THE LANGUAGES OF THE ANDESassets.cambridge.org/.../9780521362757_frontmatter.pdf · vi Contents 2.7...

THE LANGUAGES OF THE ANDES

The Andean and Pacific regions of South America are home to a remark-able variety of languages and language families, with a range of typologi-cal differences. This linguistic diversity results from a complex historicalbackground, comprising periods of greater communication between dif-ferent peoples and languages, and periods of fragmentation and individualdevelopment. The Languages of the Andes is the first book in English todocument in a single volume the indigenous languages spoken and for-merly spoken in this linguistically rich region, as well as in adjacent areas.Grouping the languages into different cultural spheres, it describes theircharacteristics in terms of language typology, language contact, and thesocial perspectives of present-day languages. The authors provide bothhistorical and contemporary information, and illustrate the languages withdetailed grammatical sketches. Written in a clear and accessible style, thisbook will be a valuable source for students and scholars of linguistics andanthropology alike.

. . is Professor of Amerindian Languages and Cul-tures at Leiden University. He has travelled widely in South Americaand has conducted fieldwork in Peru on different varieties of Quechuaand minor languages of the area. He has also worked on the historical-comparative reconstruction of South American languages, and since 1991has been involved in international activities addressing the issue of lan-guage endangerment. His previously published books include TarmaQuechua (1977) and Het Boek van Huarochirı (1988).

. is Professor of Linguistics at the University ofNijmegen. He has travelled widely in the Caribbean and the Andes, andwas previously Professor of Sociolinguistics and Creole Studies at the Uni-versity of Amsterdam and Professor of Linguistics and Latin AmericanStudies at Leiden University. He is co-editor of the Cambridge jour-nal Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, and his previously publishedbooks include Bilingual Speech: a Typology of Code-mixing (Cambridge,2000), and One Speaker, Two Languages (co-edited with Lesley Milroy,Cambridge, 1995).

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CAMBRIDGE LANGUAGE SURVEYS

General editorsP. Austin (University of Melbourne)J. Bresnan (Stanford University)B. Comrie (Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Leipzig)W. Dressler (University of Vienna)C. Ewen (University of Leiden)R. Lass (University of Cape Town)D. Lightfoot (University of Maryland)I. Roberts (University of Cambridge)S. Romaine (University of Oxford)N. V. Smith (University College London)

This series offers general accounts of the major language families of theworld, with volumes organised either on a purely genetic basis or on ageographical basis, whichever yields the most convenient and intelligiblegrouping in each case. Each volume compares and contrasts the typologicalfeatures of the languages it deals with. It also treats the relevant genetic re-lationships, historical development and sociolinguistic issues arising fromtheir role and use in the world today. The books are intended for linguistsfrom undergraduate level upwards, but no special knowledge of the lan-guages under consideration is assumed.Volumes such as those onAustraliaand the Amazon Basin are also of wider relevance, as the future of the lan-guages and their speakers raises important social and political issues.

Volumes already published includeChinese Jerry NormanThe languages of Japan Masayoshi ShibataniPidgins and Creoles (volume I: Theory and structure; volume II:

Reference survey) John A. HolmThe Indo-Aryan languages Colin MasicaThe Celtic languages edited by Donald MacAulayThe Romance languages Rebecca PosnerThe Amazonian languages edited by R. M. W Dixon and Alexandra Y.

AikhenvaldThe languages of Native North America Marianne MithunThe Korean language Ho-Him SohnAustralian languages R. M. W. DixonThe Dravidian languages Bhadriraju Krishnamurti






THE LANGUAGESOF THE ANDES

WILLEM F. H. ADELAAR

with the collaboration of PIETER C. MUYSKEN






The Pitt Building, Trumpington Street, Cambridge, United Kingdom

The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge, CB2 2RU, UK40 West 20th Street, New York, NY 10011-4211, USA477 Williamstown Road, Port Melbourne, VIC 3207, AustraliaRuiz de Alarcon 13, 28014 Madrid, SpainDock House, The Waterfront, Cape Town 8001, South Africa


C© Willem F. H. Adelaar and Pieter C. Muysken 2004

This book is in copyright. Subject to statutory exceptionand to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements,no reproduction of any part may take place withoutthe written permission of Cambridge University Press.

