sustainability

Article

The Making of a Sustainable Wireless City? MappingPublic Wi-Fi Access in Shanghai

Mingfeng Wang 1, Felix Haifeng Liao 2,*, Juan Lin 1, Li Huang 2, Chengcheng Gu 1

and Yehua Dennis Wei 3

1 Center for Modern Chinese City Studies, East China Normal University, Shanghai 200062, China;mfwang@re.ecnu.edu.cn (M.W.); fqlinjuan@foxmail.com (J.L.); dexter2002@163.com (C.G.)

2 Department of Geography, University of Idaho, Moscow, ID 83844, USA; lhuang@uidaho.edu3 Department of Geography, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT 84112-9155, USA; wei@geog.utah.edu* Correspondence: hliao@uidaho.edu; Tel.: +1-208-885-6452; Fax: +1-208-885-2855

Academic Editor: Giuseppe IoppoloReceived: 14 October 2015; Accepted: 19 January 2016; Published: 26 January 2016

Abstract: In the context of the global information economy, ready access to the Internet is criticalto a city’s competitiveness, which has prompted a number of cities to launch plans to establishwireless networks. Most literature on the development of wireless cities focuses on cities in Westerncountries, and few have discussed how Chinese cities have adopted wireless technologies in theirurban infrastructure development efforts. This paper examines recent development and spatialdistribution of public Wi-Fi access in Shanghai, a leading business hub in China. We mapped Wi-Fihotspots through the government sponsored “i-Shanghai” project and China Mobile CommunicationsCorporation (CMCC). We find that while telecommunication providers have been proactivelydeploying WLAN (wireless local area network, a proxy of public Wi-Fi or wireless access) hotspots inShanghai, neither government sponsored WLAN hotspots nor facilities established by CMCC couldcover the old traditional neighborhoods in the central city and sub-districts in remote rural areas. Wealso address the development of a more sustainable wireless city in Shanghai with a particular focuson digital divide and social equity issues.

Keywords: Wi-Fi; wireless cities; GIS spatial analysis; digital divide; China

1. Introduction

Wireless communication technologies have emerged as a major force underlying the recentdevelopment and change of the global economy [1]. Under such notions as digital cities [2], intelligentcities [3], mobile cities [4], wireless cities [5], ubiquitous cities [6], and smart cities [7,8], new planningstrategies that emphasize the adoption and adaptation of information and communication technologies(ICTs) have attracted considerable attention from scholars and policy makers. In the context ofthe global information economy, the usage of wireless technologies has become a key indicator ofthe competitiveness of a city [5,9–11]. A number of cities, such as Singapore and Taipei in Asia,Philadelphia, San Francisco and Boston in the United States, and Perth in Australia, have eitherexpressed an intention to establish a wireless network or launched specific plans to develop wirelesscities [5,12,13]. While most literature on wireless cities and the digital divide focuses on cities inWestern countries, few have discussed how Chinese cities have adopted wireless technologies ininfrastructure development, and even fewer have addressed the issue of digital divide in China’surban landscapes.

By the end of 2014, China’s mobile Internet users had reached 649 million, as compared to22.5 million in 2000, accounting for 19% of the total number in the world [14], among which thenumber of smart phone users increased to 557 million by the end of 2014 [15]. Internet development,

Sustainability 2016, 8, 111; doi:10.3390/su8020111 www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability

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especially a dramatic increase in the number of smart phone users, has resulted in a booming demandfor wireless access in Chinese cities [16]. In collaboration with major telecommunication operators,including China Mobile Communications Corporation (CMCC), China Unicom, and China Telecom,local governments in Chinese cities have launched plans for public Wi-Fi network access and thedevelopment of “wireless” cities. For example, since 2012, the Shanghai Municipal Government haslaunched a project named “i-Shanghai” (or loving Shanghai). The project aims to deploy over 4000 Wi-Fihotspots by 2020, making Shanghai a large-scale wireless city.

This paper examines the development of public Wi-Fi access in Shanghai and compares the WLANhotspots established by CMCC and those sponsored by the Shanghai Municipal Government throughthe “i-Shanghai” project. Notably, the total number of Internet users in Shanghai has increased by500% during 2000–2014, among which the share of Internet users through smart phone or other mobiledevices has increased from 64% in 2009 to 79% in 2013 [17,18]. We analyze the spatial distributionof Wi-Fi access at multiple scales (i.e., district and sub-district levels) and in different areas (e.g.,central city and suburban areas). By applying exploratory spatial data analysis (ESDA) methods,such as concentric analysis and spatial hot spot analysis, we underscore the proactive role played bytelecommunication companies in shaping the Wi-Fi geographies in Chinese cities. The remainder ofthe paper is organized as follows: the next section briefly reviews the concept of wireless city andrelated literature on wireless city development and the digital divide. This is followed by the spatialdistribution analysis of public Wi-Fi access in Shanghai provided by the “i-Shanghai” project andCMCC. The last section summarizes the major findings and discusses the characteristics of Shanghai’spathway towards a sustainable wireless city.

2. Background and Literature Review

Wireless cities are essentially cities completely covered by high-speed broadband and public Wi-Fiaccess, where the Internet can be openly accessed and used by their citizens. Wireless technologiesare an important part of infrastructure development through which the efficiency and equity ofgovernmental service can be improved [5]. Wireless network coverage is also a key step to extend fiberbroadband to the public, and the access to Wi-Fi, and more broadly the Internet, is regarded as “thecity’s fifth major infrastructure” next to water, electricity, gas, and roads [19–21]. The impact of wirelesscity development is significant in many aspects, such as providing mobility values [22], changingtravel behaviors [23], altering the perception of community and forming social networks in urbanspace [24–26]. Previous literature found that in wireless cities, transaction costs can be reduced [27]and social well-being of citizens is better off through closer social interactions [22,28,29].

