Hamilcarhad,however,beenkilledin231,inanencounterwithlocal

forces.TenyearslaterHasdrubalwasassassinated.HisnephewHannibal,sonofHamilcar,wasacclaimedcommanderofthearmy:abreathtakingcareerwasabouttobegin.NeitherRomenorCarthagehadinfactabandonedthestruggle.Each

sidespiedontheother,fearingitsmight.RomehadtodealwithsevereunrestinSardiniaandCorsica,wherethelocaltribeswereasrecalcitrantastheSamnites.TherewasanevengraverthreatinnorthernItaly,where,aftersomeinconclusivecampaigning,RomehadstruckattheGaulsin225.Sixyearslater,theLatincoloniesofPiacenzaandCremonawerefounded,butthesewerefragileoutposts.ThecoloniesthemselvesprovokedtheuprisingoftheBoii.Andallthewhile,warwasoncemorebrewingbetweenRomeandCarthage.Whichwouldstrikefirst?Hannibal,whohadtakenSaguntumand

crossedtheEbroinApril218?OrtheRomanfleetstationedatLilybaeum,which,afterapre-emptiveoccupationofMalta,waspre-

paringtosailtoAfrica?InSeptember218,HannibalcrossedtheAlps–hisexactrouteisstillunknown–anddescendedwithfewerthan30,000menintothePoValley.InDecemberthatyear,hewasvictoriousinthebattleoftheTicino.InJanuary217,onasnowyday,hetriumphedatTrebbia;on23June,hecrushedaRomanarmyatLakeTrasimeneinEtruria.Then,althoughdelayedbythetacticsofthedictatorFabiusCunctator,hehadthegoodfortunetowinhisgreatestvictoryyet,atthebattleofCannaeon2August216.Butforreasonsthatremainobscure(notenoughmen,notenoughsiegeequipment?)hefailedtomarchonRome,lingeringamongthefleshpotsofCapua,thatotherRome,whichhad‘abandoneditself’tohim.Thefollowingyearsbroughthimsomesuccesses(heheldTarentumfrom213to209),butoncehemmedininsouthernItaly,hewasnotwellsupportedbyCarthage.ThedefeatonthebanksoftheMetaurusin207ofhisbrotherHasdrubal,whowasbringingsubstantialreinforcementsfromSpain,sealedhisfate.TakingrefugeinBruttium(UpperCalabria)heremainedtherefor

years,hisescaperoutecutoffbyRomanlegions,justashisfatherhadbeencorneredontheslopesofMountEryx.Romemeanwhilestruckaseriesoftellingblows:Cartagenawastakenin209andScipiolandedinAfrica.HannibalwasrecalledandthebattleofZama(202)finallymarkedtheendofthesecondPunicwar.

Ahistoricaldebate

Theconflictwhichbrokeoutforthethirdtimein148BC,endingtwoyearslaterwiththedestructionofCarthage,raisestoomanyquestionsnottohavebecomethesubjectoffiercepolemic.Thekeywitnessinthecaseisoneofthebesthistorianstohavecome

outofGreece,Polybius.BorninMegalopolisinArcadiain210or205BC,hewasstillonlyachildatthetimeofthebattleofZama(202)buthewitnessedthefallofCarthagein146atthesideofhisfriendP.Cornelius

ScipioAemilianus.ItwasastrangetwistoffateforthissonofaninfluentialpoliticianofMegalopolis.Inhisyouth,hehadcampaignedagainstRomeandforthefreedomoftheHellenes,alongwithPhilopoemen,‘lastoftheGreeks’.ItwasasaresultofthisthatPolybiushadarrivedinRomein167asoneofthethousandAchaeanhostagesdeportedtoItalyafterPydna.Butthisexiledrebelwasnotonlycapturedbutcaptivatedbythegreatcitywherehelivedforsixteenyears,beingafrequentguestatthehouseoftheScipiofamily,whosedevotedfriendhebecame.HisHistoriesprovideanarrativeofeventsfrom264,thedateofthe

outbreakofthefirstPunicwar(whichfiguresintheintroduction)tothecatastropheof146.Theaccountisallthemorevaluable,firstlysincethiswell-informedwriterwasamanofgreatintelligence,anxioustotakethebroadview,andsecondlysincehisexperiencesinGreecehadledhimtoreflectonthephenomenonofRomanexpansion.Forhim,thetriumphofRomewassomehowdecreedbydestiny,theresultofakindoflawofnature.Soinsteadofopposingit,itwouldbemoresensibletoassociatethedestinyofGreecewithit.HetriedtoconvincebothhiscompatriotsandtheScipios,descendantsofagloriousdynastywhichwasmoreoveralreadyconvertedtoGreekcultureanditsteachings.Polybius’workconcentratesthereforeonexplanationsforRome’s

imperialdestiny.Amongtoday’swesternhistorians,withtheirincreasedsensitivitytotheevilsofimperialismandunjustwars,thedebateisseenmoreintermsofapportioningresponsibilityforthelongconflictfromwhichRomeemergedthoroughlytransformed.Ifthecollapseofearlieragreementsin218wasHannibal’sdoing,wasCarthagetherebyguiltyofstartingthewar?WasRomanimperialismmerelyareplytoCarthaginianimperialism?LetusagreewithPolybiusthatbylayingsiegetoSaguntum,inanareafromwhichhistreatywithRomeoughtreallytohaveexcludedhim,Hannibalknowinglyprovidedacasusbelli.ButtheBarcadynastydidnotrepresentthewholeofCarthage;whileforalltheprudenceofRomanpolicy,therehadbeenhawksinRomepressingforactionsincebeforethefirstPunicwar.WasthefleetassembledatLilybaeumthereforpurelydefensivepurposes?IfithadsetsailbeforeHannibalhadattacked,wouldRomethenbetheguiltyparty?Inanycase,warwasnothingnewin218,itwassimplybreakingoutafresh.

WhentheRomansoccupiedMessinain264,theyhaddonesoinspiteoftheirtreatyoffriendshipsignedwithCarthagein306.Inshort,isitreasonabletosingleoutanyoneactofhostilityascarryingunilateralresponsibility,whenthisconflictwassoclearlypredestinedonthemapoftheknownworld?Wemayconcludethattheseawassimplynotbigenoughtoholdboth

RomeandCarthage:thattheywereonaninevitablecollisioncourse,fuelledbymutualdistrust.TheBarcadynasty,whoseemtohavehesitated,mightpossiblyhaveconsentedtoremainmastersofSpain,withoutfurtheraggression,ifRomehadbeenwillingtolivewiththat.ForHannibal,thewarwasarisky,evenadesperatethrowofthedice.ItwasamiraclethathisfamilyinSpainhadsucceeded,intheshortspaceoffifteenyears,increatinganarmyof60-70,000men.ButRomehadmorethantwiceasmanyatitscommand.TodispatchthePunicarmyoverlandtodistantItalywasanactoffolly.Beforeitevergotthere,ithadlosthalfitsmen.AfterTrebbia,Hannibal’ssoldiershadhadtotaketothehillstoescape,endingupstrungoutalongthirtykilometresorsoofdifficultmountainpassesintheApennines.HannibalhadcountedonasimultaneousuprisingagainstRomebythe

imperfectlysubjugatedItalianpeninsula.HewasrightabouttheCelts,butalmostentirelywrongabouttheEtruscans,theSamnitesandabovealltheGreeks,whointheendpreferredRometotheirlong-standingenemy,Carthage.TherewassecessioninTarentumandSyracuse,itistrue,andHannibalhadamaster-planwhichinvolvedbringinginMacedoniaunderPhilipV.Butthelatter’sarmydidnotevenreachtheAdriatic.Hannibal’sonlyhopelayinthecomparativelackofexperienceofthe

Romanleadership.UnfamiliarwiththeGreekstyleofwarfareemployedbyHannibal,theRomansonlyslowlyshedtheirold-fashionedways,insomekindof‘psychologicalabout-turn’whichmayhavebeenthesecretoftheirrevival.Romethusgraduallycreateditsownformof‘modern’warfare,onethatwasnotsimplyimitatedfromtheGreeks,sinceitwasbasedonfarmoresolidfoundationsthanHannibal’sstrategy–whichwasintheendthatofabrilliantcondottiere.RomerefusedtoengageintheHellenisticformofsportsmanshipwhichmeantthataftersufferingasingledefeat,oneimmediatelyconcededvictorywithoutfurther

resistance.

Thetragedyof146bc

AfterthesecondPunicwar,Carthagehadbeenstrippedofeverything,evenAfrica.ItsterritorynowstoppedattheNumidianfrontier;itscurrency(50,000talentsinreparationsexactedoverfiftyyears)anditsfleetseemedtobeirremediablystricken.Yetitcontinuedtotrade,developingitsrichresourcesofvinesandolives.ItsagriculturalexportsweredetrimentaltotheinterestsofthelargeItalianlandowners,whileitscapacityforrenewalrevivedalltheoldRomanfears:delendaestCarthago.AwarbetweenCarthageandMassinissa,theNumidianking,provided

thepretextforaRomanexpeditionaryforce.Itencounteredfierceresistance,butCarthageeventuallysuccumbedtothelegionsofScipioAemilianus(Africanus).Thecitywasburnt,razedtothegroundandthesaltofsterilityscatteredoveritssmokingruins.Aquarterofacenturylater,CaiusGracchussetaboutrestoringthestrickencity,whichonceagainflourishedinthetimeofCaesarandAugustus.ButRomanCarthagewouldneverremotelyresembletheastonishingPuniccapitalofold.

TheLevant:apreylongpursued

Asearlyas200BC,afterthebattleofZama,itwaspredictablethatRome

wouldprobablycapturetheeasternsectoroftheMediterranean.Beingdependentonthesea,thiszonewaslikelytofallintothehandsofanypowerwithmaritimesupremacy.Allthegreatcitiesoftheeastwereseaports:AlexandriainEgypt;Rhodes,atthetimeanunrivalledtradeandfinancialcentre,wheremoneywascheaptoborrow,8percentcomparedto24percentinAlexandria;Antioch,acaravancitybutonlyashortdistancefromthecoast,andthusabletoattracttheSeleucidEmpirewestwards;Pergamum,whichwithByzantiumstoodguardovertheBosphorus;Corinth,stillanimportantcentre;andAthens,soontobecomesooncemore.Inthewestbycontrast,theseawascontrolledbyasinglecitywhichwieldedenormouspoweronceCarthagehadbeeneliminated.Theoutcomewastheweldingtogetheroftheeasternandwesternbasinsofthesea,twoindependentuniversesasaruleobliviousofeachother.Itistruethattheweldingprocess–inotherwordstheformationoftheRomanEmpire–wastocallforasequenceofeventswhichhardlystrikesoneaslogical.Iftheoperationprovedsotroublesome,perhapsitwasless‘natural’thanitmightseeminretrospect?Itcertainlytooktime.ThefirstblowstruckforRomanexpansion,theoutbreakofthesecondMacedonianwar,occurredin200;thelastcamein61(theconquestofSyria)and31(thelate,orratherpostponedreductionofEgypttothestatusofaRomanprovince).From200to31BC,fromScipioAfricanustoAugustus,thechronologicalspanisalmosttwocenturies.Thisslowpace,indicativeofdelaysofotherkinds,isprobablyexplainedinfactbythedifficultyRomewasexperiencinginbecomingtheeconomiccentreofthesea.ThethreadsofaMediterranean-widenetworkdidnotautomaticallycometogetheraroundRome.DeloswastransformedbyRomanpolicyin167intoafreemarketforslavesandwheat,incompetitionwithRhodes,butItalianbusinessmendidnotappearthereinanynumbersbefore125oreven100.TheportofPuteolinearNaples,intendedfortheLevanttrade,didnotbecomeprosperousuntilthelatesecondcenturyBC.AnditwasnotuntilAttalusIII,kingofPergamum,bequeathedhiskingdomtoRomein133BC(thefutureprovinceofAsiawascreatedin129)thatthepredatorypublicani(tax-farmers)descendedonitlikevultures.SoitshouldnotbeassumedthattheMediterraneanwasquicklyunifiedtoRome’sadvantage.Weshould

notsettoomuchstorebysuchscrapsofinformationastheoddshipmentofwheatfromEgypttoRomein210,orfromNorthAfricatotheAegeaninthe170s,orthespreadofpiracyintheLevantineseasearlyinthesecondcentury,correspondingtoincreasedrecruitmentofslavesforItalianbuyers.Ingeneral,itistruethatfromwesttoeast,fromRometotheParthiankingdomofBactria,pricefluctuations,creditratechanges,financialtrendsandevensocialdisruption(accordingtoF.M.Heichelheim),tendedtoechooneanotheroveranincreasinglywidearea.Butthiswasonlyaverygeneraltendency.Differenteconomicsituationsprevailed,eveninneighbouringareas:whathappenedtoSyriaunderAntiochusIIIwasnotthesamethingastheviolentdeteriorationofEgyptunderPtolemy.AndifanoverallpatternwaseventuallytodominatetheMediterraneaneconomy,ourbestguessisthatthisdidnothappenbefore170,150oreven130BC.

Theeastdigsitsowngrave

Inabout200BC,theHellenisticworld,i.e.theeasternMediterraneanunderGreekdomination,wasneitherahousethreatenedwithruin,northegloriousrealmdescribedbyU.Kahrstedt.Itcertainlypossessedthebestinstitutions,combiningdespotismand‘enlightenment’,thecomparativeindependenceofthecity-statesandtheadvantagesofvastterritorialkingdoms.Itisalsotruethatamoneyeconomywasthrivingwithinit,andthatitenjoyedimmenseaccumulatedwealth,ahighstandardoflivingandadenselysettledpopulation.Buttosaythatitwasonthevergeofbeingthepromisedland,inotherwordsaformofcapitalismabouttotakeindustrialform,andmovingawayfromaslave-basedregime,ismuchmoredoubtful.Itisalsofarfromclearthatthenon-achievementofsuchanindustrialrevolutionistobelaidatthedooroftheRoman‘barbarians’,eveniftheydidindeedbringwiththemmuch

destruction,tortureandpillage.ThedivisionofAlexandertheGreat’sinheritanceamongthreepowers,Syria,EgyptandMacedonia,ledalmostimmediatelytoaseriesofwars,punctuatedbyshort-livedalliancesandunprecedentedviolenceoftheworstkind,namelycivilwar.Intheearlythirdcenturybc,somekindofbalancebetweenontheonehandtheweightypowerofEgyptandontheotherthefast-expandingcitiesofRhodes,MiletusandEphesus,andtherevivalofcommerceinthetradingpostsontheBlackSeahadprobablycreatedathrivingnorth-southaxis.Takingadvantageofthedivisionsofthe‘bigthree’,lesserstateshadthensprungup,suchasthekingdomsofPergamum,Bithynia,Pontus,ArmeniaandBactria,alongsidebrilliantcitieslikeRhodesandtheclustersoftownsinCreteandCilicia,wherepiracyflourished.Butbytheendofthethirdcentury,Egypt’spowerhadsufferedseriousdamage,bothinternallyandexternally:externallyasaresultofthecrisisbroughtbythesecondPunicwar,whichmayhavesloweddownsilvershipmentseastwardsandwhichcertainlydeprivedEgyptoftheimmensemarketsofItaly,SicilyandCarthageitself;andinternally,sinceEgypt’svictoryoverSyriaatRaphiahadbeenachievedonlywiththehelpofnativeEgyptianlevies(i.e.troopsthatwerenotGreek).Asaresult,internaldisturbances(national,colonial,evenracial)convulsedEgypt,whichnowbecamethe‘sickman’oftheMiddleEast.ThisweaknessandtheconsequentpowervacuumencouragedanaggressivepolicybyPhilipVofMacedoniaandAntiochusIII,onecharacterizedbyhastyandruthlessoffensives.

Romanbrutality

Thissituationexplainstosomeextenttheshort-termbrutalityemployedbyRome.RomanpolicytookadvantageofhavingonlytwogreatpowerstodealwithintheNearEast(MacedoniaandSyria,bothofthemfragile)inordertoeliminateasquicklyaspossiblethepotentialdangerthey

represented.TheoriginsofthesecondMacedonianwar,200-197,inwhichRomebecameembroiledwhenthePunicwarwasscarcelyover,remainobscure.ItseemsunlikelythattheSenatesimplytookfrightattheimprovisedalliancebetweenPhilipVandAntiochusIII,orthattheurgent,desperateembassiesfromPergamum,RhodesandAthensweresufficientmotivetosendarmiesoutintoadistantconflictwhichcouldeasilyhavebeenavoided,sinceMacedoniawastryinghardnottoinfringetheclausesofthe205treatybindingittoRome.ThequestionisbetterunderstoodfromtheviewpointofRomanpolitics:theimperialismwhichhadflexeditsmusclesduringthestrugglewithCarthagewasgainingstrength.ThemajoractorsofthefirstMacedonianwar,P.SulpiciusGallusorM.ValeriusLaevinus,werenotaloneinwishingtoreturntothefray.Akindof‘militaryprofessionalism’hadcomeintobeing,inwhichthelureofspoils,anobsessivedesireforgloryandtheconsequencesofover-investmentinthemilitaryallplayedtheirpart.Allwarsthatcometoanendraisetheproblemofdemobilization,andRomehadplentyofsoldiersforwhomitwashardtofindsuitableemployment.Thelegions,excellentlycommandedandtrainedfor‘modern’warfare,wereanirresistibleforce,particularlysincetheeasternpowers,failingtolearnfrompastexperience,didnotupdatetheirarmies.Perhapsitisalwaysthefateofhighlycivilizedcountriestobeawarortwobehindtheirlessrefinedopponents.AtCynoscephalae,PhilipV’sarmywasmadetolooksomewhatridiculous.Macedoniawascutdowntosizeonthisoccasionandunderwentanotherhumiliation:Flaminius’proclamationofGreekindependenceattheIsthmianGamesof196gavebacktheGreekstheirfreedom,includingthatofindulginginpettysquabbles.In194,thelegionslefttheBalkans.Aftersomuchpillage,extortionandkilling,whowouldnowdareriseagainstRome?Thenin190,backedbythePergamenesandRhodes,theScipiostriumphedatMagnesiaadSipylumoverthemuchlargerarmyofAntiochusIII,drivingthatmagnificentandambitious‘SunKing’backacrosstheTaurus.Sometwentyyearslaterin167,RomehadasimilarwalkoveragainstPerseus,successortoPhilip.V.L.AemiliusPaulus,thesonoftheconsuldefeatedatCannae,providedanotherdemonstrationofunfailingRoman

superiority,onthefieldofPydna.HistriumphbackinRomedisplayeduntoldriches,thespoilsofquiteatrociouspillage.Thistime,theMacedonianmonarchyandindeedMacedoniaitselfwerewipedfromthelandoftheliving.