First published 2004

Printed in the United Kingdom at the University Press, Cambridge

Typeface Times New Roman 9/13 pt System LATEX2ε [TB]

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

Library of Congress Cataloguing in Publication data

Adelaar, Willem F. H.The languages of the Andes / Willem F. H. Adelaar with the collaboration ofPieter C. Muysken.

p. cm. – (Cambridge language surveys)Includes bibliographical references and index.ISBN 0 521 36275 X (hardback)1. Indians of South America – Andes Region – Languages. I. Muysken,Pieter. II. Title. III. Series.PM5100.A34 2004498 – dc22 2003055815

ISBN 0 521 36275 X hardback






CONTENTS

List of tables page x

List of maps xiv

Preface xv

Orthographic conventions xvi

List of abbreviations xx

1 Introduction 1

1.1 The languages of the Andes 4

1.2 Physical description 6

1.3 Brief history of the region 7

1.4 A brief overview of the different Andean countries 10

1.5 History of the study of the Andean languages 15

1.5.1 The colonial period 15

1.5.2 The nineteenth century 18

1.5.3 Contemporary Andean linguistics 19

1.6 Sources for the study of the languages of the Andes 20

1.7 Genetic relations of South American Indian languages 22

1.7.1 History of classificatory efforts 23

1.7.2 Quechuan and Aymaran, Quechumaran 34

1.7.3 Other proposals for individual language families 36

1.7.4 The Greenberg (1987) proposal 41

2 The Chibcha Sphere 46

2.1 The language groups and their distribution 50

2.2 Research on the native languages of Colombia 54

2.3 Chocoan 56

2.4 Yurumanguı 60

2.5 Cuna 61

2.6 The languages of the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta 66






vi Contents

2.7 Chimila 75

2.8 Barı 80

2.9 The Muisca language 81

2.9.1 Sources 82

2.9.2 Phonology 83

2.9.3 Grammar 89

2.9.4 Lexicon 103

2.9.5 A Muisca text 106

2.10 Tunebo (Uw Cuwa) 109

2.11 Yukpa and Magdalena valley Cariban 112

2.12 The Arawakan languages of the Caribbean coast 115

2.13 Timote–Cuica 124

2.14 Jirajaran 129

2.15 Paez (Nasa Yuwe) 130

2.16 Andaquı and the languages of the Upper Magdalena valley 138

2.17 Barbacoan languages 141

2.18 Kamsa 151

2.19 Esmeraldeno 155

2.20 Overview of the languages of the eastern Colombian lowlands 161

3 The Inca Sphere 165

3.1 The languages and their distribution 168

3.2 The Quechuan language family 179

3.2.1 The Quechua homeland 180

3.2.2 Historical overview of the colonial period 182

3.2.3 Dialect situation 183

3.2.4 Quechua studies 191

3.2.5 Phonology 194

3.2.6 Grammar 207

3.2.7 Characteristics of the Quechua lexicon 233

3.2.8 A sketch of an Ecuadorian Quechua dialect (Salasaca) 237

3.2.9 A sketch of a Peruvian Quechua dialect (Pacaraos) 242

3.2.10 A Cuzco Quechua text fragment 249

3.2.11 Literary production in Quechua 254

3.2.12 Social factors influencing the future of Quechua 256

3.3 The Aymaran language family 259

3.3.1 Past and present distribution 260

3.3.2 Homeland and expansion 263

3.3.3 Internal variation in the Aymaran language family 264






Contents vii

3.3.4 Salient features of the Aymaran language family 267

3.3.5 Aymara phonology 270

3.3.6 Aymara grammar 274

3.3.7 Aymara lexicon 293

3.3.8 Literary production in Aymara 296

3.3.9 Aymara sample text 296

3.3.10 The Jaqaru language 301

3.3.11 Jaqaru sample text 315

3.4 The Mochica language 319

3.4.1 The sounds of Mochica 321

3.4.2 Mochica grammar 328

3.4.3 Mochica sample texts 344

3.5 Puquina and Callahuaya 350

3.6 The Uru–Chipaya languages 362

3.7 The Atacameno language 375

3.8 The Lule–Tonocote language 385

3.9 Extinct and poorly documented languages of the Inca Sphere 391

3.9.1 Ecuador 392

3.9.2 Northern Peru 397

3.9.3 Northwestern Argentina 407

4 The languages of the eastern slopes 411

4.1 The Pano–Tacanan languages 418

4.2 The Arawakan languages 422