Given the benefits of developing wireless networks or ready access to the Internet, a great numberof cities are deploying or have plans to establish wireless broadband networks [30]. Previous literaturehas also documented a number of factors that determine the locations of public Wi-Fi access mostly inWestern cities. Customer choice is regarded as a basic driving force behind the development of thewireless broadband market, and the layout of wireless facilities is obviously influenced by local socialand economic factors [31]. Oyana [32] studied the distribution of wireless facilities in Southern Illinois,USA and identified three main factors that influence the distribution of wireless facilities: the highereducational population rate, age-specific group, and average family income. Driskella and Wang [33]examined the spatial layout of Wi-Fi access in Louisiana, USA, suggesting that the determinants ofpublic Wi-Fi hotspot location are residents’ socio-economic disadvantages in neighborhoods and theirhousehold characteristics. Grubesic and Murray [31] analyzed the distribution of Wi-Fi hotspots infour neighborhood communities in Cincinnati, USA, and reported that the degree of network access ineach community was closely related to social, economic, demographic, and spatial factors, but evidentdifferences exist between rich and poor blocks’ Wi-Fi access; the network access in the inner city isconcentrated in areas around commercial and office buildings.

Urban planning and government policies also play an important role in the making of a wirelesscity [34]. For example, through a comparative study of Singapore and Taipei, Hu et al. [5] suggested

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that the development of the wireless city in Taipei is mainly driven by top-down government policywhile such development depends more on the market-driven participation of customers in Singapore.The development of wireless city is also driven by the innovation and widespread use of smartphonetechnologies. In a case study of Salt Lake City, USA, Torrens [35] identified that Wi-Fi access hasprovided a possible solution to “last-mile” problems in the city, and Evans-Cowley [36] also addressedthe influences of mobile phones on urban life.

Given the nature of Internet access as a public utility, the role of government in providingWi-Fi infrastructure is of particular concern in the literature [30,37,38]. Ballon et al. [30] reviewedthe public-private partnership in shaping wireless city networks in both EU and the U.S. and foundthat public authorities such as governments will strive for the optimal trade-off between minimizingtheir inputs for directly being involved in the establishment and operation of wireless city networksand maximizing the leverage for the purpose of specific policy goals such as narrowing the digitaldivide and so on. Girth [37] explored the variation in approaches and examined the structural factorsthat give rise to public-private partnerships. Some literature also have examined the role of theAsian government, China especially, in telecommunication industry development and infrastructureconstruction. For instance, Soh and Yu [39] analyzed the development of 3G networks in China andexplained how regulatory impacts from government and domestic and foreign network operators areinterdependent to each other.

Despite the positive impacts of the wireless city development, the spatial and social inequalitiesof information technology and its access has also drawn a lot of attention [40,41], derived from thetraditional thoughts of urban sociology [42], with a particular focus on the digital divide. Moreover,this type of restructuring is often associated with a new round of social differentiation in differenturban spaces [31,43]. From this perspective, the term digital divide, which refers to the fact thatcertain segments of the population and specific social groups may be excluded from access to theInternet, has gained considerable scholarly attention [5,7,38,44,45]. As Castells [46] pointed out, thegap between network haves and have-nots increases sources of spatial and social inequality. Combinedwith the historical socioeconomic divides in the city, the strong commercial bias of Internet accessmay strengthen an uneven geography of public Wi-Fi access [47], which can be manifested at differentscales, from global to regional ones, and to neighborhoods and communities [43,48–50]. Popularizedby Gray Andrew Pole, a New York Times journalist, the notion of digital divide has called for moreattention in regards to equitable access to public Wi-Fi and the uneven distribution of access to theInternet within cities [35,48]. For example, Prieger [50] investigated the gaps in broadband usage forminorities and found that fewer fixed broadband options were available to Blacks and Hispanics, butthey tend to have more mobile broadband providers available. These digital disparities are closelyassociated with social polarization and inequalities, imposing new challenges for the sustainability offamilies, communities, and cities in the context of the new information economy [51].

In short, despite an emerging body of literature on wireless cities and digital divide in Westerncountries, Chinese cities have largely escaped from scholarly attention and few work has been doneto address potential digital divide in the course of the Chinese wireless city development [52].Specifically, to the best of our knowledge, most of the previous literature on the digital divide orInternet development in China has focused on disparities or spatial distribution at the provincial, cityor regional levels [53,54], the development of wireless city and digital divide at the intra-city levelhave rarely been researched.

3. Data and Study Region

The data used in this study was mainly obtained from the official websites of Shanghai CMCC [55]and the “i-Shanghai” project [56]. The raw data contains the attributes of each WLAN hotspotestablished by CMCC and the “i-Shanghai” project, including the name, address, type, locatedsub-district, and also the same attributes of Wi-Fi hotspots. WLAN is one of the most widely usedbroadband wireless technologies that provides public Wi-Fi access in China. By July 2013, the number

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of WLAN hotspots provided by Shanghai CMCC had increased to 6800, as compared to less than703 in 2009. In this study, the locations of all the CMCC and “i-Shanghai” WLAN hotspots in 2013were geocoded. In addition, as shown in Figure 1, our study area included 18 districts and counties:Huangpu, Jingan, Xuhui, Changning, Putuo, Zhabei, Hongku, Yangpu, Pudong, Minhang, Baoshan,Songjiang, Jiading, Qingpu, Jinshan, Fengxian, Nanhui and Chongming, and 208 sub-districts/towns,which are the smallest administrative unit in China. Following Wei et al. [57], we divided the 18districts and 208 sub-districts into four areas: traditional city property area (TCPA, which is composedof Huangpu and Jingan), expanded central city area (ECCA, which includes Xuhui, Changning, Putuo,Zhabei, Hongkou and Yangpu), inner-suburban area (ISA, which consists of Pudong, Minhang andBoshan), and outer suburban area (OSA, which includes Chongming, Jiading, Songjiang, Qingpu,Jinshan, Fengxian and Nanhui).

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geocoded.  In  addition,  as  shown  in  Figure  1,  our  study  area  included  18 districts  and  counties: 

Huangpu, Jingan, Xuhui, Changning, Putuo, Zhabei, Hongku, Yangpu, Pudong, Minhang, Baoshan, 

Songjiang, Jiading, Qingpu, Jinshan, Fengxian, Nanhui and Chongming, and 208 sub‐districts/towns, 

which are  the smallest administrative unit  in China. Following Wei  et al.  [57], we divided  the 18 

districts  and  208  sub‐districts  into  four  areas:  traditional  city  property  area  (TCPA,  which  is 

composed  of Huangpu  and  Jingan),  expanded  central  city  area  (ECCA, which  includes  Xuhui, 

Changning, Putuo, Zhabei, Hongkou  and Yangpu),  inner‐suburban  area  (ISA, which  consists  of 

Pudong, Minhang and Boshan), and outer suburban area (OSA, which includes Chongming, Jiading, 

Songjiang, Qingpu, Jinshan, Fengxian and Nanhui). 