Thetrendisreversed

SuchaBlitzkriegwithitsattendantlootingwaspossibleonlybecauseofadegreeofeconomicprosperity.Avanquishedpowerhadtohaveenoughresourcestorecover,beforeitwasworthwhileforwarfareandlootingtostartupagain.ThiswaswhathappenedinthefirstthirdofthesecondcenturyBC.Theeconomicclimateremainedfavourable,anydamageorfinanciallosseswerequicklymadegoodandwarindemnities,howevercrippling,werepaid.EvenEgypt,whichhadwitnessedsomefrighteningdevaluationsoftheorderoftentoone,andhadhadtoissuecoppercurrency,managedtorecoverafterthisbloodletting.After170,however,camearecession.Wheatpriceswerecatastrophic,

thestandardoflivingfellandsocialunrestspreadlikeleprosy,reachingeventhedistantconquerors,RomeandItaly.Itmustbeconcededthatpoliticswaspartlyresponsibleforthissequenceofupheavals.Buttheeconomicdownturnalsoplayedapart.Warbecameevenmoresavage.MacedoniaroseupandwaspromptlyreducedtoaRomanprovince;thepolicemanhadcometostay(148BC).WhenGreecerebelledinturn,itwassavagelypunishedandanexamplewasmadebydestroyingCorinth,almostgratuitously,intheveryyearofthesackofCarthage.GreecetoowasreducedtobeingaRomanprovincein146,andwhenAttalusdied,hiskingdomwasbequeathedtoRome,becomingtheprovinceofAsiain129.Everywhere,thewholelengthofthesea,civilwars,so-called‘social’

i.e.confederatewars,ortribalwarsbrokeoutoneafteranother,seemingtoprovokeeachotherintoexistence.TherevoltoftheCeltiberiansin

Spainwhichstartedin154didnotenduntil133,withthehorrificsiegeofNumantia.InNorthAfrica,thewaragainstJugurthabeganin109andhadrepercussionsinRomeitselfin102and101.TheCimbriandTeutonsinvadedProvenceandevennorthernItaly;in91,therevoltofItaly,anotherconfederatewar,broughtRomealmosttothebrinkofruin.Finally,savageinternalpowerstruggleswerebythistimealmostunremitting.HowinthecircumstanceswasitpossibletoconquerandholdtheentireMediterraneanworld?TakingadvantageoftheconflictstearingRomeapart–firstthe‘social’

warthenin88thefirstvictoriesofSulla,whosearmyreachedthecityitself–Mithridates,kingofPontus,wasforseveralyearstheinstigatorofastrikingrevengemovementagainstRome,applaudedthroughouttheeast.In88,athisbidding,ageneralwar,thePonticuprising,brokeoutandsweptthoughtheprovinceofAsia.CitiesopenedtheirgatestohimandresidentRomansweremassacred(atotalof80,000,itwassaid).Gatheringforce,thewaveofrebellioncrossedtheAegean:theRomansofDelosweremurdered.FromMacedonia,aninvadingforcereachedThessaly.CentralGreeceandAthensitselfwereupinarms.Romehadadelayedreaction.Therepression,ledbySulla,was

markedbytherecaptureofAthensandthecitywasharshlydealtwith.ButotherconcernspreventedSullafrompursuinghistrajectoryfurther.Theroutetoworlddominionlayelsewhere,inRomeitself,andhesignedinhastethebotchedpeaceofDardanosin83.Sothedisturbancesintheeastcontinued.EventhefiercecampaignsofLucullusdidnotbringaboutpacification.Thatwouldbeachievedonlylaterandwithoutmuchmerit,duringPompey’seasyexcursion.In63,theoldkingofPontus,abandonedbyall,hadoneofhisbodyguardsrunhimthroughwithasword.Twoyearslater,SyriabecameaRomanprovince.ButRome’srevivedfortunesareprobablytobeaccountedforbythe

upwardmovementoftheeconomy,asaresultofwhichthetidehadturnedoncemoreinRome’sfavour,possiblyinSulla’stime,andcertainlybythetimeofCaesar.Theeastwouldhavebeenthoroughlysubduedandorderwouldhavereigned,hadquarrelsinRomeitselfnottakenatragicturn.

Fromcitytoempire:fromTiberiusGracchus,133bc,toAugustus,31bc

Thesequarrels,culminatinginthetriumphofAugustusin31BC,lastedanentirecentury.Historianshavestudiedinminutedetail,withgreateruditionandendlessdebate,thiseventfulanddramaticperiodofRomanhistory,horriblymonotonousasitwas,andwithhumanvillainyconstantlyondisplay.Inthestruggleforpower,everycontender,howeverdifferentinorigin,hadhandsstainedwithbloodandfilth.Intheend,theybecameindistinguishable.Moregeneroussouls–canwecallthempure?–suchastheGracchi,

firstTiberiusandthenCaius,dreamedofrenewingRome,buildinguponcemoreaclassofsmalllandowners.Buttheydidnotlastlongagainsttheirowncaste,thenobilitas,whichmonopolizedpower,reignedsupremeintheSenateandwasthesourceofallpatronage.Neitheroftheillustriousbrotherswassavedbythesacrosanctfunctionoftribuneoftheplebs,whicheachheldinturn.Thefirstwasassassinatedin133,thesecondin123.Marius,bornnearArpinium,wasanovushomo,anditwasthepeople’s

party,theRomanplebssupportedbytheequites,whichcarriedhimtohisfirstconsulatein107BC.HehadcometoprominenceintheJugurthanwarsandhavingoustedhispatron,Metellus,achievedvictoryovertheNumidiankingin105.IftheageofMariuswaseventful,withtherebellionsheencourageduntilhisdeathin86,itisnotthattherewassomehistoricallogicatwork,stilllesswasittheresultofskillonthepartofMarius,whowasabravesoldierbutashort-sightedpolitician;norwasitevenbecauseofpressureofpopularfeeling.TheplebeiansofRome,livinginsomeleisureandonstatecharity,werequiteincapableofsettingupademocracy.Infact,ancientRomansocietyhadlostitsstability.Therulingclass,

thenobilitas,madeupofpatriciansandplebsennobledthroughofficeholding,wasstillinsitu.ButaroundRomeandthroughoutItaly,therewasnolongerthatnumerouspopulationofsmalllandownerswhowerebyturnspeasantsthensoldiers.Theurbanplebswerepartlya

productofthisdisintegration.Alongsidethenobilitas,whichclungtoitsoffice,controlledtheSenate,gaveoutpro-magistrates’postsandownedhugeestatesworkedbyslavelabour,especiallyintherichCampania,livedabourgeoisiecomposedoffinancier-equitesandtaxfarmers,andthisclassconstitutedanincreasingthreat,withitsnewtasteforconspicuousconsumption.Inshort,asicksocietywascollapsingfrombelow,renderingbothpowerandinstitutionsfragile.Theessentialsymptom,whichcanstandformanyothers,wasthe

transformationofthearmy:onceacitizen-army,thenaprofessionalarmy,itwasrecruitedfromnowonamongthepoor,thehave-nots,thecapitecensi,menfromthelowestclasses,infraclassem.Theyquicklybecamemastersofthesituation,pushingtheircommanderstotakepower,thelatterbeingfairlyunburdenedbyanythingwemighttermsincerepoliticalconvictions.In100,Marius’sarmycrushedthepopularparty,deemedguiltyofhavingrevivedtheprojectofagrarianlawsfavouredbytheGracchi,andofstirringupthecity’spopulation.Sullatoowasanarmyman,receivingpowerfromitshandsonhis

returnfromtheLevantin8z.Hisvictory,followedbyappallingrepression,ledtoadictatorship.Wasthisaneastern-typedespotism?Notreally,sinceSullaabdicatedin79andtheconflictresumed,firstbetweenPompeyandCaesar,thenbetweenAntonyandOctavian.NomonarchyhadbeencreatedbyJuliusCaesar,whowasmurderedintheIdesofMarchconspiracyin44.ButonewassetupaftertheparticularlydramaticconflictbetweenAntonyandOctavian.Thislatterconflicthadindeedbroughttothesurfacethelatent

antagonismbetweeneastandwest,asifeverythingwasstartingagainfromscratch,orasiftheLevantwasbecomingcapablebysomemiracleofregainingitsformerprosperity.Wasthisrealityorillusion?Octavian,thefutureemperorAugustus,embodiedtheunitaryvisionofJuliusCaesar,thedesiretouniteanalmostconsolidatedwesttoaneastasyetincompleteandunconsolidated,reachingbeyondtheEuphrates,whichhedeemedafrontiertoocloseforcomfort.AntonyandCleopatra,drivenbycircumstances,alsodreamedofaneastunifiedfortheiradvantage.Mightthisdream,whichfounderedabruptlyatActiumin33,haveledtothecreatingofaByzantineEmpirecenturiesaheadofitstime?Somehistoriansthinkso(andsodidPascal).Butthismaybetakingtoo

literallypropagandaputaboutbyAugustus,sincethe‘Egyptian’episodewasaconvenientcomponentinhisplanstoestablishandenforceastrongcentralpoweronanewformula.AfterallifAntonyhadwon,hetoowouldhavecreatedaRomanEmpire.Augustus’sachievementwasthatintakingoverthelegacyofCaesar,

headapteditandconcealeditsmostglaringambitions.Caesar’sprudentsuccessor,thefirstRomanemperor,wasconsideredasaviourbytheentireMediterranean,mastersandslavesalike(notjustbyVirgilandthefriendsofMaecenas).Thegiftshebroughtwithhimwereaboveallpeace(ubiquepaxwashismotto),respectforindividuals,andasocialorder–andthesethingsmatteredgreatlyaftersomanyyearsoftumult,especiallythelastfew,whentensionshadreachedanall-timepeak.

IIRomebeyondtheMediterranean

Intheend,Romanimperialismsimplyranoutofsteam.Thekeyperiod,fromthispointofview,wasthereignoftheemperorHadrian(ad117-138).Bythistime,theoutlineoftheEmpirerepresentedanimmenseellipsearoundtheMediterranean,stretchingfarbeyonditinsomedirections,runningclosertoitsshoresinothers,butwiththeseaprovidingthebasicshape:essentiallytheRomanEmpirewasthelandsurroundingtheMarenostrum.Tothesouthandeast,theEmpirewasprotectedbydesertwastes,the

SaharaandtheSyriandesert.DangerlurkedonlybeyondtheemptyspacesofSyria,withthearrivaloftheParthians,firsttheArsacidsthentheSassanids,whorevivedIran,thatnever-entirely-vanquishedheartofthePersianEmpire.ButtheParthianslongremainedadistanthornets’nest–troublesomeonlyifdisturbedontheirhomeground.Andthis‘anti-Empire’didnotinterferewiththeroutesbringingsilk,drugsandspicestoRome,sincetheRomanshadaccesstotheRedSeaandtherebytomerchandisefromthemonsooncoastoftheIndianOcean.Itwasin

thenorth,ontheEuropeanfrontier,thatRomefeltmostthreatened.TheEmpireincludedItaly,SpainandtheBalkans,butinordertosecurethefrontiersofthese‘continents’,especiallythelast,itwasdrawnintocontrollingthewatersboundingthem–theBlackSea(PontusEuxinus),theDanubeandtheRhine–andthereforetoventureintounchartedlands,sometimesalmostuninhabited,whereeverythingwasdifferent:population,climate,crops,vegetation,riversandseas.Wasthisconstantoutwardexpansionreallynecessary?Whenthe

Empirefinallygaveupthestruggle,wasitoutofresignationorbecauseithadtailoreditsdesirestowhatcouldbeaccomplishedwiththemeanstohand?Thisenormoushumanentity–enormousforthetimethatis(50millionsoulsatleast)–spreadoveranareawhichwasalsoenormous.Inanagewhendistancewasaformidableobstacle,itcouldnotcountonbeingprotectedbytheratherflimsyenvelopeoftheEmpire’sfrontierswithinwhichitwasmoreorlessenclosed.ThefurtherthedistancefromtheMediterranean,thelessprotectedonewas,asthesupplylineswerestretchedtotheirutmost,acrossdesertoroceanwastes,orthealmostemptyexpansesofprimitivecountrieslikeGermania.Themaintenanceofthefrontierpostsalonewasamasterpieceoforganizationinthefaceofharassment,andhadconstantlytobeundertaken.Fiftymillionsouls,working,tillingthesoil,forgingmetalsandweavingcloth,seafaringandleadingtheirpack-animals,offeredanendlesschallengetothesoldier.Wouldtheprotectionofthefrontiershavebeenpossibleatallwithouttheenrolmentofbarbarianauxiliaries,thePalmyrianarchersorthefair-hairedfoot-soldiersfromGermania?

TheCimbriandtheTeutons

BeforetheEmpirehadevencomeintobeing,theproblemhadarisenyearsbefore,withthescarecausedbytheCimbriandTeutons:themost

damagingthreattotheMediterraneancomplexbeforetheGermanicinvasionsofthefifthcentury.Inabout120BC,ahumantide(madeupofCimbriinthenorthand

Teutonsinthesouth)hadstartedtoflowoutoftheJutlandpeninsula:initssteadyadvance,thistideofmen,womenandchildrenencounteredthelivingobstacleofotherpeoples,whomitattackedorraidedasitwent,bringingsomeofthemsouthwithit.Withintenyears,initsquestforland,thisfloodhadreachedthebanksoftheDanube,southofpresent-dayMoravia.MovingalongtheAlpsandharassingtheRomans,itappearedintheJuramountainsin109.Fouryearslater,itwasintheToulousearea.TheCimbrithenpressedonintoSpain,beforereturningandoncemorejoiningupwiththeTeutonsinwhatisnowBelgium.Combiningforces,theythenheadedforItaly.TheTeutons,havingwonabattleatOrange,eventuallyselectedProvenceforthemselves,whiletheCimbriturnedtowardsHelvetiaandtheBrennerPass.TheirjointgoalwasthenorthernpartoftheItalianpeninsula,aregionstillfragileacenturyafterHannibal’sinvasion.AsforProvence,theProvincia,whichhadbeenaRomanpossessiononlysince1zo,itwasatthistimeamerestripofterritoryalongtheseaboard.Marius,whomRomehadequippedonlywithinexperiencedlegions,

arrivedatAquaeSextiae(Aix-en-Provence)toencountertheTeutons.Theytooknonoticeofhimandkeptheadingeastwardsenrouteforthepromisedland.Forsixdays,theymarchedpasttheRomancamp,jeeringandpromising‘tocallonthesoldiers’wivesinRome,insolentlyaskingwhethertheyhadanymessagesforthem’.ButMariuscaughtupwiththehordeandmassacredmen,womenandchildren,takingarumoured300,000prisoners.Thisfigure,thoughprobablyinflated,neverthelessgivessomeideaofthesizeoftheinvasion.Thefollowingyear,on3July101,atVercelli,MariusmettheCimbriwhohadcrossedoverviatheBrennerandthenmovedwestacrossnorthernItaly,insteadofmarchingonRome.AnothervictoryforhisarmyfloodedtheRomanmarketwithslaves.Theepisodeleftnightmarememories,however,notonlyforGaul,but

forItaly,whichhadseenthebarbariansatthegate.The‘Cimbrianterror’,ahorrificlegend,wastosurviveevenlongerthanRomeitself.

Caesar’sconquestofGaul

ComparedtotheGermanicworld,seethingwithupheavalsanddisturbances,Gaullookedlikearichprizeorprey.Comparativelyrichandpopulous(withperhapsizto15millioninhabitants),endowedwithafertilecountryside,thickforests,manytowns,andflourishingindustries(wool,leatherandmetal-working),Gaulwasdividedamongrivalpeoples,greatterritorialtribes.Henceitspoliticalweakness,whichwastohavedramaticconsequences.RomefearedthatinthisstateGaulmightbeanattractivedestination

fortheoverspillpopulationofGermaniaandsinceitwasillpreparedtoresist,wouldchannelitsouthtotheMediterranean,asinthedaysoftheCelticinvasions.IndeedCeltsandGermansweremuchthesamethingintheeyesoftheRomans,withthelatterpossiblyappearingevenmoresavagethantheformer.ThesecurityofItaly,inshort,requiredthatthelidbekeptonGaul,andthequestionmusthavearisenverysoonofoccupyingGalliacomata,‘long-hairedGaul’,(asopposedtoGalliatogata,‘toga-cladGaul’,theProvinciaandfutureNarbonnaise).Whatwasmore,themerchantsofItaly,thenegotiators,wereinterestedintheGallicmarket,wheretheirgoodswereincreasinglyfindingbuyers.‘AmphoraeofItalianwinearefoundinabout100BCasfarnorthasChateaumaillant’inthepresent-daydepartementoftheCher,andevenfurtherafield.Militaryambitionsforagloriousconquestdidtherest.InApril59BC,theRomanSenate,caughtupintheintriguesofthe

triumvirs(Pompey,CaesarandCrassus),conferredonCaesaranexceptionalcommand,inIllyriaandCisalpineGaul;lateraddingtoitTransalpineGaul.Wasthereanulteriormotivehere?InappointinghimtostrengthenthesecurityoftheAlps,aformidablebarrier,butfullofpotentialentry-pointsandunderthreatfromnortherntribes,didthepatresconscriptihopethatGalliacomatawouldprovetobeadangerous,evenmortaltrapforanambitiousgenerallikeCaesar?Iftheydid,theycertainlymiscalculated.Caesar’spretextforactionwasprovidedbythemigrationoftheHelvetiiwestwardsinthespringof58.WearyofbeingharassedbytheGermans,theysoughtrefugeinGaul.‘Turningaside

fromguardingtheAlps,CaesarmarchedontheRhone,andGaultherebybecameabattlefield.’Infact,CaesaralsohadtoplaypoliticsbetweentherivalpowersandmutualfearsoftheGallictribes;hehadtodeceivetheHelvetiithebettertosurprisethem,andseizethisexcuseformovingnorth.Intheevent,everythingworkedoutasplanned,onedeliberateactionleadingtothenext,andallcalculatedinadvance.CaesardrovebacktheHelvetiiatBibracte,andinthesameyearheexpelledAriovistus’sSuevifromAlsace.HewasthusabletoestablishhimselfinGaulundertheguiseofprotectingit.1

WastheentireepisodedrivenbyCaiusJuliusCaesar’spersonalambition?Undoubtedlyhesawinthisadventureanopportunityforpersonalglory,politicalpower,andameansofrestoringhisfamilywealth,latterlyeatenintoby‘insanedemagogicexpense’.Thefactthathewasremarkablyintelligentandclear-sightedonlymakesmattersworse.ButitisalsotruethatGaulwasaself-designatedprey,thankstoitspoliticalweaknessandlackoforganization.IfGaulwasnottobeRoman,itmightwellhavebecomeGermanic,withthethreatofinvadinghordes,firsttheHelvetii,thentheSuevi–andwhoknewwhatmightfollow?ThereturntothenightmarescenariooftheCimbriandTeutonswouldalmostcertainlyhavestungRomeintoaction.Sotheremighthavebeenanotherconquestinanycase.Inshort,Caesarhimselfwasdependentonapredestinedsetofcircumstances,goingfarbeyondhispersonalhistory.GaulwasconqueredsothatitwouldprovideaneffectiveandpermanentbarrierbetweenRomeandtheGermanicthreat.AmapofCaesar’scampaignsspellsoutonlytooclearlywhattook

placeduringthesedarkyears,punctuatedbysiegesandlongperiodsofwaiting,overanimmensegeographicalareawhereeventherapidlymarchinglegionscouldnotovercomedistance.WecannotherefollowitinthedetailtobefoundinthevictoriousbulletinsCaesarsenttoRome,thecityhecouldnotforget,wherehis‘alterego’PubliusClodiuswasstillactive.HisconquestofGaulbetween58and54wasaseriesofeasyvictories,

methodicallyexecuted.AbloodyfurrowopenedupinthefleshandlandscapeoftheGauls.In58,theHelvetiiwerecrushedatBibracte,andtheSueviatMulhouse.In57,thelegionsstruckattheBelgictribes,pushingontowardstheScheldtandMeuse.In56,aftercrossingthe

scrublandofArmorica,theRomanarmybeattheVeneti,triumphingovertheirsolidlybuiltships.Inthesameyear,Aquitainewasseized,westoftheProvincia.Thering-fencecuttingoffGaulfromanycontactwitheitherBritainorthelandsacrosstheRhinewastracedintheformofanopenwoundwhichwouldnotheal.Tokeepitactive,CaesarneededonlytocrosstheChanneltwice,in55and54,andtheRhinetwice,in55and53.Ithasbeenarguedthattheseexpeditionswereunnecessary.InfactCaesarwaslessconcernedwithvictoryinGermaniaorBritainthanwiththesituationinGaul,whichheintendedtotameandaccustomtoRomanrule.Butin54,53and52and51,beingconfinedfromoutside,Gaulexplodedfromwithin.TherebellionstartedintheMassifCentral,whichtheconquerorshadbypassedwithoutenteringit.Vercingetorixledthisheroicresistance,beatingtheAmienslegionbacktoSens,andinflictingdefeatontheRomansatGergovia.ThenthetideturnedandtheGallicforcebesiegedinAlesiacapitulatedattheendofSeptember52.TheyhadwatchedhorrorstruckastheRomanarmyencircledthemasifbymagicwithitswarmachines,earthworks,palisades,circumvallations,andlinesofstakesintheearth.Itwasatextbookdemonstration,usingquitesimplemethods,oftheRomans’technicalsuperiority,thefruitofirondiscipline.Inconclusion,then,ifthegreatesteventinRomanhistorywasundoubtedlytheconquestoftheMediterranean,thesecondwastheconquestofGaul,thebringingtoheelofahugelivingentity.GaulcontainedperhapsthreetimesthepopulationofthewholeofItaly,andRomewouldfrequentlydependonthismassofmenwhoentereditsservice.

ThedramaticstoryofGermanicus

ButcouldGaulprotectitselfsufficientlytoassuageRome’sanxieties?

