MattSchumann

HonorsThesis

ReligiousStudies

FromClassicalOrdertoContemporaryChaos:AStudyoftheInternet’sEffectonFatwasin

Islam

Abstract

Thispaperexploresthechangesinthestructureofifta’asaresultoftheintroductionofthe

InternetasamediumforthedisseminationofIslamiclegalopinions.Theinvestigationbegins

withasurveyofcurrentscholarshipontherelationshipbetweentheInternetandIslam.The

paperthenmovestoestablishanunderstandingofclassicalifta’thatiscomparedwiththe

ifta’presentincontemporarymedia.Thefinalsectionofthepaperillustratesthecrisisofifta’

intheMuslimworldasaresultoftheintroductionoftheInternetandotherformsof

contemporarymedia.Intheconclusiontheauthordetailshisownsolutiontothisproblem.

NoteonTranslationsandTransliterations

ThispapercitesanumberofArabiclanguagesources.Theauthorusestransliterationsofthe

sources’titlesinhiscitations.Theseandothertransliterationsfollowtheguidelinesofthe

InternationalJournalofMiddleEasternStudies.

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ThequestionofhowtheInternetaffectsreligionhasbeendebatedsincetheearly

1990s.1Whileitisbeyondthescopeofthispapertoprovideacomprehensivereviewof

thisfieldofscholarship,itisappropriatetohighlightafewtheoreticaltrends.Firstisthe

discussionofreligion’srelationshipwithtechnology.AsAnastasiaKaraflogkapointsout,it

iscommontothinkofreligionasbeingopposedtotechnology.However,thisbeliefis

almostentirelyfalse.2AlexisKortnotesthatchangesintechnologyhavehadhugeimpacts

onreligionsinthepast.Themostnotablewouldbetheprintingpressanditsroleinthe

ProtestantReformation.3Mediatechnologyisespeciallyimportanttoreligions.Inthe

UnitedStates,EvangelicalChristianshavebeenespeciallyadeptatusingmassmediato

spreadtheirreligiousmessage.Itissafetosaythatanyproselytizingfaithwillutilize

whatevermeansareavailabletospreaditsbeliefs.

TheInternetisaveryuniquemassmedium.Unliketelevisionorradio,theInternet

isinteractive.Ratherthanjustreceivingamessage,userscanparticipateindiscussionsand

connectwithoneanother.AnyonewithanInternetconnectioncanaccesswebsites,

commentonarticles,orcreatetheirownwebpages.Thisinteractiveenvironmentiscalled

cyberspace.Whilevariousdefinitionsofcyberspaceexist,Karaflogkanotesthatits

“capacitytoreshape,reorganizeandrestructureeveryaspectofbothsocialandpersonal

lifehasbeenthecommondenominatorinthediscourses[aboutit].”4Scholarsacceptthe

potentialfortheInternetandcyberspacetodramaticallyalterthe‘traditional’socialand

religiousorderineveryway.

1AnastasiaKaraflogka,E­Religion:ACriticalAppraisalofReligiousDiscourseontheWorldWideWeb(London,Equinox,2006),112Ibid.,1003AlexisKort,“Daral­DyberIslam:Women,DomesticViolence,andtheIslamicReformationontheWorldWideWeb”,JournalofMuslimMinorityAffairs25,no3(December,2005),3634Karaflogka,112

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IftheInternethastheabilitytoaffect“everyaspect”ofasocietyorareligion,howis

itchangingIslam?OnewaytheInternethasalteredpreexistingsocialstructuresisby

openingpreviouslyclosedsystems.WecanseethisinthepopularityofWikipedia,an

encyclopediathatanyInternetusercanedit,andintheexplosionofself‐publication,

manifestintheubiquityofblogs.IhavechosentoexplorethenatureofInternetfatwas5

becausetheinstitutionofifta’6isoneexampleofaclosedsysteminIslam.Bythispaper’s

conclusionIhopetohavedemonstratedhowtheInternethasopenedthetraditional

structureofifta’.

Beforemovingfurther,itisimportanttonotethetextsthatprovidedthemosthelp

tothispaper.Dr.WaelHallaq’sAuthority,ContinuityandChangeinIslamicLawwas

extremelyhelpfulindescribingthenuancesofclassicalifta’.Dr.GaryBunt’sworksIslamin

theDigitalAgeandiMuslims:RewiringtheHouseofIslamwerealsohelpfulinproviding

theoriesontheimpactoftheInternetonIslam.Additionally,Mohammedel‐Nawawy’sand

SaharKhamis’IslamDotComtowasequallyhelpful.IwasalsoinfluencedbyAlexisKort’s

paperDaral­CyberIslam:Women,DomesticViolenceandtheIslamicReformationonthe

WorldWideWeb.ThispaperalsomadeuseofArabiclanguagesources,particularlyDr.

UsamaUmaral‐Ashqar’sFawda‘l­ifta’.Othersourcesarecitedinmypaperandappear

withtheseinthebibliography.

Thepaperisorderedasfollows.IntheIntroductionisabriefliteraturereviewto

provideanoverviewandcriticalappraisalofcurrentscholarshiponIslam’swebpresence.