 

Figure 1. Administrative division and geographic structure of Shanghai. Note: TCPA = traditional 

city  proper  area;  ECCA  =  expanded  central  city  area;  ISA  =  inner‐suburban  area; OSA  =  outer‐

suburban area. 

As the largest business hub and financial center in China, Shanghai has played a leading role in 

developing wireless cities in China. As illustrated in Figure 2, the Internet penetration, as measured 

by the total number of Internet users divided by total population, increased from less than 30% before 

2005  to  over  70%  in  2013. The  number  of  Internet users  through  smartphones  in  Shanghai  also 

increased  from 7.47 million  to 12.6 million during 2009–2013, and  its shares of  Internet users rose 

from 63.8% to 78.5% [17,58]. On par with Beijing, Shanghai is currently one of the two Chinese cities 

with the highest rates of Internet penetration. In fact, as early as the 1990s, Internet development was 

one of the items that were prioritized in the agenda of Shanghai municipal government. The theme 

of the 2010 Shanghai World Expo, “Better City, Better Life”, reiterated the importance of developing 

Shanghai into a wireless city. In 2011, the Shanghai Municipal Government issued “The Shanghai’s 

Promotion Plan for the Development of Smart City (2011–2013)”, which focused on the construction 

of wireless city. In collaboration with major corporations in the Chinese telecommunication industry, 

especially CMCC, one of the goals in the plan was to build a wireless broadband network that covers 

over 80% of the city, with the speed of Internet of 20 Mbps. 

Figure 1. Administrative division and geographic structure of Shanghai. Note: TCPA = traditional cityproper area; ECCA = expanded central city area; ISA = inner-suburban area; OSA = outer-suburban area.

As the largest business hub and financial center in China, Shanghai has played a leading role indeveloping wireless cities in China. As illustrated in Figure 2, the Internet penetration, as measured bythe total number of Internet users divided by total population, increased from less than 30% before 2005to over 70% in 2013. The number of Internet users through smartphones in Shanghai also increasedfrom 7.47 million to 12.6 million during 2009–2013, and its shares of Internet users rose from 63.8%to 78.5% [17,58]. On par with Beijing, Shanghai is currently one of the two Chinese cities with thehighest rates of Internet penetration. In fact, as early as the 1990s, Internet development was one of theitems that were prioritized in the agenda of Shanghai municipal government. The theme of the 2010Shanghai World Expo, “Better City, Better Life”, reiterated the importance of developing Shanghaiinto a wireless city. In 2011, the Shanghai Municipal Government issued “The Shanghai’s PromotionPlan for the Development of Smart City (2011–2013)”, which focused on the construction of wirelesscity. In collaboration with major corporations in the Chinese telecommunication industry, especiallyCMCC, one of the goals in the plan was to build a wireless broadband network that covers over 80%of the city, with the speed of Internet of 20 Mbps.

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Figure 2. Internet penetration in Shanghai, as compared to China and other centrally administrated 

municipalities; Source: China Internet Network Information Center, 2004–2013. 

4. Mapping Public Wi‐Fi Access in Shanghai 

This section comprehensively analyzes  the geographies of Wi‐Fi access  in Shanghai, with an 

emphasis on  those hotspots provided by  the Shanghai Municipality Government  through  the “i‐

Shanghai” project and those established by the CMCC. CMCC has contributed significantly to the 

wireless city development in Shanghai. In 2013, CMCC had established more than 6000 hotspots, and 

the majority of these Wi‐Fi hotspots are not free to access. The “i‐Shanghai” project was launched in 

2012, and by the end of 2013, 450 WLAN hotspots were deployed to provide free Wi‐Fi access to the 

public. As these WLAN hotspots are free to access, a lot of benefits have been brought to those who 

could not afford Internet access, although the free access could only last for 2 hours. 

Figure 3 describes different locations of CMCC and “i‐Shanghai” WLAN hotspots in Shanghai, 

indicated by the type of these WLAN hotspots. CMCC WLAN hotspots are more likely to be located 

in commercial districts and office buildings, which accounted for 26% and 31% of all CMCC hotspots, 

respectively, in 2013. In comparison with CMCC hotspots, the majority of hotspots provided by the 

“i‐Shanghai” project were placed in those areas associated with governmental and public services, 

especially places of interest, parks, exhibition and sports centers, and hospitals (Figure 3). 

Geographically, both CMCC and “i‐Shanghai” hotspots were concentrated in the areas within 

the outer Ring Road in Shanghai or 15 kilometer to the people’s square or the city center (Figure 1). 

In general, “i‐Shanghai” Wi‐Fi hotspots were more likely to locate close to the city center (Figure 4b), 

and the CMCC Wi‐Fi hotspots spread out more extensively to suburban districts. It should be noted 

that, in 2013, only eight out of 206 sub‐districts in Shanghai had no CMCC WLAN hotspots and most 

of  these  sub‐districts/towns were  located  in  outer  suburbs  like Chongming  Island,  Jinshan,  and 

Nanhui (Figure 4a). Regardless of CMCC or “i‐Shanghai” WLAN hotspots, a few sub‐districts/towns 

with a very small number of WLAN hotspots, say less than five, were located in the traditional city 

area of Shanghai characterized by geographical concentrations of work force communities and those 

neighborhoods in remote rural areas (Figure 4). 

Figure 2. Internet penetration in Shanghai, as compared to China and other centrally administratedmunicipalities; Source: China Internet Network Information Center, 2004–2013.

4. Mapping Public Wi-Fi Access in Shanghai

This section comprehensively analyzes the geographies of Wi-Fi access in Shanghai, withan emphasis on those hotspots provided by the Shanghai Municipality Government through the“i-Shanghai” project and those established by the CMCC. CMCC has contributed significantly to thewireless city development in Shanghai. In 2013, CMCC had established more than 6000 hotspots, andthe majority of these Wi-Fi hotspots are not free to access. The “i-Shanghai” project was launched in2012, and by the end of 2013, 450 WLAN hotspots were deployed to provide free Wi-Fi access to thepublic. As these WLAN hotspots are free to access, a lot of benefits have been brought to those whocould not afford Internet access, although the free access could only last for 2 hours.