Caesarmayhavethoughtso,beinglulledintocomplacencybyhistwoeasysortiesacrosstheRhine.Bothtimeshefoundhimselfinanemptylandscape,deliberatelyabandonedbyitsinhabitants.Hefailedtorecognizethe‘extraordinaryfecundity’ofGermania.ThiserrorinspiredaplandevisedbyAugustusattheendofhislife:tomovetheEmpire’sfrontiersuptotheElbeandMoldaurivers,stoppingatthedivisionbetweeneastandwestGermans,onalinewhichthenaturalfrontieroftheDanubewouldextendtotheBlackSea.ThemiddleandlowerDanubefrontierswerethefirsttobefortified.TheninizBC,Augustus’stepson,Drusus,undertookbybothlandandseatheconquestofwesternGermania,fromtheRhinetotheElbe.Theconquestwascompletedin7BCbyhisbrotherTiberius.Butsixteenyearslater,inad9,theCherusciroseupandVarus’legionsweredestroyedintheTeutoburgerWaldbyArminius.Thisunprecedenteddisasterhadfar-reachingrepercussions,outofproportionperhapstotheevent,duringwhicheverythingwasagainstthelegionaries:betrayalbyalliedtroops,torrentialrain,cumbersomebaggagetrains,andmarshygroundwherethesoldiershadtofightknee-deepinmud.AndindeedGermanicusCaesar,sonofDrusus,adoptivesonofTiberius,andsuccessortoAugustus,rapidlyturnedthesituationaround,restoringtheprestigeofRomeandburyingtheremainsofVarus’companions,withfullhonours.Notwithstandingwhich,Tiberiuscalledbacktheadventurousprince,‘warninghiminincessantletters’,Tacitusreports,‘tocomebackandcelebratethetriumphasarranged;therehadbeenenoughsuccessesandadventures’.Tiberiusthenimposedhis‘short-sightedpolicy’.RomanforceswereevacuatedfromGermania,andGermanicus,afterdulygettinghistriumph,wassentindespairtotheeasternEmpirewherehediedprematurely,possiblyatthehandsofanassassin.SothelimitoftheEmpirewasmoreorlessfixedalongthe2000kilometresoftheRhineandDanube.WhensubsequentlyitwasmassivelyreinforcedintheimportantbufferzoneoftheAgriDecumates(TenCantons),Romewasimplicitlyrecognizing,indeedvirtuallycreating,along-termenemy.TheEmpirehadencircledGermania.

Trajan,theDaciansandtheEuphrates

AftertherationalprudenceofAugustus,andthesuspiciousandedgyprudenceofTiberius,Trajanwastodisplaymuchaudacity,inexperience,enthusiasmanddesireforfameinembarkinguponthesuper-humantaskofconquestinwhichhewastofindbothdeathandglory.WhenhesucceededNervainad98,Trajanalreadyhadalongmilitarycareerbehindhim.BorninItalicainSpainin52,hewasthefirstprovincialtoberaisedtotheimperialthrone.HewouldindeedgivetheEmpireanewlustre,asecondyouth.WhenTrajanconsolidatedtheRhinefrontier,creatingtowns(XantenandNijmegen),andbuildingroadsthroughthesensitivezoneoftheAgriDecumates,hewasmerelytakingessentialroutineprecautions,sincethefrontierhadconstantlytobemaintained,likethehullofaship.ButhisinterventionagainsttheDaciansandtheirkingDecebalusin101-7wasanewdevelopment.TheannexationofDacia(present-dayTransylvania,WallachiaandMoldavia)anditstransformationintoanimperialprovinceprovidedanadvancebastionfortheDanube.Romewouldsetupthrivingcolonieshere,recruitedmainlyintheeast,butLatinwasthelinguafrancaofthisnewworld,whichwouldproveadurablecreation.AfurtheradvantagewastheexistenceinDaciaofminesofpreciousmetal,and‘Daciangold’financedsomeofthegreatpublicworksofthereign,themostfamousofwhichwasTrajan’sforumwiththecelebratedcolumn.Butthemostsignificantcampaignswerethoseof114and117againsttheParthians.ThebendintheEuphrates,MesopotamiaandbeyonditIran,wereweakpointsintheRomanarmour.ThedisasterwhichhadbefallenCrassusatCarrhaein53,andAntony’sdefeat(‘aretreatfromMoscow’asGuglielmoFerrerocalledit)weresinisterprecedents.YettheParthianEmpire,dividedagainstitselfandtroubledbybitterdisputesonitsfrontiers,wasnotatfirstsightanover-formidableenemy.In114,TrajanlandedatAntiochandmarchedintoArmenia.Fromthisstronghold,hesenthislegionsin115toMesopotamia,seizingmostofit.Thefollowingyear,hetookCtesiphonontheTigrisandSeleuciaonthe

Euphrates,thenreachedthePersianGulftothesouth.TheParthiankingChosroeshadfled,soTrajanthoughtthatbyselectingasuccessorhehadwonthewar.Buthardlyhadheleftwhenrevoltflaredupalmosteverywhere.OnlytheGreekpopulation,smallinnumber,hadwelcomedtheinvader,theIranianswereindifferent,andtheJewsandArabswereviolentlyopposedtoRome.ChosroesreappearednearCtesiphon.Discouraged,Trajanturnedforhome.InAugust117,hediedatSelinusinCilicia.Theexpeditionhadendedinfailure.Romehadencounterednotsomuchobstaclesposedbynatureordestiny,asthelimitsofitsownintelligence,orexperience.IntheattempttoconquerAsia,theRomansdidnotmakeuseoftheweaponwhichhadtakenAlexandertothebanksoftheIndus,namelycavalry.ItwasonhorsebacktoothatAntiochusIIIhadlaunchedhisanabasisfrom2.12to202BC,succeedinginturninreachingtheIndus.TrajanthoughthecouldsimplysurpriseMesopotamiabygoingviathemountainsofArmenia–thekindofruseaSpanishorSamnitepeasantmightimagine.Inshort,RomehadnotdisplayedanyverygreataudacityoringenuityeitherinGermania,wheresuccesswouldprobablyhaverequiredcontroloftheBalticandNorthSea,orintheEuphratesvalley,thevastexpansesofwhichcouldbecrossedwitheaseonlyonhorseback.FalloutfromthisfailurewastoaffectthefirststepstakenbyHadrian(117-38).Trajan’ssuccessorspentmostofhisreignvisitingandreinforcinghisfrontiers.ThefirstthinghedidwastoevacuatetheprovincescreatedbyTrajanbeyondtheEuphrates.Thereactiontothiscommon-sensepolicywastheconspiracyof118whichendedintheexecutionofTrajan’sgenerals,CorneliusPalmaandLuciusQuietus.Allimperialistexpansionceasedforthwith.TheEmpirehadreacheditsdefinitiveoutline:itwouldnowshelterbehindaminiatureversionoftheGreatWallofChina.Romehadstoppeddevouringterritory.Thishaltwascalledforinternalratherthanexternalreasons,asifsuddenlyRomehadlosttheappetiteforexpansion.If‘optimismandnationalistsentimentdiedwithTrajan’,asJ.-L.Lauguerputsit,oneshouldnotholdHadrianresponsible.ThenewregimesuitedtheEmpire,sinceitproveddurable,becomingestablishedinwhatonemightcallamonotonousandunexcitingroutine,butalsobringingthePaxRomana,

anunrivalledbenefit.Andifthewholeedificeremainedintactforsolong,wasitsimplybecauseofthesolidityofthewood,earthandstoneoftheRomandefenceworks,theefficiencyofitsroads,theremarkableorganizationofawell-disciplined,well-trainedandenthusiasticarmy,itselfanxioustodeployitsvariouslyrecruitedmenandthesocialmobilityitrepresented?OncethepriceofRome’sownsecurityhadbeenestimatedandpaidbythepraetoriancohorts,theEmpirestillneededtodeployaboutthirtylegionsalongtheendlessperimeterofthefortifiedfrontiers,perhapsasmanyas300,000men,afigureatonceenormousandderisory.DidthesolidityoftheEmpirenotalsodependthereforeonthesimplefactthatHadrian’sforcedretreat,andAntoninus’immobilism,werematchedbythecomplicityandagreementofthepopulationoutsidetheEmpire’sfrontiers?Lateron,whenthegreatsteppesbegantoseethestirringsofunrestoncemore,asrestlessnessinthefareastdrovetheParthianswestwardsfrom162andtheGermansfrom168,thelimesquicklyturnedouttobepowerlessagainstthishumantide,andtheEmpirelosttheinitiativeforcenturiestocome,totheadvantageoftheprimitivepopulationswhichsurroundedandharassedit.Rome’sdefencebecamenowmorethaneveraquestionofresources,ofthequalityofitsmenandtheirintelligence.Ithadtofaceten,twenty,ahundredproblemsatonce,allwithoutanyrealsolution–orratherrequiringamiracle,aprovidentialsavioursuchasDiocletian(245-313).Butsavioursoftendieintheattempt.Fromthenon,atragiclandscapeformedthebackclothoftheEmpireas,assailedfromwithoutandwithin,woundedandbleeding,itstillclungtolife.

IllAMediterraneancivilization:Rome’srealachievement

WithRomevictorious,theMediterraneancontinuedtobetruetoitsownidentity.Thatmeantdiversityovertimeandplace,andawealthofdifferentcolours,forinthisseaofage-oldriches,nothingeverdisappearedwithouttrace:soonerorlatereverythingsurfacedoncemore.Butatthesametime,theMarenostrum,ascenturiesofthePaxRomanaencouragedtradebetweenregions,alsodisplayedacertainunityinstyleandlife.Thiscivilization,asitbecameestablished,wouldbecomeoneofthemostoutstandinginhumanhistory.

Currentsandcounter-currents

ThechieffeatureofthiscivilizationwastheLatinlanguage,andwithittheLatinreligion,andRomanstyleoflife.Thesegainedgroundwithoutdifficultyoncethelegionshadpreparedthewaybyconquest,forexampleinNorthAfricauntilthetimeofSeptimusSeverus(193-zii);inDaciaafterTrajan’sbrutaltriumphs;inGauluntilthefirstcenturyad,thoughwithsomecuriousreversals:‘worshipofMarsoutstrippedMercuryintheNarbonnaiseandeliminatedhimaltogetherinAquitaineproper,whereasMercurydroveoutMarsintheeastandovertookhiminthemilitarizedzoneoftheAgriDecumates’.Buttherewerealsocounter-currentsdictatedbyobstinateloyalties,bytherefusaltocomeintoline,whetherinSyriawiththerevivalofpre-Helleniccults,orinGaulwiththespreadofDruidreligions,whichescapedRomanvigilance.AndwhatisonetosayofthestrongcultofMithras,whichreachedItalyandRomeitself,havingspreadthroughthesoldiers’camps;orofStPaul,defendingChristianityinAthensinfrontoftheAreopagus?Thesewerepartofadeep-seatedrefusaltobendtheknee.Theeastremainedfaithfultoitsancientlanguages;GreekconstantlyandsuccessfullychallengedthesupremacyofLatin.Indeedthiswastheessentialimbalanceintheculturallifeofthevastsea.Asharedcivilizationwasmoreeasilyassimilatedwhenitcametothe

detailsofmateriallife.TheCisalpinehood,thepoenula,wasworninRomeaswellasincoldercountries;ItalianwineseducedtheGauls;whilethebraces,breechesandwovengoodsofGaulwereexportedovertheAlps;theGreekpallium,agarmentconsistingsimplyofabroadlengthofwoollenclothpassedovertheshoulderandsecuredatthewaist,becamethepreferredgarbofmanyRomans,especiallyphilosophers;TiberiuswheninexileinRhodesworeoneallthetime.Cooksexchangedrecipesandspices,gardenersexchangedseeds,cuttingsandgrafts.Theseahadlongmadesuchvoyagespossible,butwiththeunlimitedauthorityoftheEmpire,barriersfellandtransfershappenedmorequickly.

Thelandscape:stillrecognizablythesame

Inashortandstimulatingarticlewritenin1940,LucienFebvreimaginedhowsurprisedHerodotus,‘thefatherofhistory’,wouldbe,ifhecouldseetheMediterraneanpeasantsofthetwentiethcentury.PlinytheElder,wholivedonlyafewcenturieslaterthanHerodotus(ad13-79),wouldnothavebeensoastonished.Still,evenPlinyhadneverseentheeucalyptus(anineteenth-centuryarrivalfromAustralia)ortheplantsimportedafterthediscoveryofAmerica:sweetpeppers,auberginesandtomatoes,theubiquitousBarbaryfig,maize,tobaccoandmanyornamentalflowers.Hedidknow,becausehehadreflecteduponit,thatplantsandcuttingscantravelandthattheyhadcertainlyspreadthroughtheMediterranean.Thingsusuallymovedfromeasttowest.SowereadinPlinythat‘thecherrytreedidnotexistinItalybeforethevictoryofLucullusoverMithridates[73BC].HebroughtthefirstonefromtheBlackSeaandinahundredandtwentyyearsithadcrossedtheoceanandevenreachedBritannia.’StillinPliny’stime,peach-andapricot-treeshadjustarrivedinItaly,theformerprobablyoriginatinginChinaandcomingviaAsiaMinor,the

latterfromTurkestan.Walnut-andalmond-treesfromtheeasthadonlyrecentlyarrived.Thequince,nodoubtanearlierarrival,hadcomefromCrete.ThechestnutwasafairlylategiftfromAsiaMinor.CatotheElder(234-149BC)doesnotmentionit.Ofallthesetravellers,thethreeoldest,whichweimaginetoberootedsincethebeginningoftimeontheshoresofMediterranean,arewheat(anditsrelatedcereals),vinesandolive-trees.AnativeofArabiaandAsiaMinor,theolive-treewasprobablycarriedwestwardbythePhoeniciansandGreeks,andtheRomanscompletedtheworkofdiffusion.‘Today,’Plinywrites,‘ithascrossedtheAlpsandreachedthecentreofGaulandSpain,’thatis,ithadalreadypasseditsoptimumgeographicalhabitat.ItwasevenreportedtohavebeentriedinEngland!Vinestoowereplantedeverywhere,despiterain,windandfrost,sincethefirstfar-offtimeswhenplanterstookaninterestinlambrusco,awildvinewithfruitcontainingbutlittlesugar,probablyoriginatinginTransylvania.Thedeterminationofthepeasantvinegrower,thedifferenttastesofdrinkers,andtheminutevariationsofsoilandmicroclimateledtothecreationofhundredsofvarietiesofvineintheMediterranean.Thereweremanywaysofgrowingthem:onstakes,lefttotrailontheground,ortraineduptrees,suchaselmsoreventhetallpoplarsofCampania.Plinyprovidesanendlesslistofvarietiesofvineandthewaytogrowthem,aswellasanalreadyquiteimpressivelistoffinewines.Heisequallyeloquentabouttypesofwheat,theirspecificweightandflourcontent,orthevaluetomenandanimalsalikeofbarley,oats,rye,beansandchickpeas.Oil,wine,cerealsandpulses–betweenthemtheyprovidedvirtuallytheentirebasicdailyfareoftheinhabitantsoftheMediterranean.Tocompletethepicture,wehaveonlytoincludeflocksofsheep,comingdownthemountainsinwinterinsouthernItalytomakeTarentumawooltown,andsomecharacteristicplantssuchasbox,sadcypress,Pluto’sfunerealtree,andtoxictaxus,poisonousyew,‘hardlygreen,frailandsad’–andwecouldalmostbestandingatPliny’sside,surveyingtheclassicallandscapeofthehillsandplainsoftheMediterranean.Likehim,wemight–andwhynot?–prefertoalltheperfumesofEgyptandArabytheintoxicatingscentofolive-treesinflowerandthewildrosesof

Campania.Thisgeographyhelpsexplainmanythings:theRomanworldwasbasedonanagriculturaleconomygovernedbyprincipleswhichwouldremaininforceformanyhundredsofyears,untiltheindustrialrevolutionofthenineteenthcentury.Thedivisionoftheeconomyintosectorsdelegatedtopoorerregionsthetaskofproducinggrain,whileallowingthericheronesthebenefitsofvines,olivesandlivestock.Hereoriginatedthesplitbetweenadvancedeconomies,suchasItaly,andbackwardoneslikeNorthAfricaorPannonia,thelatter,however,beingbetterbalancedandlessvulnerablethantheformer.Inanygivenzone,thelandscapemightbeclosertooneorotherofthesepolesandadividinglineseparatedwhatcannotquitebecalledadevelopedeconomyfromanunder-developedone.Thelinedidnotbecomesharplydrawn,andthennotalways,untilindustry,capitalismandgrowingpopulationprovidedtheimpetus,thatisuntilafreemarketbecameestablished.

Townsandtechnology

TheEmpirewascharacterizedbyitstownsandcities:boththeolderones,whichcontinuedtoexistontheirancientsitesand,liketheGreekcities,setRomeanexamplewiththeirdevelopedurbancultureanditsrefinements,andthenewtowns,mostofthemfoundedinthewesternEmpire,oftenfarfromtheMediterranean.BroughtintobeingbyaRomanpowerwhichshapedtheminitsownimage,theyprovidedthemeansoftransplantingtofar-flungplacesaseriesofculturalgoods,alwaysidentifiablythesame.Setdowninthemidstofoftenprimitivelocalpeoples,theymarkedthestaging-postsofacivilizationofself-promotionandassimilation.Thatisonereasonwhythesetownswereallsoalike,faithfullycorrespondingtoamodelwhichhardlychangedovertimeandplace.Whattownscouldhavebeenmore‘Roman’incharacter

thanthemilitaryandtradingcitiesalongtheRhine-Danubeaxis?EveryRomantowndependedonstone-builtroads,intendedforpack

animalsandsoldiersladenwiththeirimpedimenta.Eachroad,onarrivingatitsdestination,ledstraightintothecityfromthecountrysidewhichsurroundeditonallsideslikeasea.NeitherPompeiiinCampania,norTimgadinNumidiahadsuburbs,suchasoneregularlyfindsaroundmedievalcities,withtheirslums,flea-infestedinns,workshopsfornoisyormalodoroustrades,shedsforcarts,andstablesforpost-horses.Indeed,therewashardlyanywheeledtrafficonRomanroads,andnopost-horsesexceptforimperialmessengers,whileurbanmanufacturehadnotyetspreadoutsidethecitycentre.Thetradescouldallbefoundinsidethecity,sometimesgroupedbystreet:bakers,barbers,weavers,innkeepers.InPompeii,thetavernswereratherlike‘modernsnackbars,wherecustomerscouldbeservedinstantfood,andwheretheroomswereoftenhiredbythehour’.WewouldnothavefeltlostlookinginataRomanbakery:theequipmentandworkingpracticeshavecomedowntousthroughtheages.TheRomansmithycouldstillbeseennotlongagoinanyFrenchvillage,withitsfurnace,bellows,pincerstoholdred-hotiron,andanvil.Thefullingbasinortheshearsofthecloth-cutterlookexactlythesameinRomansculpturesandinmedievalpaintings.SimilarreflectionscometomindifonecontemplatestheRomans’

liftinggear,pulleysandcranes;theirmethodsofquarryingstoneandthestonelathesusedtofinishcylindricalcolumns;ortheirbrickwallsbuiltexactlylikethoseoftoday.However,bakedbrickwasnotingeneraluseinGreeceuntilthethirdcenturyBC,reachingRomeacoupleofhundredyearslater.Itwasacostlybuildingmaterial,anditsuseindicatesacertainriseinlivingstandards.Themajorinnovationinthisfield,startingabout200BC,wasthe

technologyofconcrete.WhattheRomanscalledopuscaementiciumwasoriginallyasimplemixtureofsand,limeandstonechips.Lateron,thelimewasreplacedeitherwithpozzolana,volcanicashfromPozzuoli,whichgavegoodhydraulicconcrete,orcrushedbrickdust,whichproducedthereddishmortarsotypicalofmanyimperialbuildings.Lefttohardeninmouldsmadeofplanks,thisconcretemixture,whichwaswaterproof,enabledtheRomanstobuildquicklyandcheaplymajor

buildingsofpreviouslyunheard-ofdesign,witharchesandvaultsbiggerthananyearlierarchitectshadmanaged.Whenthemouldsweretakenaway,thisearly‘industrial’materialcouldbefacedwithstone,stucco,mosaicorevenbrick,togiveitamorenobleappearance:itcertainlyplayedanimportantroleinthebuildingofthemanycitycentresoftheRomanEmpire.Theplanofthesecitycentreswasvirtuallyidenticalinallcases.

