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![Page 1: The Living Cell Lecture 11 UNIV301 – Great Ideas of Science Great Idea: Life is based on chemistry, and chemistry takes place in cells.](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022062804/56649e565503460f94b4dfc5/html5/thumbnails/1.jpg)
The Living CellThe Living Cell
Lecture 11Lecture 11
UNIV301 – Great Ideas of ScienceUNIV301 – Great Ideas of Science
Great Idea: Life is based on chemistry, and chemistry takes place
in cells
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CellsCells All living things are made of cells, which All living things are made of cells, which
are like chemical factoriesare like chemical factories Every cell has an Every cell has an ““insideinside”” and an outside, and an outside,
separated by a cell membraneseparated by a cell membrane Every cell uses raw materials and energy to Every cell uses raw materials and energy to
produce new chemicalsproduce new chemicals Every cell must contain information on how Every cell must contain information on how
to operate and how to make new cellsto operate and how to make new cells
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Observing Cells: Observing Cells: The MicroscopeThe Microscope
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Observing Cells: Observing Cells: The MicroscopeThe Microscope
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The Cell TheoryThe Cell Theory Robert Hooke (1635-1702)Robert Hooke (1635-1702)
Cells are like small Cells are like small compartmentscompartments
Matthais Scheiden – plants, 1838Matthais Scheiden – plants, 1838 Theodor Schwann – animals, 1839Theodor Schwann – animals, 1839
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The Cell Theory, 1839The Cell Theory, 1839 All living things are composed of cellsAll living things are composed of cells The cell is the fundamental unit of lifeThe cell is the fundamental unit of life All cells arise from previous cellsAll cells arise from previous cells
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Two Kinds of CellsTwo Kinds of Cells
Prokaryotes (Prokaryotes (““before nucleusbefore nucleus””))
Eukaryotes (Eukaryotes (““true nucleustrue nucleus””))
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Cellular Cellular ArchitectureArchitecture OrganelleOrganelle: Any specialized cell structure: Any specialized cell structure
Cell membrane Cell membrane ((cell wall cell wall in plants)in plants) NucleusNucleus MitochondriaMitochondria and and chloroplastschloroplasts (power plants) (power plants)
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Plant CellsPlant Cells
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Animal CellsAnimal Cells
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LipidsLipids
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Cell MembranesCell Membranes Cell MembranesCell Membranes
Isolate the cellIsolate the cell Separate cell partsSeparate cell parts
TransportTransport Individual moleculesIndividual molecules Channels for specific Channels for specific
materialsmaterials ReceptorsReceptors
Bind moleculesBind molecules EncapsulateEncapsulate
Cell Wall (plants) Cell Wall (plants)
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The NucleusThe Nucleus NucleusNucleus
Contains DNAContains DNA ProkaryotesProkaryotes
No nucleusNo nucleus EukaryotesEukaryotes
Nucleus Nucleus The nucleus has a double membrane. The nucleus has a double membrane.
Why?Why?
Nucleus
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CytoskeletonCytoskeleton
CytoskeletonCytoskeleton Gives cell shapeGives cell shape AnchorsAnchors Allows movementAllows movement Transport systemTransport system within cellwithin cell
StructureStructure Strong filamentsStrong filaments Complex webComplex web
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How Is Energy Obtained?How Is Energy Obtained?Plants – make sugar in the presence of the Plants – make sugar in the presence of the
Sun by the process of Sun by the process of photosynthesisphotosynthesis
Energy (light) + COEnergy (light) + CO22 + H + H22O O Glucose + O Glucose + O22
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Carbohydrates (sugars)Carbohydrates (sugars)
Carbon
Hydrogen
Oxygen
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Cellulose and StarchCellulose and Starch
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How Is Energy Obtained?How Is Energy Obtained? Plants and animals convert sugar Plants and animals convert sugar
into small energy-rich molecules into small energy-rich molecules by the process of by the process of glycolysisglycolysis..