Figure 3 describes different locations of CMCC and “i-Shanghai” WLAN hotspots in Shanghai,indicated by the type of these WLAN hotspots. CMCC WLAN hotspots are more likely to be locatedin commercial districts and office buildings, which accounted for 26% and 31% of all CMCC hotspots,respectively, in 2013. In comparison with CMCC hotspots, the majority of hotspots provided by the“i-Shanghai” project were placed in those areas associated with governmental and public services,especially places of interest, parks, exhibition and sports centers, and hospitals (Figure 3).

Geographically, both CMCC and “i-Shanghai” hotspots were concentrated in the areas withinthe outer Ring Road in Shanghai or 15 kilometer to the people’s square or the city center (Figure 1).In general, “i-Shanghai” Wi-Fi hotspots were more likely to locate close to the city center (Figure 4b),and the CMCC Wi-Fi hotspots spread out more extensively to suburban districts. It should be notedthat, in 2013, only eight out of 206 sub-districts in Shanghai had no CMCC WLAN hotspots andmost of these sub-districts/towns were located in outer suburbs like Chongming Island, Jinshan, andNanhui (Figure 4a). Regardless of CMCC or “i-Shanghai” WLAN hotspots, a few sub-districts/townswith a very small number of WLAN hotspots, say less than five, were located in the traditional cityarea of Shanghai characterized by geographical concentrations of work force communities and thoseneighborhoods in remote rural areas (Figure 4).

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(a)  (b) 

Figure 3. Types of CMCC and “i‐Shanghai” WLAN hotspots, 2013. Source: CMCC and “i‐Shanghai”. 

(a) CMCC; (b) “i‐Shanghai”. 

(a)  (b) 

Figure 4. Spatial Distribution of CMCC and “i‐Shanghai” WLAN hotspots, 2013. (a) CMCC; (b) “i‐

Shanghai”. 

Table  1  presents  the  top  ten  sub‐districts/towns with  the  largest  number  of CMCC  and  “i‐

Shanghai” WLAN hotspots. Some interesting findings emerge: first, in comparison with the list of “i‐

Shanghai” hotspots, more sub‐districts  in  the suburban areas were  found as  the  top ranking sub‐

district/towns with the largest number of CMCC WLAN hotspots. Seven out of the top‐ten ranking 

sub‐districts were in suburban areas, such as Fangsong in Songjiang district and Jiangchuan Road in 

Minhang district. Second, the total number of CMCC WLAN hotspots in most of the top‐ranking sub 

districts/towns were installed around a number of office buildings and higher education and R & D 

institutes, such as Xujiahui in Xuhui district and Zhangjiang in Pudong district. By contrast, the top 

two sub‐districts with the largest number of the “i‐Shanghai” hotspots, i.e., Lujiazui and Huapu, were 

located in the inner‐suburban area (ISA). Most of these places are important places of interest and 

locations where governmental buildings are concentrated. Overall, sub‐districts with agglomerations 

Figure 3. Types of CMCC and “i-Shanghai” WLAN hotspots, 2013. Source: CMCC and “i-Shanghai”.(a) CMCC; (b) “i-Shanghai”.

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(a)  (b) 

Figure 3. Types of CMCC and “i‐Shanghai” WLAN hotspots, 2013. Source: CMCC and “i‐Shanghai”. 

(a) CMCC; (b) “i‐Shanghai”. 

(a)  (b) 

Figure 4. Spatial Distribution of CMCC and “i‐Shanghai” WLAN hotspots, 2013. (a) CMCC; (b) “i‐

Shanghai”. 

Table  1  presents  the  top  ten  sub‐districts/towns with  the  largest  number  of CMCC  and  “i‐

Shanghai” WLAN hotspots. Some interesting findings emerge: first, in comparison with the list of “i‐

Shanghai” hotspots, more sub‐districts  in  the suburban areas were  found as  the  top ranking sub‐

district/towns with the largest number of CMCC WLAN hotspots. Seven out of the top‐ten ranking 

sub‐districts were in suburban areas, such as Fangsong in Songjiang district and Jiangchuan Road in 

Minhang district. Second, the total number of CMCC WLAN hotspots in most of the top‐ranking sub 

districts/towns were installed around a number of office buildings and higher education and R & D 

institutes, such as Xujiahui in Xuhui district and Zhangjiang in Pudong district. By contrast, the top 

two sub‐districts with the largest number of the “i‐Shanghai” hotspots, i.e., Lujiazui and Huapu, were 

located in the inner‐suburban area (ISA). Most of these places are important places of interest and 

locations where governmental buildings are concentrated. Overall, sub‐districts with agglomerations 

Figure 4. Spatial Distribution of CMCC and “i-Shanghai” WLAN hotspots, 2013. (a) CMCC;(b) “i-Shanghai”.

Table 1 presents the top ten sub-districts/towns with the largest number of CMCC and“i-Shanghai” WLAN hotspots. Some interesting findings emerge: first, in comparison with the listof “i-Shanghai” hotspots, more sub-districts in the suburban areas were found as the top rankingsub-district/towns with the largest number of CMCC WLAN hotspots. Seven out of the top-ten rankingsub-districts were in suburban areas, such as Fangsong in Songjiang district and Jiangchuan Road inMinhang district. Second, the total number of CMCC WLAN hotspots in most of the top-ranking subdistricts/towns were installed around a number of office buildings and higher education and R & Dinstitutes, such as Xujiahui in Xuhui district and Zhangjiang in Pudong district. By contrast, the toptwo sub-districts with the largest number of the “i-Shanghai” hotspots, i.e., Lujiazui and Huapu, werelocated in the inner-suburban area (ISA). Most of these places are important places of interest andlocations where governmental buildings are concentrated. Overall, sub-districts with agglomerationsof higher education institutes and R & D centers tend to have more CMCC WLAN hotspots, but

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the “i-Shanghai” hotspots tend to agglomerate in those landmarks in Shanghai, such as the Bund,Huangpu, and Lujiazui financial district, etc. (Table 1).

Table 1. Ranking of China Mobile Communications Corporation (CMCC) and “i-Shanghai” WLAN(wireless local area network) hotspots in Shanghai’s sub-districts/towns in 2013 (Top 10).