4.2.1 Yanesha′ phonology 424

4.2.2 The principal grammatical features of Yanesha′ 425

4.2.3 Complex sentences in Yanesha′ 430

4.3 Tupi–Guaranı 430

4.4 The Jivaroan languages 432

4.4.1 Shuar phonology 433

4.4.2 The principal grammatical features of Shuar 435

4.4.3 Complex sentences in Shuar 445

4.5 Cahuapana 447

4.6 Bora–Huitoto 449

4.7 The Zaparoan languages 451

4.8 The Tucanoan languages 453

4.9 Small families and supposed language isolates in Ecuador 454

4.10 Small families and supposed language isolates in Peru 456

4.11 Cholon 460






viii Contents

4.11.1 The Cholon lexicon and relationship with Hibito 461

4.11.2 Gender-determined language use 462

4.11.3 Cholon phonology 463

4.11.4 The principal grammatical features of Cholon 463

4.11.5 The basic word order of Cholon 475

4.12 Small families and supposed language isolates in Bolivia 475

4.13 Chiquitano 477

4.13.1 Gender-determined language use in Chiquitano 478

4.13.2 Chiquitano phonology 479

4.13.3 The principal grammatical features of Chiquitano 480

4.13.4 Chiquitano word order 488

4.14 The languages of the Chaco region: Guaicuruan, Matacoan,

Zamucoan and Lengua–Mascoy 488

4.15 Quechua influences on eastern slopes languages 499

5 The Araucanian Sphere 502

5.1 Araucanian or Mapuche 508

5.1.1 Mapuche studies 510

5.1.2 The sounds of Mapuche 512

5.1.3 Grammar 517

5.1.4 Lexicon 537

5.1.5 Mapuche sample text 539

5.2 The Allentiac language 544

6 The languages of Tierra del Fuego 550

6.1 The languages and their distribution 552

6.2 Ethnohistory 555

6.3 Problems in classification 556

6.4 Linguistic features 558

6.4.1 The Chonan languages 558

6.4.2 Chono and Kawesqar 564

6.4.3 Yahgan 567

6.4.4 Areal-typological features of the Fuegian languages 578

6.5 Oral literature 580

6.6 Language contact 580

6.7 A Tehuelche text 582

7 The Spanish presence 585

7.1 Characteristics of Andean Spanish 585






Contents ix

7.1.1 Demography and the Iberian dialectal origins 586

7.1.2 Linguistic features 587

7.2 Amerindian substratum influence 589

7.3 Language mixture and pidginisation in the Andes and the

Amazon basin 602

7.4 African influences 604

7.5 Language planning and policy with respect to the Amerindian

languages and to bilingual education 605

7.6 Andean languages in the modern world 608

Appendix: Inventory of languages and language families

of the Andean region 610

References 625

Author index 681

Index of languages and ethnic groups 690

Subject index 703






TABLES

1.1 Percentage of Indian population in the different

Andean countries page 11

1.2 Early grammars of Andean languages 16

1.3 Greenberg’s (1956) classification of the languages

of the Andes 28

1.4 The four networks proposed by Swadesh (1959, 1962) 29

1.5 The language families relevant to the Andes listed in Loukotka

(1968) 31

1.6 Groupings suggested by Suarez (1974) of language families and

isolates included in Loukotka (1968) 32

1.7 Language families relevant to the Andes listed in Kaufman (1990)

with their correlates in Loukotka (1968) 33

1.8 Greenberg’s (1987) classification of the languages

of the Andes 44

2.1 Overview of the consonant inventories of Chocoan languages

and dialects 58

2.2 Cuna consonant inventory 63

2.3 Overview of the consonant inventories of the Arhuacan

languages 68

2.4 Possessive modifiers in Chimila 77

2.5 Personal reference markers for subject and object in Chimila 78

2.6 Inventory of Muisca consonant phonemes 88

2.7 Inventory of Muisca vowel phonemes 88

2.8 Personal reference in Muisca 97

2.9 Inventory of Muisca pronoun and case combinations 100

2.10 Uw Cuwa (Tunebo) consonant inventory 110

2.11 Proto-Yukpa consonants 113

2.12 Guajiro consonant inventory 117

2.13 Personal prefixes and pronouns in Guajiro 120






List of tables xi