Glucose Glucose 2 Pyruvic Acids + ATP 2 Pyruvic Acids + ATP
ATP ATP ADP + PO ADP + PO44 + energy + energy
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ATP: The CellATP: The Cell’’s Energy s Energy CurrencyCurrency
Adenosine triphosphate (ATP)Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) Provides energy Provides energy
StructureStructure 3 phosphate groups3 phosphate groups Sugar molecule: riboseSugar molecule: ribose adenineadenine
FunctionFunction Removal of phosphate group provides energyRemoval of phosphate group provides energy
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How Is Energy Obtained?How Is Energy Obtained?
Some animals obtain Some animals obtain energy by the process of energy by the process of
respirationrespiration::
Glucose + OGlucose + O22
Energy + COEnergy + CO22 + H + H22O O
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The Final Stages of The Final Stages of RespirationRespiration
Glucose is broken downGlucose is broken down COCO22 is produced is produced
ATP is produced to serve as ATP is produced to serve as energy-carrying moleculesenergy-carrying molecules
Result: 36-38 ATPResult: 36-38 ATP
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How Is Energy Obtained?How Is Energy Obtained?
Many organisms obtain Many organisms obtain additional energy from additional energy from
pyruvic acid by the pyruvic acid by the process of process of fermentationfermentation::
Pyruvic Acid Pyruvic Acid
small molecules + ATPsmall molecules + ATP
Vinegar, alcohol, carbonic acidVinegar, alcohol, carbonic acid
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The Energy Organelles: The Energy Organelles: Chloroplasts and Chloroplasts and MitochondriaMitochondria
ChloroplastsChloroplasts Plant cells onlyPlant cells only Energy transformationEnergy transformation
chlorophyllchlorophyll
Double membraneDouble membrane
MitochondriaMitochondria Plants and AnimalsPlants and Animals Produces the cellProduces the cell’’s ATPs ATP Double membraneDouble membrane Has its own DNAHas its own DNA
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MitochondriaMitochondriaWhere ATP is manufacturedWhere ATP is manufactured
Mitochondria (mtDNA) = maternally inheritedMitochondria (mtDNA) = maternally inheritedUnaltered from your motherUnaltered from your mother
Genetic material from common ancestorGenetic material from common ancestorGenetic anthropologyGenetic anthropology
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Genetics: The Genetic Genetics: The Genetic CodeCode
KEY IDEA: All living things share the KEY IDEA: All living things share the same genetic codesame genetic code
Classical genetics – the observation Classical genetics – the observation of organismsof organisms
Cellular genetics – the observation of Cellular genetics – the observation of cell division and chromosomescell division and chromosomes
Molecular genetics – the study of DNA Molecular genetics – the study of DNA and RNAand RNA
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Two great mysteries of lifeTwo great mysteries of life
1.1. Like begets likeLike begets like
2.2. You begin life as a single cellYou begin life as a single cell
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Three Stages Three Stages of Genetics Researchof Genetics Research
1. Classical Genetics1. Classical Genetics
2. Cellular Genetics2. Cellular Genetics
3. Molecular Genetics3. Molecular Genetics
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Gregor Mendel (1822-1884)Gregor Mendel (1822-1884) Pea plant – breeding experimentsPea plant – breeding experiments
Two-characteristic variationsTwo-characteristic variations Established pure-breeding stocksEstablished pure-breeding stocks Studied cross breeding Studied cross breeding
OffspringOffspring’’s traits are derived s traits are derived
from parentsfrom parents
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Classical GeneticsClassical Genetics
Gregor MendelGregor Mendel’’s Lawss Laws Pea plant experimentsPea plant experiments PurebredPurebred HybridHybrid
ResultsResults First generation all hybrid tallFirst generation all hybrid tall
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If you cross a pure bred tall pea plant If you cross a pure bred tall pea plant with a pure bred short pea plant, all with a pure bred short pea plant, all offspring are tall.offspring are tall.
T T
t tT tT
t tT tT
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Classical GeneticsClassical Genetics
Gregor MendelGregor Mendel’’s Lawss Laws Pea plant experimentsPea plant experiments PurebredPurebred HybridHybrid
ResultsResults First generation all hybrid tall.First generation all hybrid tall. Cross breed those hybrids.Cross breed those hybrids. Second generation is ¾ tall Second generation is ¾ tall
and ¼ short!and ¼ short!