Aroundtheforum,arectangularspacepavedwithlargeflagstones,wouldstandthetempleofthethreegodsoftheCapitol:Jupiter,JunoandMinerva;thenwouldcomethecuria,orlocalsenate(thedecurionswerethecity’ssenatorsandtheduumviriitsconsuls),thebasilica,whichmighthaveacolonnade,wherelawsuitswereheardandwherestrollerscouldseekshelteronrainydays,thoughtheycouldalsofindcoverundertheporticosurroundingtheforum.Theforumwasalwaysamarketplace,evenwhentherewereothermarketsnearby,andwasperiodicallyappropriatedbypeasantssellingfruit,vegetables,poultryorlambs.Otherbuildingsalwaystobefoundclosetothecentreincludedtheatres,amphitheatres,circuses,latrinesandbaths.Bathsinparticulartookupanimmenseamountofspace.UndertheEmpire,theywere‘thecafesandclubsofRomancities’,theplacetogoattheendoftheday.Finallytherewerethetriumphalarches,monumentalgates,libraries,andtheaqueductsvitalforthemassivewaterconsumptionofthecity-dwellers.ThiscompletesthelistoffeaturesfoundinallRomancities,accordingtoanalmostinvariableplan.Therewereafewexceptions:LeptisMagnahadaforumoutsidethe

town;Arieshadaporticounderneaththeforum,whichwasbuiltontopofit,asifonpillars.Timgadputits‘Capitol’outsideitswalls.Theseanomalies,dictatedbytheexpansionofthecityorthepeculiaritiesofthesite,didnotaffectthebasicplan,whichwefindendlesslyrepeated.Newtownswereusuallybuiltbythelabourofsoldiersandlocalinhabitants,workerswhoweremorenumerousthantheywereexpert.Theideawastohaveasimpledesignandworkquickly.Startingfromthecentre,thefutureforum,anorth-southlinewasdrawn,thecardo>andaneast-westline,thedecumanus:theymetatrightanglesintheforum,providingthemedianaxesalongwhichthecitywouldbebuilt.InLutetia(nowParis),theforumofthesmallopentownontheleftbank

oftheSeinewasunderneaththepresent-dayrueSoufflot,thecardoranalongtherueSaint-Jacques,thebathswereonthesiteoftheMuseedeClunyandtheCollegedeFrance,andasemi-amphitheatrestoodonthesitetodayknownastheArdnesdeLutece.Ofcoursetheseelementshadthemselvestravelledagooddistance

beforebeingassembledtomakeupthecompositemodeloftheRomancity.TheforumwasaversionoftheGreekagora,aswastheportico.ThetheatretoowasGreekinorigin,althoughRomealtereditconsiderably.ThebasilicacamefromGreeceaswell:CatotheElderprobablybuiltthefirstoneinRome,theBasilicaPorcia.TheRomantempleborrowedmuchfromGreeceatfirst,viatheEtruscantemple.Theamphitheatres(wheregladiatorialcombatsorvenatiowithwildbeaststookplace)wereprobablyofCampanianorigin,whilethethermalbathswerealsoprobablyfrompre-RomansouthernItaly.Inshort,Rometookagreatdealfromelsewhere–whichisnottosay

thatitwasinferior.Itborrowedmuchandgavemuchback,asalllong-lastingcivilizationsdo,andasindeedGreecehaddone.

CitiesandEmpire

Romewasthusattheheadofafederationoftownsandcities,eachhandlingitsownaffairs,whileoverallcontrolwasvestedinRome.Prosperinguntilaboutthesecondorthirdcenturyad,thesecities

thereafterfelluponhardtimes.IfweacceptthepessimisticbutprobablyaccurateviewofFerdinandLot,theywerenotinhabitedbysufficientlylargepopulations.Rome,Alexandria,andpossiblyAntioch,weretheonlylargecitiesoftheEmpireuntiltheriseofConstantinople.Networksofsecond-ranktownswereconspicuousbytheirabsence.Timgadwastheonlytownformilesaround,butithadmerelyfifteenthousandinhabitantsatmost.Whatwasmore,whilethetownactedaspoliticalcentreandmarketplaceforthelocalcountryside,thetown-country

relationshipwasnotmutual.Inotherwords,thetowndidnotfulfilforitsregionthatmanufacturingrolewhichwouldlaterenabletheeconomyofmedievalEuropetotakeoff.Shouldweblamethegreatestatesandtheirworkshops,wherelabourwascarriedoutbyslavesor‘colonists’,smallfarmersalreadychainedtotheland?Wasitbecausetheknownsourcesofenergywerenotsystematicallyused?Orwasitsimplythatthedepressingeconomicsituationwasmoretoblamethanstructuralfeaturesforthestagnationandthendecayofthetowns?Theimpressionthatthetowns’destinywaslinkedtothatofthe

Empireisnotinaccurate.TheEmpirehadlongenabledthemtorise.Ithadcreatedavasteconomicarea,oratanyratemadeitpossibletooperatewithinit;ithadpromotedamonetaryeconomyofsorts,whichincreasedtrade,andaformofcapitalism,limitedperhapsbutalreadyinpossessionoftheessentialelements,allinfactinheritedfromtheHellenisticworld,suchasmerchantguilds,andquotedpricesontheexchange(theforumatRome).Alongsidethetnercatoresormerchantstherewerealreadybankers(argentarii)whoofferedcredit,theproscriptio,asortofcheque,andthepermutatio,akindoftransfer.Butthesemoderntermsmaygiveamisleadingimageofaneconomywhichwasveryquicklytobecaughtinthelethaltoilsofthestate,evenbeforethedownturnofthelastcenturiesoftheEmpire.

HowRomeembracedandprofitedfromHellenisticcivilization

Asacentreofpowerandwealth,RomewaseffortlesslyattractingthechangingtrendsinphilosophyandtheartswellbeforethebattleofActiumandthetriumphofAugustus:thishadstartedtohappenwiththearrivalinthevictoriouscityoftheearliestGreekimmigrants,merchants,artisans,intellectualslookingforwork,politicalexilesorevenslaves,reputedlymorequick-wittedthantheirmasters.TheHellenizationof

Romehadbeengoingonforhundredsofyears.Greekgraduallybecamethesecondlanguageofcultivatedmen,asFrenchwasinEnlightenmentEurope–withthedifferencethattheprimacyofGreeklastedcenturiesratherthanamerehundredyears.ItistruethatsometimestheculturetransmittedbytheGreekswasof

suchhighqualitythatthepupilwasnotabletosurpassthemasteroreventoreachthesamelevel.Thiswasunfortunatelytrueofscience,whichwouldadvancenofurtherthanthepointatwhichtheGreekshadleftit.Itisalsogenerallytrueofphilosophy,thecrowninggloryofGreekthought.Romeslowlyabsorbeditslessons,thoughnotwithoutsomeresistance.TheRomanauthoritiesevenexpelledphilosophersonseveraloccasions.Butundertheprotectionofafewhigh-rankingfamilies,thephilosopherswerefinallyabletobringtoRomesomeportionofGreekthoughtafterthetroubledyearsfollowingAlexander’sdeath(323BC).Allthesame,ifEpicureanisminspiredLucretius(99-55BC)andifStoicismwasdestinedforaremarkablefuture,culminatinginMarcusAurelius,canonereallyspeakofanoriginalLatinphilosophy?Manyhistoriansofideashaveemphaticallydeniedthis,consideringthatbothCiceroandSenecasimplyplagiarizedtheirpredecessors.Greekart,whichhadpreviouslyonlyreachedRomeindirectly,via

EtruriaandCampania,trulycameasarevelationinthesecondcenturyBC,followingthecaptureoftheSiciliancities,theeasterncampaignsandthereductionofGreecetoaRomanprovince(146bc).Fromthenon,aswealthandluxurydevelopedinRome,Greekculture,ofwhichonlyphilosophyhadhithertoaffectedafewpatricianfamilies,transformedtheveryartsoflivinginRome.ArtistsfromGreeceortheGreek-influencedMiddleEastflockedin,enteringtheserviceofanewlyrichbutnotparticularlywell-informedRomanclientele,anxioustogainsocialadvantagebycollectingworksofartaboutwhichitknewlittle,todecoratehousesandvillas.2Withthehealthyappetiteofayoungcivilization,Romeabsorbedeverythingindiscriminately:thegreathistoricalcompositionsofPergamum,theaffectedandextravagantbaroqueofAlexandria,thecoldbeautiesofneo-AtticismandeventhegreatestmasterpiecesoftheGreekclassicalera.Originalsandcopiesofsculptures(thelatterturnedoutatanindustrialpaceinAthensforthewest)flowedintoItalyandpiledupindealers’yards.Cicerorequested

some‘bas-reliefsforhisvillainTusculum’fromhiswealthyfriendAtticusinAthens,whoalsosentPompeystatuesforhistheatre,thefirststone-builttheatretobeconstructedinRome(55bc).Afewyearslater,whenthetempleofApollowasrebuiltearlyinthereignofAugustus,itwasonaHellenisticmodel:thestatuesandpaintingswithwhichitwasdecorated,allGreek,turneditintoaveritablemuseum.In1907,theso-calledMahdiawreck,aRomancargoshipfromaboutthisperiod,wasdiscoveredofftheTunisiancoast:itscargoincludedsixtycolumns(probablybrand-newones),aswellasstatuettes,bas-reliefs,bronzeandmarblesculptures,includingseveralunquestionablemasterpieces.SuchworksofartwereimitatedofcoursebytheItalianandGreek

artisansworkingthroughouttheItalianpeninsula.AndevenwhentherewasastronginputoforiginalityfromRome–inthetasteforrealisticdetail,forlifelikeportraiture,landscapeandstilllife–theoriginalsparkmusthavecomefromtheeast.

Rome’soriginalfeatures

Butnocivilizationcanliveentirelyoffforeignimports.AtthetimeitbecamethecapitalofanewlyavailableHellenism,whichitcopiedwithenthusiasm,Romewasalreadyasocietywithdeep-seatedtraditionsofitsown.EveniftheRomansappearedtobeabandoningtheirpast,toCato’sdespair,theirancienttastestillledthemtomakecertainchoices,thesignificanceofwhichwouldbecomeclearerinthelongrun,whenRome’sadmirationforallthingsGreekwasnolongertingedwithasenseofinferiority.Moreover,somethingswereamatterofnecessity.AfterActium,the

needforbuildingsbecameurgent,newsitesopeningupasfastasoldoneswerecompleted.Romebegantoseethearrivalofaswellingstreamofimmigrantpopulations,outofallproportiontothatoftheGreekcities,exceptAlexandria.Townplanningcreateditsownproblems.Itis

notsurprisingifthedomaininwhichRomemostrapidlydevelopeditsownpersonalitywasarchitecture.Sulla,Pompey,CaesarandAugustusallplayedsomepartinthis

buildingprogramme.Agripparebuiltthecity’sdrainagesystemandwatersupply;Augustusbuilttwoorthreenewaqueducts,andaddedtoCaesar’sexistingforumanewone,separatedbyawallfromtheSuburradistrictontheEsquiline,thehauntofactors,gladiators,hustlersandbeggars.Bysodoing,hewasseparatingtheofficialcity,withitsmarble-cladwalls(imitatedfromtheGreeksinthesecondcenturyBC,andquarriedinCarrara)fromtheoldmoredisreputablecity,builtintheancientmaterialsoflathandplaster,andrepeatedlyravagedbyfire.Countlessnewbuildingsfollowed:fora,basilicas,baths,theatres,circuses,temples,palacesandtenements.Romanarchitectureabsorbedandadaptedallthemeansandelements

thenknown.Doric,IonianandCorinthiancolumnswereallpresent,butinmodifiedform:theDoric,simplifiedandgivenaplinth,becameknownasTuscan;theorderknownascompositecombinedtheacanthusleavesoftheCorinthianwiththescrollsoftheIonian.ButthemostimpressiveaspectofRomanarchitecturewasthefunctionalartofitsengineers.Usingconcreteasabuildingmaterial,Romanengineerswereresponsibleforbuildingmarvellousbridgesandaqueducts,witharchesanddomeseverywhere,barrel-vaultingandgroynes,whichfreedarchitectsfromtheconstraintsofload-bearingpillarsandcolumns,andmadepossiblethehugeinternalspacesrequiredbythelargenumbersofcity-dwellers.Rome’sgrandiosestylecameintobeingalmostofitsownaccord.TheColosseum,begunbyVespasianandfinishedbyhissonDomitian,

isafittingsymbolofthatgrandeur.Itsetnewrecordsforthetime,measuring188metresby156,withacircumferenceof527;theheightoftheouterwallwas48metres,andafurtherstoreymadeofwoodcouldbeadded;some50-80,000spectatorscouldbeaccommodatedaroundthevastinternalarenaof80by54metres.ItsnamecamefromtheColossus,astatueofNero,over30metreshigh,depictedasthesungod.TheColossuswaseventuallytakendownbutitsnameremainedintheColosseum–itselfacolossusofakind.ThroughouttheEmpire,therewerenumeroushugeamphitheatres:atItalicainSpain(156by154

metres);andawholeseriesinFrance:Autun,154by130;Poitiers,138by115;Limoges,137by113;Aries,136by108;Tours,135byizo;Bordeaux,132by103;Nimes,131by100.Inthedomainsofpaintingandsculpture,Romanartslowly

distinguisheditselffromitsGreekmodels.Greekartistsweretoonumerousforlocaltastetoemergeimmediately.ItwaseasiertofindoutsideRome.Therewasindeedapopularart–R.BianchiBandinellihasdescribeditas‘plebeian’–anartnotsomuchRomanassouthItalian,whichwastocontributesomethingdistinctivetoRome.Thiswasasturdy,realistickindofart,depictingpeopleandthingswithverisimilitude:tomakearatherfar-fetchedcomparison,itwasratherliketheFrenchartoftheLoirevalleybeforeitwasconfrontedwiththesophisticatedandnobleartoftheRenaissance.Nativeartwouldintimeassertitself,onemightalmostsaytakeitsrevengeagainstforeigninfluence,buttheprocesswouldbeaslowandgradualone.Thuswascreatedthatcompositeart,theearly‘Roman’style,a

precociousexampleofwhichisprovidedbythesculpturesonthealtarofDomitiusAhenobarbus(between115and70BC).ThesecombinedmythologicalcompositionsofGreekinspirationwithscenestreatedmuchmorerealistically.However,Rome’sofficialartlongretainedtracesofforeigninfluence.WeshouldnotforgetthattheLaocoonintheVaticanmuseum,theworkofsculptorsfromRhodes,excitedenormousadmirationamongtheRomans,includingPlinytheElder.ThestatueofAugustus,knownasthePortaPrima,superimposestheemperor’sheadandbreastplateontotheGreektorsoofPolycletes’Doryphorus.ThepanelsoftheAraPads(decreedin13BC,thisaltartopeacewasputupfouryearslaterontheFieldofMars)werealmostentirelybyGreekartists.ItisinthedomesticartoftheportraitthatonefindsRomanartpar

excellence.ThishasoftenbeentracedtoRome’sEtruscanoriginsanditistruethatacertainverismoistobefoundinthebronzeandterracottastatuesofancientEtruria.ButitisevenmorecloselylinkedtotheRomantraditionofthejusimaginis,aprivilegeofthepatricianfamilies.Polybiusnotedinsomedetailthesight,strangetohiseyes,ofthefuneralritesofthenobilitasandtheroleplayedinthembytheimago,thewaxmaskofthedepartedwhichrichfamiliespreserved,atradition

linkedtoancestorworship.‘Whenanillustriousrelativedies,themasksarecarriedinprocessiontothefuneral.Selectedindividualswhoinheightandexternalappearancemostcloselyresembletheoriginalsputthemontheirfaces,andwear‘pretextual’togasifthedeadmanwasaconsolorpraetor,purpletogasifhewasacensor,andgold-embroideredtogasifhewasawardedatriumph.’Thesefragilewaxdeath-maskswerelaterreplacedbystoneorbronzebustsofremarkablerealism.Greekinfluenceoccasionallyintroducedamorepretentiousnote,buttheRomanportrait,whethersculptedorpainted,retainedfromitsage-oldtraditionaverygreatexpressiveforceandwasalwayscomparativelysoberinstyle.TherewasamarkedcontrastinAugustus’daybetweenthissimplebeautyandthevirtuosoexamplesofofficialart,basedonimitationofGreekmodels.Itwouldbesometimebeforeimperialartnolongerconsistedof

‘culturalborrowing,butofassimilatedfeaturestransformedintoanewculture’.R.BianchiBandinellihascontrastedtheageofAugustuswithan‘ageofTrajan’,roughlyfromNerotoMarcusAurelius,markedbypassionandromanticism.Forthefirsttime,foreignborrowingsandthenativespiritofRomewerecombinedandbalanced.PergamumwasaprecursorofthesculpturesonTrajan’scolumn,butonecandetectanewstyle,spiritandthemesinthecountlessdetailsincorporatedintothefrieze,twohundredmetreslong,whichrunsroundthewholelengthofthecolumn,tellingthelongstoryofTrajan’stwovictoriouscampaignsagainsttheDaciansinad101-2and106-7.Thescenesdepictedarerealistic,evengruesomeinplaces.Warisshownwithitsmanydead,whiletheenemyisneverthelesstreatedwithrespectandshowntobescoringblowsaswell.Othernoveltiesweretherecognition(thoughcanwebesureofthis?)oftheatrocitiescommitted,andtheentryintoaworkofartoftheeverydayactorsinagreatadventure:thesoldiers,cartersandbridge-builders.ForthefirsttimeinRomanhistory,itsanonymousheroeswerebeinghonoured.

FromAugustustoMarcusAurelius:literaryrenown

Thevisualartstravelwitheasefromonecivilizationorcountrytoanother.EuropemighthavebeendividedintotwobytheReformationbutitwasunitedbyoneartisticmovement,thebaroque.Literatureontheotherhandistiedtoparticularnationsandthereforecannotavoidbeingsuigeneris.RomehadaliterarytraditionwellbeforeAugustus.Itseemstohave

hadasuddenfloweringthen,butoncloserinspection,writesPierreGrimal,‘theliterarymaturityoftheAugustanscanbeseentodateratherfromthecrisiswhichprecededhisreign’.Nevertheless,AugustusandinparticularthepatronandequesMaecenasstronglyinfluencedtheliteratureoftheirtime,bothbytheirpoliticsandintheirpersonaltaste.Maecenaswashimselfapoet,temptedbyhermeticismandpreciosity;Augustus’intellectualenthusiasmisundeniable.Itmightalsobearguedthatliteraryconsciousnessidentifieditselfwiththenewregime:theAugustanagesawtheendofthecivilwars,andanewsenseofsecurityandconfidenceinRoman‘virtue’.Duringtheseyears,Romewitnessedarevolutionofthemindthatcould,despitetheanachronism,bedescribedasnationalist.Mutatismutandis,thiswasnotunlikeastrongerversionoftheFrenchRenaissanceasrepresentedbyDuBellayandRonsard.AsopposedtotheHellenisticeast,attractiveyetunsettling,whichhadstillbeenthemodeloftheyoungpoetsoftheNeoteroicircleinthedaysofCatullus(87-54BC),therewasnowareassertionofwesternvalues,thoseofRomeandtraditionalItaly.Carefulpreparationofpublicopinionalsoplayedapart:Rome,havingacquiredmaterialsuperiority,nowaspiredtootherkindsofgreatness.Augustus,liketheGreekrulers,wasa‘providentialprince’.Hemay

trulyhaveimaginedthathecouldrivalPericlesandAthens,possessingashedidaquasi-religioussenseofthegrandeurandmissionofRome.Itisthis,moreeventhantheinfluenceofMaecenas,whichgivesitsspecialcharactertotheworksofVirgil,Livy,Horace,possiblyevenPropertius.Virgil,whohadalwaysbeena‘Caesarist’,naturallyenlistedontheside

oftheyoungOctavian.Hewassimplycontinuinghislifelongitinerarythen,ratherthanflatteringtheemperor,whenin29BChebegantheAeneid.Thisworkwasstillunfinishedwhenhedied,tenyearslater:inVirgil’sowneyesitwasimperfectandhebeggedinvainthatitshouldbedestroyedafterhisdeath.RomenowhaditsownHomericepic,amonumenttoitsgloryandtothatofAugustuswho,sinceheclaimeddescentviatheJulianlinefromAeneashimselfandthereforefromVenus,wasmarkedoutbydestinytoruletheEmpire.TherewouldalsosoonbeahistoryofthecityofRome,fromthepenofLivy(59BC–ad17)whosewhole-heartedpatriotismdeliveredevenmorethanhadbeenaskedofhim.Hishistory,despiteanhonestattempttolookcriticallyathissources,remainsahymntothegrandeurofRome.TheteachersintheschoolsoftheEmpireneverthelesslongpreferredtothesepaeansofpraisethemoredryandterseproseofSallust(85-35BC)>authoroftheJugurthanWarandtheCatilineConspiracyTheotherwritersmentionedwerenotsocommittedtothestate.Like

CatullusandTibullus,PropertiuswasmainlyknownforthepoemsaddressedtohisbelovedCynthia.ButhisElegieswrittenattheendofhislifedrawontheoldlegendsofRome:TarpeiaandtheTrojanancestorsofthegensJuliaappear,aswellasyoungRomanwomenwhoconformedmorecloselythanCynthiatothereforminmoralswhichAugustussoughttoimpose.Horacetoofollowedacautiousline.Sensitiveabouthisorigins(hewasthesonofafreedslave)hewasnolesssoabouthispast:in42BC,inMacedonia,hehadservedinthearmyoftherepublicanrebels,BrutusandCassius.Andhealsovaluedhisindependence,livingonhisSabineestatenearTibur,alooffromthetemptationsifnottherewardsofthegreat.Buthetooreceivedofficialcommissions,writingthewordsofthehymnsungtocelebratetheSecularGamesin17BC.Whenhedied,aged57,afewweeksafterMaecenas(in8BC),hewasburiedalongsidehisfriend.Otherwriterswerefranklyrecalcitranttowardsthepowersthatbe.