2.14 Caldono Paez obstruents 131

2.15 Caldono Paez continuants 132

2.16 Caldono Paez vowels 132

2.17 Person markers in Nasa Yuwe (Paez) 135

2.18 Guambiano consonant inventory 143

2.19 Awa Pit (Cuaiquer) consonant inventory 144

2.20 Tsafiki (Colorado) consonant inventory 144

2.21 Cha′palaachi (Cayapa) consonant inventory 145

2.22 Awa Pit pronouns 148

2.23 Cha′palaachi pronouns 148

2.24 Kamsa consonant phonemes 152

2.25 Kamsa personal reference markers 153

3.1 Proto-Quechua consonants 196

3.2 Proto-Quechua vowels 196

3.3 The Quechua four-person system 211

3.4 Subject conjugation in Ayacucho Quechua 219

3.5 Valency-changing suffixes in Quechua 229

3.6 Jaqaru personal reference markers 269

3.7 La Paz Aymara consonant inventory 271

3.8 Aymara subject and subject–object paradigm for the unmarked

tense 282

3.9 Subject and subject–object endings for the future tense in La Paz and

Sitajara Aymara 284

3.10 Aymara subject and subject–object paradigm for the imperative

mood 285

3.11 Subject and subject–object endings for the present and past potential

mood in La Paz Aymara 286

3.12 Nominalising affixes in Aymara 288

3.13 Jaqaru consonant inventory 302

3.14 Subject and subject–object endings of the unmarked tense in

Jaqaru 307

3.15 Subject and subject–object endings of the future tense in

Jaqaru 308

3.16 Mochica vowels as represented in Carrera Daza (1644) and

Middendorf (1892) 324

3.17 Sibilants in seventeenth-century Mochica 326

3.18 Overview of the consonant symbols in the Mochica grammars of

Carrera Daza (1644) and Middendorf (1892) 329

3.19 Personal reference in Mochica 331






xii List of tables

3.20 Mochica preterit and future tenses 337

3.21 Numerals 1 to 10 in Mochica 343

3.22 Puquina personal and possessive pronouns 353

3.23 Possessed nouns in Callahuaya 359

3.24 Personal and possessive pronouns in Callahuaya 360

3.25 Callahuaya consonant inventory 361

3.26 Chipaya consonant inventory 364

3.27 Unmarked present tense in Chipaya 371

3.28 Tentative inventory of Atacameno sounds 380

3.29 Possessive nominal paradigm in Atacameno 381

3.30 Atacameno personal and possessive pronouns 382

3.31 Verbal past-tense paradigm in Atacameno 383

3.32 Lule personal endings for unmarked tense and nominal

possession 389

3.33 Lule future and imperative verbal paradigms 389

4.1 The relationship between the Arawakan languages of the pre-Andean

area 423

4.2 Yanesha′ (Amuesha) phoneme inventory 424

4.3 The relationship among the pre-Andean members of the

Tupi–Guaranı language family 431

4.4 Shuar phoneme inventory 434

4.5 The Shuar switch-reference system illustrated with the verb

ant- ‘to hear’ 446

4.6 Phoneme inventory of Bora 450

4.7 Phoneme inventory of Huao 454

4.8 The sound inventory of Cholon 464

4.9 Chiquitano phoneme inventory 480

4.10 Phoneme inventory of Toba 489

4.11 Phoneme inventory of Bolivian (Noctenes) Mataco 493

4.12 Reconstructed consonant system of Proto-Matacoan 495

4.13 Phoneme inventory of Ayoreo 496

5.1 Mapuche consonant inventory 517

5.2 Personal and possessive pronouns in Mapuche 519

5.3 Mapuche subject endings 523

5.4 Unmarked verbal paradigm in Allentiac 546

5.5 Interrogative verbal paradigm in Allentiac 547

6.1 The relation between putative Chono words identified by Bausani

(1975) and their possible equivalents in the Alacalufan materials of

Skottsberg (1913) and Clairis (1987) 553






List of tables xiii

6.2 Historical demographic data for the canoe nomads 555

6.3 Historical demographic data for the hunter nomads 555

6.4 Phoneme inventory of Selk′nam 559

6.5 Phoneme inventory of Gununa Yajich 562

6.6 Phoneme inventory of Tehuelche 563

6.7 Tentative sound inventory of Chono 565

6.8 Phonemes of Kawesqar 566

6.9 Phoneme inventory of Yahgan (based on Golbert de Goodbar 1977