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If you cross two hybrid pea plants, If you cross two hybrid pea plants, ¾ will be tall and ¼ will be short.¾ will be tall and ¼ will be short.
T t
T TT Tt
t tT tt
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Classical GeneticsClassical GeneticsMendel LawsMendel Laws
1.1.Genes exist (Genes exist (““atoms of inheritanceatoms of inheritance””))
2.2.Each parent contributes half.Each parent contributes half.
3.3.Some are dominant and some are Some are dominant and some are recessive.recessive.
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If you cross a pure bred tall pea plant If you cross a pure bred tall pea plant with a hybrid pea plant, what would the with a hybrid pea plant, what would the first generation of offspring look like?first generation of offspring look like?
T T
T TT TT
t tT tT
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Gregor MendelGregor Mendel’’s s Three Laws of HeredityThree Laws of Heredity
1.1. There exist There exist ““atoms of inheritanceatoms of inheritance”” or genesor genes
2.2. Each parent contributes halfEach parent contributes half
3.3. Some genes are dominant, others Some genes are dominant, others are recessiveare recessive
4.4. Genes are expressed independently Genes are expressed independently of each other (WRONG)of each other (WRONG)
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Cellular GeneticsCellular Genetics
Use microscope to observe cells dividingUse microscope to observe cells dividing ChromosomesChromosomes – elongated colored objects – elongated colored objects
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Cellular GeneticsCellular Genetics
Use microscope to observe cells dividingUse microscope to observe cells dividing ChromosomesChromosomes – elongated colored object – elongated colored object MitosisMitosis (one cell becomes two) (one cell becomes two)
Most cellular division in your bodyMost cellular division in your body
Humans 23 pairs (before division 46 pairs)Humans 23 pairs (before division 46 pairs) 2 daughter cells same as parent2 daughter cells same as parent
MeiosisMeiosis (one becomes 4 gametes) (one becomes 4 gametes) Crossing-Over (reshuffle = end of meiosis)Crossing-Over (reshuffle = end of meiosis) Recombination yields different mix of genesRecombination yields different mix of genes
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MitosisMitosis Mitosis is cell divisionMitosis is cell division
(Not sexual reproduction)(Not sexual reproduction) Observe chromosomesObserve chromosomes Multi-step ProcessMulti-step Process
1. Copy chromosomes1. Copy chromosomes2. Spindle fibers2. Spindle fibers3. Migration of chromosomes3. Migration of chromosomes4. Nuclear membrane reforms4. Nuclear membrane reforms
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MitosisMitosis
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MeiosisMeiosisMeiosis is sMeiosis is sexual reproductionexual reproduction
1 cell forms 4 gametes1 cell forms 4 gametesGametes are genetically uniqueGametes are genetically unique
Multi-step processMulti-step process1. Copy chromosomes1. Copy chromosomes2. Crossing over2. Crossing over
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MeiosisMeiosisMeiosis is sMeiosis is sexual reproductionexual reproduction
1 cell forms 4 gametes1 cell forms 4 gametesGametes are genetically uniqueGametes are genetically unique
Multi-step processMulti-step process1. Copy chromosomes1. Copy chromosomes2. Crossing over2. Crossing over3. Segregation3. Segregation4. Segregation again4. Segregation again
Result: Result: 4 daughter cells, each 4 daughter cells, each with ½ normal number of with ½ normal number of chromosomes. Each chromosomes. Each chromosome is unique!chromosome is unique!
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Molecular GeneticsMolecular Genetics
What chemical carries the genetic What chemical carries the genetic message?message?
How is that molecular message How is that molecular message translated into the chemicals of translated into the chemicals of life?life?
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The Discovery of DNAThe Discovery of DNA
Oswald Avery (1877-1955)Oswald Avery (1877-1955)
DNA is composed of deoxyribose (5-DNA is composed of deoxyribose (5-carbon sugar), phosphate, and one of carbon sugar), phosphate, and one of four bases (ATGC).four bases (ATGC).