CMCC “i-Shanghai”

Rank Subdistrict Location N Rank Subdistrict Location N

1 Fangsong OSA 395 1 Lujiazui ISA 162 Nanqiao OSA 171 2 Huangpu ISA 153 Huamu ECCA 158 3 The Bund TCPA 114 Xiayang OSA 131 4 Chuansha ISA 105 Zhangjiang ISA 124 5 Nanqiao OSA 96 Jiangchuan ISA 123 - Huaihai Zhong Road TCPA 97 The Bund TCPA 120 7 Jiangsu Road ECCA 88 Xujiahui ECCA 113 - Ou-yang Road ECCA 89 Huinan ISA 102 - Youyi Road ISA 810 Zhelin OSA 100

10

East Nanjing Road TCPA 7Fenglin Road ECCA 7

Tianping Road ECCA 7Zhoujiadu ISA 7

TCPA = traditional city proper area; ECCA = expanded central city area; ISA = inner-suburban area; OSA =outer-suburban area.

In order to further explore the Wi-Fi geographies in Shanghai represented by the spatialdistribution of CMCC and “i-Shanghai” WLAN hotspots, concentric analysis based on a 5-km radiusinterval and ESDA methods were used, following Wang and Gu [52]. Results of concentric analysisdemonstrate that the share of CMCC WLAN hotspots within 5 kilometers from the city center (Figure 5),which is defined as the location of People’s Square, was less than 20%, while its counterpart underthe “i-Shanghai” project was over 35%. There were also nearly 40% of the CMCC hotspots located 20kilometers or further from the center (i.e., outer suburbs), whereas the share of “i-Shanghai” hotspotswas just above 25% in the same region (Figure 5).

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of higher education institutes and R & D centers tend to have more CMCC WLAN hotspots, but the 

“i‐Shanghai”  hotspots  tend  to  agglomerate  in  those  landmarks  in  Shanghai,  such  as  the  Bund, 

Huangpu, and Lujiazui financial district, etc. (Table 1). 

Table 1. Ranking of China Mobile Communications Corporation (CMCC) and “i‐Shanghai” WLAN 

(wireless local area network) hotspots in Shanghai’s sub‐districts/towns in 2013 (Top 10). 

CMCC  “i‐Shanghai” 

Rank  Subdistrict  Location N Rank Subdistrict Location  N 

1  Fangsong  OSA  395  1  Lujiazui  ISA  16 

2  Nanqiao  OSA  171  2  Huangpu  ISA  15 

3  Huamu  ECCA  158  3  The Bund  TCPA  11 

4  Xiayang  OSA  131  4  Chuansha  ISA  10 

5  Zhangjiang  ISA  124  5  Nanqiao  OSA  9 

6  Jiangchuan  ISA  123  ‐  Huaihai Zhong Road  TCPA  9 

7  The Bund  TCPA  120  7  Jiangsu Road  ECCA  8 

8  Xujiahui  ECCA  113  ‐  Ou‐yang Road  ECCA  8 

9  Huinan  ISA  102  ‐  Youyi Road  ISA  8 

10  Zhelin  OSA  100 

10 

East Nanjing Road  TCPA  7 

        Fenglin Road  ECCA  7 

        Tianping Road  ECCA  7 

        Zhoujiadu  ISA  7 

TCPA = traditional city proper area; ECCA = expanded central city area; ISA = inner‐suburban area; 

OSA = outer‐suburban area. 

In  order  to  further  explore  the Wi‐Fi  geographies  in  Shanghai  represented  by  the  spatial 

distribution of CMCC and “i‐Shanghai” WLAN hotspots, concentric analysis based on a 5‐km radius 

interval and ESDA methods were used, following Wang and Gu [52]. Results of concentric analysis 

demonstrate that the share of CMCC WLAN hotspots within 5 kilometers from the city center (Figure 

5), which is defined as the location of People’s Square, was less than 20%, while its counterpart under 

the “i‐Shanghai” project was over 35%. There were also nearly 40% of the CMCC hotspots located 20 

kilometers or further from the center (i.e., outer suburbs), whereas the share of “i‐Shanghai” hotspots 

was just above 25% in the same region (Figure 5). 

 

Figure 5. Spatial distribution of “i‐Shanghai” and CMCC hotspots based on concentric analysis. 

Spatial hot spot analysis (Getis‐Ord Gi*), which measures the spatial association of a variable 

and identifies the characteristics of patterns [59], was used to further detect the clusters of WLAN 

hotspots at the sub‐district/town level. This method detects the statistically significant spatial clusters 

of high values, or sub‐districts/towns with large number of hotspots in this study, and identifies them 

Figure 5. Spatial distribution of “i-Shanghai” and CMCC hotspots based on concentric analysis.

Spatial hot spot analysis (Getis-Ord Gi*), which measures the spatial association of a variable andidentifies the characteristics of patterns [59], was used to further detect the clusters of WLAN hotspotsat the sub-district/town level. This method detects the statistically significant spatial clusters of highvalues, or sub-districts/towns with large number of hotspots in this study, and identifies them as“hot spots”, and the statistically significant spatial clusters of low values, or sub-districts/towns with

Sustainability 2016, 8, 111 8 of 15

little number of hotspots, and identifies them as “cold spots”. The Getis-Ord Gi* statistic is widelyused in analyzing the distribution of geographically referenced data. The Gi* of each unit i could becalculated as:

G˚i “

řnj“1 wi,jxj ´ X

řnj“1 wi,j

S

g

f

f

f

e

„

nřn

j“1 w2i,j ´

´

řnj“1 wi,j

¯2

n ´ 1

; (1)

where xj is the number of hotspots in administrative unit j, wi,j is the spatial weight matrix, n is thenumber of administrative units, and S is the standard deviation of the observations. The results of hotspot analysis is essentially a z-score for each spatial unit, measuring the spatial clustering of high/lowvalues. A statistically significant (e.g., p < 0.05) positive z-score implies the presence of a hot spot.By contrast, a statistically significant (e.g., p < 0.05) negative z-score implies the presence of a coldspot [59,60].