5TheEncyclopediaofIslamdefinesfatwaasan“opiniononapointoflaw.”E.Tyan,J.R.Walsh"Fatwā."EncyclopaediaofIslam,SecondEdition,ed.P.Bearman,Th.Bianquis,C.E.Bosworth,E.vanDonzelandW.P.Heinrichs.Brill:2010.http://www.brillonline.nl.ezproxy.rice.edu/subscriber/entry?entry=islam_COM‐0219156TheEncyclopediaofIslamdefinesifta’as“[t]heactofgivingafatwa.”Ibid.

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Followingisadiscussionofmyresearchmethodologyandsources.Afterthisisa

discussionofifta’inclassicalIslamicLaw,whichwillcontainatypologyoftheclassical

muftiandhisetiquette.AdiscussionoftheinfluenceoftheInternetandothermassmedia

onifta’follows,illustratingMuslimconcernswiththedemocratizationofthisinstitution.

Thepaper’sconclusiondiscussestheimplicationsofthecurrentstateofifta’,itseffecton

Islamandhowthesituationcanberemedied.

LiteratureReview

WhetherornottheInternetishavingaliberalizingeffectonmodernIslamic

thoughtisacommonconcernofWesternscholars.Kortopensherpaperwiththequestion:

“IsIslamgoingthroughaReformation?”7SheproceedstoarguethattheInternethas

reopenedthedoorsofijtihad8inIslam,allowingforthecreationofnew,diverse

interpretationsofIslam’ssacredtexts.

Buntwasthefirsttomakethisargument.Karaflogkacreditshisearlyworkas“the

firstacademicexplorationofaparticularreligionwithin[informationcommunication

technologies].”9Hecoinedthephrase“cyberIslamicenvironments”todescribeIslamic

expressiononlineandIslamiccyberspace.Heredefinestheterminhissecondbook,Islam

intheDigitalAge(2003):

[Thisis]anumbrellatermwhichcanrefertoavarietyofcontexts,

perspectivesandapplicationsofthemediabythosewhodefinethemselves

asMuslims.ThesemaycontainelementsofspecificMuslimworldviewsand

notionsofexclusivity,combinedwithregionalandculturalunderstandingsof

7Kort,3638Ijtihadreferstoindependentjuristicreasoning.9Karaflogka,42

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themediaanditsvalidity.Thesepronouncementshaveoftenbeentempered

witharealism,whichrecognizesaneedtohaveavoiceincyberspacein

ordertopropagatevaluesandviewswithintheinformationmarketplace.10

ThistermisveryusefulinestablishingabasicunderstandingofIslamicexpressiononline.

ThreecharacteristicsareclearfromBunt’sdescription.Thefirstisthatthisexpressionis

notnecessarilyreligiousinnature.Hisdefinitionappliesto“pronouncements”madeby

thosewhoidentifyasMuslims,whetherthisexpressionisreligiousinnatureisnot

necessarilyimportanttoBunt.Second,thisexpressionisinevitablydiverse,asitrepresents

“regional”perspectives.Last,hemakesclearthatMuslimsacknowledgetheInternet’svalue

asamedium,whichindicateshowIslamisnotnecessarilyanti‐technologicalinitsoutlook.

BeyondadefinitionofthisIslamiccyberspace,Buntisconcernedwithhow

traditionalnotionsofauthorityhavebeenalteredbytheInternet.Heacknowledgeshow

traditionalconceptsofscholarlyauthorityinIslamhavechangedduetotheopennessand

accessibilityoftheInternet.ThepopularityofreligiousinformationontheInternetisnot

necessarilydeterminedbyitsadherencetotraditionalvalues.Prominenceonsearch

enginesandtheuseofkeywordscandeterminehowmanypeopleviewawebpage.When

itcomestofatwas,anInternetmuftidoesnothavetoadheretotraditionalqualifications;

hislackofeducation,forexample,maybeanon‐factorinhispopularity,orhemaybe

popularpreciselyduetohisdistancefromtraditionalschoolsofthought.IniMuslims:

RewiringtheHouseofIslam(2009),Buntgoesfurther,providinganewsetof

‘qualifications’forInternetmuftis.Hestatesthatpersonalstatusandpossessionofbaraka11

10GaryBunt,IslamintheDigitalAge,(PlutoPress,2003),511TheEncyclopediaofIslamdefinesbarakaasablessingbestowedonpeoplebyGodthatcancauseprosperityandhappiness.G.S.Colin,“Baraka”,EncyclopaediaofIslam,SecondEdition,ed.P.Bearman,Th.

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areimportantindeterminingascholar’sstatusonline,aswellashissite’sprominenceon

searchengines.12Thislatterpointemphasizeshowascholar’stechnologicalliteracycanan

importantfactorindetermininghisstatureinaglobal,wiredreligiouscommunity.

ThoughBuntacknowledgesthatthereis“nosingleparadigmof‘reform’”,13itis

clearthatthetreatmentoftraditionallyunqualifiedindividualsasreligiousauthoritiesis

seentoindicateIslamicreform.HeadoptsJonAnderson’sconceptof“creolizeddiscourse”

tofurtherthispoint.Thisisdefinedas:

[Onlineinteractionscreate]a‘missingmiddle’betweentheIslamof

intellectualssubjecttotextualanalysis(ofthought)andIslamofthefolkor

massesmorelikelytobeexaminedintermsofsocialforces.14

Anderson’sconceptdescribesthecreationofanewintellectualmiddleclassinIslamthat,

unliketraditionalscholars,willtake“socialforces”intoconsiderationwhendetermining

religiousprinciples.Thefactthatthishasbeen“missing”impliesadisconnectbetweenthe

traditionalreligiouseliteandthepeople,somethingalsoidentifiedbyel‐Nawawyand

Khamis.15Additionally,AndersonclearlystatesthattheInternetalonehasfacilitatedthis

connectionbetweenscholarsandaveragebelievers.BelowwewillseethatAnderson’s

concept,anditsadoptionbyBunt,isproblematic.Thoughhisworkisimperfect,Bunt’s

researchisthebestthatexistsinthisparticularfieldofstudy.