and Poblete and Salas 1999) 568

6.10 Phoneme inventory of Yahgan (based on Adam 1885) 569

6.11 Person inflection in Yahgan 575

6.12 Phonological features of the Fuegian languages 579

6.13 Morphological features of the Fuegian languages 579

6.14 Constituent order features of the Fuegian languages 579

7.1 Major isoglosses in the Andean areas of Latin American

Spanish 588

7.2 Types of speakers of Spanish that may show influence from

Quechua 590

7.3 Sprachbund phenomena in the pronunciation of liquids and vibrants

in different varieties of Quechua and Spanish in Ecuador 591

7.4 Features claimed to be due to Quechua in different varieties

of Spanish 593






MAPS

Map 1 The Chibcha Sphere: overview of ethnolinguistic groups attested

in premodern sources page 47

Map 2 The Chibcha Sphere: approximate distribution of indigenous

languages in the mid twentieth century 51

Map 3 The Inca Sphere: approximate distribution of indigenous

languages in the sixteenth century 166

Map 4 The Inca Sphere: approximate distribution of indigenous

languages in the mid twentieth century 169

Map 5 Approximate distribution of Quechua dialects in Peru and

adjacent areas 184

Map 6 Distribution of Aymaran and Uru–Chipaya languages 260

Map 7 Eastern lowland languages: Ecuador and northern Peru 412

Map 8 Eastern lowland languages: southern Peru 413

Map 9 Eastern lowland languages: Bolivia 414

Map 10 Eastern lowland languages: the Chaco area 415

Map 11 The Araucanian Sphere: approximate distribution of languages

at the time of the Spanish conquest (sixteenth century) 503

Map 12 The Araucanian Sphere: twentieth-century distribution

of indigenous languages 504

Map 13 The languages of Tierra del Fuego 551






PREFACE

This book took much longer to write than originally intended, particularly because very

little was known about some of the regions to be covered, while much new material has

become available these last few years. We hope this survey will in its turn inspire new

research in the years to come.

Wewish to thankfirst of all BernardComrie for his precise and encouraging comments

on earlier chapter drafts. We are very grateful to Ana Fernandez, Timothy Curnow, Knut

Olawsky and Nicholas Ostler for reading and commenting on specific chapters of the

book. A special word of thanks goes to Rodolfo Cerron-Palomino for providing us with

data from his ongoing research on the Chipaya language, and to Alfredo Torero for

permitting us to use his unpublished work on Puquina. Many colleagues and friends

have contributed over the years with valuable advice and commentary, by providing us

with newly published or little-known publications, or by calling our attention to new

materials and research results. Their generosity is duly remembered, although space

does not allow us to mention each of them individually.

Our gratitude extends in particular to those academic institutions that have provided

the environment and the facilities necessary for an undertaking such as the present one:

theNetherlands Institute ofAdvanced Studies (NIAS) inWassenaar, theNetherlands, the

Research Centre for Linguistic Typology (RCLT) at La Trobe University in Victoria,

Australia, the Research School CNWS of Asian, African and Amerindian Studies and

the Faculty of Letters of Leiden University.

While the book was written under the primary authorship and responsibility of

Willem Adelaar, the individual chapters were divided as follows: Pieter Muysken wrote

sections 1.1–1.5 of chapter 1 and Adelaar the introductory pages of chapter 1 as well as

sections 1.6–1.7. Adelaar also wrote chapter 2 except for section 2.15, chapter 3 except

for section 3.2.8, and all of chapter 5. Muysken wrote chapters 4, 6 and 7, as well as the

sections 2.15 and 3.2.8.






