The Language of Argument for Teachers and Students

8/9/2019 The Language of Argument for Teachers and Students

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DRAFT East Greenwich High School English Department 2013

The Language of

Argumentin the language of the standards

For EGHS Teachers and Students

A compilation of information aligned to the Common Core to help spur a discussion

on the teaching of reading and writing arguments

Works Consulted

Coleman, David. "Common Core R.CCR.8 Explained." Teaching the Core. N.p., n.d. Web. 01 June 2013.

"English Language Arts Standards Reading: Informational Text Grade 11-12."Common Core State Standards Initiative. N.p., n.d. Web. 23 May 2013.

Harvey, Gordon. Counterargument. Harvard University, 1999. Web. 01 June 2013.

"Fallacies." The Writing Center. University of North Carolina, n.d. Web. 09 May 2 013.

Ramage, John D., John C. Bean, and June Johnson. Writing Arguments: A Rhetoric with Readings. Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 2001. Print.

Sinott-Armstrong, Walter, and Robert Fogelin. Understanding Arguments: An Introduction to Informal Logic. 8th ed. Australia: Wadsworth, 2010. Print.

"A Workbook for Arguments: A Complete Course in Critical Thinking [Paperback]."A Workbook for Arguments: A Complete Course in Critical Thinking: David

Morrow, Anthony Weston: 9781603845496: Amazon.com: Books. N.p., n.d. Web. 23 May 2013.

"Writer's Web: Toulmin Model Exercise." Writer's Web: Toulmin Model Exercise. N.p., n.d. Web. 26 May 2013.

Written and compiled by Greg DeCubellis


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Unpacking the Language of the Standards

Trying to make sense of argumentative writing terminology can be a challenge. It turns out that there are

about 20 important terms, but, because argumentation is a part of so many disciplines, many (about

three-fourths) of these terms have different names. Fortunately, several are synonymous with those we

already use to teach persuasive writing. Others, however, will probably be new to you.

In the table below, you will find argument writing terms used in the Common Core standards and other terms

that are close in meaning. Knowing these terms is imperative to understanding this handout. Also, it is

highly likely that the terms in the left column will be used on upcoming Common Core assessments, so it is

important for students to know and understand them as well.

L.O.T.S IS OR RESEMBLES... MEANING..

argument a thesis with a projected organization The assertion of a claim based on logical reasons.

argumentative

writinglogos, position paper

As distinct from persuasive writing, argumentative

writing relies mostly on sharp, ethical reasoning over

pathos, dissembling, and trickery.

bias slant, spinA favorable or unfavorable preference for one thing

over another.

claim

thesis, conclusion, logical conclusion,

central claim, critical stance, main idea,

opinion, assertion, inference, judgment,

effect

A statement asserted as true by a speaker or writer.

counterclaim counter-argument, opposing viewpointAn opinion directly opposite the writers included to

set up a rebuttal of that opposing opinion.

delineate standard form

Listing the premises in logical order above the

conclusion with a horizontal line drawn between them.

evidenceone or more reasons which support a

claim

Reason(s) that prove the claim (but NOT the

examples used for illustrating the reasons).

example detailA fact which illustrates the arguments supporting

reason or evidence.

fallacylogical fallacy, illogical reasoning,

invalid reason

An error in an argument in which the claim does not

logically follow from the the reasons.

persuasionmanipulative speech, writing, or

imagery

In its most extreme form, its goal is to convince an

audience by any means necessary, including invalid

reasoning and untrue reasons.

premisereason, proposition, major premise,

minor premise, axiom, postulate, causeA reason used to assert a claim.

reason

premise, proof, proposition, major

premise, minor premise, cause, fact,

statistic

Seepremise

reasoning logicThe process of drawing or forming a conclusion from

stated or implied premises.


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rebuttalcomeback, refutation, objection to an

objection

An answer to a counterclaim which points out the

opposing viewpoints flaws. It is used to disarm a

skeptical audience.

rhetoricliterary language, engaging wording,

diction, syntax

This term has many meanings, but is used in the

standards to mean the ways in which the writer crafts

words and phrases artistically to help make the

argument interesting and engaging.

structure organization, organizational strategy,sequence of ideas

How the writer orders his reasons, claim, examples,sub-claims, counterclaims, etc.

sub-claims

grounds, stated assumption,

suppressed premise, warrant,

enthymeme, clincher

The ways in which the illustrative examples connect

to the argument.

syntax word order, sentence structure The word order within a sentence or clause.

validity logical reasoning

An argument is valid if it is logical. In other words, an

argument is valid if there is no possible way its claim

can be false when its reasons are true. Illogical

arguments are NOT valid.


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The Language of Argument PART

Reading an rgument

CONTENTS ALIGNMENT TO CCSS Gr.

1) Reading an Argument Delineate and evaluate the reasoning in ... texts, including ... thepremises, purposes, and arguments

9-10

2) Argument and Persuasion Determine an authors point of view or purpose in a text... analyzinghow style and content contribute to the power, persuasiveness ...of the text.

11-12

3) The Parts of an Argument Analyze in detail how an authors ideas or claimsare developedand refined by particular sentences....

9-10

4) Standard Form Delineation Delineate ...the argument.

5) Annotating the Parts of An Argument Analyze in detail how an authors ideas or claimsare developedand refined by particular sentences....

9-10

6) Evaluating a Claims Strength &

Effectiveness

Analyze in detail how an authors ideas or claimsare developed

and refined by particular sentences....

9-10

7) Evaluating Evidence in Examples Delineate and evaluate the argument... assessing whether the ...the evidence is relevantand sufficient.

9-10

8) Annotating an Arguments Strength &

Effectiveness

Delineate and evaluate the reasoning in ... texts, including ... thepremises, purposes, and arguments .

Determine an authors point of view or purpose in a text in which

the rhetoricis particularly effective, analyzing how style and

content contribute to the power, persuasiveness or beauty of the

text.

Determine an authors point of view or purpose in a text and

analyze how an author uses rhetoricto advance that point of viewor purpose.

11-12

9) Evaluating an Arguments Reasonableness Delineate and evaluate the argumentand specific claimsin a text,assessing whether the reasoning is validand the evidence isrelevantand sufficient

9-10

10) Fallacies in Reasoning [I]dentify false statements and fallacious reasoning... 9-10

11) Some Rhetorical Devices and their Effects [A]nalyze how an author uses rhetoric...[A]nalyze how style and content contribute to the power,persuasiveness... of the text.

12) Useful Questions for Close, Careful

Argument Evaluation

Analyze in detail how an authors ideas or claimsare developedand refined by particular sentences, paragraphs, or larger portions

of a text.

Analyze and evaluate the effectiveness of the structure an authoruses in his or her exposition or argument, including whether thestructure makes points clear, convincing, and engaging.