Mohammedel‐Nawawy’sandSaharKhamis’IslamDotComismorepolitically

focusedthanBunt’swork,andtheirresearchismoredetailed.IslamDotComfocuseson

Bianquis,C.E.Bosworth,E.vanDonzelandW.P.Heinrichs.Brill:2010.http://www.brillonline.nl.ezproxy.rice.edu/subscriber/entry?entry=islam_SIM‐121612GaryBunt,iMuslims:RewiringtheHouseofIslam,(UniversityofNorthCarolinaPress,2009),3213Bunt,“IslamintheDigitalAge”,12914Anderson,inBunt,“iMuslims”,1815Seediscussionbelow

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analyzingdiscourseonseveralpopularIslamicdiscussionforums.Theirpurposeisto

investigatewhetherornottheInternetishelpingtocreateanIslamic“publicsphere”

comparabletothatlaidoutbyJurgenHabermas.16Todoso,theresearchersconducted

qualitativeanalysisofthepostsonthreeprominentIslamicwebsites.

MuchlikeAnderson’s“creolizeddiscourse”,el‐NawawyandKhamisidentifythe

Islamic‘publicsphere’asasortofintermediarybetweenaverageMuslimsandthereligious

elite.Thiselite,isthe‘ulama17,whohavetraditionallyheldauthorityinIslam.18The

authorsnotea“disconnect”presentbetweenMuslimyouthsandthe‘ulama.Intothisvoid

come“‘newreligiousintellectuals’”,19likethepopularpreacherAmrKhaled.Laterinthe

text,theyassertthattraditionalMuslimsscholarshave“failedtounderstandthementality

oftheyoungMuslimsortogaintheirtrust.”20TheInternetenablestheseyouth,tocreate

theirownsolutionstotheirreligiousproblems,eitherbyfollowingtheideasofnon‐

traditionalreligiousfiguresorbyarrivingtoconclusionsontheirown.Thelatterconceptis

describedas“e‐ijtihad”bytheauthors,andischronicledinthediscussionforumthreads

theyanalyzeintheirtext.21

InAlexisKort’spaperDaral­CyberIslam:Women,DomesticViolenceandtheIslamic

ReformationontheWorldWideWeb,theauthorinvestigatestheimpactoftheInterneton

Islamictheology,specificallyissuesofdomesticviolence.Heranalysisfocusesonthe

responsesofseveralIslamicwebsitestoQur’anicversesandreligioustraditionsthathave

16Mohammedel‐NawawyandSaharKhamis,IslamDotCom:ContemporaryIslamicDiscoursesinCyberspace,(PalgraveMacmillan,2009),617‘Ulamaisthepluraloftheword‘alimwhichliterallymeans‘onewhoknows’.The‘ulamaIslam’sreligiousscholars.18Ibid.,3419Ibid.,47‐4820Ibid.,7421Ibid.,72‐73

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allowedmentobeattheirwives.KortseekstodiscoveriftheInternetisusheringinanew

eraofijithad,andwhetherornotsucheffortsareleadingtoatypeofIslamic‘reformation’.

ThoughthecontentofKort’sresearchisonlytangentiallylinkedtothatofthis

paper,herthesisarticulatestwoimportanttrendspresentintheothersourcesdiscussed

above.Thefirstistheattentionpaidto“modernijtihad”22,orarenewalofindependent

legalreasoning.ThisadherestoJosephSchacht’sfamousassertionthatthe“doorsof

ijtihad”closedinIslam’sclassicalperiod,23and,aswewillsee,isnotentirelyaccurate.

Additionally,manyscholarsbelievethattheresumptionofthesecreativeintellectual

effortswillnecessarilyresultina‘modernization’or‘reformation’ofIslam.InBunt’swork,

ijtihadisabuzzwordforintellectualeffortsthatstandincontrastto‘traditional’Islam.

However,thisassumptionismisplaced.Kortcomestoasimilarconclusioninherwork.She

foundthattheijtihadonayah4:34intheQur’andidnotalwayseliminateacondonationof

domesticviolence.24Below,wewillseehowthemereuseoftheInternet,thoughavery

modernmedium,doesnotnecessitatea‘modernization’ofcontent.

ResearchMethodologyandPrimarySources

Inadditiontotheaforementionedtexts,thispaperstudiesthreeIslamicwebsites:

IslamOnline,IslamQAandIslamWeb.Innowaydothesesitesconstituteacompletepicture

ofIslamicresourcesonline.ThesheervolumeofIslamicmaterialsonlinemakesa

comprehensiveanddetailedassessmentoftheircontentextremelydifficult,ifnot

impossible.Inaddition,therapiditywithwhichInternetresourcescanmultiplymakes

‘traditional’researchalmostobsolete.Bynow,thedataIcollectedmonthsagoissuretobe

22Kort,37023JosephSchacht,AnIntroductiontoIslamicLaw(Oxford:ClarendonPress,1964),69‐7524Kort,380

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outdated.Nonetheless,thisworkisthebestpossibleoptionmovingtowardsamore

completepictureonIslamontheInternet.Theanalysispresentedinthispaperisamere

snapshotofonecorneroftheIslamicwebworld.Andthoughitslimitationsaresignificant,

thispaper,whenputtogetherwithotherworks,hopestocontributetotheconstructionof

atrulycomprehensiveassessmentofIslamontheInternet.

