The Keys to Success?The Keys to Success?Learning Experience Learning Experience

and Proficiency in and Proficiency in English.English.

Giles Witton-DaviesGiles Witton-DaviesNational Taiwan University National Taiwan University

DFLLDFLL

TopicTopic

Age, experience and input in Age, experience and input in language learning.language learning.

Differences between learners in Differences between learners in their English learning history, their English learning history, and how these differences and how these differences correlate with proficiency in correlate with proficiency in reading, vocabulary and reading, vocabulary and speaking.speaking.

TopicTopic (cont.) (cont.)

Is more necessarily better? More Is more necessarily better? More what? what?

Based on earlier study (2006), Based on earlier study (2006), but more subjects and applied to but more subjects and applied to speaking as well as reading and speaking as well as reading and vocabulary.vocabulary.

Anecdotal evidenceAnecdotal evidence

High proficiency students who High proficiency students who have studied less.have studied less.

Low proficiency students who Low proficiency students who have studied morehave studied more

Those who have lived abroad Those who have lived abroad usually have a good level, usually have a good level, especially in oral abilityespecially in oral ability..

FactorsFactors considered in this considered in this studystudy

Age startedAge started Out of school studyOut of school study Travel / study abroadTravel / study abroad Communication with friendsCommunication with friends

FactorsFactors in this study in this study (cont.)(cont.)

Native speaker teachersNative speaker teachers Other second/ foreign languages Other second/ foreign languages

spokenspoken Opportunities to speak, read, Opportunities to speak, read,

write outside formal classeswrite outside formal classes

““English fever”English fever”

Belief in the importance of ……Belief in the importance of ……

early start early start lots of class timelots of class time native speaker teachersnative speaker teachers

…………if English is to be learned if English is to be learned successfullysuccessfully..

The Age FactorThe Age Factor

Early start leads to higher ultimate Early start leads to higher ultimate attainment inattainment in second language second language contexts.contexts.

Evidence very mixed on Evidence very mixed on foreignforeign languagelanguage contexts. contexts.

DeKeyser (2000): Critical period applies DeKeyser (2000): Critical period applies only to only to implicitimplicit learning, not learning, not explicitexplicit learning.learning.

Burstall (1975): Early start with French at Burstall (1975): Early start with French at school in the UK did not appear to lead to school in the UK did not appear to lead to higher levels of proficiency later on.higher levels of proficiency later on.

The Power of ReadingThe Power of Reading

Reading as a source of Reading as a source of comprehensible input (Krashen comprehensible input (Krashen 2004).2004).

Reading as an alternative to Reading as an alternative to traditional classes (Lee, Mason).traditional classes (Lee, Mason).

Reading best predictor of Reading best predictor of proficiency (Witton-Davies 2006).proficiency (Witton-Davies 2006).

Availability of reading materialsAvailability of reading materials

A similar study...A similar study...

Gradman H. & Hanania (1991). ESL at Gradman H. & Hanania (1991). ESL at Indiana University, USA.Indiana University, USA.

Investigates 33 factors involved in Investigates 33 factors involved in language learning: formal leaning, language learning: formal leaning, classroom exposure, extracurricular classroom exposure, extracurricular learning, attitude & motivation.learning, attitude & motivation.

ReadingReading main predictor of success. main predictor of success. Also important: Also important: NSTs, use of English as NSTs, use of English as

classroom language, intensive English classroom language, intensive English programs. programs.

This studyThis study 118 first year English Students, National 118 first year English Students, National

Taiwan University 2004,5,7Taiwan University 2004,5,7

Intermediate – upper int – advanced Intermediate – upper int – advanced levelslevels

Data:Data: Questionnaire on English experience.Questionnaire on English experience. Reading test: Advanced level GEPT.Reading test: Advanced level GEPT. Nation’s vocabulary diagnostic tests.Nation’s vocabulary diagnostic tests. Oral class levels.Oral class levels.

QuestionnaireQuestionnaire

Age at which started learning Age at which started learning English.English.

Whether studied at a cram Whether studied at a cram school, and for how long.school, and for how long.

Whether studied with a private Whether studied with a private tutor, and for how long.tutor, and for how long.

Whether had native speaker Whether had native speaker teachers. How long?teachers. How long?

Questionnaire (cont.)Questionnaire (cont.)

Whether has communicated Whether has communicated with a friend in English. How with a friend in English. How long? long?

Whether travelled abroad. How Whether travelled abroad. How long? long?

Out of class listening/ speaking/ Out of class listening/ speaking/ reading/ writing: no. of years; reading/ writing: no. of years; how often; for how long.how often; for how long.

AnalysisAnalysis

Statistical correlation: Statistical correlation: Pearson product moment Pearson product moment

correlation between proficiency correlation between proficiency measures and each factor.measures and each factor.

Multiple regressionMultiple regression

Top predictors of reading Top predictors of reading proficiency; n=118proficiency; n=118

BetaBeta tt Sig.Sig.

ReadingReading .387 .387 4.664 4.664 .000**.000**

NSTNST .235 .235 2.743 2.743 .007* .007*

cramcram -.153 -.153 -1.772 -1.772 .079 .079

Top predictors of reading Top predictors of reading proficiency; n=80proficiency; n=80

BetaBeta tt Sig.Sig.

