The Learning Environment

The Nature of SkillAll skills can be grouped according to their

observable characteristics. They are commonly classified as open or closed; gross motor or fine motor; discrete, serial or continuous; and self-paced or externally paced. Most skills can fit a

number of classifications.

Open and Closed Skills

• Open skills occur in an environment that is unpredictable and frequently changing. Factors such as changing weather, a player-affected surface or even the use of unconventional tactics in a team game can lead to uncertainty about how to perform a skill. As an outcome, players need to modify their techniques to adapt to the conditions. Open skills can be difficult for learners, due to a lack of knowledge and experience, and cause distraction and indecision.

• Closed skills occur in an environment that is stable and predictable. A consistent environment is much more conductive to skill learning because the learner is not distracted. Closed skills can be planned well in advance or can be made to fit the setting. An example of a closed skill is delivering the ball in tenpin bowling, as the environment (bowling lane, pin placements and weather conditions) is the same each time.

Activity:Place the following skills at the positions you feel are appropriate on the continuum:• Surfing• Weight-lifting • Indoor trampolining • Indoor sports e.g. netball or squash

Gross Motor and Fine Motor Skills

• Gross motor skills require the use of large muscle groups for execution, and are commonly found in team games and recreational activities. Examples are running, tackling, surfing and bushwalking.

• Fine motor skills are found in activities that require finesse and limited movement (small muscle groups). Examples in sport include catching in cricket, playing darts and putting in golf.

Activity:Do the following activities involve gross or fine motor skills?• Archery• Swimming • Juggling• Throwing• Goal shooting in netball

Discrete, Serial and Continuous Skills

• Discrete skills have a distinctive beginning and end that can be identified, for example a forward roll, which begins with the placement of hands on a mat and finishes back on the feet after the roll.

• Serial skills involve a sequence of smaller movements that are assembled to make a total skill. An example is placing a kick in football, where a number of discrete skills (placing the ball, moving back, then forward, kicking the ball, following through) are combined to form a larger movement and skill.

• Continuous skills have no beginning or end, they are repetitive and appear ongoing within a given period. Examples include jogging, rowing and swimming, all which have an unspecified length.

Activity:Do the following activities involve discrete, serial or continuous skills?• Canoeing• Trail-bike riding• Sailing• Vault in gymnastics• Throwing a javelin• Passing a basketball• Performing a lay-up in basketball

Self-paced and Externally-paced Skills

• Self-paced skills are movements for which the performer determines the timing and speed of execution, for example serving a tennis ball and kicking a ball at training.

• Externally paced skills are movements for which an external source controls the timing, such as dancing and rhythmic gymnastics.

Activity:1) Identify three self-paced and three externally-

paced skills2) Explain why your selections fit these

classifications

Performance ElementsPerformance elements, such as decision making

and strategic and tactical development, are often overshadowed by a focus on teaching and developing skill fundamentals. This sometimes leads to a proficiency in practice sessions, but a

lack of knowledge, confidence and decision making skills necessary to respond in game

situations.

Game-Centred Approach

• Aims to focus on the whole game and all components, rather than a sequence of basic skills assembled within a game format. The emphasis is on integrating thinking and learning rather than skill development in isolation.

Decision Making

• Best improved by having to make decisions in a performance-like situation. Needs to be practiced within the framework of the rules, playing conditions, team strategies and opposition tactics.

• Productive decision making is best achieved through:

- Observation: coaching boards and demonstrations assist with planned strategies

- Questioning: highlighting options and working through game-like scenarios

- Whole, part, whole approach: game strategy is taught as a whole, then individuals are taught their individual roles, before building up to game speed and being performed against a non-invasive opponent

- Variation: exploring different options when rehearsing strategies

- Creativity: encouraging players to identify with different situations and solve them themselves, rather than following coach-imposed directions all the time

Strategic and Tactical Development

• Strategic understanding: the way we play, where we should be and what to do e.g. using a backhand to return the ball in tennis

• Tactical awareness: utilising ways of gaining an advantage over an opponent e.g. a cut out pass in rugby. This matures gradually through drills that provide players with match-like situations, such as a three on three touch football drill to teach how to create an overlap of attacking players

Strategic and tactical development is built on the following principles:- Technical efficiency: utilising correct technique

in the execution of skills, enhances consistency in execution of movement/strategy.

- Understanding: what is required, options and variations possible and what to do when things don’t work.

- Skillful execution: strategies only work if practiced in drills that seek to replicate game-like situations, with the pressure of defence to develop creative options and variations.

Practice MethodsThe learning environment is further affected by the training systems and routines designed to

teach particular skills. These are called practice methods.

Massed and Distributed Practice

• Massed practice involves a continuous practice session, with the rest intervals being shorter than the practice intervals. For example, a gymnast learning a handstand- drilling continues until fatigue makes further practice of limited benefit.

• Distributed (spaced) practice involves a broken practice session, with the intervals of rest or alternative activities being longer than the practice intervals

Whole and Part Practice

• Whole practice is applied when a skill is practiced in its entirety, e.g. teaching a layup in basketball by demonstrating and teaching the skill as a whole unit.

• The part practice method is applied when a skill is broken into smaller components and each discrete subskill is practiced separately, e.g. breaking up the layup into a series of skills (dribbling, catching, shooting and landing)

FeedbackInformation provider to the learner about the

nature or result of their performance. Important as it provides guidance and helps the performer

eradicate error.

Internal and External Feedback• Internal feedback occurs during the execution of a skill. It

embodies feelings, together with sensory information such as seeing the ball and hearing the sound of a ball hitting the bat. Helps develop a “feel” for a movement, and eventually differentiate between skillful application and error.

• External feedback is all feedback which is derived from outside sources during the performance of a skill. It includes various forms of external information, such as suggestions from the coach, video replays, judges’ scores and race results. Augmented feedback is not given immediately, but is used later to illustrate a point.

Concurrent and Delayed Feedback

• Concurrent feedback is received during the performance of a skill. It occurs simultaneously with skill execution, for example, a person balancing during a headstand, where information from the brain enables them to maintain pose.

• Delayed feedback is received after the skill has been executed. For example, waiting for the result of a shot in basketball, feedback is not received until the ball either enters or misses the basket.

Knowledge of Results and Knowledge of Performance

• Knowledge of results is information about the outcome of a movement and suggests how successfully the skill was performed. E.g. how many goals were scored from a number of attempts. Is always external and may come from sources such as a coach or other player.

• Knowledge of performance is information about the pattern of movement during execution, and is more specific to the way in which the skill was performed. E.g. a comment from a coach about the height of the ball toss in a tennis serve. May generate from either internal or external sources.