InitialInternetresearchbeganinOctober2009.Overthespanofafewweeks,the

authorgatheredinformationonaround40websitesthateitherproducedtheirownor

reproducedfatwas.Thislistwasnarroweddowntositesthatrankedhigherthan10,000in

visitsbyAlexaWebServices,anInternetmarketresearchfirmthatoffersrankingsofthe

mostpopularwebsitesonline.25Sixofthe40sitesqualified,andfromthesetheauthor

pickedthethreethatofferedfatwasinEnglish.Ofthese,www.islamweb.netisthemost

popular,ranked#2237outofallsitesontheInternet,26whereaswww.islamonline.net,

ranked#400527andwww.islamqa.comranked#8973.2829Thepaper’scontentanalysis

focusesonfatwasthatconsiderrelationsbetweenMuslimsandnon‐Muslimsinnon‐

Muslimenvironments.AsthesetargetMuslimminoritiesoutsideoftheMuslimworld,

Englishlanguagematerialwasfoundtobesufficient.Infact,thereisanabundanceof

EnglishlanguageIslamicmaterialontheInternet.

Thistopicareabestillustratesthechangesinifta’inthisnewmediaenvironment.

Eachsitehoststhousandsoffatwas,andanarrowtopicalsomadecontentanalysismore

feasible.Additionally,thistopictouchesuponaparticularlycontemporaryMuslim:the25http://www.alexa.com/26Asof10/18/09,rankhadfallento#2586asof1/5/1027Asof10/18/09,rankhadrisento#3427asof1/5/1028Asof10/18/09,rankhadfallento#11122asof1/5/1029Thesites’fallinpopularitymaybeattributabletoa‘Ramadan‐Hajjboost’.Ifirstresearchedthesites’popularityinbetweenRamadanandHajj2009,whichmayhavebeenaperiodofheightenedreligiousinterestforMuslims.

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statusofMuslimminoritiesoutsideoftheMuslimworld.131fatwaswereselectedfromthe

threesites.Aswillbeshown,theopinionsofferedbyeachsitevariedgreatly,

demonstratingtherangeofIslamicopinionsavailabletoMuslimsontheInternet.The

analysisofthesesitesprovidesthebasisforthepaper’ssecondthrust.

Asmentionedabove,theInternethasthepotentialtoreorienttraditionalsystemsof

knowledge.Ifta’inIslamisaperfectexampleofa‘traditional’systemofknowledge.Theact

ofderivinganddeliveringlegalopinionsisverycentraltothepracticalfunctionofIslamas

areligion.FatwasprovideMuslimswithreligiousguidance,andthemuftiisthesole

authorityabletogivesuchdeterminations.

ClassicalIslamicadabliteraturedescribestheroleofthemufti.AdabisArabicfor

‘etiquette’,30andadabal­muftireferstotheliteraturethatoutlinespreciselyhowamufti

andhispetitionersshouldgoabouttheirbusiness.Thecarefulstudyoftheseadabtexts

revealsmuchaboutthenatureofclassicalifta’.Bydesigntheyareverycomprehensive,and

providedawealthofinformationnotonlyaboutmuftisthemselvesbutalsotheclassical

societiesinwhichtheyoperated.

ThispaperfocusesontheAdabal­fatwawa­l­Muftiwa­lMustaftibyClassicalSyrian

legalscholarYahyab.Sharafal‐Nawawi(d.1277).Thistreatise,partofalargerlegal

commentary,isthebest‐knownadabal­muftiwork.Throughthistext,wecangaina

conceptoftheidealmufti,whohewas,howhethought,andhowhedeliberatedand

deliveredfatwas.Thisportraitisessentialtoourinvestigationintotheimpactofthe

30F.GabrieliEncyclopaediaofIslam,SecondEdition,ed.P.Bearman,Th.Bianquis,C.E.Bosworth,E.vanDonzelandW.P.Heinrichs.Brill:2010.http://www.brillonline.nl.ezproxy.rice.edu/subscriber/uid=1852/entry?entry=islam_SIM‐0293

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Internetonfatwas.Equallyasimportantisaproperunderstandingoftheroleofifta’in

IslamicLaw.

ManyunderstandIslamicLaw,theshari’a,tobeDivineLaw.Thislabelismisleading

asitimpliesthatonly‘divine’actorscanchangethesubstanceofthislaw.Aswewillsee

below,humanactorshavenotonlygeneratedavastmajorityoftheshari’abutalso

continuetoperformvitalfunctionsinitsinterpretation.Oftheseindividuals,themufti

standsoutinhisimportanceandnecessity.