9-10

13) Putting it all Together [All standards related to argument reading are addressed] 9-12

14) Best Practices for Teaching Blue text indicates IN NEED OF COMPLETION 9-12



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The Language of Argument PART II

Writing an rgument

CONTENTS ALIGNMENT TO CCSS Gr.*

1) Writing Short Arguments Use words, phrases, and clauses as well as varied syntax to link themajor sections of the text, create cohesion, and clarify therelationships between claims and reasons....

2) Useful Tips for Finding Fallacies in your

own Writing

Use words, phrases, and clauses as well as varied syntax to link themajor sections of the text, create cohesion, and clarify therelationships between claims and reasons, between reasons andevidence, and between claims and counterclaims.

3) Structuring an Extended Argument Develop claims and counterclaims fairly and thoroughly, supplying themost relevant evidence for each while pointing out the strengths andlimitationsof both in a manner that anticipates the audiencesknowledge level, concerns, values, and possible biases.

4) Two Argument Strategies Compared[ Same as above ]

5) Exploring Both Sides Introduce precise, knowledgeable claims, establish the significanceof the claim, distinguish the claim from alternate or counterclaims...

6) Illustrating your Reasons & Stating your

Assumptions

Develop claims and counterclaims fairly and thoroughly, supplying the

most relevant evidence for each while pointing out the strengths and

limitationsof both in a manner that anticipates the audiences

knowledge level, concerns, values, and possible biases.

7) Classical Graphic Organizer [C]reate an organization that logically sequences claims,counterclaims, reasons, and evidence.

8) Rogerian Graphic Organizer [C]reate an organization that logically sequences claims,counterclaims, reasons, and evidence.

9) Best Practices for Teaching Argument

Writing

Use words, phrases, and clauses as well as varied syntax to link themajor sections of the text, create cohesion, and clarify therelationships between claims and reasons, between reasons andevidence, and between claims and counterclaims.

* Underlined text indicates 11-12 standard.



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The Language of Argument

Reading an rgument

An ARGUMENT is a claim accompanied by supporting reasons.

When you make a claim, you are saying, I claim this to be true. In argument writing, you want your reader

to accept your claim as true too. Your opinion usually will not be accepted without good reason though. So,

a good argument writer claimssomething to be true and then supports it with reasons(a reason is also

called a premise). In a good argument, the writer makes a case to convince an audience based on the

merit and reasonablenessof the claims, reasons, and evidence.In this way, an argument can change the

readers point of view, bring about an action, or ask the reader to accept the writers explanation or

evaluation of a problem. (CCSS-ELA Appendix A).

An extended argumentative essay is also known as a position paper because the writer takes a position on

a topic and uses clear reasoning to attempt to get the reader to understand and agree with his or her

position. Notice the word attempt in the previous sentence. When you write an argumentative essay, you

might not entirely convince the reader of your position. You may only strengthen the opinion of those who

already agree with you or weaken the resolve of those who oppose your opinion. The important thing is that

you present your argument clearly, honestly, and logically.

Note: When the word argument is used in this context, it does not mean a disagreement. An argument

simply is a statement that attempts to connects facts or statistics (evidence) in support of a claim. So...

an argumentis NOT a mere disagreement.

1. This is NOT an argument:

Bob: Willie is a whale.

Steve: No, hes a goat.

Bob: NO! Hes a whale!

2. This IS an argument:

Willie is a whale. All whales are mammals. Therefore, Willie is a mammal.

DISCUSS: Here, the writerdraws aconclusion for us that Willie is a mammal. He gives two

related factual reasons to support his conclusion. What are they? Assuming you agree with

the facts, do you agree with his opinion that Willie is a mammal? Why or why not?

DISCUSS: Why is example one above NOT an argument? Is simply contradicting someone

the same as making an argument? Why is example two above a good argument? Hint: See

the definition of argument above before responding.

Free Willymotion picture produced by Warner Brothers Family Entertainmen


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Persuasion

Advertisers often appear to claim things to be true about their product.

What is claimed to be true here?

Using our shampoo twice a day will help keep you from losing your hair.

a. Our shampoo reduces baldness

b. Without using our shampoo, you will probably go bald.

c. Our shampoo has a special ingredient that will help keep you

from losing your hair.

d. All of the abovee. None of the above

What do we assume is true about this product? Perhaps it contains some special anit-balding ingredients?

In your own words, what is the company claiming to be true?

If you said that the company is claiming that their product

Using our shampoo correctly requires massaging it into the scalp.

Massaging the scalp increases blood flow to the area.

Increased bloodflow to the scalp slows hair loss over time.

Therefore, massaging the scalp slows hair loss over time.

Therefore, our using shampoo correctly slows hair loss over time.


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Argument and Persuasion

Arguments purpose in its purest form is to use reasoning to seek the truth. The purpose of persuasion in its

most extreme form is to use whatever strategies necessary, including deception, to get an audience to

believe what you want it to believe (even if you dont believe in what you are saying yourself). An argument

essay falls somewhere on the line in the shaded area below:

Argument ---------------------------------------------------------------------------> Persuasion

Exploratory

writing

examining all

sides of an

issue

Argument as

inquiry,

asking the

audience to

think out the

issue with the

writer

Dialectic

argument,

seeking

common

ground with a

resistant

audience

Classical

argument,

aimed at a

neutral or

skeptical

audience

One-sided

argument,

aimed at a

friendly

audience

Aggressive

one-sided

arguments

Outright

propaganda

Literary texts Sermons

Ceremonial

speeches

Parliamentary

debate

Rogerian

argument

Legal reasoning

Classroom

lectures

Letter to editor

Fund raising

Calls to action

Talk radio

Cable news

commentary

Advertising

The Parts of An Argument

To understand an argument, it is helpful to identify its parts. Any simple argument has two parts: a claim

and reasons. You must know how to distinguish between a claim (also known as an opinion or a

conclusion) and reasons (also known as proof or premises). The following should help you see these in

action.

DISCUSS: Which sentence makes more sense?

1. You are shivering because it is cold.

a. b.

2. It is cold because you are shivering.

a. a.

Argument number one uses cause and effect logically. Now look closer at the argument. Is the a.

section the cause or the effect? The b. section? Which one is the claim? Which is the reason?

How do you know? Why is argument number two invalid?

DISCUSS: Compare and contrast the statements below with those above. Is the a. section the claimor

the reason in the example below? What is the difference in meaning between the connecting words

therefore and because? How are they both used differently to connect the same claim and reason?

Compare the meaning of the two sentences below with the two above.

1. You are shivering therefore, it is cold.

a. b.

2. It is cold therefore, you are shivering.


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b. a.