TheyincludedthewriterofelegiesTibullus,andmostnotablyOvid(43BC–ad17),whoconsciouslyreturnedtotheAlexandrianinspirationoftheNeoteroi.Hisdaringpoetry,humouranderoticverse,whichmadehimthefavouritepoetofthecourtesansandidlersofRome,ledtohisbanishmentbyAugustus.HecomposedhisTristiaandPonticsatTomes

inMesiaonthedistantshoresoftheBlackSea,anditwastherethathedied,stillinexile.ItwouldbedifficulttoclaimforliteraturewhatBandinelliclaimsfor

thevisualarts,namelythattheageofTrajanwasatimeofgreatness.InsteadofthegiantsoftheAugustanage,onewouldhavetochampionthoseofthenextcentury:Quintilian,Lucan,Persius,Martial–whichseemsparadoxical–butalsoTacitus,SenecaandPetronius,whichisdefensibleenough.IfweweretolistentothebrilliantessayistEmilLudwig,however,‘everythingthatmadetheRomansgreathadalreadybeenproducedbytheRepublic’.AndthatwouldmeangoingbacktoCiceroandTerenceortoPlautus(whomHoracedetested).Historicaljudgementsdependonindividualtaste.

FromCommodus(180-92)toSeptimiusSeverus(193-211)

TroubleswereonthehorizonwellbeforethedeathofMarcusAurelius;theyweretopunctuatethelongandwar-tormentedreignofthisphilosopher-emperor.Frontiersecurity,internalpeaceandthebalanceofpowerbetweenthedifferentprovinceshadallstartedtodeteriorate.Preytoeconomicrecessionandmonetaryturmoil,Romewasceasingtobethecentreoftheuniverse.Theeastwasacquiringitsliberty:itsreligionsandwaysofthoughtwereencroachingviolentlyupontheRomantradition.Theprincipate,asAugustusandtheAntonineshadconceivedofit,waslookinglikeanoutdatedformofprudentgovernment.Bureaucracyhadincreasedandtheimperialpowerwasslidingtowards‘thepracticesoforientaldespotism’:inhiscruelfolly,CommodustriedtohavehimselfveneratedasthegodHercules.Hewasthefirstemperortocallhimself‘kingoftheworldandservantofdivinity’.SeptimiusSeverus,ofAfricanandpossiblyCarthaginianorigin,carriedthistransformationevenfurther.

ThismutationofsocietyandcivilizationunderthelastoftheAntonineswasreflectedinthearts.Thechangeisclear,thoughnoteasytointerpret.Itcanbetracedinthesudden,almosttotaldisappearanceofmuralpaintingandinthestrikingcontrastbetweenthebas-reliefsonTrajan’scolumnandthoseonthecolumnofMarcusAurelius.Whiletheformerobeyaunitaryconceptionandchronologicalorder,thelattercarvingspresenteventsinaconfusingmelange,withdifferentstylesofworkmanship:thebattlesagainsttheMarcomanni,theDacians,theCottiansandtheQuadiareshownasthescenesofvariousmiracles–thunderbolts,ortorrentialrainwhichsavedthelegionariesfromthirstwhiledrowningtheirenemies.Thiswasanartwhichsetouttomakeanimpressionratherthantorecord,andinsodoingappealedtopopulartaste.AmedeoMauri,thearthistorian,hassuggestedthatthefreedomofacertainkindofpaintinginPompeiiandelsewhereatthesametimeisnotunliketheadvertisinghoardingsoftoday.Anotherchangewasthattheprovincialartsregainedadegreeof

autonomy.SeptimiusSeverus’triumphalarchatLeptisMagnaalreadyforeshadowstheartofByzantium.AtPalmyraandDoura,amarginalartwasemerging,akindofcrossbetweentheGreekandtheMesopotamian.Initspreferencefortheabstract,ithasakindofprimitivismaboutit.Thesearefleetingglimpsesofwhatwastocome,andwecanmakesenseofthemonlybecauseweknowtheinexorableoutcomeofthisstory.Althougheverywheretheoverall‘RomanEmpire’style,whichhadalreadybecomeover-familiar,wastendingtobreakdownunderpressurefromlocaloriginality,thisubiquitousstylewasstillstrongenoughtore-assertitselfincertaincircumstances.ItcanbeseenunderGallianus(253-68),thefriendofPlotinus,andunderDiocletian(184-313),inthebathshehadbuiltinRomeorthepalacehehadbuiltatSpalato.Inshort,thereweremanysignsthatthattimeswerechanging,butwearestillalongwayfromByzantiumorfromtheDarkAges.

Law:asuccessstory

AndRomewentoncreatingever-largercities,turningthemintocapitals:Treves/Trier,Milan,Salonika,Nicomedia.Literaturetoocontinuedtoflourish.LetusbeboldenoughtosaythatAmmianusMarcelinus(320-90)wastheequalofLivy;thatAusoniusofBordeauxwasapoetoftrueworth,thattheliteratureofChristianitywasextremelyimportant,thattheencouragementofeducationwhichwassoevidentinthesedifficultcenturiescertainlycountedforsomething.Aboveall,thereistheextraordinarysuccessstoryofRomanlaw,whichhasremainedinevidencetothepresentday.Onewouldquicklygetlostinabstruseexplanationsifonewereto

openoneoftheadmirabletextbooksonRomanlawwehavetoday,tolookupthemeaningofsimpletermslikeconsent,obligation,contracts,property;orifoneweretotrytounderstandhowlawfollowedthecomplexhistoryofasociety,adaptingtoitwhileadaptingthatsocietyinturn.Inhisworkontheinstitutionsofantiquity(1967)JeanGaudemetstudiedtheevolutionofRomanlifeinthelightofthisdialecticbetweensocietyandlaw.Hepaintsthreesuccessivepictures,firstRomeundertheRepublic,thentheRomeoftheFirstEmpire,followedbytheRomeoftheLateEmpire–thelastofthesebeingthekeyperiod.TheRomanlawoftheTheodosianCodex(438)andtheJustinianCodex(527)tobefollowedbytheDigest,theInstitutesandtheNovelleSycameattheendofaverylongperiodofevolution,withvariousinheritedfactorssuperimposedononeanother.Romanlawwasbuiltupslowly,daybyday,basedonusageandcustom,thesenatus-consultes,theedictsofmagistrates,theimperial‘Constitutions’,jurisprudence,anddoctrinesdevelopedbylegalexperts.Theroleofthelegalexperts,thejurists,whoactedaslegaladvisers

andbarristers,wasthemostoriginalfeatureofthiscomplexconstruction.Withoutadoubt,Rome’sintelligenceandgeniuscameintoitsowninthisarea.ThemetropoliscouldnotmaintaincontactwithitsEmpire–therestofItaly,theprovinces,thecities–withoutthelegalregulationsessentialtothemaintenanceofpolitical,socialandeconomicorder.Thebodyoflawcouldonlyincreaseovertheages.Thegreatlegalthinkersabletohandlethisvastmassofrulesdidnotappearuntilafairlylatestage.SabinusandProculuswerecontemporariesofTiberius;Gaius,whoseInstitutioneswerediscoveredin1816byNiebuhrina

Veronapalimpsest,livedintheageofHadrianandMarcusAurelius;whilePomponius,anotherfamousjurist,washiscontemporary.Asforlawschools,theyappearedintheLateEmpire,inRome,ConstantinopleandBeirut,whichplayedaleadingroleinthefifthcentury:thelawschooltherewouldpreserveRomanlaw,enablingtherenaissanceunderJustiniantotakeplace.SoRomanlawstoodfirmuntilthelastdaysofRomeorevenlonger.

‘WhenoneconsidershowRomanlawandinstitutionssurvivedRome’spoliticaldominion,’writesJeanGaudemet,‘theideaofthedeclineandfalloftheempirebecomesquitemeaningless.’Romecertainlydidnotdieinitsentirety.ThewholeofthewestwasshapedbyRomansurvivals.

ThefoundingofConstantinopleandtheappearanceofChristianity

TheoldnotionsofthedeclineandfallofRomearecertainlyopentodebate.TheEmpire,althoughreportedtobedying,surviveditsinternalquarrelsandtheextravaganceofitsmasters.Therewasnomoregoldorsilver,theeconomyfellbackintoapre-monetarystate,yetlifewenton.Therewasnolongeradisciplinedarmy,asoneafteranotherthefrontierscollapsedandthebarbarianspouredin,penetratingdeepintoRomanterritory.YettherewerestillsoldierspreparedtodieforRomealongtheRhine,outsideMilan,onthebanksoftheDanubeorinthevalleyoftheEuphrates,fightinganewandformidableenemy,theSassanidPersians,after227.Eventhebuildingsitesremainedbusy:Rome’scolossalrampartswerebuiltunderAurelianin272.From324,ConstantinestartedtobuildhisnewcapitalatConstantinople,inauguratingitin330.Ifwearelookingforasymbolicevent,hereis

oneindeed.Thisgigantictorchwouldsenditslightdownthecenturiestocome.Thiswasnohastilyconstructedcity,builtinaday:itwasasecond

Rome,anactofincalculableconsequences,themoresosinceitwaslinkedtotheemperor’sconversiontoChristianity.BythisactthedestinyofboththeMediterraneanandtheEmpiretookthepathwhichwouldleadtotheeventualsurvivalandlongevityofByzantium–somethingwhichConstantineinthecourseofhisactionsprobablyneitherrealizednordesired,forhehadcertainlynotchosenthenewcapitaltoescapethestructuresofpaganRome.SincethedaysofDiocletianandthetetrarchy,fewemperorshadhadthetimetostaylonginRome.Inhisnewcapital,ConstantinewaswithinreachoftheDanubeandtheEuphrates,fragilegatesonwhichthebarbarianswereconstantlyhammering.ButitisConstantinople’sfuturethatweinthewestfindsofascinating,

sinceourownhistoryisasitwereprefiguredthere.WhocouldfailtobeinterestedintheprodigiousseismicchangeproducedbythetriumphofChristianity?Intheeventittriumphedonlyaftercenturiesofdeeptrouble.Butitwascarriedontheviolentgroundswellofadeep-seatedrevolution–notanexclusivelyspiritualone–whichhaddevelopedslowlyfromthesecondcentury.Itwasbetweeni6zand168,intheearlyreignofMarcusAurelius

(161-80),thattheforeignsituationsocomprehensivelydeteriorated.Theintellectual,moralandreligiouscrisisoftheEmpirefollowedalmostimmediately.AlthoughthetolerantpaganismofRomewithitsthousandsofgodsmightstillbealiveandinreasonablehealththroughouttheEmpire,andalthoughthecultoftheemperorwasstillstrong,broadlycorrespondingtoaformofpatriotism,itseemscertainthatpaganismcouldnottrulysatisfyeitherthemassesortheelites.Thelatterlookedtophilosophyfortheirsalvation,theformeryearnedformoreaccessiblegods,formoretangibleconsolations.Therecouldbenogreaterconsolationthanthebeliefinlifeafterdeath.Itisnotwithoutsignificancethat‘inthesecondcenturyburialbecamemorefrequentthancremation,whereasinpreviouscenturiestheproportionsweretheotherwayround…Theformofburialwhichleftthedeadperson’sbodyasithadbeeninlifeisnotunconnectedtothespreadofbeliefinan

after-life,ineternalsalvationandthepossibleresurrectionofthebody’(E.Albertini).Heretherewasaconnectingthread.Althoughsociological

andgeographicaldifferencescanbeseen,revealingavarietyofresponsesaccordingtoclassandregion,thequestionbeingaskedwaseverywherethesame.Richandpoorweretroubledbythesameanguish.TherenewalofGreekphilosophyinRomeissignificant.TheCynics(DemetriusandOenomaos),thosestrangephilosopherswhoclaimedtobemessengersfromZeus,becametravellingpreachers.Neo-platonismtookoverfrombothEpicureanismandStoicism.ThemostimportantofitsinterpreterswasPlotinus(205-70),aGreek,borninEgypt.Attheageofforty,hesettledinRomeandopenedaschoolwhichenjoyedhugesuccess.HisphilosophytookPlatoasitsstartingpointbutsoughttoreconcileallthevariousstrandsofcontemporarythoughtinasinglemysticalurge.Moredisturbingsignspointedtothedepthofthecrisis.Therewasa

proliferationofthaumaturgiandmiracle-workers,suchasApolloniusofTyana,whodiedinRomein97,butwhoselifewithitsmarvelsprovidedPhilostratus(d.about275)withenoughmaterialforanovel.Hisheropreachedthecultofthesun,performedmiracles,haltedepidemicsandhealedthesick,Thesuccessofthisbookwasasymptomofthetimes,anditwouldbeoutdonelater.Toinfluencemortalswasonething:toinfluencethelifeofthegodswasanother–andthiswaswhattheurgyclaimedtodo,providingafielddayforcharlatansandilluminati.Suchaclimateexplainsthegrowingprestigeinthewestofeastern

cults:thecultsofIsis,Cybele,Attis,Mithras,andbeforelongthereligionofChristianity,quicklygainedground.ThesoldierswhotravelledthroughouttheEmpireplayedapartinthisspreadofreligions,asdidtheeasternmerchants,theSyri,JewsandSyrians,whowerepresenteverywhere.Buttheemperorandhisentouragecarriedenormousweightinthisprocess.NeitherCybelenorMithrasandthebloodybaptismsofhiscultwouldhavebeensowidespreadhaditnotbeenthatcertainemperorslookedonthemwithfavour.ThiswasequallytrueofChristianity,whichwasforalongtime

persecutedbyRome.WithoutConstantine’sconversion,whatwouldhavebecomeofit?‘LetusimaginethatthekingofFrancedecidedto

converttoProtestantism,thereligionofasmallminorityofhissubjects’,writesFerdinandLot.‘Firedwithpiouszealagainst“idolatry”,hewouldhavedestroyedorallowedtofallintoruinallthemostveneratedsanctuariesofthekingdom,theabbeyatSaint-Denis,Reimscathedral,thecrownofthorns,theSainte-Chapelle.ThatstillonlygivesafaintideaofthefrenzythattookholdoftheRomanemperorsofthefourthcentury.’ButtheChristianreligiondidnotbecomethestatereligionwithoutcomingtosomearrangementwiththepolitics,societyandeventhecivilizationofRome.ThecivilizationoftheRomanMediterraneanwastakenoverbytheyoungforcesofChristianity.Asaresult,ithadtoacceptmanycompromises,fundamentalandstructuralones.Anditisinthisshape,andcarryingthismixedmessage,thatthecivilizationofantiquityhascomedowntous.

Editor’snote:Thiswork,whichcoverssuchalongchronologicalspan,hasnooverallconclusion.Thismightseemrathersurprising:thereasonisthatitwasoriginallyconceivedasthefirstvolumeinacollection(seetheprefacesabove)andwouldhaveleddirectlyintothenextvolume,byanotherhistorian,whichwastobedevotedtoByzantium.FernandBraudelthereforeplannedhisconclusionsothatitwouldfittheintroductionofthefollowingvolume.Whenthecollectionwascancelled,itwasleftaswehaveithere.

AppendixI

AppendixII

1.TheMediterranean(geographicaloverview)

2.TheFertileCrescent

3.Mesopotamia

4.AncientEgypt

5.‘Phoenicia’

6.TheeasternbasinoftheMediterranean(2500–1200),showingHittiteexpansionandtheriseofCrete

7.Phoeniciancolonization

8.Greekcolonization

9.Etruscansettlements

10.Theurn-fieldburialpeople

11.Celticmigrations

12.TheEmpireofAlexandertheGreat

13.JuliusCaesar’sconquestofGaul

14.TheRomanEmpireinthereignofSeptimiusSeverus

Notes

Editors’ForewordtotheFrenchEdition

1.FrancoiseGaultier,ChiefCuratorintheDepartmentofGreek,EtruscanandRomanAntiquitiesattheLouvre,readthesectionsontheEtruscans,andJean-LouisHuot,ProfessorattheUniversityofParisI,readthesectionsontheeasternMediterranean.