TheFatwainIslamicLaw

Thepurposeofthissectionistwofold.First,wewilltheroleofifta’withinthe

Islamiclegalsystem.Second,wewilllookattherulesforifta’throughthelensofal‐

Nawawi’sAdabal­fatwawa­l­Muftiwa­lMustafti.Wewilllookatthequalitiesand

stipulationsofmuftis,explainthemandseektocreateaclassicaltypologyforamufti.This

investigationwillprovidematerialwithwhichwecancomparethemodernpracticeofifta’

ontheInternet.Aswewillseebelow,manyArabcommentatorsrespondingtothecurrent

situationoffatwaslooktoclassicalscholars,likeal‐Nawawi,forsolutionstothe

contemporaryissuestheyperceive.Inthisway,theclassicaladabal­muftiliterature

remainsveryrelevant.

IslamicLawisablankettermthatreferstothemoralandethicalprescriptions

provideforMuslimsbyGod,theProphetandfellowMuslims.Thislawiscommonly

referredtoastheshari’a,awordthatliterallymeansapath.Inthissense,theshari’a

comprisesthetotalityofmoralandethicalimperativesnecessaryforpeopletotheirlivesin

linewithGod’s“ordained”message.Aninstructivephrasethatiscommonlyassociated

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withIslamicLawis,“toenjointhegoodandprohibittheforbidden.”31Inamostgeneral

sense,thisiswhattheshari’atriestodo.

Muslimsoftenrefertotheshari’aasDivineLaw.ThisconnotestheideathatDivine

RevelationonlyprovidesIslamicLaw’sprescriptions.Whilethisistrueforsomeprecepts,

humanactorsgeneratedthevastmajorityofIslamicLaw.Wecanseethisbylookingatthe

recognizedusulal­fiqh,orrootsofIslamicjurisprudence.ThesearetheQur’an,theSunnah,

qiyasandijma’.Thefirsttwoofthesearetextualsources,butthelattertworepresent

sanctifiedprocessesoflegalreasoning.TheQur’an,God’srevelationtotheProphet

Muhammad,andtheSunnah,thecollectedsayingsandtraditionsoftheProphet,are

treatedassacredtextsbyMuslims.Whiletheycontainvariousexplicitlegalstipulations,

theirscopeislimitedandtheycannotanddonotcomprisethetotalityofIslamicLaw.

QiyasandIjma’aresanctifiedmethodsMuslimsthroughwhichqualifiedMuslims

mayperformlegalreasoningbeyondtheexplicitstatementsoftheQur’anandSunnah.

Qiyasdescribes“analogicaldeduction”withwhichajuristconnectstwocasestogetherby

analogyinordertoapplythelegalstipulationfromonetotheother.32Ijma’issimilarto

qiyasinitsstatusasasourceoflaw,butisverydifferentinitscompositionandprocess.

Ijma’referstotheconsensusoftheMuslimscommunity.Itderivesitsauthorityfromthea

hadithinwhichtheProphetstates,“[Mycommunity]shouldnotallagreeinanerror.”33

Thistradition,intheory,statesthatanydecisionreachedbytheentireMuslimcommunity

isreligiouslyvalid.

31Formoreonthisconceptsee:MichaelCook,CommandingtheRightandForbiddingWronginIslamicThought,(Cambridge,UK:CambridgeUniversityPress,2000).Seeparticularlyhissecondchapter(pp.14‐31)whichdescribestheQur’anicrootsofthisphraseandassociatedethic.32MuhammadHashimKamali,PrinciplesofIslamicJurisprudence,(Cambridge:IslamicTexts,2003)26533SunanAbuDawud,Book35,Hadith4240

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Kamali34andDien35describeijma’growingoutoftheleadershipvoidcreatedbythe

Prophet’sdeath.Duringhislifetime,Muhammadwasthesoledispenserofreligious

knowledgeandopinion,whetherthatbeintheformofdivinerevelationorsimplyin

statinghisapprovalordisapprovalofamatter.Afterhispassing,thismantleof

responsibilitypassedintonewhands.Ijma’gavethecommunityasawholetheabilityto

legislateforitself.ItisimportanttonotethatunlikeanyoftheothersourcesofIslamicLaw,

ijma’ispurelyahumanproduct.Itsacceptanceindicatesapragmaticshiftawayfromsole

relianceonthesacredtextsforreligiousguidance.Thislastpointisinstructivein

understandingtheroleofifta’.

Ifta’originatedfromasimilardoctrinalcrisisasdidijma’.Whereasthelatteris

concernedwiththeveryedictsoflaw,theformerisnot.Ifta’referstothegivingofIslamic

legalopinions.Thesearenonbinding,thoughtheyoftenplayedaroleinaqadi’s,judge’s,

decisioninacourtcase.36Asmentioned,Muhammadwasthelawgiverfor

contemporaneousMuslims.Hisspiritualguidancewasalsomoreadvisoryinnature.And

justastherewasaneedtolegislateaftertheProphet’sdeath,therewasasimilarneedfor

opinionsaboutwhichactionswereacceptableandunacceptable.Fromthissituationifta’

grewasanelementofIslamicLaw.