Standard Form Delineation

Whats the bottom line? How will you know if an argument adds up? The best way is to delineate the

argument using standard form. The word delineate contains the word line. In this way, it is helpful to list

the reasons and draw horizontal line to separate them from the claim. Doing so will also help you determine

the best order to present your reasons and whether your reasons are good ones. It will also help you toevaluate whether a writer has good reasons for supporting her claim and ordered them logically

To write an argument in standard form, you first must identify the claim and then find the supporting reasons

Consider this argument: Im shivering because its wet and cold out here and the same argument stated in

a different order: Its wet and cold out here therefore, Im shivering.

REASONS STATED

AFTER THE CLAIM:

CLAIM CONNECTOR REASON

1

REASON

2

REASON

3

Argument--> I am

shivering

BECAUSE it is

wet,

it is

cold,

and

Im outside.

REASONS STATED

BEFORE THE CLAIM:

REASON

1

REASON

2

REASON

3

CONNECTOR CLAIM

Same Argument butDifferent Order-->

It iscold,

it iswet,

andIm

outside

THEREFOREI am

shivering

.

A good thinker knows how to write any argument in standard form regardless of the order in which the writer

presents his reasons and claims.

How to write any argument in standard form:

1. Always state the claim first.

2. Draw a line above the claim.

2. List each reason above the line.

An argument in standard form:

Reason

Reason

Reason


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_______

Claim

EXAMPLE:

Step one: State the claim. In the example, the speaker makes a claim that he is shivering. Note

how the reader writes the claim at the bottom, underneath a horizontal line leaving space above.

_______________ _______________

Claim --------> I am shivering

Step two: Identify the reasons. Note how the reader writes each reason above the horizontal line.

Reason --------> It is wet outside

Reason --------> It is cold outside

Reason --------> I am outside

_______________ _______________

Together, the entire argument, claim and reasons, will look like this in standard form:

Reason --------> It is wet outside

Reason --------> It is cold outside

Reason --------> I am outside

_______________ _______________

Claim --------> I am shivering

Although in argument writing, the argument may be stated with the reasons before the claim or vice versa,

when you delineate an argument, you must always list the reasons above the claim. Boiling down and

ordering an argument in this way helps you evaluate the arguments logic and allows you to compare the

argument with other arguments written in standard form.

Standard form looks similar to an addition problem in math. Written in this way, its easy to see if the

argument adds up or not.


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Annotating the Parts of an Argument

The typical words and phrases used to make arguments are called argument markers. In a text, they may

appear before or after a claim or reason. Recognizing and labeling these markers is the first step in being

able to conduct a close and careful analysis of arguments and to reconstruct the argument in standard form.

Once you are able to recognize argument markers, you will be able to use them yourself connect your own

claims and reasons to make valid arguments. When annotating argumentative writing, you can use the

abbreviation C to mark words that signal an arguments claim and P to mark its reasons (i.e., proof,premises).

TERM &

ABBREVIATION

MEANING EXAMPLES COMMON ARGUMENT

CONNECTORS

(markers)

CLAIM

C

A claim is an opinion. It

is a logical conclusion

drawn from the reasons

or evidence.

We can now conclude that Mr.

Flump is an idiot.

It is cold therefore, you areshivering.

therefore hence thus

furthermore so

consequently

then (without if)

this shows that...

REASON

(proof)

P

A reason is a fact that

attempts to provea

claim. It answers the

question, Why? It is

also known as a

premise.

Because it is cold, you are

shivering.

Since Brian speaks up, he

gets what he needs.

because since for as

given that...

due to..

on the grounds that...

this follows from...

Note: A conditional can

be phrased as an

if-thenstatement. A

conditional is not an

argument by itself

because no reasons are

given and no claims are

made. It only expresses

what mightor couldbetrue. It does not claim

what is true.

If you work hard, then you will

get far in life.

I will go shopping if you loan

me the car.

"A Workbook for Arguments: A Complete Course in Critical Thinking [Paperback]." A Workbook for Arguments: A Complete Course in Critical Thinking: David Morrow, Anthony Weston:

9781603845496: Amazon.com: Books. N.p., n.d. Web. 23 May 2013.

Sinott-Armstrong, Walter, and Robert Fogelin. Understanding Arguments: An Introduction to Informal Logic. 8th ed. Australia: Wadsworth, 2010. Print.


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Evaluating a Claims Strength and Effectiveness

Once you learn to recognize an arguments claim, you should be able to determine how much or little the

writer is claiming. A claim can be broad or narrow, or somewhere in between. Please note, a broad claim is

not necessarily a good claim, nor is a narrow claim necessarily a bad one . Broad claims are more bold but

are also general and therefore typically difficult to prove. For example, Teachers alwaysassign homework

is a sweeping generalization and sounds like a strong claim. However, it is difficult to defend. Why? Oneneed only find a singleexample of a teacher who assigns nohomework to disprove the claim that teachers

alwaysassign homework.

On the other hand, Teachers often assign homework is easier to defend because it claims less. The words

always and usually make all the difference here. Always makes the claim appear stronger. Usually

makes the claim appear less strong and therefore easier to defend. Good writers guard their claims by

being careful not to generalize or make overstatements that can be easily disproven. Good writers are also

careful not to make their claims too narrow for fear of not saying anything significant. Strong claims are

usually so broad that they cannot be defended. Weak claims are usually not debatable and therefore do not

invite a defense.

In any case, the best claim is an accurate claim.

A strong and weak claim compared

CLAIM TOO STRONG:

All dogs are mean

CLAIM TOO WEAK:

Some dogs are mean sometimes.

Is too Broad Is too Narrow

Claims too Much Claims too Little

Impossible to Defend

Not Worth Debating

Easy to Defend

Not Worth Debating

PRACTICE: Know Your Strength! Fill in the blanks to make an accurate and meaningful claim. Be

sure to use words that guard against claiming too much:

__Few__ teachers at EGHS assign __difficult__ homework.

___________ teachers at EGHS assign __easy__ homework.

____________ dogs are ____________ mean.

____________ politicians ___________ lie.

___________ babies do not sleep through the night.


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Evaluating Evidence in Examples

Without examples such as facts and figures to illustrate your reasons, an argument has little credibility. Often it is important

to explain outright how the examples help illustrate your reasons and thus support your claim. It is best not to assume your

reader will make this connection on his or her own. You may already be familiar with this concept of stating assumptions as

a clincher. It is also known as grounds, warrant, or suppressed premise, or sub-claim.

PRACTICE: Provide examples for each of the claims you made above. If you cannot think of any examples, adjust theclaims strength until it is accurate and you can. Review the table below.

CLAIM REASON EXAMPLE STATED ASSUMPTIONS

Some teachers assign

too much homework...

...becausethey forget

that students have a life

outside of school.