ORTHOGRAPHIC CONVENTIONS

This book on Andean languages relies on heterogeneous sources, including premodern

grammatical studies and vocabularies, as well as contemporary descriptions obtained

by direct observation of living languages. These circumstances made it difficult to adopt

a uniform orthographic practice. The spelling of colonial and other traditional sources

has been preserved, allowing for marginal adaptations where the sources are internally

inconsistent. Languages such as Allentiac, Muisca and Puquina, which have long been

extinct, are known from premodern sources only, and the interpretation of the symbols

used to represent them remains tentative. In the case of relatively recent data from

languages that becameextinct during the twentieth century, such asMochica andTimote–

Cuica, the identification of sounds can be problematic when the recorded materials are

not in agreement with modern linguistic standards. Suchmaterials are exemplified in the

original spelling as well. Finally, there are premodern sources relating to languages still

spoken, for instance, Valdivia’s Araucanian grammar of 1606. The use of premodern

sources includes exotic symbols, such as cɥ, c−h, �h, γ and œ. Among the languages

primarily known from premodern sources, the only one presented in a reconstructed,

rather than an original spelling is Cholon (see section 4.11.3).

For most of the living languages we are on firmer ground, although for these too we

have to rely on published sources with different methodological approaches, theoretical

backgrounds and degrees of phonological abstraction. In view of the necessity to repre-

sent such heterogeneous materials, we have opted for a phonetically based orthography

such as commonly found inNorthAmerican linguistic journals dealingwithAmerindian

languages (e.g. International Journal of American Linguistics). Consequently, several

of the original symbols have been replaced with others, and adjustments have been made

at the level of individual languages so as to facilitate the presentation of the linguistic

facts in a unified way.1 In a number of cases (e.g. Guajiro l and r, Mapuche r, Quechua

n and q) concessions have been made to established practice. Such deviations of the

1 We wish to apologise beforehand for the inevitable errors and inconsistencies that are inherentto this procedure.






Orthographic Conventions xvii

overall orthographic practice adhered to in this book are duly explained in the respective

sections.

Vowels

When only vowel quality is taken into consideration, most languages of the Andean

region select their vowels from a set of five, including two front vowels (e, i), two rounded

back vowels (o, u) and one low vowel (a). These vowels usually exhibit a certain amount

of non-distinctive variation, which is not shown in the orthography except when the

phonetic realisation itself is a topic of discussion. In addition, many Andean languages

also have an unrounded vowel which may be high central, mid central, or high back.

We represent this sixth vowel by means of the symbol � , regardless of its exact phoneticnature and possible existing spelling conventions. For the representation of languages

exhibiting an additional contrast between a high central and a mid central vowel we

use the symbols � and ə to distinguish between the two. The main reason for following

this procedure is to preserve unity in the presentation. It is, furthermore, justified by

the consideration that the sixth vowel often shows a wide range of non-contrastive

variation, depending on the phonetic environment in which it occurs, and the fact that

the observations of different authors rarely coincide, even when they are dealing with

the same language. In the absence of specialised phonetic studies, almost non-existent

in the case of Andean languages, the exact phonetic nature of the sixth vowel generally

remains uncertain.

Vowel systemsof a different qualitative structure are found inMochica, in languages of

the Amazonian lowlands, and in languages of Tierra del Fuego. They will be discussed

in the respective chapters (sections 3.4.1, 4.6 and 6.4). For these cases, as well as in

explanative phonetic representations relating tomore currentAndean systems, additional

symbols (ɑ, α, œ, ε, ı, ɔ, ɯ) are used.

Secondary articulations of the vowels

– Vowel length is indicated by a colon (a:, e:, i:, o:, u:), except when the

long vowel consists of several tone-bearing units. In that case, the vowels

are written separately (aa, etc.). Extra short vowels are marked as follows:

a, e, ı, o, u.

– Nasal vowels: a, e, ı, o, u, etc.

– Aspirated vowels: ah, eh, ih, oh, uh, etc.

– Glottalised vowels: aʔ, eʔ, iʔ, oʔ, uʔ, etc.

– Voiceless vowels: a˚, e˚, i˚, o˚, u˚, etc.