As shown in Figure 6b, a typical “core-periphery” structure of WLAN hotspots was found withrespect to “i-Shanghai” Wi-Fi hotspots. The hot spots within the urban area (inside of the ShanghaiOuter Ring Expressway) constituted the core area, indicating the clustering of “i-Shanghai” WLANhotspots. These sub-districts/towns are mostly important commercial districts in Shanghai, suchas Xujiahui, the Bund, and Lujiazui financial district. In contrast to hot spots, the cold spots werelocated in remote suburban sub-districts/towns, favoring less developed districts, such as ChongmingIsland. In comparison with the spatial pattern of “i-Shanghai” hotspots, the spatial distribution ofCMCC Wi-Fi hotspots displayed a bi-center distribution. The downtown area (within five kilometersfrom the People’s Square) remained as the core area, and what is more interesting is that anothercore area has emerged in the suburbs to the southwestern part of Shanghai. The new core area iswhere new development zones and new higher education institutes are located, including SongjiangNew City, Qingpu New city, Jiangchuan subdistrict, and Nanqiao New Town. A lot of sub-districtsare characterized by geographical concentrations of higher education institutes such as SongjiangUniversity town in Songjiang New Town, Haiwan University town in Tuolin town, and Shanghai JiaoTong University and Shanghai University of Electric Power in Jiangchuan sub-district.

Sustainability 2016, 8, 111  8 of 15 

as “hot spots”, and the statistically significant spatial clusters of low values, or sub‐districts/towns 

with  little number of hotspots, and  identifies  them as “cold  spots”. The Getis‐Ord Gi*  statistic  is 

widely used in analyzing the distribution of geographically referenced data. The Gi* of each unit i 

could be calculated as: 

G∗∑ , ∑ ,

∑ , ∑ ,

1

; (1) 

where    is the number of hotspots in administrative unit j,  , is the spatial weight matrix, n is the 

number of administrative units, and S is the standard deviation of the observations. The results of 

hot  spot analysis  is essentially a  z‐score  for each  spatial unit, measuring  the  spatial  clustering of 

high/low values. A statistically significant (e.g., p < 0.05) positive z‐score implies the presence of a hot 

spot. By contrast, a statistically significant (e.g., p < 0.05) negative z‐score implies the presence of a 

cold spot [59,60]. 

As shown in Figure 6b, a typical “core‐periphery” structure of WLAN hotspots was found with 

respect to “i‐Shanghai” Wi‐Fi hotspots. The hot spots within the urban area (inside of the Shanghai 

Outer Ring Expressway) constituted the core area, indicating the clustering of “i‐Shanghai” WLAN 

hotspots. These sub‐districts/towns are mostly important commercial districts in Shanghai, such as 

Xujiahui, the Bund, and Lujiazui financial district. In contrast to hot spots, the cold spots were located 

in remote suburban sub‐districts/towns, favoring less developed districts, such as Chongming Island. 

In comparison with the spatial pattern of “i‐Shanghai” hotspots, the spatial distribution of CMCC 

Wi‐Fi hotspots displayed a bi‐center distribution. The downtown area (within five kilometers from 

the People’s Square) remained as the core area, and what is more interesting is that another core area 

has emerged in the suburbs to the southwestern part of Shanghai. The new core area is where new 

development zones and new higher education institutes are located, including Songjiang New City, 

Qingpu  New  city,  Jiangchuan  subdistrict,  and  Nanqiao  New  Town.  A  lot  of  sub‐districts  are 

characterized  by  geographical  concentrations  of  higher  education  institutes  such  as  Songjiang 

University town in Songjiang New Town, Haiwan University town in Tuolin town, and Shanghai 

Jiao Tong University and Shanghai University of Electric Power in Jiangchuan sub‐district. 

(a)  (b) 

Figure 6. Hotspot analysis of CMCC and “i-Shanghai” hotspots in Shanghai, 2013. (a) CMCC;(b) “i-Shanghai”.

Sustainability 2016, 8, 111 9 of 15

In comparison with the spatial layout of “i-Shanghai” hotspots, CMCC tends to be more proactivein deploying WLAN hotspots. As shown in Figure 6a, the bi-center distribution of hot spotsof CMCC Wi-Fi hotspots is greatly driven by a rapid process of suburbanization in Shanghai inrecent years [61,62]. In this process, large-scale industrial enterprises extend to suburban areas first,followed by the growth of population and new housing development [63]. In addition, given theskyrocketing land price and restricted land supply in the downtown area, many business institutionsand government agencies have recently moved to the suburbs in Shanghai. As a result, the rapidpopulation growth and increased demand for Wi-Fi access have prompted CMCC to develop newcyber infrastructure like WLAN hotspots in these sub-districts (Figure 6a).

5. Micro-Scale Analysis of Three Sub-Districts

The mapping above has revealed the spatial distribution of WLAN hotspots or public Wi-Fiaccess in Shanghai. Contrasting Wi-Fi geographies shaped by CMCC and “i-Shanghai” WLANhotspots were found, which highlight the proactive role of telecommunication operators in Shanghai’swireless city development. The findings motivate the concern regarding how key stakeholders, suchas government, telecommunication operators, and communities, can play a role in Shanghai’s wirelesscity development. The following section will focus on three specific sub-districts, including NanqiaoNew Town, Songjiang University Town, and Pengpu Xincun, given their unique features regardingthe wireless development at the community level (Figure 7).

Sustainability 2016, 8, 111  9 of 15 

Figure 6. Hotspot analysis of CMCC and “i‐Shanghai” hotspots in Shanghai, 2013. (a) CMCC; (b) “i‐

Shanghai”. 

In  comparison with  the  spatial  layout  of  “i‐Shanghai”  hotspots,  CMCC  tends  to  be more 

proactive in deploying WLAN hotspots. As shown in Figure 6a, the bi‐center distribution of hot spots 

of CMCC Wi‐Fi hotspots is greatly driven by a rapid process of suburbanization in Shanghai in recent 

years  [61,62].  In  this  process,  large‐scale  industrial  enterprises  extend  to  suburban  areas  first, 

followed by  the growth of population and new housing development  [63].  In addition, given  the 

skyrocketing land price and restricted land supply in the downtown area, many business institutions 

and government agencies have recently moved  to  the suburbs  in Shanghai. As a result,  the rapid 

population growth and increased demand for Wi‐Fi access have prompted CMCC to develop new 

cyber infrastructure like WLAN hotspots in these sub‐districts (Figure 6a). 