For example, Mr.

Hammerhead requires

students to keep a written

log of every moment we

recycle in and out of

school.

Most people would agree that teens

have a right to social life outside of

school. Most teens would also find it

embarrassing to carry around a

notebook to social events. Since

teens will normally opt for social

acceptance over embarrassment, it

is not realistic or right for a teacher toexpect students to do this kind of

around-the-clock homework.

PRACTICE: Read the claim, reason, and example below. In the blank box, explain how the example indeed illustrates the

reason and proves the claim. See above for an example.


All women should be

prevented from joining

combat units

...because women

typically do not have the

strength or endurance

for combat.

For example, women

generally have weaker

upper-body strength, a

crucial requirement for

carrying a wounded soldier

off of the battlefield.

PRACTICE: Make a claim of your own, and provide a good reason supporting it with an example which illustrates your

reason. Explain the assumption that connects your example to your reason and claim.

CLAIM

State something youbelieve in strongly.

REASON

Provide a goodreason supporting

your claim.

EXAMPLE

State an example whichillustrates the reason.

STATED ASSUMPTIONS

Explain the assumption thatconnects your example to your

reason and claim.


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Annotating an Arguments Strength and Effectiveness

You can use the abbreviations below to indicate signal words for determining an arguments strength and effectiveness. You

might use the acronym GRADES X to help you remember the associated terms. Note: Words meanings depend on their

context. The common indicator words listed in the right column above are not guaranteed signals, so when in doubt use the

context to decide on how the word works in the writing.

TERM &

ABBREVIATION

MEANING EXAMPLES COMMON INDICATOR

WORDS

GUARDING

G

To guard is to protecta

claim from being

rejected.

Most freshmen grades improve by

mid-year.

She probably quit her job.

Note: Guarded claims usually require less

evidence than unguarded claims.

some many few

might may possibly

likely unlikely almost

nearly may

could be there is a

good chance..., etc.

RHETORICAL

DEVICE

R +/-

irony, sarcasm,

hyperbole, and other

literary language

Note: These may serve

any purpose and may

have positive or

negative connotations.

Going to the dentist is the worst thing in

the world! (hyperbole and E-)

Her face usually looks pretty as Snow

Whites. (simile, allusion, and E+)

[ varies ]

ASSURING

A

To assure is to

guaranteea claim is

true without providing a

reason.

Everyone knows that seniors slack off.

Trust me when I tell you that you are

wrong.

doctors agree... recent

studies have shown

I know for a fact that...

its common sense...

they say that...

take it from me...

DISCOUNTING

D

To discount is to reject

or refute a fact or

opinion.

His class ring looks nice,

but it is expensive.

His class ring is expensive

though it looks nice.

although even if but

nevertheless

though while

however nonetheless

even though... whereas

yet still etc.

EVALUATING

E +/-

To evaluate is tojudge

a fact or opinion

positively or negatively.

+ or -

Celia is too silly. E-

Your equation is idiotic. E-

Cool idea! E+

beautiful dangerous

wasteful sneaky sinful

sloppy cute smart, etc.

STATINGASSUMPTIONS

S

To explain how the theexamples indeed illustratethe reasons and supportthe claim.

EXEMPLIFYING

X

To exemplify is to

provide an example to

illustrate the reasons.

Celia is too silly. For example, she laughs

at funerals.

Your explanation is idiotic: Clearly, two

plus two equals donut is not sound math!

for example...


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Evaluating an Arguments Reasonableness

A claim is supported well if the relationship between the reasons makes sense. In other words, the reasons

supporting your claim must be logically related to each other-- the reasons must add up. The more the

reader accepts the writers argument as factually accurate and valid, the greater chance the reader will be

convinced.

A valid argument contains NO illogical reasoning. In other words, if you connect your reasons to your claimin a way that truly makes sense, you have made a logical argument. An argument is valid ONLY if there is

no way that the claim can be false when the supporting reasons are true. Nonetheless, a reader might find

some arguments to be more reasonable than others based on the number, type, specificity, and accuracy

of evidence used to support the opinion.

Consider Willie again for a moment:

Willie is a whale. All whales are mammals. Therefore, Willie is a mammal.

DISCUSS: Explain how these facts are related to each other:Willie is a whaleandAll whales are

mammals. How are these facts related to the claim that Willie is a mammal? Is there any way that

Willie could NOT be a mammal if its true that he is indeed a whale and that all whales are

mammals? Does the Willie argument contain any illogical reasoning? Is it a valid argument?

DISCUSS: Explain how these facts are related to each other: Penguins are black and white and

Some old TV shows are black and white. Is there any way that some penguins can NOT be old TV

shows even if its true that penguins are black and white and that some old TV shows are black and

white? What is the difference in reasoning between the Willie argument and the penguin argument?

Does the penguin argument contain any illogical reasoning? Is it a valid argument?


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Breaking an Argument: Fallacies in Reasoning

Remember, in a valid argument, the reasons and the claim add up. A fallacy in reasoning occurs when the

writer has connected the claim and reasons in a way that appears to make sense but really does not add up

An argument that relies on a fallacy is NOT valid. Keep in mind, however, if the reader does not recognize

the invalid argument, he or she may still be persuaded by the argument. Being able to recognize these

fallacies can help you to protect yourself against being convinced of something for the wrong reasons.

Basic Fallacies false cause? overlooking alternatives? Appeal to motive where a premise is dismissed by

calling into question the motives of its proposer

Some errors in logic a easy to spot with a little training.

FALLACY ALSO

KNOWN AS

WHAT IT MEANS

or DOES

EXAMPLE HOW TO FIX IT

ridiculing theclaim

appeal to ridicule Making fun of the claimitself rather than offering areason for disagreeing with

it.

That is the stupidest idea Ive everheard!

(That may be, but the speaker stillneeds to say why.)

The speaker should give a goodreason why the idea is bad.

attacking theperson

ad hominem Criticizing the personmaking the argumentinstead of the argumentitself.

That kid skateboards, andskateboarders are troublemakers,which is why I dont believeanything he just said.

The speaker should restate theboys claim and reasons and thenexplain why the boys reasonsmake no sense.

bandwagon ad populem Offering the reason thateveryone is doingsomething in place of alogical reason for doing it.

Everyone is jumping off the bridge.Thats a good enough reason forme to jump off too!

(Just because others are doingsomething isnt a good reason fordoing it.)

The speaker might have said,because the bridge is on fire, I will

jump off to save my life. This isclearly a good reason.

composition Assuming that what is trueof the part of somethingmust be true for it as awhole.

loadedlanguage

Playing on wordsconnotations and emotionsinstead of actually makingan argument.

the bullshorns

false dilemma

bifurcation

black-or-white

Reducing all possibleoptions to just twoopposing ones.