– Tonal contrast is indicated by means of an acute accent (for high or rising

tone), a grave accent (for low or falling tone), a superscript level stroke

(for mid level tone), or a circumflex (for a descending tonal glide): a, a, a,






xviii Orthographic Conventions

a. Contrastive stress is also indicated by means of an acute accent. Stress

and tone are indicated only when contrastive.

Non-syllabic vowels

When non-syllabic, the high vowels i and u are analysed as glides, hence they are written

as y and w, respectively. This is always the case in syllable-initial position (yV, wV ), and

it is the preferred option in postvocalic syllable-final position (Vy, Vw). Occasionally,

however, postvocalic glides are represented as vowels (Vi, Vu), when the status of vowel

sequences in the language under discussion appears to favour that choice.

Consonants

In the following overview the consonant symbols are grouped in categories:

– Bilabial: plain stops p, b; implosive stop: �; fricatives ϕ, β; nasal m;

glide w.

– Labiodental: fricatives f, v.

– Interdental: stops t, d; fricatives θ, ð; nasal n.– Alveodental: plain stops t, d; implosive stop �; affricates c (ts in phonetic

explanations), dz (dz before secondary articulation markers, as in dzy);

fricatives s, z; nasal n.

– Apico-alveolar: fricative s; affricate ts.

– Alveopalatal: affricates c, dz; fricatives s, z; glide y.

– Retroflex: stops t. , d. ; affricates c. , dz. ; fricatives s. , z. ; nasal n. ; glide ɺ.

– Palatalised velar (ich-laut): fricative: c; affricate: tc.

– Velar: stops: k, g; fricatives x, γ; nasal ŋ.– Uvular (or postvelar): stops q, G; fricatives x. , ʁ .– Glottal: fricative h; stop ʔ. (Note: h can also refer to a velar fricative

because many Andean languages tend to use glottal and velar fricatives in

a non-distinctive way.)

– Laterals: plain (voiced alveodental) l; interdental �l; retroflex l.; voiceless

fricative l; voiceless affricate λ-.

– Vibrants: voiced tap r; trill rr; tap with palatal affrication r; retroflex

flap �.

Secondary articulations of the consonants

– Gemination is indicated by doubling the consonant symbol (pp, kk, nn,

etc.). Double rr represents a trill, rather than only a geminate. (Quechua

nn is a cluster [ŋn]; see section 3.2.5.)






Orthographic Conventions xix

– Coarticulation is indicated by juxtaposition of the symbols: kp, pk, pkw.

– Glottalisation: p’, t’, c’, k’, q’, etc.

– Aspiration (of stops and affricates): ph, th, ch, kh, qh, etc.

– Preaspiration or voicelessness (of resonants): hm, hn, hr, etc.

– Palatalisation: ty, ky, ny, ly, etc.

– Labialisation: pw, mw, kw, xw, etc.

– Prenasalisation (or postoralisation): mb, nd, ŋg.

– Postnasalisation (or preoralisation): bm, dn, gŋ.

– Click-like articulation: p<, m<.

– Syllabic resonants: l˚, n˚.

Other symbols and conventions

V Vowel (only in phonological explanation).

C Consonant.

[. . .] Phonetic representation or tentative pronunciation.

Etymological provenance or borrowing source.

<. . .> Symbols used in premodern sources.

{ . . . } Explanation of morphological structure.

- Morpheme boundary.

Division of morphemic glosses.

= Division of constituents in reduplicated forms.

. Division of speech elements covered by a single morphemic

gloss.

Division of morphemic glosses relating to a portmanteau

speech element.






ABBREVIATIONS

In the example sentences of this book morphemic glosses may consist of numbers,

letters, or letter combinations. For reasons of presentation, all letter combinations have

been limited to a maximum of two elements. Grammatical person is indicated by means

of the numbers 1, 2, 3 and 4, which refer to the four-person system characteristic of the

structure of some of the languages treated in this work:

1 first person (speaker)

2 second person (addressee)

3 third person (neither)

4 fourth person (speaker + addressee)

These numbers can be followed by the symbols S (subject), O (object), or P (possessor)

without an intervening hyphen or dot:

1S, 2S, 3S, 4S first-person subject, etc.