A = T; G = CA = T; G = C
Sugar=Phosphate=Base (1:1:1 ratio)Sugar=Phosphate=Base (1:1:1 ratio)
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Nucleotides: The Building Nucleotides: The Building Blocks of Nucleic AcidsBlocks of Nucleic Acids
Nucleotides are madeNucleotides are madeof three moleculesof three molecules
1. Sugar1. SugarDNA: deoxyriboseDNA: deoxyriboseRNA: riboseRNA: ribose
2. Phosphate ion2. Phosphate ion3. Base 3. Base
Adenine (A)Adenine (A)Guanine (G)Guanine (G)Cytosine (C)Cytosine (C)Thymine (T) Thymine (T)
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DNADNA’’s Double Helixs Double Helix
Nucleotide: Building blocks in nucleic acids
(A phosphate linked to a sugar linked to a base)
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DNA StructureDNA Structure Join nucleotides by Join nucleotides by
alternating phosphate alternating phosphate and sugarand sugar
DNADNA 2 strands of nucleotides2 strands of nucleotides Joined by base pairsJoined by base pairs
Bonding patternBonding pattern Adenine:ThymineAdenine:Thymine Cytosine:GuanineCytosine:Guanine
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DNA Base PairingDNA Base Pairing
Adenine:ThymineAdenine:Thymine
Cytosine:GuanineCytosine:Guanine
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The Replication of DNAThe Replication of DNA
DNA replication occurs DNA replication occurs before mitosis & meiosisbefore mitosis & meiosis
ProcessProcess1. DNA double helix splits1. DNA double helix splits2. New bases bond to 2. New bases bond to
exposed basesexposed bases3. Results in two identical 3. Results in two identical
DNA strandsDNA strands
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Proteins – EnzymesProteins – Enzymes
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Amino AcidsAmino Acids
Amino groupAmino group Carboxyl groupCarboxyl group Side-group (20 Side-group (20
different things)different things)
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Protein – sequence of Protein – sequence of amino acidsamino acids
Primary – chain of Primary – chain of amino acidsamino acids
Secondary – folding of Secondary – folding of chainchain
TertiaryTertiary QuaternaryQuaternary
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How Does DNA Make Protein?How Does DNA Make Protein?
1. 1. ChromosomesChromosomes (DNA) carry the (DNA) carry the genetic messagegenetic message
2. 2. Messenger RNA Messenger RNA copies the genetic copies the genetic messagemessage
3. 3. Transfer RNA Transfer RNA holds an amino acidholds an amino acid
4. 4. Ribosomal RNA Ribosomal RNA assembles a proteinassembles a protein
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RNA StructureRNA Structure
1. Single strand of 1. Single strand of nucleotidesnucleotides
2. The sugar is ribose2. The sugar is ribose
3. Thymine is replaced 3. Thymine is replaced by uracil (U), which by uracil (U), which bonds with adeninebonds with adenine
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DNA to ProteinsDNA to Proteins Protein pulls apart DNA Protein pulls apart DNA Make one Messenger RNA (mRNA) Make one Messenger RNA (mRNA)
Single stranded molecule carries one geneSingle stranded molecule carries one gene 64 combinations of bases64 combinations of bases
Codons (3 DNA letters) copied to mRNA Codons (3 DNA letters) copied to mRNA Transfer RNA (tRNA)Transfer RNA (tRNA)
Codon at top matches to mRNA codon Codon at top matches to mRNA codon Associated Amino Acid attachedAssociated Amino Acid attached
Ribosomes Ribosomes Machine that makes proteinsMachine that makes proteins Two units (small & large) – reads mRNATwo units (small & large) – reads mRNA Attaches amino acids from tRNA (creates a protein)Attaches amino acids from tRNA (creates a protein)
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From DNA to ProteinFrom DNA to Protein1.1. Transcription: Use DNA to make mRNA Transcription: Use DNA to make mRNA
2.2. Attach mRNA to ribosomeAttach mRNA to ribosome
3.3. Translation: RNA to amino acidsTranslation: RNA to amino acids
4.4. Fold amino acids into proteinFold amino acids into protein