Either you are with the us, or youare with the terrorists. George W.Bush, 2001

Dont allow the speaker tooversimplify your options. Justbecause someone says there areonly two options doesnt

necessarily make it so. Forexample, Switzerland, a neutralcountry, could be neither forterrorism nor for the U.S.

slippery slope the camels nose Suggesting that one stepin a direction will inevitablylead to a chain of eventsresulting in an undesirableoutcome.

appeal to pity ad misericordiam Using pity reason forspecial treatment

The teacher should give me apassing grade because my dogdied last night.
http://www.google.com/url?q=http%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FAppeal_to_motive&sa=D&sntz=1&usg=AFQjCNFGPeML8kCmZjYHGFqhwl6P7iVlPA


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Intermediate Fallacies

loadedquestion

complex question Phrasing a question to trapthe person into agreeing toa claim.

Broseph, are you still beingmean to puppies?

(Answering no will still implythat Broseph has been mean topuppies, even if he hasnt.)

Broseph should not answer thequestion directly. Instead, he shouldcall out the speaker and dismiss herquestion by saying, You know verywell that I am neither mean, nor have Ihurt puppies. Stop trying to make me

look bad. Focus your disagreement onmy ideas instead.

appeal toignorance

ad ignorantiam Arguing a claim is true justbecause it has not beenshown to be false

appeal tohistory

ad antiquitam Offering the fact thatsomething has been donein the past as a reason forcontinuing to do it.

We drive on the right side ofthe road because its alwaysbeen done that way.

Just because something has beendone for a long time is not a goodreason for doing it. There may verywell be logical reasons for driving onthe right side of the road, so thespeaker should state them. ShirleyJacksons short story The Lotteryexposes this fallacy.

talking incircles

begging thequestion

circular argument

Using a claim as a reason. How do I know my mom isusually right? Because she tellsme so!

How does the speaker really know ifhis mom is usually right if he reliesonly on her opinion as proof? What ifher opinion is wrong? Then herreason must also be wrong too. Heshould provide many examples ofwhen his mom was right as proofinstead.

slippery word equivocation

hedging

Changing meanings of animportant word in themiddle of the argument.

Women and men are physicallyand emotionally different. SIncewe are not really equal, the lawshould not treat them equally.

Contrast the slippery word with theword of similar but different meaningwhich was left out of the originalargument. Here the slippery word isequally which the speaker wants usto believe means exactly the same

as opposed to its legal meaning,fairly. Rephrased properly, Sincewe are not really equal, the law shouldnot treat us fairly sounds suitablyridiculous. Vonneguts satirical shortstory Harrison Bergeron exposesthis fallacy.

More Difficult Fallacies

FALLACY ALSO KNOWN AS WHAT IT MEANS EXAMPLE HOW TO FIX IT

q therefore p affirming the consequent I If my phone is dropped,its screen cracks. Itsscreen is cracked, sosomeone must havedropped it!

The speaker should haverealized there were manyother ways his screencould have cracked.Maybe someone sat on it.

not p therefore not q denying the antecedent


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red herring Introducing a seeminglyrelated issue to take focusaway from the real issue.

false cause post hoc ergo propter hoc(after this therefore that),or simply, post hoc,correlation vs. causation

To quickly assumingsomething causedsomething else.

false cause

Straw Man Arguments: When you put a false argument into the mouth of your opponent and then proceed to

knock it down, you have only created a "straw man" argument,

overlooking alternatives

FALLACIES TBD...

ALSO TBD...

Relevant, short, kid-friendly arguments for practice annotation. See workbook examples. Also for

below see orange book shaded sheet for guide sheet for peer revision

SEE THE FALLACY DETECTIVE COMICS


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Some Common Rhetorical Devices and their Effects

Most good writers can learn to make logical arguments. The best writers, though, enhance their argument by being

thoughtful about the words and syntax (word order) they use.

What it is What it does

Allusion A reference outside the text to a specific event, person, place,

or object commonly known to the reader.

Fourscore and seven years ago our fathers brought forth on

this continent a new nation... dedicated to the proposition

that all men are created equal. Here, Lincoln alludes to the

Declaration of Independence.

Draws on the readers prior knowledge

to illustrate an idea.

Creates a sense of connectedness and

understanding with the reader.

Analogy A four-way comparison: e.g. teachers this school are likeguards in prisons.

Helps make abstract ideas more vivid

and understandable by connecting a

new concept to something the reader

already knows.

Euphemism Using a less-than-direct word or phrase.

We have come to dedicate a portion of that field as a final

resting placefor those who here gave their lives....

Clearly, the more direct word, graveyard, would add a sense

of morbidity inconsistent with Lincolns solemn tone.

Softens a notion or image a reader

might find distracting or too disturbing.

Hyperbole Exaggeration or overstatement

The world... can never forget what they did here.

Emphasizes a point. Be careful:

hyperbole can easily backfire as a

sweeping generalization.

Irony When a writer means the opposite of what she says. Establishes tone. May engage thereader through humor.

Parallelism Using the same grammatical structure in close proximity.

...that government ofthe people, bythe people, for the

people, shall not perish from the earth. Here there are three

prepositional phrases used to show the relationship among

the peoples relationship to the government:

Draws the readers attention to the

relationship between the items in

parallel.

Sensory

Imagery

Description which appeals to the writers sense of of taste,

touch, sound, sight, smell, balance, heat/cold.

Vivifies the meaning by stimulating the

brains sensory cortex.

Simile &

Metaphor

A simile is an indirect comparison using like or as. A

metaphor is a direct comparison using a linking verb (such as

is) or of (as in chains of oppression). Example:...this nation, under God, shall have a new birth of

freedom.

Helps make abstract ideas more vivid

and understandable by connecting the

writers new concept to something thereader already knows.

Tone The writers attitude or moral outlook toward the subject orreaders, e.g., cynical, empathetic, critical, idealistic, ironic,

optimistic, realistic, suspicious, comic, sarcastic, supportive

Contributes to the writers meaning by

complementing his meaning.

Repetition Can occur with letters (alliteration, assonance), words (epistrophe,chiasmus, epizeuxis), and phrases (anaphora).

...that government ofthe people, bythe people, forthe people,shall not perish from the earth.

Emphasizes an important point or

detail. Creates a hypnotic effect

opening the readers unconscious mind

to suggestion.


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Putting it All Together

DIRECTIONS: The passage below is a short piece arguing in support of a US "junk food tax." Read through the piece and

look for the different parts of the writers argument. ANNOTATE the article carefully in the margins. Afterwards, answer the

following questions on your own. Next, share your responses with a small group and compare what you hear with your

responses.