2.TheLongMarchtoCivilization

1.Todayonewouldputitatbetweenoneandtwo,oreventhreemillionyears.Theoldestcarvedtools(foundinAfrica)areabouttwoandahalfmillionyearsold.(JG)

2.Thereisnowreasontothinkthatthepaleolithicgoesbackovertwomillionyears.(JG)

3.Todaythemiddlepaleolithicisregardedasstartinginabout200,000BCandendinginabout35,000.Itwasthoughttolastonlyabout40,000yearsatthetimeBraudelwaswriting.(JG)

4.Weknownowthatthisisnotthecase.SardiniawassettledinthethirteenthmillenniumBCandCorsicaintheeleventh.Butitalsoseemspossiblethatamucholderpopulationcouldhaveinhabitedtheseislands(witnessthe‘paleolithic’artefactsofSardinia,andthehearthinacaveatCosciainCorsicawhichhasbeenattributedtoNeanderthalman).(JG)

5.Thefigureisnowthoughttobe200,000yearsBC.(JG)

6.Neanderthalmanisnowadaysconsideredtohavebeenasapiens.HeisdescribedasHomosapiensneandertalis,todistinguishhimfromHomosapienssapiens,whowouldeliminatehimduringthetransitionbetweenthemiddleandupperpaleolithicages.(JG)

7.Theirargumentshavebeenconfirmedinrecentyears:itisnolongersuggestedthatthemesolithicwasmarkedbyhardshipandbackwardness:onthecontrary,thedevelopmentandexploitationoftheforestsmadepossibletheestablishmentof‘progressive’cultures,asBraudelhimselfnotesbelow.(JG)

8.Thefigureof1000inhabitantsisnotknownwithcertainty.(JG)

9.(JG)

10.ThechronologyoftheappearanceofdomesticcattleintheMiddleEastisstillamatterofdebate.(JG)

3.ATwofoldBirth

1.(JG)

2.TheyhavenowbeenexcavatedattheAetokremnossiteontheAkrotiripeninsula.(JG)

3.Thecardialcultureisnowthought,accordingto‘calibrated’datingmethods,todatefromthesixthmillenniumBC.(JG)

4.Todaythedateisputatabout2500BC.(JG)

5.IftheboatsdrawnatTarxienarecontemporarywiththetemple,theymustdatefromthethirdmillenniumBC.ThesuggestionofcontactswiththeAegeaninthesecondmillenniumisthereforeanachronisticasfarastheseimagesareconcerned.(JG)

6.FernandBraudelthoughtthatthemegalith/Earth-Mother/metal-workingcomplexwasallpartofthesamecultureanddiffusedfromtheeasternMediterranean.Thiscombinationisnolongerregardedasvalid(cf.JeanGuilaine,LaMerpartagée.LaMéditerranéeavantVecriture7000-2000avantJ.-C,Paris,1994).Thesequenceisnowthoughttohavebeenasfollows:(1)thefirstagriculturalsocietiesandtheirreligions(eighthtoseventhmillenniaBCintheMiddleEast,sixthmillenniuminthewest);(2)themegaliths:theoldestonesareinthewestanddatefromabout4500BC;(3)metal-working:thisdevelopedearliestinAnatoliaandsouth-eastEurope(inabout5000to4500BC)andlaterinthewest(c.3500-3000BC).(JG)

7.Carbondatinghasnowprovidedamuchearlierdateforthemegalithsofthewest,especiallythoseontheAtlanticcoast.Megalithicculturewasaneolithicphenomenonandhadnoconnectionwithmetal-workinginthesewesternregions.(JG)

8.Since1969,ithasbecomepossibletodatemanymegaliths.TheonesinthewestseemtobecompletelyunconnectedwiththoseintheMediterranean.Itseemsthatthephenomenoncouldbetheresultofeithercontactsorconvergence,varyingfromcasetocase.(JG)

9.ThedesertionoftheHalTarxientempleisnowdatedtoabout2500BC.Itisnotclearthatthetemplewasdestroyed.(JG)

10.Hereagain,thedatinghasbeencompletelymodifiedsince1969.TracesofpaleolithicsettlementhavebeenfoundinSardiniadatingfrom

thethirteenthmillennium(theCorbedducave)anddatesevenfurtherbackarepossible.InthesixthmillenniumBC,neolithicsettlerscolonizedCorsica,SardiniaandotherregionsofthewesternMediterranean.(JG)

11.Theselineswerewrittenatatimewhenitwascustomarytotelescopethechronologyofthesephenomena.ThemuchlongerchronologyfavouredtodayallowsustodatethecultofOzieritothefourthmillenniumBC,thedolmentombstothethird,the‘tombsofthegiants’tothesecond,andthenuraghivillagestosometimeafter1500BC,withrebuildinggoingondowntoRomantimes.(JG)

12.ThisviewaccordingtowhichthemegalithsspreadwestfromtheMediterraneanisnolongertenable.TheoldestdolmensontheIberianpeninsulaarethoseontheAtlanticcoast,notthoseontheMediterraneanside.Themegalithphenomenonappearstohavebeenpartlycreatedinthewest.(JG)

13.Thereisnoevidenceofthelinksbetweentheseinvadersandthemegaliths,orofanyeasterninfluence.Moregenerally,thecomparisonwiththeAegeanismisleading.(JG)

4.Thatispreciselywhathasbeendiscovered,withthehelpofcarbondating.Someofthesephenomenahaveevenbeenfoundtobeolderstill,goingbacktothefifthmillenniumBC.(JG)

15.Thesemigrationsaredisputedtoday.(JG)

4.CenturiesofUnity:theSeasoftheLevant2500-1200BC

1.Theannouncementwaspremature:thescriptoftheIndusvalleyhas

stillnotbeendeciphered(PR,1996)

2.Thisexplanationisnolongeraccepted.OnthecrisisofthetwelfthcenturyBC,seeW.A.WardandM.S.Joukovsky,TheCrisisYears:thenthCenturybc:frombeyondtheDanubetotheTigris,Dubuque,1992.(PR)

3.OnCreteandthe‘disaster’ofTheraanditsconsequences,seethemorenuancedviewstakentodayinR.Treuiletal.,LesCivilisationsigiennesduNiolithiqueetdel’AgeduBronze,Paris,1989.(PR)

4.Thishypothesisistodaydiscredited.(PR)

5.MinoanshipsdidnotinfactreachMalta,SicilyorsouthernItaly,butMycenaeanshipsdid.(PR)

6.OnthePeoplesoftheSea,seeabove,note2.(PR)

7.Thereisevenmorescepticismonthispointtoday.(PR)

8.Butwenowknowthatlifestartedupagainthereonasmallerscaleandthatthesiteswerenotreallyabandoneduntiltheendofthetwelfthcentury.(PR)

5.AllChange:theTwelfthtotheEighthCenturiesBC

1.Ratherthan‘Phoenicia’,itwouldbemoreaccuratetosay‘thePhoeniciancities’.(PR)

2.Onthese‘invasions’seethemorerecentworkinP.BrunandC.Mordant,eds.,LeGroupeRhin-Suisse-FranceorientateetlanotiondesChampsd’Urnes,Nemours,1988.(PR)

6.Colonization:theDiscoveryoftheMediterranean‘FarWest’intheTenthtoSixth

CenturiesBC

1.Corinthwasnottheonlycityconcerned.Othercitiesfoundedcolonies:Chalcis,Megara,Sparta,Colophon,Paros,MiletusandPhocaea,astheauthorhimselfpointsoutbelow.(PR)

2.Nowadays,itiswellestablishedthattherewereseveralcentresofproduction.Cf.J.WinterinIraq,43,1981,pp.101-30.(PR)

3.AsinalltheotherPhoeniciansitesinthewesternMediterranean.(PR)

4.SeeJ.Desanges,RecherchessurVactivitedesMediterraneensauxconfinsd’Afrique,Rome,1978.(PR)

5.NowadaysitisnotthoughtthatthePhoenicianswerethefirstpeopletominemetalinSardinia.SeeMichelGras,‘Traficstyrrheniensarchaiques’,BEFAR,158,Rome,1985.(PR)

6.Infact,GreeksfromEuboeawerealreadynavigatinginthewesternMediterraneanfromtheeighthcenturyBC.(PR)

7.Wewouldnotbesocertainofthistoday:afewinstanceshavebeenfoundatSarepta.(PR)

8.OnthePhoeniciansandinparticularonthetophetandCarthageseeMichelGras,PierreRouillardandJavierTeixidor,L’Universphenicien,Paris,1995,zndedition.(PR)

9.NowadaysthetheorythattheEtruscansarrivedbyemigrationisinfactbeingoustedbythenotionofanindigenousformation.SeeD.Briquet,LesEtrusques,Paris1993andthecatalogueoftheexhibitionLesEtrusquesetl’Europe,Paris,1992.(PR)

10.TheseexcavationshavenowbeencarriedoutandtheresultspublishedbyA.PontrandolfoandA.Rouveret,LeTombedipintediPaestum,Modena,199Z.(PR)

11.InfactVillanovanculturehasalreadybeenattestedinCampaniaintheninthandeighthcenturiesBC.(PR)

12.ThesameistrueofthePovalleyasofCampania(seepreviousnote).(PR)

13.ItisnolongerthoughtthattherewasanycontinuitybetweenMycenaeandGreekcolonialculture,ratherthereappearstohavebeenahiatus.(PR)

14.Itisnowthoughtthattherewereonlyafewvoyagesatthisperiod,andwedonotknowatallwhowasresponsibleforthem.(PR)

15.OnGreekcolonizationingeneral,seeLesGrecsetVOccident,Paris,1995andJ.-L.Lamboley,LesGrecsd’Occident.Laperiodearchai’que,Paris1996.(PR)

16.OnMarseille,see‘MarseillegrecqueetlaGaule’,EtudesdesMassalictes,3,Aix-en-Provence,1992.(PR)

17.Nowadaysthispointisnotaccepted.UntiltheBarcideswenttoSpain,theCarthaginianshadlittlepresencethere.(PR)

8.TheRomanTakeoveroftheGreaterMediterranean

1.OntheRomanconquestofGaul,seethecriticalviewofC.Goudineau,CésaretlaGaule,Paris,1990.(PR)

2.Forafulldiscussion,seeL’ArtdécoratifàRomeàlafindelaRépubliqueetaudébutduPrincipat,Rome,1981.(PR)

Bibliography

BecauseoftheunfinishednatureoftheFrenchtext,referenceswereincomplete,usuallyconsistingonlyofanauthor’snameandsometimesadate.ThelistoftitlescitedherehasbeencompiledbythetranslatorfromtheBritishLibraryCatalogueto1975asbeingthemostlikelyreferences,butitcannotberegardedasdefinitiveorcomplete.

Albertini,E.,L’Empireromain(Paris,Alcan,1929)

Albright,WilliamFoxwell,TheArchaeologyofPalestineandtheBible(NewYork,FlemingRevell,1932)

Aldred,Cyril,TheDevelopmentofAncientEgyptianArtfrom3200to1313bc(London,Tiranti,1952)

Bailloud,G.,withP.M.deBoofzheim,LesCivilisationsniolithiquesdelaFrancedansleurcontexteeuropeen(Paris,Picard,1955)

Balout,Lionel,Prihistoiredel’AfriqueduNord(Paris,ArtsetMetiersGraphiques,1955)

Benda,Julien,Esquissed’unehistoiredesFrançaisdansleurvolontedeformerunenation(Paris,Gallimard,1932)

Berard,Victor,LesPheniciensetVOdyssee(Paris,A.Colin,1902-3)BianchiBandinelli,Ranuccio,Storicitadell’arteclassica(Florence,Sansoni,1943)Bittel,Kurt,DieRuinenvonBogazkoy(Berlin,DeGruyter,1937)

Bloch,Raymond,LesEtrusques(Paris,PUF,1954)L’Artetlacivilisationetrusques(Paris,Plon,1955)

Bordes,Francois,LesLimonsquaternairesdubassindelaSeine(Paris,Masson,1954)Typologiedupaleolithiqueancienetmoyen(Bordeaux,Univ.deBordeaux,1961)TheOldStoneAge,tr.J.Anderson(London,Weidenfeld&Nicolson,1968)

Boule,Marcelin,FossilMen:elementsofhumanpaleontology,tr.J.andJ.Ritchie(Edinburgh,Oliver&Boyd,1923)

Bourdier,Franck,PrihistoiredePrance(Paris,Nouvellebibliothèquescientifique,1967)

Breuil,Henri,LesHommesdelapierreancienne(Paris,Biblioth&quescientifique,1959)

TheMenoftheOldStoneAge,PaleolithicandMesolithic,tr.B.Rafter(London,Harrap,1965)

Carcopino,Jerdme,LestxapesdeVimpeWialismeromain(Paris,1961)

Carpenter,Rhys,BeyondthePillarsofHercules:theclassicalworld

seenthroughtheeyesofitsdiscoverers(NewYork,DelacortePress,1966)

CeramC.W.,TheWorldofArchaeology(London,Collins,1968)

Cintas,Pierre,‘FouillespuniquesfTipasa’,Revueafricaine(Algiers,1949)

Childe,Gordon,TheBronzeAge(Cambridge,CambridgeUniversityPress,1930)

Coon,CarletonSteven,TheOriginofRaces(London,Cape,1963)

Croiset,AlfredandMaurice,Histoiredelalitteraturegrecque(Paris,1887-93)

Desborough,Vincent,TheLastMycenaeansandTheirSuccessors:anarchaeologicalsurveyc.1100-1000bc(Oxford,ClarendonPress,1964)

Dussaud,Rene,LesCivilisationspré-helleniquesdanslebassindelaMerd’Agie(Paris,1914)

Effenterre,Henrivan,LaCreteetlemondegrec(Paris,BibliothequedesEcolesFranchisesd’Ath&nesetdeRome,1948)

Evans,JohnDavies,ThePrehistoricAntiquitiesoftheMalteseIslands:asurvey(London,AthlonePress,1971)Malta(London,Thames&Hudson,1950)

Farrington,Benjamin,Aristotle,FounderofScientificPhilosophy(London,Weidenfeld&Nicolson,1965)

Gaudemet,Jean,InstitutionsdeVantiquiti(Paris,1967)

Gautier,Emile-Felix,LePassédel’AfriqueduNord(Paris,Payot,1964)

Gernet,Louis,Droitetpré-droitenGriceancienne(Paris,Anneesociologique,1948-9)

AnthropologiedelaGreceantique(Paris,1968)

Grenier,Albert,LesReligionsitrusqueetromaine(Paris,1948)

Grimal,Pierre,DanslespasdesCisars(Paris,1955)LaVieaRomedansVantiquiti(Paris,PUF,1971)

Grousset,Rene,DelaGricealaChine(Monaco,1948)L’EmpiredesSteppes(Paris,1939)

Heichelheim,F.M.,AHistoryoftheRomanPeople(EnglewoodCliffs,Prentice-Hall,1961)

AnAncientEconomicHistory,tr.Stevens(Leiden,Sijthoff,1958)

Heurgon,Jacques,LaViequotidiennedesEtrusques(Paris,Hachette,

1961)DailyLifeoftheEtruscans,tr.J.Kirkup(London,Weidenfeld&CNicolson,1964)

Hrozny,Bedrich(Frederic),Codehittite,transcriptionettraductionfrançaise(Paris,1922)

Hubert,Henri,LesCeltesdepuisVepoquedelaTeneetlacivilisationceltique(Paris,1932)

TheGreatnessandDeclineoftheCelts,ed.M.Mauss(London,KeganPaul,1934)

Kirk,G.E.,AShortHistoryoftheMiddleEast(London,Methuen,1948)

Koyre,Alexandre,Etudesd’histoiredelapenseescientifique(Paris,CahiersdesAnnales19,1961)

Kramer,SamuelNoah,HistoryBeginsatSumer(London,Thames8tHudson,1958)

Levi-Strauss,Claude,Tristestropiques,tr.J.andD.Weightman(London,Cape,1973)

Lot,Ferdinand,LaFindumondeantiqueetledebutdumoyenage(Paris,1927)

Lucas,J.V.,TheEndofAtlantis(London,1969)

Ludwig,Emil,OnMediterraneanShores(AmMittelmeer),tr.E.Paul(Boston,Little,Brown,1929)

Mason,StephenFinney,AHistoryoftheSciences:maincurrentsofscientificthought(London,RoutledgeandKeganPaul,1953)

Meyer,Eduard,GeschichtedesAltertums(Basel,1953-8)

Morenz,S.,EgyptianReligion(AgyptischeReligion,i960),tr.A.Keep(London,Methuen,1973)Moscati,Sabatino,//MondodelFenici(Milan,1966)

TheWorldofthePhoenicians,tr.A.Hamilton(London,WeidenfeldandNicolson,1968)

Nougier,LouisRene,Geographiehumaineprehistorique(Paris,1959)

Oppenheimer,J.Robert,ScienceandtheCommonUnderstanding,ReithLectures(London,OxfordUniversityPress,1953)

Picard,G.‘Atraverslesmuseesetsitesdel’AfriqueduNord’,Revuearcheologique,6(1947)

Piganiol,A.,EssaisurlesoriginesdeRome(Paris,1917)

Planhol,X.de,Delaplainepamphylienneauxlacspisidans.Nomadismeetviepaysanne(Paris,1958)

Posener,G.,Dictionnairedelacivilisationigyptienne(Paris,1959)ADictionaryofEgyptianCivilization,tr.A.McFarlane(London,Methuen,1961)

Przyluski,Jean,L’Evolutionhumaine(Paris,1942)

Rougier,Louis,heGiniedel’Occident.Essaisurlaformationd’unementalite(Paris,Laffont,1969)Schaeffer,Claude,MissiondeRas-Shamra(Paris,1936)

Seele,KeithandSteindorff,Georg,WhenEgyptRuledtheEast(London,1957)

Selincourt,Aubreyde,TheWorldofHerodotus(London,Seeker&Warburg,1962)

Smith,WilliamS.,InterconnectionsintheAncientNearEast:astudyoftherelationshipsbetweentheartsofEgypt,theAegeanandWesternAsia(NewHaven,YaleUniversityPress,1965)

Stekelis,Moshe,LesMonumentsmigalithiquesdePalestine(Paris,1935)Vallet,Georges,RhegionetZancle.Histoire,commerceetcivilisationdes

citischalcidiennesduditroitdeMessine(Paris,1958)

Varagnac,AndreandDeroloz,R.,LesCeltesetlesGermains(Paris,1965)

Vernant,J.-P.,LesOriginesdelapenseegrecque(Paris,1962)

Vieyra,Maurice,LesAssyriens(Paris,1961)

Vita-Finzi,Claudio,TheMediterraneanValleys(Cambridge,CambridgeUniversityPress,1969)

Weber,Alfred,KulturgeschichtealsKultursoziologie(Leiden,1935)

Wilamowitz-Moellendorf,Ulrichvon,GriechischeVerskunst(Berlin,1921)

Will,Edouardetal.,Korinthiaka.RecherchessurI’histoireetlacivilisationdeCorinthedesoriginesauxguerresmidiques(Paris,1955)

Index

Pagereferencesinitalicsrefertoillustrationsinthetext.

Adad(thegod)167

Adonis(thegod)2x4,226

AdriaticSea36,41,46,250-51,254-5

AegeanSea36,94,244,264

shipping97,99,100

Smyrna244-5

Aeschylus274

Africa16,34,35,36,314,217

archaeologicalsites30

seealsoindividualcountriesAfrica,North30,32,40-41,190-92,217-19,312

seealsoCarthageAfrica,South39

Agathocles227-8

agriculturaldevelopment47,48-59,65,67,70-71,191

domesticatedanimals47-8,50,55,70,71,162

importanceof26-7

ploughs/ploughing70-71

seealsoirrigation;technologicaladvancesagriculturalimplements50

seealsotools,useofagriculturalsocieties15,18,20,21,41,48-59,60,162

Greeceas247-8

pastoral34,47,162-4

Agrippa,MarcusVipsanius344

Ahiram,kingofByblos199

AkhenatenseeAmenophisIV,pharaoh

Akkadianlanguage166,169,170

Akkadianpeople169

Albright,W.F.185,207

Alcaeus18

Alcibiades274

Alcmaeonidaefamily268,272,290

Aldred,Cyril84

AlexandertheGreat208,221-2,223,277-9,280-84

Alexandria298-300,302

Aiin,Per174

Al-Mina246,264

alluvialmud19-20,34,61,65

alphabets246,264

inventionof197-9

seealsolanguage;writingAlps14,328,329

AmanusMountains74

ArmanaseeTellel-ArmarnaAmazon,river44,46

AmenophisIII,pharaoh121,154

AmenophisIV,pharaoh121,156-7

theAmericas50,214,215

AmonRa(thegod)86

Amoritepeople169

Anatolia51,150,165,172-3,184,187,188

trade/traders53-4

seealsoBelbasi;CatalHoyükAnaxagorasofClazomenae273,291,296

Anaximander289,290,291

Anaximenes289

AntiochusIII,Seleucidking321-2,334

Antony(MarkAntony)325,326,333

Anu(thegod)89

Apennines14,235,236,309

Apollo(thegod)226-7

ApolloniusofPerge299

ApolloniusofTyana354

Appian224

Arabpeoples170

Arados,island216

Aramaeanpeople169,170,184,185

archaeologicalsurveys26-59,102-3,114-15,150,253

chronologies28,29-31,33,36,50

climatechange20,33-5,37,46

megaliths,spreadof103-12

radio-carbondating28,41,50

Archidamus,kingofSparta276

Archimedes299,300

Aristarchus299,300

Aristophanes18

AristotleofStagira223,288,291,295,297-8,299,302

Mechanics297

Meteorology297

Armenia158,159,163,184

armies:

Assyrian186

cavalry190,282-3

Egyptian123-4

Greek269-71,282-3

mercenaries142,178,191,219,248,313,317

Persian190

Roman306,309,311,321-2,327seealsonavalpower;weapons/warfare

JDEX

art:architecture304-5,344-5

carvings40

cavepaintings34,35,41,42-3,44-6,

45

Cretan147-8

developmentof38,40-46,127,189

Egyptian66-7,157

Etruscan233,240-42

figurines41,129

frescoes146-7,150-51

Greek180,189,233,236,274-5

humanformin41,57

muralpaintings13

official274-5

paleolithic40-46,45

portraits346

rockpaintings191

Roman343,350-51

sacredj6,57,346

sculpture57,343-4,346

style153-4,166-7

seealsocrafts;cultureArtaxerxes281

Asctepsios/Aesculapius(thegod)226-7

AsiaMinor27,36,94,158,288

Greekcolonies244-5

Hittitecivilization13,113,155,160,164,165-7,171,172-3,179,196

immigrants159,160,164,231

seealsoMiddleEastAssur(thegod)89

Assurbanipal,kingofAssyriaior,216

Assyria89,101,185-6,187,188,202,216

Nineveh186

Astarte(thegoddess)155-6,226,228-9

astronomy214,288,289,291,296,297,298,299,300

seealsonavigationAten(thegod)156

Athena(thegoddess)267,269,273

Athens250,258,261,263,264,265,267,269,272-3,275,276,284,299,301-3,323-4

AtlanticOcean13,22,94,218,255

AttalusIII,kingofPergamum319

Attis(thegoddess)354

StAugustine218

AugustusCaesar319,324,326,332,342,344,347-8,349

Aurelian,emperorofRome352

Aurignacculture41

Australopithecus29

Austria41

Baal(thegod)155-6,167,225,226,227

Baalat(thegoddess)226

Babylon186,216,288,289,290

Bahrain76,82

Bailloud,G.111Balearicislands109,214

theBalkans32,41,194

Bandinelli,R.Bianchi345,347,349

bankingsystem119

seealsoeconomicstructureBarca,Hamilcar227,313-14

Barcidaefamily227

barter31,119,219-20

seealsocurrencyBasch,Almagro197

BattosofCyrene243

Bedouinpeople167-8

Balbasi40,41

Bes(thegod)86

BitterLake97

BlackSea36,250,263,320,327

NahalMishmarcave76

Bloch,Raymond230

boats/ships62-3,90-103

biremes101

bitumencaulking215-16

design/construction91,92-3,94,97-101,102,117,254,271,312-13

longships99-101

oarsmen98,99

quinquerimes312-13

rivercraft90-93,95-6

sails91,92,93,96,98-9,117

seafaring90-91,93-103,117

speedof154

timberfor93,101

triremes271,312

warships99-100,180,202,312-13

seealsoseatrade/tradersbooks238-9

Bordes,F.39

Borges,J.-L.273

Boule,Marcelin39

Brazil50

Brennus(theGaul)309

Breuil,Abbe94

Briquel,D:

LesEtrusques38in9

BritishIsles(Cassiterides)193,218

archaeologicalsites30

Romansin306,331

Stonehenge104

bronzeseecopper/bronzebronzeage30,75,113,114

inEurope193

inMiddleEast113-82

Brutus349

Bybios95

Camillus310

Campania234-5

Canaanitepeople169,170,184,209

Cappadocia76,159

Capri,island(Capreae)251

Capua234-5,236,309

Carchemish159,172

Carcopino,Jerome:

TheStagesofRomanImperialism307

cardialculture94-5,105

Carmel,Mount35

Jericho53-4,58,72

Carpenter,Rhys140,175

Carthage17,14,115,216-28,131-1

archaeologicalsites12,4,225

collapseof223,318

ascolonializer251-2,255-7,311,314

asacolony217

ascosmopolitan217

culture221-2

importanceof116

politicalstructure223

population224

Romanempireand311,312-18

trade216-22,318

worship/religion222,225-8

seealsoAfrica,North;PhoeniciaCaspianSea36

CassiteridesseeBritishIslesCassius(CaiusCassiusLonginus)349

Castor(thegod)308

CatalHoyiik13,51,54-7,56,58,72

CatotheElder337,341

Catullus348

Caucasianpeoples161

Caucasusmountains158,159,184,196

cavedwellers39

cavepaintings34,35,41,42-3,44-6,45

Celticpeople193-6,236,329

Ceram,C.W.27

ceramics64,68,69,70,212

seealsopottery;craftsChalcis/Chalcidians199,248-9,251,270

chariots132,163,191

seealsohorsesCharlesVIII,kingofFrance260

Charun(thedemon)242

chemistry289

Childe,Gordon48,76

ChilonofSparta269

China61,74,189,220

Christianity352-5

Chrosroes,kingofParthia333

Chusar(thegod)226

Cicero343,349

Cimbripeople328-9

Cimmerianpeople164,187,189,195,231

Cintas,Pierre207,217

citiesseetowns/citiesCivilization:

beginningsof38,49

seealsocultureCleisthenes(theAthenian)268,269,272

CloebulusofLindos269

ClconofAthens272

Cleopatra,queenofEgypt326

Clerc,Michel254

climatechange20,33-5,37,46

climaticconditions15,23,65,175-7

desertareasseedesertareas

drought17,66,172,176-7

flooding14,17,20,46,65

rainfall17,18,21,33

winds16-17

Clodius,Publius330

clothing46,73,132

seealsotextilesClusium/Chiusi236

coastalregions12,14,36,185,205,209

asmegalithsites105-6

CodeofHammurabi92,119,124-5

colonialization205-57

byCarthaginians251-2,255-7,311

byEtruscans205,206,228,234-6,251,252,255-7,308

byGreeks205,206,223,242-57,261,263,280,283-4,31t

internal247,248

byPhoenicians205,106-8,255-7

politicalstructureofcolonies242-3

purposeof247-9

byRomanempire259,284,308,310,311,329-31

tradeand248-9,252-3,263,329

typesof249-50

seealsomigrations;settlementpatternsCommodus,L.Aurelius,emperorofRome350

communications/transport14,60,117-18

caravanroutes16,117,168,184,327

rivertraffic90-93,95-6

roads136-7,310,333,339

seealsotrade/tradersconcrete:

asbuildingmaterial339-40

Constantine,emperorofRome353,354-5

Constantinople352-3

Coon,S:

TheOriginofRaces39

copper/bronze64,75-6,185,192,219,133

tradein114-18,215

weapons107,115,138

Corfu(Corcyra)250

Corinth205,246,249,250,251,263,284,323

CorneliusPalma334

Corsica32,36,315

crafts16,55,57,138,211-12,252

ceramics64,68,69,70

glassware210-n

ironworking196-7

ivorycarving211

metalworkingseemetalworking

migrantcraftsmen152,159,184,192

ornament/s32,40,43,47,112,138,240

potteryseepottery

stonevessels69

textilesseetextiles

seealsoart;cultureCrassusseeLiciniusCrassusDives,Marcuscreationhypotheses290,291

Cretanculture136,137-8,141,144

art147-8

Egyptand152-4

influenceof152-4,155

pottery141,144

sculpture148

writing132

Crete94,97,102,116

ancientperiod128-33

archaeologicalsites35,131,132,133,150-51

economicstructure131,132,135-8

Egyptand131-2,138,142,152-4

immigrants129,132

Knossos28,133,134,136,139,143-5

language127,141

metalworking129

Minoancivilization13,99,127,132,134,137,140

Mycenaeancivilization140-45,171,170,171

politicalstructure134

towns/cities133-5,136

trade132-3,135-8

volcaniceruptions138-40

crime/punishment85

Critias274

Cro-Magnonman39

Cronos(thegod)145,227

culturalinfluences148,150-54,155

culture:Cretan132,136,137-8,141,144,147-8,152-4,155

Egyptian62,63,66-7,69,70,72-80,

79,124,212

Etruscan233,240-42

Greek180,189,221-2,233,246,256-7,264,274-5,186-7,301-5.341-4

Mesopotamian64-5,68-9,75-6

Roman335-51seealsoart;craftsCumae199,222,236,251,256

currency118-21,219-20,252,253,264,3Mbarleyas118-19

papermoney220,seealsoeconomicstructureCybele(thegoddess)354

Cyclades145,146

Cylon2,68

Cynics354

Cyprus94,112,214,246

archaeologicalsites35

immigrants160,212

Cyrenaica41,250

CyrustheYounger,ofPersia281

Dacia333

Dalmatia23

Danube,river317,332

Darius,kingofPersia97,222,282

thedead57

burial38,51-3,55,57,86-7,110,144,193,353

cremation193,194,217,125,239

cultof106

women57

DeadSea53,158

death:

attitudesto38,49,147,226

eternallife86-7,240-41,242

Decebalus,kingofDacia333

decorationseeornament/s

Delos,island35,301

Demeter(thegod)221

Demetrius354

Democritus295

Desborough,Vincent:

TheLastMycenaeans…175

desertareas161-2

caravanroutes16,117,168,184,327

Sahara15-19,34,66,162,327

Syrian161,161,167-9,317

dietseefoodsupplies/diet

Diocletian,emperorofRome335,350-51

DiodorusofSicily215,230,252

DionysiusThrax299

Dionysus(thegod)273-4,187

diplomaticrelations166,167

Domitian,emperorofRome335,350-51

Dorianpeople171,174-5

drainage14,65,67,234,344

Dravidianlanguage113

dromedaries167-8

drought17,66,172,176-7

famine171

seealsoclimaticconditionsDrusus,NeroClaudius332

Dussaud,R.207

earthquakes12-13,173

Eberhardt,Isabelle17

economicstructure120-25,127,131,135-8,262-4,319-10

banking119

barter31,119

currency118-21,219-20,252,253,264,314

palaceeconomy115-16,119,181

taxationsystems85-6,115

vanEffenterre,H.134

Egypt17,51,60-61,66-87,90,170,178-80,320-21

agriculturaldevelopment70-72

archaeologicalsites67,85

army123-4,178,191

Assyriaand186

Cairo12

inCanaan209

collapseof181,183,186-7,116,222

Creteand131-2,138,141,152-4

currency120-21

economicstructure116,311-2

funeralrites86-7

historicalchronology126

immigrants63,66,123,160,179

intermediaryperiod123

invasionsof170,178

ironage186-7

Lower60,82,83

medicine289

metalworkingr14-18

pharaohs83-4,85;

seealsoindividualnames

politicalstructure83,84,122-3

Saqqarah67

science188,189,290

socialstructure83-7

Syriaand166

trade74,86,90,95-7,101-3

Upper60,82,83

worship/religion83,84,86,154,155-7

seealsoMiddleEast;Nile,riverEgyptianculture62,63,124

art66-7,153-4

Creteand152-4

metalworking75-6

porcelain70,212

pottery69

stonevessels69

weaving72-3

writing/numbers76-80,79El(thegod)225,226

EleaticSchool(ofGreekscience)293

theelements290-91,292,293,295

elephants35

EmpedoclesofAgrigento13,269,295

EnglandseeBritishIslesEnglishChannel46

Enil(thegod)88-9

Enki(thegod)89

Ephesus289,292,320

Epicurus299,302,343

Epimenides(theCretan)268

Erastistratus299

Eratosthenes299

erosionseesoilerosionEryx,Mount314,315

Eshmun(thegod)226-7

Etna,Mount13

Etruscanculture:

art233,240

books238-9

tombart240-42

Etruscanpeople13,14,228-42

autochthonoustheoryof232

colonies205,206,228,234-6,251,252,255-7,308

declineof236-7

language228-9,230

metalworking233

asnavalpower236

originsof229-33

politicalstructure236

Romanempireand308,310

Tarquiniatombs240-41

towns/cities234-7

trade216,233

worship/religion230-31,237-9

seealsoItalyEtruscansea249

Euclid299

Elements299

Euphrates,river19,60,62,64,65,150,169,184,333,334

trafficon91-2

Eurasianlandmass35

Euripides274

Europe191-2,193-6,218

Romansin306,327

seealsoindividualcountriesEvans,Arthur113

evolutionaryprocess34-5

human28-33

famine172

seealsodroughtFarrington,Benjamin286

Fayoum,Lake66Febvre,Lucien336

Ferrero,Guglielmo333

theFertileCrescent51-2,64,70,169

fertilitysymbols/cults41,57,71,225-6

figurines41,129

seealsoartfire38

forestfires20

fishing21-2,31,47,221

FlaminiusseeNepos,CaiusFlaminiusflattombsseethedead:cremationflintsseetoolsflooding14,17,20,46,65

seealsoclimaticconditionsfoodsupplies/diet14-15,21-2,31,47,52,53,55,65,247,252,263,276-7,336-8,339

seealsoagriculturaldevelopments;watersuppliesforestareas17,46,191

firesin20

France39,41

archaeologicalsites30,41

Brittany105

cavepaintings35,42

theDordogne41

GaulseeGaul

Provence318

seealsoMarseillefrescoes146-7,150-51

funeralritesseethedead

Gaius352

Institutiones352

Gallianus,PubliusLiciniusEgnatius,

emperorofRome350

Gallus,P.Sulpicius311

Gaudemet,Jean351,352

Gaul195-6,306

Romanempireand308-9,310,3

r5,329-31

Gautier,E.-F.218,119,281

geologicalrevolutionconcept37

geology33

Mediterraneanarea11-21,23-5

Mediterraneansea11-12

geometry288,290,293-4,299

seealsomathematicsGermania317,318,331-2,334,335

GermanicusCaesar332

Gernet,Louis158,259,167

Gibraltar17

Gibraltar,Straitsof36,140

seealsoPillarsofHerculesglaciation/glaciersseeiceagesglassware210-11Glotz,Gustave11

godsseeworship/religiongold/silver75,76,115,121,191,192,219

ascurrencyx19-11

Dacian333

fromSpain115,111,112,149,252,314

Gracchus,CaiusSempronius318,324,315

Gracchus,TiberiusSempronius324,325

grasslandseethesteppesGravettianculture41

Greece11,31,36,51,171,258-305

agriculture147-8

underAlexander277-9,180-84

archaeologicalsites32

army269-71,282-3

citystates241,148,149,259-65,268,173-5

colonies105,106,113,142-57,261,263,280,283-4,311

currency220,252,264

indarkages180-81

declineof159,184,305

defensivestructures173

economicstructure161-4

geographicalsurvey160-61

immigrants167

Macedoniaand177-8,181-3

Miletus144,145,150,154,155-6,158,163,189,191-2,320

asnavalpower271

underPericles175-7,187,195-7

Persiaand178-9,180-81

politicalstructure141-3,165-7,168,171-3

population163

Romanempireand309

asRomanprovince159,184,311,313

Syriaand164

towns/cities184,304-5;

seealsocity

statesabovetrade216,220,263,278

worship/religion266,268-9,273-4seealsoAthens;Corinth;Sparta;ThebesGreekculture256-7,264,283-4

influenceof221-2,342-4

literature286-7,302-4

philosophers/sages269,354;

seealsoGreekscience

pottery246

Greeklanguage198,243,283,303

Greekscience285-302

applied295-7,300-301

medicine287,289,299-300

naturalsciences292-3

Grenier,Albert229

Grimal,P.347

Grousset,Rene276

Gudea,kingofLagash74

Gutupeople159

Gyptis,wifeofProtis243

Hacheptsut,QueenofEgypt96

Hadrian,emperorofRome326-7,334,352

Hadrian’sWall334-5

Halafculture64,65

Hallstattcivilization193,195

Hammurabi,kingofBabylon92,151

hisCode92,119,124-5

Hannibal314,315,316-18

Hanno214,218

harboursseeportsandharboursHasdrubal314

vonHassel,Ulrich:

DasDramadesMittelmeers279,280

Hassunaculture64

Hathor(thegod)86,155

HebrewpeoplesseeSemiticpeoplesHecateusofMiletus291

Heichelheim,F.M.181,320

Heircte,Mount314

Helvetiipeople330-31

Hera(thegoddess)227

HeraclitusofEphesus289,292-3

Herculaneum13

Hercules/Herakles(thegod)128,177,227,238,350

Hermes/Turms(thegod)238

Herodotus97,188-9,191,231,243,255,269,270,287,336

HeronofAlexandria300,301

HerondasofSyracuse303

Herophilus299-300

Hesiod18,21,248,286

WorksandDays247

Heurgon,Jacques230,237,308

hierarchicalsocieties14

HieronofSyracuse236,313

Himilco218

Hipparchus299

HippocratesofCos287

HippodamusofMiletus304

Hiram,kingofTyre210

Hittitecivilization:

inAsiaMinor13,160,164,165-7,196

collapseof171,172-3,179

language113

neo-Hittites179,184

worship/religion155,167

Homer24,141,197,210,247,263,286

Iliad264

Hominoidaesp.29HomoerectusseePithecanthroposHomosapiens29,30,38,39-40

neandertalis29,30,31,38-9,43,379n6

sapiens379n6

Hood,Sinclair174

Horace17,349

horses163-4,219

cavalry190,282-3

asfood47

horsemen187-90

Horus(thegod)78,84,86

hotsprings13

Hottentotpeople39

house/huts46,52,53,54-5

brick53,54

concrete339-40

pile-based14

stonefoundations53

Hrozny,Bedrich113

Hubert,H.194

humanevolution2,33,34

brainsire37

humansacrifice127-8,230

hunter/gatherers14-15,31,32,46,47

weapons40,47

Hurrianpeople159,163,184

Hyksospeople164,166

Iapyges243

iceages33-5,36,38,46

Ida,Mount128,145,147

InannaseeIshtarIndianOcean16,117,327

Indo-Europeanpeoples162-4,192,193-6

seealsoHittitecivilizationIndus,river19,61,113,282

industrialstructure210-12,252

seealsocrafts;metalworkingInnocentIII,pope259

Inuitpeoples39

invasionseecolonialization;migrationIonia245-6

seealsoAsiaMinor;Greece;MiddleEastIran(Persia)64,69,158,159,186,327

army190

Egyptand222

Greeceand278-9,280-82

Romeand352

Iraq27,64

iron115,181,185,196-7,233,234

importanceof181-2,186-7,

soldering197

ironage186-7

irrigation19,53,60,61,64

bymachine67-8

seealsoagriculturaldevelopmentIschia,island(Pithecusae)248-9,251

Ishtar(thegoddess)89

Isis(thegoddess)86,354

Isistra300

Israel,kingdomof184,186

Italy13,36,41

Abruzziarea15

Calabria310

cavepaintings42

EtruscanpeopleseeEtruscanpeople

Florence259

immigrants193

megaliths107

Mycenaeancivilization244-5

Naples13

Romanunificationof308-11

Rome235,236,308,309

Tuscany13,232,233-4seealsoEtruscanpeople

Venice12

seealsoSicilyivorycarving210

Jarmoarchaeologicalsite52-3

Jerba,island15

Jerichoarchaeologicalsite53-4,58,71

Jews184-5

seealsoSemiticpeoplesJudah,kingdomof184,186

JuliusCaesar227,325-6,344

inGaul329-32

Juno/Uni(thegoddess)227,229,238

Juramountains329

JustinianCodex351

Kahrstedt,U.320

Kanesh/Kultepe151,172

Kassitepeople159-60

Keynes,J.M.86

Khnum(thegod)155

Kirk,G.E.99,101

Kish88

Knumhotep,princeofEgypt168

Kore(thegod)221

Koseir96,117

KotharWa-Khasis(thegod)155

Koyre,A.298

LaTenecivilization193,195

Laevinus,M.Valerius321

Lagerieman39

language62,93,113,127,141,159-60,164,198

Akkadian166,169,170

Dravidian113

Etruscan228-9,230

Latin333,335-6

linguafrancas169,170,333

seealsoalphabet;writingLaos252

Lauguer,J.-L.334

lead192

Lebanon15-16,51,74,86,209

legalstructure:

Roman351-2

leptolithiceraseepaleolithicera:upperLevantseeMiddleEastLevanzo,island42

Levi-Strauss,Claude50,285

Libby,WilliamF.28

Libya41,191,313

Libyanpeoples178,222

LiciniusCrassusDives,Marcus282,329,333

Ligurianpeople193

Lipariarchipelago13

literature:

Greek286-7,302-4

Roman347-9

Livy348

Lot,Ferdinand354-5

Lucan(M.AnnaeusLucanus)349

Luce,J.V.:

TheEndofAtlantis140

LuciusQuietus334

Lucretius343

Ludwig,Emil349

Lycianpeople178

Lycurgus(theAthenian)269

Lydianpeople184,187

Lysippus304

Macedonia277-8,282-3,303

Maecenas347,348,349

Magdalenianpeople39,46,47,48

Maghrebregion32

magic32,41,43,230-31

seealsoworship/religionMaglemosianculture47

Mago(theagronomist)224-5

Magodynasty222

malaria21

Malta12

archaeologicalsites35,97,102

megaliths106-7

ports/harbours102-3

temples106-7

MamertinerulersofMessina313

manualskills47

maps/mapping291

MarcusAurelius343,350,352,353

Marduk(thegod)89,290

Marinatos,Spyridon97,99,133

Marius,Caius324-5,328

Mars(thegod)238,336

Marseilles/Massalia243,244,252,254-5

Martial/Martialis,M.Valerius349

deMartonne,Emmanuel191

Mason,S.F.298

MassaliaseeMarseillemathematics288-9

geometry288,290,293-4,299

Medianpeople189-90

deMedici,Lorenzo259

medicine287,289,299-300

Mediterraneanarea:

archaeologicalsurvey26-59,102-3

colonialization205-57

asCretan123-54

asEgyptian66-87

geology11-21,23-5

asGreek258-305

asMesopotamian68-76

migration63-6,123,132,159-70,172,174-5,178-80,187-96

mountainranges12,14-15;

seealsoindividualmountainsandranges

asRoman306-55

traderoutes213–14;

seealsotrade/traders

waterways19-21;

seealsoindividualriversmegaliths:

datingof105,106-7,108

purpose/function103-4,108-9,110

spreadof103-11,119,38onn6-7,38mnn-i3

typesof104

Melkart(thegod)225,226-7

Menander303

Diskobolos303

Menes-Harmer,pharaoh27,83

Menes-Narmer,pharaoh63,83,132

NarmerPalette63,78,79,83

merchantclass119,220

Mesolithicart44,46

Mesolithicera30,31,46-8,50,379n7

Mesopotamia17,51,60-66,68-76,81-2,87-90,130,170

agriculturaldevelopment70-72

collapseof181,183,186

currency118-20

economicstructure116,119

historicalchronology126

immigrants64-5,159-60,169-70

ironage196

irrigationschemes64,68

lower64

metalworking115-18

politicalstructure88,124-5

rivertraffic91-2

Romanempireand333,334

science288,289

socialstructure89-90

Sumeriancivilization27,64-5,77,78,82,88

towns/cities88

trade90,91–2,117–20

worship/religion88-9,155

seealsoKish;MiddleEast;UrMesopotamianculture64-5

metalworking75-6

pottery68-9

weaving72-3

writing/numbers76-80,79

Messina,Straitsof249,250,251,252,310,311,312,313

metalworking71,75,109,110,111-12,114-15,129,174-5

copper/bronze75-6,185

iron181-2,185,196-7

metals:

tradein76,114-18,215,221,222,249,252

Metellus,Caecilius325

Meyer,Eduard102

MiddleEast40,47,48,97-9,183-99

agriculturaldevelopment49-59

bronzeage113-82

ascosmopolitan149-52,154,166-7

culture149-52

economicdevelopment115-25,127

geology/geography158-9

Greekcolonies245-7

immigrants157-64,187-96

ironworking196-7

metalworking112,114-18

Romanempirein318-20

settlementpatterns157-64,183,184-7

trade114-18,149

warfare184-7

worship/religion155-7

writing197-9

seealsoAsiaMinor;Crete;Egypt;Mesopotamiamigration63-6,113,131,159-70,171,174-5,177,178-80,187-96

migrantcraftsmen151,159,184,191

asathreat160,162.,165,170-80,183,187-90

seealsocolonialization;settlementpatternsMinerva/Menvra(thegoddess)238

Minoancivilization:

onCrete13,99,1x7,13Z,134

Minos(legendarykingofCrete)134,141

mioceneera19

Mirandola,Pico159

Mithras(thegod)354

Mithridates,IcingofPontus313,314,337

moneyseecurrencyMongolianpeople161

Moravia41

Morenz,S.83

Morocco191

Moscati,Sabatino107

mother-goddesses41,104,106,129,146,167,105-6

mountainrangesiz,14-15

settlementpatterns158-60

seealsoindividualmountainsandrangesmuralpaintings13

seealsoartMycenaeancivilization:

collapseof173-5,176-8

onCrete140-45,171

inItaly144-5

trade141-3

MysonofChen169

mythologyseeworship/religion

NarmerseeMenes-Narmer,pharaohNarmerPalette63,78,79,83

Natufianculture53,54

naturalsciences191-3

seealsosciencenavalpower135,178,180,136,171,178,31Z-14

warships99-100,180,202

seealsoarmies;weapons/warfarenavigationZI4,291

seealsoastronomyNazar,B.207

NeanderthalmanseeHomosapiens:

neandertalisNecho,pharaoh96-7

neolithicerazo,30,33,34,41,50,58,60,191,192

proto-neolithic50,54

Nepos,CaiusDulius313

Nepos,CaiusFlaminius322

Neptune/Nethuns(thegod)238

Nero,emperorofRome345

Nietzsche,Friedrich287

Niger,river16,191

Nile,river19,60,63,66-8

canals97

Delta15,66-7,74,83

ElephantineIsland95-6

flooding66,67

importanceof81-3

trafficon91-3,95-6

nomadicsocieties15,16,31-3,161-1,167-9,187,188,189

Nougier,R.-L.39

numbersystems78,80

seealsolanguage;mathematics;writingNumidianpeoplez17,318

OctavianseeAugustusCaesarOenomaos354

Olympus,MountizOppenheimer,Richard300

ornament/s31,40,43,47,112,138,140

seealsocraftsOrontes,river199

Osiris(thegod)86

Ovid349

Tristia349

Pontics349

PacificOcean12

paleolithicart40-46,45

humanformin41

paleolithicera19-20,27-37

low/old30,31,32

middle30,31,38

upper30,31,32,33,40-41,47

paleozoicera12

Palestine27,51,179,188

archaeologicalsites30,35,41

Carmel,Mount35,53-4,58,72

seealsowritingParmenides294-5

Parnassus,Mount141

Parthianpeoples327,333,335

pastoralsocieties34,47,162-4

seealsoagriculturalsocietiesPaulus,V.L.Aemilius322

Pausanias243

peasantsocieties19,85

PebbleCulture31

PeoplesoftheSea160-61,170-80,183,248

seealsoseagoingpeoplesPergamum299,347

PerianderofCorinth269

Pericles(theAthenian)268,272,274,275-7,287,295-7

Persephone(thegoddess)141

Perses(brotherofHesion)248

Perseus,kingofMacedonia317,322

PersiaseeIran(Persia)PersianGulf16

PersiusFlaccus349

Petronius349

Phalanthos(theSpartan)243

pharaohs83-4,85

seealsoindividualnamesPhilipII,kingofMacedonia277-8

PhilipV,kingofMacedonia317,321,322

Philistinepeople170,179,184,209-10

Philostratus354

Phocaeanpeople222,236,251,254-5

Phoenicia15-16,97,184-5

colonies205,206-8,212,255-7;

seealsoCarthage

industrialstructure210-12

language198,199,206-7

asnavalpower222,224

asseafaringnation97,100-101,112,185,202,207-10,214

trade209,212,213-22

worship/religion225-6

seealsoCarthagePhrygianpeople172,184

Picard,C.219

Picard,G.219

Piganiol,A.231

PillarsofHercules13,22,291

seealsoStraitsofGibraltarPindar286

piracy319-20,321

Pisistratus(theAthenian)269,286

pitch(bitumen)215

Pithecanthropos29,38

PithecusaeseeIschia,islandPittacusofMytilene269

Plato19,140,261,273,285,288,295,296,297

Gorgias295

neo-Platonism354

Timaeus175

Plautus303,349

PlinytheElder215,336-8,346

plioceneera19

Plotinus350,354

ploughs/ploughing70-71

seealsoagriculturaldevelopmentPlutarch196,300

Po,river14,36,135,311,315

politicalstructure88,116,213,137

Cretan134

democracy27Z-3

Egyptian83,84,1x1-3,126

Greek141-3,165-7,168

Mesopotamian88,114-5

Roman308,313

Pollox(thegod)308

Polybius316-17,346

Histories316

Polycletes(thesculptor):

Doryphorus346

Pompeii13,304

Pompey(CneiusPompeiusMagnus)314,344

Pomponius,Sextus351

Porsenna,kingofClusium136

ports/harbours97,101,102-3,135-6,137,184,185,108-9,218,221,224,246,249,250-51,163,318-19seealsoseatrade/tradersPoseidon(thegod)167

Posener,G.85

potter’swheel68-70,131

pottery50,51,53,54,57,65,119,137,141,144,174

cardial94-5,105

Greek146

Samarianintradein152-3seealsoceramics;craftsPriam,kingofTroy151

primitiverocks12

Proculus351

Propertius348-9Elegies348

ProtagorasofAbdera187-8,196

ProtisofMarseille143

Przyluski,Jean41,71

Ptah(thegod)86

PtolemyISoter,pharaoh113,198,303

PtolemyIIPhiladelphus,pharaoh298

punishmentseecrime/punishment

Pusratta,emperorofMittanim

PyrrhonofElis199,301

PyrrhosII,kingofEpirus179-80

Pythagoras174,193-5,196,197

quaternaryera19,33

racialcharacteristicsseeindividualpeople/

racesrainfall17,18,11,33

seealsoclimaticconditionsRamsesII,pharaoh83

RamsesIII,pharaoh84,178,179,180,109,111

RedSea13,16,94,95,117,158,317

reindeercivilizationconcept47

Rekmire(theEgyptian)143,144

ReshefseeBaal(thegod)religionseemagic;worship/religionRhadamanthus(judgeoftheunderworld)141

Rhine,river317,331,333

Rhodes144,146,299,320,321

Rhdne,river254-5

rivertraffic90-93,95-6

seealsoboats/ships;communications/transport;seatrade/tradersrivers19-21,36

importanceof61

seealsoindividualriversrockstrata:

primitive12

sedimentary12,19-10

Romancitizenship310

Romanculture335-51

architecture344-5

art343-4,345-6,350-51

Greekcultureand341-4

literature347-9

Romanempire23,24,306-55

achievements15,20

army306,309,311,317-18,321-2,317

inBritain306,331

asbrutal321-1,328

Carthageand311,312-18

Christianityin352-5

colonies308,310,311,329-31

Colosseum345

declineof16,312-6,335,349-51

economicstructure319-20,322-3

Etruscansand308,310

extentof327,331,334

Gauland308-9,310,315,329-31

Germaniaand317,318,331-1,334

Greeceand309

Greeceasprovinceof159,184,311,323

growthof307-11,316-21,316-35

legalstructure351-1

Macedoniaand310-11,313

Mesopotamiaand,333,334

inMiddleEast318-10

asnavalpower311-14

Persiaand351

politicalstructure308,313

population317

provinces306,310-11,323

Rome135,236,308,309

socialstructure325

Spainand314

Syriaand319

technology339-40

towns/cities328,338-42,344-5

worship/religion353,354;

seealsoChristianityaboveRomanroads310,333,339

Rostovzeff,Michel296

Rostow,W.W.302

Rougier,Louis301

Russia41,187,188,189,195

Sabinus352

Saharadesert15-19,34,66,162,191,

cavepaintings42

Sahura,pharaoh74,95,96

Sallust348

CatilineConspiracy348

JugurthianWar348

saltpans/salting221

Samarianware212

seealsopotterySamarraculture64,65

Samnitepeople309,310

SantoriniseeThera,islandSardinia17,32,36,112,215,315,379n4,382n5

archaeologicalsites35

LiMuritombs108

megaliths107-9

metalworking109

SaronicGulf249

Saturn/Satre(thegod)117,138

Sceptics199

Schaeffer,ClaudeA.13,112,172,173

Schliemann,Heinrich130

science:

applied295-7,300-301

Greek285-302

medicine287,289,299-300

naturalsciences292-3

Roman339-40

seealsotechnologicaladvancesScipioAemilianus,P.Cornelius223,316

ScipioAfricanus234,319,312

sculpture57,148,343-4,346

seealsoartScythianculture189,195

Scythianpeople163,188-90

sealevel20,36

seatrade/traders22-3,32.,95-7,m-12,117,141-3,191

boats/ships61-3,90,91,93-103,117,202,254

seealsoports/harboursseagoingpeoples160-61,170-80,183,248

Phoeniciansas97,100-101,112,185,202,207-10

sedimentaryrocks11,19-20

Seele,Keith61

deSelincourt,Aubrey275,287

TheWorldofHerodotus260

Semiticpeoples167-70,179,184-5

Seneca349

Senegal,river16

Sennacherib,kingofAssyria202

Serapis(thegod)301

SeptimusSeverus336,349-50,}j8ServiusTullius,kingofRome308

Seth(thegod)86

settlementpatterns183,184-7

colonization205-57,261,163,280,283-4,308,310,311

geographicalinfluences14-15,16,157-64,192,260-62

seealsomigrationShamash(thegod)117-18

shipsseeboats/ships;seatrade/tradersSiberia41

Sicily12,13,24,36,223

archaeologicalsites35

asCarthaginiancolony251-1,311

asGreekcolony150-53,263,179,311

importanceof114

Syracuse12,151,180

seealsoItalySidon101,216,110,226

silverseegold/silverSinouhe(theEgyptian)87

slavery85-6,219,271-3,301-1,313,318

Smith,W.S.127,149,152,153,182

Smyrna244-5

socialstructure15,16,23,181,195

agricultural15,18,20,21,41,48-59,60,161,247-8

cavedwellers39

democracy272-3

developmentof60-112

Egyptian85-7

Greek242,248,249,259-65,268

hierarchical14

merchantclass119,220

Mesopotamia89-90

nomadic15,16,31-3,161-2,167-9,187,188,189

pastoral34,47,162-4

peasant19,85

Roman325

slavery85-6,219,272-3,301-2,313,318

towns/cities49,53,54,58,61,81-1,133-5,136,184,134,135-6,244-5.304-5.318.338-41,344-5JGreekcitystates142,148,249,259-65,268,273-5

villages48,49,52-9,60

Socrates274,292,295,296

soilerosion20-21

soldiersseearmies;weapons/warfareSolomon,king185,210,214

Solon(theAthenian)269,271,272

Solutrepeople46

Sophists287-8

Sophocles258,274

Spain32,41

archaeologicalsites109-10

Cadiz101,221

cavepaintings42,44-6,45

immigrants193

theLevante44,109-10

megaliths109-10,129,38inn

NewCarthage(Cartagena)314

asRomanprovince314

Segovia12

silverfrom215,221,222,249,252,314

trade112,214;

seealsosilverfromaboveSparta261,262,265,284

spinningseeweavingStekelis,M.105

thesteppes161-4,335

Stoicism299,343

stoneage:

middleseemesolithicera

newseeneolithicera

oldseepaleothicerastonedrills69

Straton299,302

Stromboli13

Suevipeople330,331

Suezisthmus36,96-7

Sulla/Sylla,LuciusCornelius325,344

Sumeriancivilization27,64-5,77,78,82,88

seealsoMesopotamiaSuppiluliumaII,kingoftheHittites172-3

Sybaris,252,289

Syria32,41,51,64,131,181,188,320-21

desertareas161,162,167-9,327

Egyptand166

Greeceand264

immigrants151

language198

Romanempireand319

tgrade74,90,95-6,102-3,160

seealsoAl-Mina

Tacitus,PubliusCornelius332,349

Tages(thenymph)238

Tanitcult:

inCarthage226,227,228

Taranto,Gulfof250

Tarentum,Gulfof312-13

TarquiniusPriscus,kingofRome308

TarquiniusSuperbus,kingofRome308

Taurusmountains76,158,179

taxationsystems85-6,115

technologicaladvances:

irrigationtechniques67-8

metalworking75-6,114-15

potter’swheel68-70,132

scientific295-7,300-301,339-40

stonedrills69

tools,useof29,30,31-2,38,40-41,50

weapons38,40,47

weaving71-3

thewheel132,136

seealsoagriculturaldevelopment;scienceTelemachus14-15

Tellel-Amarna121,138,143,152,154,156

Terence303,349

tertiaryera12

Tethyssea12

Teutonpeople328

textiles72-3,138,210-11,252

seealsoclothing;craftsThalesofMiletus269,288,289,290

Thebes262

Themistocles275-6

Theocritus304

TheodosianCodex351

Theophrastrus299,302

Characters302

Thera,island13,243

volcaniceruption138-40

Thessaly35

Thoth(thegod)86

Thucydides101,270,287

Tiber,river235

Tiberius,emperorofRome332,352

Tibullus348,349

TiglathPileserI,kingofMesopotamia169

Tigris,river60,62,64,65,184,185,333

trafficon92

timber:

forboats/ships93,101,312-13

Etruscan239-42

seealsothedead:burialtools,useof29,30,31-1,40-41,50,191

agriculturalimplements50

flints31,32,38

irontools197

specializedtools40,191

splintertools31

two-sidedtools31

woodenhandles31,38,40

seealsoweapons/warfaretowns/cities49,53,54,58,61,81-2,38on8

Cretan133-5,136

defensive81,244-5

Etruscan234,235-7

Greek184,304-5;citystates242,248,249,259-65,268,273-5

Mesopotamian88

palacesand133-5

Roman328,338-42,344-5

trade/traders15,53-4,55,63,132,209,212,263,178,318-19

caravanroutes16,117,168,184,327

colonializationand248-9,152-3,263

incopper/bronze114-18,215

currencypayments118-21

ingrain263

importanceof181,246,252,263

merchantclass119,220

inmetals76,114-18,215,221,222,

inpottery252-3

seatrade22,32,90,91,95-7,117,135-8,142-3,160,191,202,213-22,154-5

intimber74,312-13

Trajan181,332-4

Trajan’scolumn333,347,349

transportseecommunications/transporttrees/vines337-8

Troy129-31

Tuchulcha(thedemon)242

Tunisia15,36

Turkey161,162,173,214

seealsoAnatoliaTurmsseeHermes

Tutankhamun,pharaoh115,197,211

TutmosisI,pharaoh153

TutmosisIII,pharaoh70,121

Tyre161,184,185,186,208-9217-18,231,281

TyrrhenianSea231,251,252

Ugarit80,112,116,118,119,149,150,155,159,165,166,170,171-3,178,179,198,226

Umbrianpeople193

UniseeJuno

Ur73,88,126

Uralmountains42

urbansocietiesseetowns/cities

urnburialsseethedead:cremation

Urukpottery68-9

Vallet,Georges253

Van,Lake184

Varagnac,Andre194

Varus,PubliusQuintilius332

Vegoia(thenymph)238

Venetipeople331

Ventris,Michael123

Vercingetorix331

Vernant,J.-P.290,291

Vertumnus(thegod)238

Vespasian,emperorofRome345

Vesta(thegoddess)308

Vesuvius,Mount13

Vieyra,Maurice68

villages48,49,52-9,60

defensive53,55,56

Villanovanpeople193

vinesseetrees/vinesVirgil21,348

Aeneid348

Vita-Finzi,Claudio:

TheMediterraneanValleys19

Volcanoes13,138-40

seealsoindividualvolcanoes

warships99-100,180,202,312-13

seealsoboats/shipswatersupplies47,53,65,66,173,209,344

seealsofoodsupplies/dietweapons/warfare47,163,164,179-80,184-7,

bowsandarrows40,47

civilwar320-21,323

copper/bronzeweapons107,115,138

costof181

ironweapons181

Roman309,310,317-18

spears38,40

seealsoarmies;navalpower;toolsweavingseetextilesWeber,Alfred27,37,86,276

WestIndies12

thewheel132,136,163

potter’swheel68-70,132

Will,E.265

winds16-17

seealsoclimaticconditionswomen:

attitudesto57

burialafterdeath57

clothing73

mother-goddesses41,104,106,129,146,167,225-6

positionof71

working71,72-3

woodseetimberWoolner,Diana97,102

worship/religion42,50,71-2,116,155-7,167

inCarthage222,225-8

Christianity352-5

inCrete129,135,145-7

inEgypt83,84,86,154,155-7

Etruscan230-31,237-9

fertilitysymbols/cults41,57,71,225-6

inGreece266,268-9,273-4

humansacrifice227-8,230

inMesopotamia88-9

mother-goddesses41,104,106,129,167,225-6

inRomanempire353,354;

seealsoChristianityabove

sacredart,56,57,346

seealsomagic;megalithswriting177-8

alphabets197-9

developmentof26,27,30,76-80,79,164,198-9

LinearAandBscripts78,197,198

pictograms76-7,93,198

seealsolanguage;numbersystems

Xenophon281,296

Anabasis281

XerxesI222

Yakimlu,kingofArados216

Zagrosmountains64,158,159

Jarmo52-3

ZenoofCitium294-5,

Zeus(thegod)128,132,145,238,273,354

*InwritingthisessayIhavebeenhelpedofcoursebyBraudel’sownbriefdescriptionofhishistoricaldevelopmentpublishedinEnglishintheJournalofModernHistoryfor1972,butmoreespeciallybythemagnificentbiographyofPierreDaix,Braudel(Flammarion,1995).ThelecturesfromtheperiodoftheSecondWorldWar,andthefragmentsrelatedtothethirdvolumeofBraudel’sL’IdentitydelaFrance,arepublishedinLesambitionsdel’Histoire(EditionsdeFallois,1997).ChristopherLogue’spoemwasfirstpublishedinHaroldBerliner’sdeluxeeditionofWarMusic,NevadaCity,California,1999.ItisreprintedhereasfittinghomagetoBraudel,forwhichprivilegeIthankmyfriendChristopherLogue.