1O, 2O, 3O, 4O first-person object, etc.

1P, 2P, 3P, 4P first-person possessor, etc.

The following list is an inventory of all the remaining morphemic glosses, which consist

of letters or letter combinations.

A absolute (as opposed to relational)

absolutive (as opposed to ergative)

AB ablative case

AC accusative case

AD additive (‘also’, ‘even’)

AF affirmative (evidential)

AG agentive nominaliser

AJ adjective

adjectiviser

AL allative case






List of abbreviations xxi

AN anticompletive (‘still’, ‘yet’)

AO aorist

AP applicative

AR attributive

AS assistance

AT attenuator

AU augmentative

AV adverbialiser

AX auxiliary

B benefactive case

BN beneficiary

C comitative case

CA causative

CD conditional mood

CE centripetal (converging motion)

CF centrifugal (diverging motion)

CL classifier or shape morpheme

(with semantic specification, e.g. CL: round object)

CM completive (‘already’)

CN continuative

CO co-ordination

CP comparative (‘like’)

CR circular motion (‘go around’)

CS courteous

CT change of topic

CU customary

CV copula verbaliser

D dual

DA dative case

DB distributive

DC deictic

DD different directions

DE desiderative

DF definite

DG degree

DI diminutive

DL delimitative (‘just’, ‘only’)

DM detrimental






xxii List of abbreviations

DP deductive past

DR directional

DS different subjects (in switch-reference systems)

DT distal

DU dubitative

DV declarative

DW downward motion

E ergative case

EC exclamation

EM emphatic

ES external subject

EU euphonic element

EV event/action

EX exclusive (addressee excluded)

F future

FA factitive (‘make’)

FE feminine

FM factual mood

FN future-oriented nominaliser

FO focus

FR far remote

G genitive case

GA genitive agent

GO goal

GP generic pair

GR gerund

H hither (motion towards speaker)

HB habitual past

HN honorific

HO hortative

HS hearsay (evidential)

HY hypothetical

I inverse

IA imperfective aspect

IC inchoative

ID indicative mood

IE irrealis mood

IF infinitive






List of abbreviations xxiii

II indefinite

IK indirect knowledge

IL inferential

IM imperative mood

IN inclusion (‘provided with’)

IP inferential past

IR interrogative

IS instrumental case

IT intensive

IU immediate future

IV inclusive (addressee included)

IW inward motion

L locative case

LA lack (‘not having’)

LB left-behind object

LI limitative case (‘until’)

LK linking element

LN locality nominaliser

LP lexicalised prefix

LS lexicalised suffix

LV locative verbaliser

M momentaneous

MA motion across (‘traverse’)

MD medial

MS masculine

MT motion

N noun

nominaliser

NA narrative past

NC non-control

ND non-determinate

NE negation

NF near future

NM nominative case

NP nominal past

NR near remote

NS non-speaker

NT non-transitive






xxiv List of abbreviations

NU neutral

O object

OB obligation

OC oblique case

OE ongoing event

OS ownership (‘having’)

OV obviative

P possessor

PA past tense

PC paucal

PD predicate marker

PE perfect tense

PF perfective aspect

PI privative

PL plural

PM permissive

PN present tense

PO potential mood

PR progressive

PS passive

PT perlative case (path)

PU pronoun

PV previous event

PX proximate

Q question marker

QU quotative

R relativiser

RC reciprocal

RD realis mood

RE recent past

RF reflexive

RL relational (possessed)

RM remote past

RO reportative

RP repetitive

RR referential

RS restitutive

RU remote future






List of abbreviations xxv

S subject

SA simple aspect

SD sudden discovery tense

SG singular

SI simulation

SJ subjunctive mood

SM simultaneous

SO source

SN stative nominaliser

SP supine

SQ sequential

SR speaker

SS same subject (in switch-reference systems)

ST state

SU subordination

T transitive

transitiviser

TF transformative (‘become’)

TH thither (motion not towards speaker)

TO topic

TS thematic suffix

TV thematic vowel

U urgency

UF unfulfilled

UG undergoer

UN unspecified subject

UW upward motion

V verb

verbaliser

VE verbal extension

VO vocative

Z zero complement

ZP zero person






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