1. Which sentence(s) contain the authors claim?2. Her reasons?

3. Does the author use any guarding words to limit the claim?

4. What evidence does she provide to support her reasons? Is the evidence true? Is it strong?

5. What assumptions connect the claim to the reasons?

6. Does the author present any counterclaims?

7. How would you judge the quality of the argument overall? Is the reasoning valid? Are the reasons ordered

effectively? What is the most beautifully written sentence in your opinion?

Why We Should Tax Junk Food

With the alarming rise in obesity rates among Americans in the past few decades, numerous debates have

arisen over how (or if) public policy should be changed to help improve this trend. One promising strategy, already

adopted by seven states, has been to try and deter consumers from purchasing unhealthy foods through a tax on

soda or sugary drinks and junk food (Lohman). These taxes address the issue that Americans today are consuming

almost 20 percent more calories than they did in the early 1980s, and those calories are coming from increasingly

less-healthy sources, mainly high-fat and high-sugar processed foods (USDA). Furthermore, processed foods and

drinks are increasingly more affordable than the fruits, vegetables, and whole grains needed to sustain a healthy diet

(Marsh). Assuming that cost is a more relevant factor of food choice than personal taste, increasing the price of soda

and junk food through taxes, while using that revenue to subsidize unprocessed fruits and vegetables would

encourage consumers to choose healthier products as they become more affordable than their unhealthy

counterparts.

In fact, there is evidence to suggest that cost, more so than preference, influences purchasing choices. A year

after New York increased cigarette taxes from $1.25 to $2.75, smoking rates dropped by 12 percent to a historic low

(Harutyunyan). Although some might argue that smoking is more of a lifestyle choice than eating, it is rather the

choice of what foods to eat which will hopefully be affected in the long run. Additionally, this tax might hurt those in

areas with little access to fresh produce and whole grains, such as in low-income urban areas; therefore the junk

food tax would only work if healthy food choices are made not only affordable but easily available to low-income

consumers through the use of subsidies (Marsh). However, if precautions are taken to ensure equal access to healthy

food among all citizens, then using the carrot of subsidized healthy food and nutrition education along with the

stick of a food tax, the typical American diet can-- and should-- be changed for the better.


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ANSWERS

1. What is the authors claim?

The claim is stated in two places-- at the beginning of the piece, when the author states that the tax is a promisingstrategy against obesity. The claim is restated at the end, when the author writes using the carrot of subsidized

healthy food and nutrition education along with the stick of a food tax, the typical American diet can, and should, be

changed for the better.These two statements condense the main point which the author is trying to impart-- that a

junk food tax has a good chance of being successful and should be implemented.

2. Does the author limit the claim by using any guarding words?

The author guards her claim by addressing the issues brought up by lack of access to healthy options in her

restatement of the claim. Specifically, the qualifier appears as the statement however, if precautions are taken to

ensure equal access to healthy food among all citizens, then.... The claim is again stated as she continues with

using the carrot of subsidized healthy food and nutrition education along with the stick of a food tax, the typical

American diet can-- and should-- be changed for the better.

3. Where evidence does the author present in this essay?

The main evidence to support her claim is given in the form of statistics about food consumption in the US to

highlight the need for a program encouraging healthy food consumption. Specifically, she states Americans today

are consuming almost 20 percent more calories than they did in the early 1980s, and those calories are coming from

increasingly less-healthy sources, mainly high-fat and high-sugar processed foods. Furthermore, processed foods

and drinks are increasingly more affordable than the fruits, vegetables, and whole grains needed to fora healthy diet.

4. What assumptions (also known as suppressed premises, enthymemes, or warrants) connect the evidence to the claim?

Because the author is arguing that a tax on unhealthy food would encourage healthy food consumption, the

assumption linking evidence of unhealthy eating to the use of a food tax is that customers make purchasing

decisions largely on the basis of cost. This idea is explicitly stated when the author writes mentions that we might

assume cost is a more pertinent factor of food choice than personal taste .

5. Does the author present any counterclaims?

Yes, the author addresses two possible counterarguments by bringing them up, and then refuting them. She notes

that with regard to the legitimacy of comparing smoking to eating habits, some might argue that smoking is more of a

lifestyle choice than eating, it is rather the choice of what foods to eat which will hopefully be affected in the long run .

She also notes the issue of food deserts by writing additionally, this tax might hurt those in areas with little access to

fresh produce and whole grains, such as in low-income urban areas therefore the junk food tax would only work if

healthy food choices are made not only affordable but easily available to low-income consumers through the use of

subsidies (Marsh).

6. How would you judge to overall quality of this argument? Is the reasoning valid?

This answer dependents on your own analysis of the argument. However, there are many issues worth noting. The

evidence provided does explain that there is a trend in unhealthy eating, but does not give evidence for why this

trend is harmful, nor does it provide evidence for why this trend exists. The overall claim that a junk food tax should

be implemented would be stronger if evidence were given explaining the consequences of allowing this unhealthy

trend to continue also, the assumption that cost is a primary factor of food purchasing choices would be more valid if


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evidence was provided outlining other factors in this type of decision-making. Additionally, the rebuttal and qualifier

addressing the lack of accessibility to healthy food in low-income areas would be stronger if the author had

suggested specific measures by which the accessibility issue would be resolved.

"Writer's Web: Toulmin Model Exercise." Writer's Web: Toulmin Model Exercise. N.p., n.d. Web. 26 May 2013.

The Language of Argument

Writing an rgument

Short Arguments

Before writing an extended argument essay, it is best to begin practicing by writing a few short

arguments. Short arguments are only about two paragraphs long. Use the following rules to help

insure your short argument is logical and clear. Be sure to revise your work to insure you have used

elaboration strategies forfull effect.

Some General Guidelines

1. Identify your reasons and claims.

Ask yourself, What am I trying to prove? This is

your claim. Think of a claim as a mini-thesis.

(The reasons why you are claiming what you are

claiming are also known as proof or premises--

they will become your projected organization.)

2. Develop your ideas in a natural order. Put your claim first, followed by your reasons OR

put your reasons first and your claim last.

3. Start from good, reliable reasons. No matter how well you use logic and word

choice, your claim will appear silly if your reasons

are questionable.

4. Be concrete and concise when you use

examples for to illustrate your reasons.

Avoid generalities. Use clear examples to

illustrate and clarify your reasons. Dontover-elaborate or you will lose your audience.

5. Build on substance, not overtone. Offer actual reasons dont just rely on powerful

word choice or generalizations.

WRITE: Try it. Following the guidelines above write a two-paragraph letter to the editor a topic in the

news about which you have an opinion. Next, rewrite your argument and change the order you


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presented your reasons and claim. Which version is more natural and effective? Why?