5. Micro‐Scale Analysis of Three Sub‐Districts 

The mapping above has  revealed  the spatial distribution of WLAN hotspots or public Wi‐Fi 

access  in  Shanghai.  Contrasting Wi‐Fi  geographies  shaped  by  CMCC  and  “i‐Shanghai” WLAN 

hotspots  were  found,  which  highlight  the  proactive  role  of  telecommunication  operators  in 

Shanghai’s  wireless  city  development.  The  findings  motivate  the  concern  regarding  how  key 

stakeholders, such as government, telecommunication operators, and communities, can play a role 

in  Shanghai’s wireless  city development. The  following  section will  focus  on  three  specific  sub‐

districts, including Nanqiao New Town, Songjiang University Town, and Pengpu Xincun, given their 

unique features regarding the wireless development at the community level (Figure 7). 

 

Figure 7. Locations of case studies. 

5.1. Nanqiao New Town 

Nanqiao  is  one  of  the  top‐ten  ranking  sub‐districts  that  has  experienced  a  rapid wireless 

development driven by the deployment of both CMCC and “i‐Shanghai” WLAN hotspots (Table 1). 

In 2013, the number of CMCC hotspots increased to approximately 170, ranking as the second largest 

one in Shanghai. As shown in Figure 8a, there have been five clusters of CMCC hotspots: 1. Fengpu 

Commercial  Street,  especially  those within  the  Fengpu Mansion, which  is  a  commercial  office 

building; 2. Bailian  shopping mall; 3.  the historical community  (old  town); 4. Government of  the 

Figure 7. Locations of case studies.

5.1. Nanqiao New Town

Nanqiao is one of the top-ten ranking sub-districts that has experienced a rapid wirelessdevelopment driven by the deployment of both CMCC and “i-Shanghai” WLAN hotspots (Table 1).In 2013, the number of CMCC hotspots increased to approximately 170, ranking as the second largestone in Shanghai. As shown in Figure 8a, there have been five clusters of CMCC hotspots: 1. FengpuCommercial Street, especially those within the Fengpu Mansion, which is a commercial office building;2. Bailian shopping mall; 3. the historical community (old town); 4. Government of the FengxianDistrict; 5. Nanqiao Township Government. In contrast to the spatial layout of CMCC WLAN hotspots,

Sustainability 2016, 8, 111 10 of 15

the distribution of public Wi-Fi access provided by “i-Shanghai” was centered on government agencies,including the Fengxian District Conference Center and Nanqiao Township Government, and theywere also located around large-scale businesses companies or the Shopping malls, namely RT-MARTand LOTUS (Figure 8b).

Sustainability 2016, 8, 111  10 of 15 

Fengxian District;  5. Nanqiao Township Government.  In  contrast  to  the  spatial  layout of CMCC 

WLAN hotspots, the distribution of public Wi‐Fi access provided by “i‐Shanghai” was centered on 

government agencies,  including  the Fengxian District Conference Center and Nanqiao Township 

Government, and they were also located around large‐scale businesses companies or the Shopping 

malls, namely RT‐MART and LOTUS (Figure 8b). 

 (a)  (b) 

Figure 8. Spatial distribution of CMCC and “i‐Shanghai” hotspots in Nanqiao New Town, 2013. (a) 

CMCC; (b) “i‐Shanghai”. 

In the case of Nanqiao, the government policy and urban planning have played an important 

role in the expansion of public wireless access. Nanqiao New Town is the political, economic, and 

cultural center  in Fengxian district of Shanghai, and it  is also planned to be a core area providing 

comprehensive services for the north coast of Hangzhou Bay. As one of the three major new towns 

in Shanghai, the development of Nanqiao was emphasized in Shanghai’s 12th Five‐Year Plan [64]. 

Based  on  its  development  plan,  new  ICTs  or wireless  technologies were  the  key  instrument  to 

integrate various functions within this sub‐district. These government investments aimed to provide 

wireless access  especially  in  the  eastern part of  the Nanqiao New Town  (Figure  8b).  It was also 

designed  to provide  favorable development conditions  for enterprises and high quality  living  for 

residents,  and  to  promote  a more  competitive  local  business  environment, with  great  potential 

demand for Internet access. 

5.2. Songjiang University Town 

Fangsong sub‐district in Songjiang is another typical case in terms of wireless development. In 

comparison with Nanqiao New Town, Fangsong sub‐district has achieved a rapid growth of CMCC 

WLAN  hotspots.  There  have  been  395 CMCC  hotspots  in  this  area whereas  the  number  of  “i‐

Shanghai” hotspots was four at the end of 2013. These hotspots have provided public Wi‐Fi access to 

thousands of people especially college students. Different from Nanqiao, the wireless development 

was  heavily driven  by  the  establishment  of  Songjiang University Town. Among  the  395 CMCC 

WLAN hotspots  in 2013, about 320 were  located within Songjiang University Town.  In  this  sub‐

district,  there  are  a  large  number  of  college  students  and  faculty  in  the  seven  higher  education 

Figure 8. Spatial distribution of CMCC and “i-Shanghai” hotspots in Nanqiao New Town, 2013.(a) CMCC; (b) “i-Shanghai”.

In the case of Nanqiao, the government policy and urban planning have played an importantrole in the expansion of public wireless access. Nanqiao New Town is the political, economic, andcultural center in Fengxian district of Shanghai, and it is also planned to be a core area providingcomprehensive services for the north coast of Hangzhou Bay. As one of the three major new townsin Shanghai, the development of Nanqiao was emphasized in Shanghai’s 12th Five-Year Plan [64].Based on its development plan, new ICTs or wireless technologies were the key instrument to integratevarious functions within this sub-district. These government investments aimed to provide wirelessaccess especially in the eastern part of the Nanqiao New Town (Figure 8b). It was also designedto provide favorable development conditions for enterprises and high quality living for residents,and to promote a more competitive local business environment, with great potential demand forInternet access.

5.2. Songjiang University Town

Fangsong sub-district in Songjiang is another typical case in terms of wireless development.In comparison with Nanqiao New Town, Fangsong sub-district has achieved a rapid growth of CMCCWLAN hotspots. There have been 395 CMCC hotspots in this area whereas the number of “i-Shanghai”hotspots was four at the end of 2013. These hotspots have provided public Wi-Fi access to thousandsof people especially college students. Different from Nanqiao, the wireless development was heavilydriven by the establishment of Songjiang University Town. Among the 395 CMCC WLAN hotspotsin 2013, about 320 were located within Songjiang University Town. In this sub-district, there are a large

Sustainability 2016, 8, 111 11 of 15

number of college students and faculty in the seven higher education institutions, including ShanghaiInternational Studies University, University of International Business and Economics, Shanghai LixinUniversity of Commerce, Donghua University, East China University of Political Science and Law, andShanghai University of Engineering Science. The case of Songjiang University Town marks a moreproactive role of telecommunication company, i.e., CMCC, in recent wireless development in Shanghai,by particularly tracing the new demand from college students in university towns [65].