Theinformationavailableonifta’existsinavarietyofplaces.Fatwasexistin

collectionsdatingbackthe8thcenturyC.E.37Jurisprudentialworksoftendealwithifta’

34Kamali,23135M.IzziDien,IslamicLaw:fromHistoricalFoundationstoContemporaryPractice,(NotreDame,Ind:UniversityofNotreDamePress,2004),5‐636AlexandreCaeiro,“TheShiftingMoralUniversesoftheIslamicTraditionofIfta’:ADiachronicStudyofFourAdabal­FatwaManuals”,TheMuslimWorld,96,(October,2006),661.AcademicSearchComplete,viaEBSCOhost,http://web.ebscohost.com37Masud,MessickandPowersnotethat“[t]heemergenceofthefatwacollectionasadiscreteliterarygenrepointstotheincreasinglyimportantroleplayedbymuftisinthejudicialprocess.”TheyciteAbuLaythal‐

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eitherdirectlyorindirectly.However,thebestsourceofinformationaboutifta’canbe

foundintheadabal­fatwaoradabal­muftiliteraturethatrelatesthedetailedrulesand

regulationsgoverningtheconsultativeandinterpretativeprocessesofifta’.Theserules

usuallycoverthreeareas:therulesconcerningmuftis,rulesconcerningfatwas,andrules

concerningmustaftisorpetitioners.Thesetextsareextremelydetailedintheirdescriptions

oftheifta’process.Goingforward,wewilluseal‐Nawawi’sAdabal­fatwatoconstructa

detailedportraitofthepurposeofifta’andthemufti.

Al‐Nawawicommunicatesseveralimportantcharacteristicsofifta’andthemufti

thatwewillstudybelow.Theseare:theabsolutenecessityofifta’forMuslims,the

rigorousqualificationsofthemuftiduetohispotentialforerror,thecautionmuftismust

employ,andhowfatwascanbecorrupted.Whenwelookatifta’inthecontemporaryworld

wewillseethattheseissuesremainimportant.

Fromtheverybeginninal‐Nawawiassertsifta’seminencewithintheMuslim

community:

Knowthatifta’isgreatlyimportant,ofeminentstatureandhasmanymerits;

becausethemuftiistheheirtotheProphets.Heisinchargeofthefardkifayahbut

heis[also]exposedtothepossibilityoferror.38

Theseopeninglinesareextremelydescriptiveoftheimportanceofifta’andmuftis.Al‐

NawawiacknowledgesthatmuftisperformarolesimilartoGod’sProphetsand

Messengers.Byprovidingopinionsastowhichactionsareacceptableandunacceptable,

Samarqandi’s(d.983)Kitabal­Nawazilasoneoftheearliestfatwacollections.(MuhammadKhalidMasud,BrinkleyMessick,DavidS.Powers,“Muftis,Fatwas,andIslamicLegalInterpretation”inIslamicLegalInterpretation,ed.MuhammadKhalidMasud,BrinkleyMessickandDavidS.Powers,(Cambridge,Mass:HarvardUniversityPress,1996),10)38Yahyab.Sharafal‐Nawawi,Adabal­fatwawa­l­Muftiwa­lMustafti(Beirut:Daral‐Basha’ir,1990),13.Thistranslationandallothers,unlessnoted,donebyauthor.

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themuftiisessentiallylegislatinginacapacitysimilartothatoftheProphethimself.The

dutythatthemuftiperformsisconsideredtobeafardkifayah.Thisdescribesadutyor

responsibilitythatisincumbentuponthecommunityasawhole.Placedinthiscategory,

ifta’gainsthestatusofreligiousdutieslikejihad.Additionally,thisacknowledgesthe

importanceofspiritualleadershiptoMuslimsasawhole.Asal‐Nawawistates,onlythe

mufticandispensewiththisresponsibility.Byshoulderingtheburdenofhiscommunity,

themuftiexposeshimselftothepossibilityofleadinghisfellowbelieversastray.

Al‐Nawawi,andothers,acceptthepossibilityoferrorinifta’.Asasingleopinion,a

mufti’srulingdoesnotgainthesanctityassignedtoijma’.ThestringentrulesofAl‐Nawawi

andothersundoubtedlyseektomitigatethepossibilityoferror:

Itisstipulatedthatthemuftiisofsoundmind,39Muslim,trustworthy,

reliable,abovesinandmentaldisturbances.[Heistobe]afaqihal­nafs,

soundofmind,firminhisthought,correctinhisbehavioranddeductive

abilities,andwary.Equalinthisarethefreeman,theslave,thewoman,the

blindmanandthemute,aslongas[thatpersoncan]writeorhissuggestion

isunderstood[bythepetitioner].40

One’sknowledgeofIslamicLawandmoralityarecentraltohiseligibilityforifta’.Wecan

assumethatifta’requiresgreatintellect.Thetitlefaqihal­nafsreferstoahighlyskilled

jurist,faqih,whopossessesabsolutecommandofthesourcesoftheshari’aandotherlegal

texts,sothathemakesdeterminationswithoutreferencingtexts.Highlyskilledjurists

werealsolabeledmujtahid,orone’swhopracticeindependentlegalreasoning.However,a

masteryofIslamicLawisnotenough.Inordertoensurethatthemuftiarrivesatcorrect39mukallafan,lit.‘composmentis’,meaningthatheissane40Al‐Nawawi,19

16

interpretationinhisopinion,hemustbeapiousMuslim.Thefactthataphysically

deformedmuftimayperformifta’aslongashecancommunicatewithhispetitioner

illustratestheemphasismentalcompetencyandmoralexcellence.

Withoutadoubt,muftiscamefromtheranksofthe‘ulamaorreligiousscholars.