"A Workbook for Arguments: A Complete Course in Critical Thinking [Paperback]."A Workbook for Arguments: A Complete Course in Critical Thinking: David

Morrow, Anthony Weston: 9781603845496: Amazon.com: Books. N.p., n.d. Web. 23 May 2013.

Useful Tips for Finding Fallacies in Your Own Writing

Good argument writing depends on clear, logical thinking. Fallacies are illogical. Here are some general

tips to improve your argument by finding and eliminating fallacies in your own arguments:

1) Pretend you disagree with the claim you are defending. What parts of the argument would

now seem fishy to you? What parts would seem easiest to attack? Give special attention to

strengthening those parts.

2) List your main points under each one, list the evidenceyou have for it. Seeing your claims

and evidence laid out this way may make you realize that you have no good evidence for a

particular claim, or it may help you look more critically at the evidence youre using.

3) Learn which types of fallacies you are especially prone to, and be careful to check for them

in your work. Some writers make many of appeals to authority others are more likely to rely on

weak analogies or set up straw men. Read over some of your old papers to see if theres a

particular kind of fallacy you need to watch out for.

4)Be aware that broad claims need more proof than narrow ones. Claims that use sweeping

words like all, no, none, every, always, never, no one, and everyone are sometimes

appropriatebut they require much more proof than less-sweeping claims that use words like

some, many, few, sometimes, usually, and so forth.

5) Double check your characterizations of others, especially your opponents, to be sure they are

accurate and fair.


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"Fallacies." The Writing Center. University of North Carolina, n.d. Web. 09 May 2013.


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Exploring Both Sides

Whether you use the classical or Rogerian approach, you MUST examine both sides of the argument when

pre-writing and drafting. Considering both sides of an argument in this way may help you determine where

your argument is strongest and where the opposing view is weakest, OR it may lead you to some common

ground between your position and the opposing viewpoint. In any case, exploring the counterclaim in this

way helps you appear more reasonable to your reader. Note the example below in which the writer has

done some pre-writing to consider both sides of the question of whether girls should be encouraged to playfirst-person-shooter video games.

Prompt: Should girls be encouraged to play first-person shooter video games?

One View... Opposing View...

CLAIM: First-person shooter video

games are GOOD for girls.

vs COUNTER-

CLAIM:

First-person shooter video

games are BAD for girls.

REASON

1

because beating guys at their own

game is empowering for girls.

vs. REASON

1

because they promote antisocial

values such as indiscriminatekilling.

REASON

2

because being skilled at these

games frees girls from feminine

stereotypes.

vs. REASON

2

because they amplify the bad

side of male stereotypes.

REASON

3

because they give girls a different

way of connecting with males.

vs. REASON

3

because they waste valuable

time that could have been spent

on something constructive.

REASON4

because they give girls newinsights into a male subculture.

vs. REASON4

because FPS games couldencourage women to see

themselves as objects.


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PRACTICE: For each blank, fill in a good reason for the opposing view to the claim that women should be

prevented from joining military combat units.

Prompt: Should women be allowed to join military combat units?


CLAIM: Women should be PREVENTED

from joining military combat units .

COUNTER

-CLAIM:

Women should be ALLOWED to

join combat units in the military.

REASON

1

Women typically do not have the

strength or endurance for combat.

REASON

1

???

REASON

2

Women in close-knit combat units

would hurt morale by introducing

sexual jealousies.

REASON

2

The image of women as combat

soldiers would help society overcome

harmful gender stereotyping.

REASON

3

Women have not been socialized into

fighters and wouldnt have the

kill-em-with-a-bayonet spirit that men

can get.

REASON

3

???

REASON

4

Women would be less reliable to a

combat unit if they became pregnant

or had to care for infants or small

children.

REASON

4

Women would have more

opportunities for promotions if they

could serve in combat units.

REASON

5 ???

REASON

5

Allowing women to serve in combat

units promotes equal rights.


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Counter-Argument Excerpted from The Academic Essay: A Brief Anatomy by Gordon Harvey

When you counter-argue, you consider a possible argument againstyour thesiss claim or some aspect of

your reasoning. This strategy is a good way to test your ideas when drafting. In the finished essay, it can be

a persuasive and disarming tactic. It allows you to anticipate doubts and head off objections that a skeptical

reader might have. It also enhances your credibility because it presents you as the kind of person who

weighs alternatives before arguing for one, who confronts difficulties instead of sweeping them under the

rug, and who is more interested in discovering the truth than winning a point.

The Turn Against

Counter-argument in an essay has two stages: you turn against your argument to challenge it and then you

turn back to reaffirm it. You first imagine a skeptical reader who might resist your argument by pointing out

a problem with your demonstration, e.g. that a different conclusion could be drawn from the same

facts, a key assumption is unwarranted, a key term is used unfairly, certain evidence is ignored or

played down

one or more disadvantages or practical drawbacks to what you propose

an alternative explanation or proposal that makes more sense.

You introduce this turn against with a phrase like One might object here that... or It might seem that...or It's

true that... or Admittedly,... or Of course,...or with an anticipated challenging question: But how...? orBut

why...?or But isn't this just...? orBut if this is so, what about...?Then you state the case against yourself as

briefly but as clearly and forcefully as you can, pointing to evidence where possible.

The Turn Back

Your return to your own argumentwhich you announce with a transitional word such asbut, yet, however,

nevertheless or stillmust likewise involve careful reasoning, not a simple dismissal. In reasoning about the

proposed counter-argument, you may

refute it, showing why it is mistakenan apparent but not real problem acknowledge its validity or plausibility, but suggest why on balance it's relatively less important or

less likely than what you propose, and thus doesn't overturn it

concede its force and complicate your idea accordinglyrestate your thesis in a more exact,

qualified, or nuanced way that takes account of the objection, or start a new section in which you

consider your topic in light of it.

Where to Put a Counter-Argument

Counter-arguments most commonly appear

as part of your introductionbefore you propose your claim or thesiswhere the existence of a

different view is the motive for your essay, the reason it needs writing as a section or paragraph just after your introduction, in which you lay out the expected reaction or

standard position before turning away to develop your own

as a quick move within a paragraph, where you imagine a counter-argument not to your main idea

but to the sub-idea that the paragraph is arguing or is about to argue

as a section or paragraph just before the conclusion of your essay, in which you imagine what

someone might object to what you have argued.

WRITE: Using the turn against and turn toward steps above, write a counter-argument refuting

why women should NOT be allowed in combat units (see previous example).


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Illustrating your Reasons with Examples and Stating your Assumptions

While counter-arguments are especially helpful in establishing your credibility, without examples such as

facts and figures to illustrate your own argument for your reader, your argument will fall flat. It is also

important to state outright how these examples help illustrate your reasons and support your claim. Never

assume your reader will make this connection on his or her own. It is also a good idea to determine which

assumptions are not shared by you and your audience. By stating these assumptions outright, you answer

the question, So what? for the reader. In this way, the reader will see you have solid grounds for yourclaim whether or not he agrees with your claim. (The assumption that ties your claim and evidence together

is also known as grounds, a suppressed premise, enthymeme, or warrant. In your essay, it will often appear

in your clincher.)