5.3. Pengpu Xincun Sub-District

Pengpu Xincun sub-district serves as a case where specific communities have been overlookedin the course of wireless city development in Shanghai. As shown in Figure 7, Pengpu is locatedin the downtown area. However, there has been very limited public Wi-Fi access either throughCMCC WLAN hotspots or the Wi-Fi access provided by the “i-Shanghai” project. In 2013, only fiveCMCC WLAN hotspots, as compared to over one hundred CMCC WLAN hotspots in other nearbysub-districts in the downtown of Shanghai. Similarly, there was even no “i-Shanghai” WLAN hotspotlocated in this sub-district. The lagging development of wireless access in Pengpu has its own historicalbackground. The dwelling houses in the sub-district were built for low-paid workers in previousstate owned enterprises. Like other shanty towns in Asian cities [66], most buildings in Pengpu werecharacterized by old and small living spaces, even though the residential population in Pengpu wasrelatively large, about 160,000 residents in 2013. The development of Pengpu community has sloweddown in recent years because of the limited space, and the unfavorable socio-economic conditions inthe community have resulted in the backward wireless development in these areas. In short, the caseof Pengpu reflects that even though the WLAN hotspots have been widely built up due to the effortsmade by either telecommunication companies or the government, there have been many new “blindspots” in Shanghai’s communities where the gap between information haves and have-nots is stillevident [67].

6. Policy Implications

Our mapping of public Wi-Fi access in Shanghai has important policy implications in developingwireless cities and addressing the digital divide issue in the context of China. First, as shown in thisstudy, the planning in China is more focused on physical dimensions and deemphasizes issues relatedto social equity [68], as illustrated by the digital disparities at the community and neighborhood levelsin this study. More efforts should be made to address the social dimension of wireless city developmentin Shanghai and other Chinese cities. Second, Chinese cities are transitional cities. Local governmentsand market forces are collectively shaping the Wi-Fi geographies especially through the establishmentof new development zones and towns in their suburban areas [69]. Hence, how to develop a mutuallybeneficial collaborative relationship between the government and market participants should beunderscored in the future infrastructure planning. Third, although the study has been focused onthe spatial distribution of public Wi-Fi access in Shanghai, the development of wireless cities shouldaddress not only the construction of hardware facilities, but also the education and supporting systemthat improves access to the Internet. Therefore, not only the quantity of wireless access, but also thequality of public access to the digital world, deserves attention from policy makers.

7. Conclusions

Wireless technologies play an increasingly critical element in the Chinese urban and infrastructuredevelopments. Local governments and major network operators have increasingly embraced thenotion of wireless city, as the access to Internet through public Wi-Fi has become an integral part of acity’s economic competitiveness [70,71]. This research traces the recent wireless city development inShanghai using data gathered from both the government and the telecommunication providers andseveral interesting findings are uncovered. First, a substantial amount of public Wi-Fi facilities hasbeen deployed and built up, shaping Wi-Fi geographies in Shanghai at multiple spatial scales [69], and

Sustainability 2016, 8, 111 12 of 15

a mix of market participants and governmental agencies has been involved in the process of wirelesscity development in Shanghai. Second, by mapping public Wi-Fi at both district and sub-districtlevels, we find that both local governments and major telecommunication companies, such as CMCC,have significantly contributed to the widespread Wi-Fi access to the Internet in Shanghai. Resultsalso suggest that telecommunication companies, such as CMCC, have played a more proactive role inthe deployment of WLAN hotspots. These findings are similar to the recent wireless developmentin other cities in Asia, such as Singapore and Taipei [5], while the results also pinpoint the uniquecharacteristics of the Chinese government in the pursuit of wireless city development under rapidurban growth and economic transition. As shown in our micro-scale analysis, Naoqiao New Town, as amajor new business community in Shanghai, has fueled the new wireless development by having bothgovernmental agencies and large-size business corporations involved. Songjiang University Townpresents a typical case that telecommunication operators, such as CMCC, have played a proactiverole in shaping Wi-Fi geographies. In contrast, Pengpu Xingchu has exhibited a sluggish wirelessdevelopment despite its advantageous location in the central area of Shanghai. Third, from theperspective of social inequalities and sustainability, despite the rapid expansion of both CMCC and“i-Shanghai” WLAN hotspots, the digital divide is still evident especially at the community level.Deployment of WLAN hotspots is obviously biased towards business centers and university campusesas well as their surrounding areas in Shanghai. Public Wi-Fi access was rarely found in poor residentialareas in the inner city and remote rural areas of Shanghai. This polarized structure indicates that theproblem of digital divide is far from being solved while new digital divide has been created, imposingprofound challenges for making Shanghai a sustainable wireless city in the future. Finally, althoughwe have mapped the public Wi-Fi access in Shanghai, studies of digital divide are also promising froma user or customer’s perspective, especially when this type of data becomes available. In addition, asChina is a country characterized by its huge size and regional differentials, more research is needed tocompare the development of wireless cities in different geographical regions or across urban hierarchyin China [72].

Acknowledgments: The authors would like to acknowledge the funding of the National Natural ScienceFoundation of China (41371175, 41329001), and the Ford Foundation (0155-0883). This study was also supportedby the Key Project of Key Research Institute of Humanities and Social Sciences at Universities (13JJD840010)funded by the Ministry of Education of China. Felix Liao would like to acknowledge partial support from theIdaho EPSCoR (Experimental Program to Stimulate Competitive Research) Program and by the National ScienceFoundation under award number IIA-1301792.

Author Contributions: Mingfeng Wang, Felix Liao, Juan Lin, and Chengcheng Gu collected and analyzed thedata. Felix Liao, Mingfeng Wang, and Li Huang wrote the manuscript. Dennis Wei edited and revised the paper.All authors read and approved the manuscript.

Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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