Shortlyaftertheintroduction,al‐NawawicitesatraditionfromMuhammadb.al‐Munkadir

(d.747):“ThescholarisbetweenGodtheMostHighandhisCreation,solethimdecide

howtomovebetweenthem.”41ReverenceforscholarsgrewoutofMuslims’reverencefor

theQur’anandSunnah.Naturally,thosewhostudythesetextsthemostandcommandthem

wouldbeconsideredthebesttoguidetheMuslimcommunity.Forthepracticeofifta’this

knowledge,or‘ilm,wasespeciallyimportant.Hallaqdefines‘ilmas“thegenuine

understandingofthequalityoftextualevidenceandthelinesoflegalreasoningthrough

whichlegalnormsarederived.”42HegoesontosaythatMuslimsacknowledgedthatonly

thosescholarswhocouldoperatewithinthe“propertoolsoflegalreasoning”wereableto

practiceifta’.43Inhissectionon“knowingwhoisrighttoperformifta’”,al‐Nawawicites

severaltraditionsindicatingthatonlythehighestlevelofjuristsshouldbeabletogive

fatwas.Oneknowswhenheisreadywhenhispeersentrusthimwiththetask.44

Whilethisexemplaryidealexists,itisclearthatthequalityofmuftiswasnot

uniformacrosstheboard.Describingtheclassesofmuftisal‐Nawawicreatesadetailed

hierarchy.Themaindistinctionisbetweentheautonomous,mustaqill,andaffiliated,

41Al‐Nawawi,1442WaelB.Hallaq,Authority,ContinuityandChangeinIslamicLaw,(NewYork:CambridgeUniversityPress,2001),443Ibid.,544Al‐Nawawi,17‐18

17

muntasib,mufti.Thisdichotomyisrelatedtoanother,thatofthemujtahidandmuqallid45

jurist.EarlierwementionedthatmujtahidwasalabelgiventothemostadeptIslamic

jurists.Specifically,thisreferstoascholarwhoiscapableofperformingijtihad.Anexample

ofijtihadwouldbetheformationoftheschoolsofIslamiclaw.Fromaboutthe8thto10th

centuriesC.E.,Muslimjuristsbegantoconsolidatetheirlegalpracticesintodistinctschools

oflaw.Theseareknowntodayasthemadhhabs,ofwhichfourexist.Thisprocesswas

necessarytoprovidestructuretoIslamiclegalpractice,butwasalsounprecedented.While

theProphetatleasthintedatthepossibilityforijma’todevelop,heneverarticulatedthe

growthofthemadhhabs.Assuch,juristscreatedbodiesofdoctrineoutoftheirown

interpretationsofthesourcesoflaw.

Atleastinitially,muftisandmujtahidswereconsideredsynonymous.46Facedwith

newissuesonadailybasis,itisobviousthatmuftis,especiallyearlyon,wouldbeforcedto

usetheirownreasontodeterminesolutionstotheirpetitioners’inquiries.Themustaqill

muftirepresentstheroleofthemujtahid.Heismostreveredandhisinfluenceismost

widespread.47Aftersometime,however,therankofmujtahidbecamebothlessnecessary

andhardertoachieve.

Al‐Nawawi’srequirementsofthemustaqillmuftiincludemasteryofallofthe

sourcesoflaw,thejurisprudentialproofs,aswellasothersciences,suchasgrammarand

linguistics.48Itishardtoimaginemanypeopleactuallyachievedthislevelofintellectual

mastery,thoughthefoundersofthevariousmadhhabsareoftencalledmujtahids.Hallaq

45Muqallidliterallymeansonewhoperformstaqlid,orimitation.Thisreferstoajuristwho,whenhegiveslegalopinions,copiesthoseofhismadhhab’sfounderorotherjurists.Muqallidstandsincontrasttomujtahidwhoperformnewlegalreasoningwhentheyperformifta’.46HallaqnoteshowAbuHusaynal‐BasriandMawardibothconsideredthesetwolabelstobeequal,66‐6747Al‐Nawawi,2248Ibid.

18

notesthatbyaboutthe13thcentury,whenal‐Nawawiiscomposinghistext,itbecame

acceptableforamuftitonotbeamujtahid,butratheramuqallid,orsomeonewhofollows

legalprecedent.

WhileSchachtandothershavecharacterizedthisshiftasanindicationofIslamic

Law’sincreasingrigidityandossification,49Hallaqstatesthatinreality,ijtihadnever

ceased,butthatitbecameconfinedtowithintheboundariesofthespecificlegalschools.

Thislimitingwasnecessaryforseveralreasons.Atthispointtherewasanacceptanceof

themadhhabsandnoneedtocreatefurthertradition,so‘trueijtihad’intheformof

creatingnewlegaltraditionswasnolongernecessary.Additionally,thevolumeofnew

legalmaterialsmadeitnearlyimpossibleforasinglescholartogaintheintellectualfluency

tobeconsideredatruemujtahid.Manyjuriststhoughtthattruemujtahidsnolonger

existednorcouldexist.50Bydecreasingtherequirementsofmuftis,juristsrecognizedthe

temporalandpracticalrealitiesoftheirtimeperiod.51

Hallaq’sanalysisclearlyillustratesthatthemuqallidmuftiwasnotmentallyor

intellectuallyincompetent.Unlikehispredecessors,Hallaqconsiderstaqlidtobemorethan

justtheblindfollowingoflegalprecedent.Heconsidersittoalsoencompasstheadherence

toamujtahid’sprecedentwhileunderstandinghowthatdoctrinewasderived.52Hegoeson

toassertthattaqlidwasafollowingofjuristicprinciplesandnotmerelyanadherenceto

specificcases.53Additionally,henotesthatmuqallidmuftiswerenotafraidtoinvestigate

thesourcesoflawinordertoderivetheiropinions.54

49Schacht,69‐7550Hallaq,7351Ibid.,7452Ibid.,86‐8753Ibid.,9854Ibid.,99

19

Nomattertheclassofamufti,ifta’remainedacollectiveresponsibilityforthe

Muslimcommunity.Al‐Nawawistatesthatthisresponsibilityfallsonwhoeverisavailable

andabletoperformit,nomattertheircapabilities.55Afterdebatingtheclassesofmuftis,Al‐