The tables below illustrate how stating an assumption makes the examples purpose clear in supporting the

argument. Notice how the stated assumption clearly calls back to the claim and reason using their exact

phrasing (these call back words are italicized).

CLAIM REASON EXAMPLE STATED ASSUMPTION

So what? How does the example tie the

reason and claim together?

Some teachers assign

too much homework...

...because they

forget that

students have a

life outside of

school.

For example, Mr.

Hammerhead

requires students

to carry a notebook

and keep a written

log in a notebook of

every time we

recycle.

Most people would agree that teens

have a right to social life outside of

schooland teens would find it

embarrassing to carry around a

notebook to social events. Since

teens will normally opt for social

acceptance over embarrassment, it

is not realistic or right for a teacherto expect students to do this kind of

around-the-clock homework.


Women should be

prevented from joining

combat units

...because

women typically

are not strong

enough for

combat.

For example,

women generally

have weaker

upper-body

strength, a crucial

requirement for

carrying a wounded

soldier off of the

battlefield.

Clearly men weigh significantly more

than women. It would be wrong to

jeopardize wounded mens lives by

reducing the number of those strong

enough to lift and carry these heavy,

wounded men to safety. Being fair to

women by letting them join the

infantry means being unfair to men

who would die on the battlefield as a

result, which is why women should

be preventedfrom joiningcombat

units.


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PRACTICE: Make a claim about something you believe and provide a good reason supporting your

claim. State an example which illustrates your reason. Explain the assumption that connects your

example to your reason and claim. Use the table below to help you develop your ideas.

CLAIM

State something you

believe in strongly.

REASON

Provide a good

reason supportingyour claim.

EXAMPLE

State an example

which illustrates thereason.

STATE YOUR

ASSUMPTIONS

So what? Explain how the exampleties the reason and claim together.

Circle the words that call back to

your claim and reason.


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GRAPHIC ORGANIZERS FOR EXTENDED ARGUMENTS

Getting Started with Claims, Reasons, and Counterclaims

1. Decide on an issue for an extended argument essay you would like to write (e.g., first-person-shooter

video games). Make sure its a debatable issue that reasonable people could disagree on.

2. Write a one-sentence question that summarizes the controversial issue your claim addresses (e.g.,

Should girls be allowed to play first-person-shooter video games?). This will be your prompt forwriting.

3. Draft a working thesis statement (claim) for your proposed argument.

4. List several bulleted because statements for your reasons (two to four is sufficient). NOTE: A claim

CANNOT be supported by other opinions unless accepted by the reader as fact (e.g., a doctors

opinion, an experts opinion, etc.).

5. Draft a working opposing thesis statement (counter-claim).

6. List several bulleted because statements as counter-reasons.

7. Freewrite for several minutes exploring your own feelings and thoughts about the reasons on both

sides. Try not to finalize your position until you finish writing. Keep an open mind.

8. Decide on a side to argue and finalize your position. Write your claim.

9. Finalize your reasons and list them. Make sure they are good ones. Order your reasons in a way

that make the most sense.

10. Finalize your counter-claim and counter-reasons. List them using the chart below:

PROMPT : __________________________________________________________________________ ?


CLAIM: vs. COUNTER

-CLAIM:

REASON

1

> because... vs. REASON

1

> because...

REASON

2


2

> because...

REASON3

> because.. vs. REASON3

*> because...

REASON

4


4

> because...


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Developing your Argument Further: Examples and Assumptions

1. For each reason you provided above, list at least one example which illustrates the reason.

2. Next, state how the example indeed helps prove your point.

3. Use the table below as many times as needed to elaborate on your reasons convincingly.

Restate your Claim:

_______________________________________________________________________

REASON 1

Provide a good reason

supporting your claim.

EXAMPLE

State an example which illustrates

the reason.

STATE YOUR ASSUMPTION

So what? Explain how the example ties the

reason and claim together. Circlethe words

that call back to your claim and reason.

REASON 2



EXAMPLE


the reason.


So what? Explain how the example ties thereason and claim together. Circlethe words



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REASON 3



EXAMPLE


the reason.





REASON 4



EXAMPLE


the reason.






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Strategizing and Organizing: Classical or Rogerian Structure?

Decide whether the classical or Rogerian strategy is best suited for your essays purpose, occasion, and

audience. Next, fill out the appropriate brainstorming sections for EITHER the Classical or Rogerian plans

below. To help you brainstorm, use the claims, reasons, counterclaims, examples, and stated assumptions

you have already developed.

Classical Organizer

SECTION(each of the five sections may consist of more

than one paragraph)

BRAINSTORM HERE...

Introduce your topic

(one to several paragraphs)

> Begin with an attention grabbing hook (e.g.,

a memorable scene)

> Explain the issue and needed background> State claim (thesis) and projected

organization (arguments)

Present your position

> This is the main body of the essay.

> Present and support each reason in order.

> Tie each reason to a value or belief held by

the audience.

Summarize opposing views

> Summary of views differing from writers

(opposing views should be fair and

complete).

Respond to opposing views

> Dismiss or concede to opposing views.

> Show weaknesses in opposing views.> May concede to some strengths.

Conclude

> Summarize the argument briefly.

> Leave a strong lasting impression.

> Calls for an action or relate topic to the

broader world of ideas.


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Rogerian Organizer

BRAINSTORM HERE...

Introduce your topic

State the problem you hope to resolve. By

presenting your issue as a problem, raise the

possibility of positive change. Try to state why

opponents will want to solve the same problem.

Summarize Opposing Views

As accurately and neutrally as possible, state

the views of the people with whom you

disagree. By doing this you show that you are

capable of listening without judging and have

given a fair hearing to people who thinkdifferently from you.

Show You Understand the Opposition

Also called the statement of validity. Show that

you understand that there are situations in

which the opposing views are valid. Which

parts of the opposing arguments do you

concede? Under which conditions might you

share these views?

Make your Claim

Now that readers have seen that youve given

full consideration to views other than your own,

they should be prepared to listen fairly to your

views. State your position.

Guard your Claim

Describe situations in which you hope your

views will be honored. By showing that your

position is reasonable in specific contexts, yourecognize that people wont agree with you all

of the time. However, opponents are allowed to

agree in part and share common ground.

State the Benefits

Appeal to the self-interest of your opponents by

The Language of Argument for Teachers and Students

Documents

Transcript of The Language of Argument for Teachers and Students