ReadingReading .321 .321 2.892.89 .005**.005**

NSTNST .283 .283 2.602.60 .011*.011*

L2L2 -.251-.251 -2.40-2.40 .019* .019*

speakspeak -.239-.239 -1.87 -1.87 .066 .066

Top predictors of vocabulary Top predictors of vocabulary proficiency, N=118proficiency, N=118

betabeta tt Sig.Sig.

ReadingReading . 304. 304 3.482 3.482 .001**.001**

WritingWriting .263.263 2.913 2.913 .004**.004**

Lang Lang schoolschool

-.162-.162 -1.978-1.978 .050*.050*

Top predictors of speaking Top predictors of speaking proficiency N=118proficiency N=118

betabeta tt sigsig

time time abroad abroad

.319 .319 3.918 3.918 .000**.000**

reading reading .261 .261 3.246 3.246 .002**.002**

speaking speaking .227 .227 2.760 2.760 .007* .007*

Top predictors of speaking Top predictors of speaking proficiency: n=80 proficiency: n=80

betabeta tt sigsig

SLSL -.333-.333 3.531 3.531 .001**.001**

time time abroad abroad

.268.268 2.542 2.542 .013*.013*

reading reading .230 .230 2.400 2.400 .019 *.019 *

NST NST .183.183 1.768 1.768 .081.081

Factors correlated with Factors correlated with Reading proficiency:Reading proficiency:

Strongest: Strongest: • reading*; native speaker reading*; native speaker

teacher*; (writing, speaking)teacher*; (writing, speaking)Negative: Negative: • cram school, SL*cram school, SL*Weakest correlations:Weakest correlations:• age; cram school; tutorage; cram school; tutor

* = significant* = significant

Factors correlated with Factors correlated with vocabulary proficiency:vocabulary proficiency:

Strongest: Strongest: • reading*reading*• writing*writing*

NegativeNegative• cram school*cram school*

Weakest: Weakest: • age, time abroad, NSTage, time abroad, NST

* = significant* = significant

Factors correlated with Factors correlated with speaking proficiency:speaking proficiency:

Strongest: Strongest: • time abroadtime abroad**• reading*reading*• speaking*speaking*

Weakest: Weakest: • tutor, age, cram schooltutor, age, cram school

* = significant* = significant

ConclusionConclusion

Not helpful:Not helpful: Early start or cram school if Early start or cram school if

traditional teaching methods used.traditional teaching methods used.Helpful:Helpful: ReadingReading Time abroadTime abroad Comprehensible inputComprehensible input

ReferencesReferences Burstall, C. (1975). Factors affecting foreign language learning: Burstall, C. (1975). Factors affecting foreign language learning:

a consideration of some recent research findings. a consideration of some recent research findings. Language Language teaching and research abstractsteaching and research abstracts 8, 5:25. Reprinted in Kinsella 8, 5:25. Reprinted in Kinsella (ed.) (1978) (ed.) (1978) Language teaching and Linguistics SurveysLanguage teaching and Linguistics Surveys. . Cambridge: CUP.Cambridge: CUP.

Gradman, H. & Hanania, E. (1991). Language-learning Gradman, H. & Hanania, E. (1991). Language-learning background factors and ESL proficiency. background factors and ESL proficiency. Modern Language Modern Language JournalJournal 75, 1991: 39-51. 75, 1991: 39-51.

Krashen, S. (2004). The Power of Reading (2Krashen, S. (2004). The Power of Reading (2ndnd edition). edition). Portsmouth NH: Heinemann. Portsmouth NH: Heinemann.

Lee, S.Y. (2005a). Facilitating and inhibiting factors in English Lee, S.Y. (2005a). Facilitating and inhibiting factors in English as a foreign language writing performance. A model test with as a foreign language writing performance. A model test with structural equation modeling. structural equation modeling. Language LearningLanguage Learning 55 (2): 335- 55 (2): 335-374.374.

Lee, S.Y. (2005b). Sustained silent reading using assigned Lee, S.Y. (2005b). Sustained silent reading using assigned reading: Is comprehensible input enough? reading: Is comprehensible input enough? The International The International Journal of Foreign Language TeachingJournal of Foreign Language Teaching, 1(4): 10-13. , 1(4): 10-13. http://www.tprstories.com/ijflt/ IJFLTFall05.http://www.tprstories.com/ijflt/ IJFLTFall05.

Mason, B. and Krashen, S. (1997). “Extensive reading in Mason, B. and Krashen, S. (1997). “Extensive reading in English as a foreign language.” English as a foreign language.” SystemSystem 25: 91-102. 25: 91-102.

Witton-Davies, G. (2006). What does it take to acquire English? Witton-Davies, G. (2006). What does it take to acquire English? The International Journal of Foreign Language TeachingThe International Journal of Foreign Language Teaching, 1(4): , 1(4): 2-8. http://www.tprstories.com/ijflt/ IJFLTFall06.2-8. http://www.tprstories.com/ijflt/ IJFLTFall06.