Nawawidiscussestheahkamofmuftis,ortheirguidelines.Healsolaysoutadetailed

frameworkforperformingifta’,downtothemannerinwhichamuftishouldwritehis

responses.56Beyonditshigh‐intellectualpurposes,al‐Nawawi’stextisapracticalhandbook

forthemufti.Thetext’sspecificinjunctionsillustratetheintentofifta’,whichwastobe

performedinacautiousmannerbyagentle,understandingandobjectivemufti.

Cautioninifta’extendsfromthelackofabsolutecertainitythatthemufti’sopinionis

inlinewithGod’swill.Amufticanonlybestjudgebytheshari’aandthenhopehisanswer

isappropriate.Al‐Nawawisharesmanystrikingstoriestoimpressthissenseofcautionon

hisreader.Onenarratedby‘Atab.Al‐Sa’ibAl‐Tabi’i(d.753)depictsamuftitremblingin

fearofGod’sreprisalashedeliveredhisfatwas.57Othersillustratethereluctanceof

prominentjuriststoparticipateinifta’.Hestatesthatal‐Shafi’i(d.820)wasaskeda

questionandthenremainedsilent,sothepetitionerrepeatedthequestion.Inresponseto

thishesaidthathewasdeterminingwhetheritwasbesttoremainsilentorrespond.58Al‐

NawawialsomentionsAhmadb.Hanbal(d.855)andMalikb.Anas(d.795)asanswering“I

don’tknow”59toamajorityoftheistifta’theyreceived.

Al‐Nawawiclearlyopposesanytypeof‘judicialactivism’throughifta’,inthatmuftis,

whoaresolicitedonavastarrayoftopics,wouldusetheirabilitytodeemsactsasgoodor

55Al‐Nawawi,3556Ibid.,6057Ibid.,1558Ibid59Ibid,15‐16

20

badtounnecessarilyextend,orrestrict,Islam’ssetofacceptablepractices.Amuftishould

ratherbereluctantinhisdutyandnotextendhisjudgmentsbeyondthegroundsof

certainty.SuchconservatismwasnotseenasrestrictingprogressinIslam,butratheras

ensuringthatMuslimpracticeswouldremainwithintheboundariesofGod’swill.The

invocationofAl‐Shafi’i,IbnHanbalandMalikb.Anas,foundersofthreeofIslam’sfour

madhhabs,indicatestheseriousnessofthistypeofcaution.

Furtheralongtheselines,themuftimustbegentleinhisresponses,focusingonthe

morepositiveelements,ratherthanthenegatives.Al‐Nawawiprovidesthisguidancewhen

issuingaresponsethatiscontrarytothepositionofapetitioner:

Ifitisobvioustothemuftithathisresponseiscontradictorytotheintentof

thepetitioner,andthatthepetitionerwouldnotbepleasedbythewritingof

theresponseonhispieceofpaper,thenthemuftishouldconfinehimselfto

givingtheresponseorally.Thepositionsconcerningsympathyareverywell

known.Amongthemistowritethepetitioner’srightsintheresponseandto

leaveoutwhattheobligationsagainsthim.60

Heretheemphasisonthepositiveoverthenegativeisevident.Inacourtoflaw,the

affirmationofthepetitioner’srightswoulddomuchtoaidhiscase.Obviouslythedegreeto

whichsuchanopinionwouldhelpapetitionerwouldvarybasedthespecificsofthecase,

butwecanseethatal‐Nawawidesiresifta’tobeanoverallpositiveexperience.Afewlines

laterheaddsaquotefromAl‐Saymari(d.888):“Itisseemlyforthemuftitoconsiderfor

thepetitionerapathwithwhichtoshowhimthecorrectway,andtoinformthepetitioner

ofit.Thismeansthatwhichonlyharmsthepetitioneriswithouttruth.”Nomatterwhatthe

60Ibid,54‐55

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situation,itisclearthemuftishouldalwaysseektoimpressgoodnessandvirtueonhis

petitioners,ratherthanscaldthemwithcondemnation.

Keytojudgingcautiouslyandmercifullyisgivingobjectiveopinions.Al‐Nawawi

dedicatesalargeportionofhistexttodescribingsituationsandactionsthatcan

compromiseamufti’sabilitytofairlyperformifta’.Amuftiwhoisintherightstateofmind

willgivesfairandaccuratefatwas.Amuftiinacompromisedmentalitywillproduce

corruptfatwas,whichareextremelypernicious.Assuch,certaincircumstancesaretobe

avoidedunlessnecessary.Amuftishouldtakehistimetoponderthemattersheis

addressedwith.Rushinginifta’isviewedasnegligence.61Amuftishouldnotperformifta’

whenangry,hungry,orinamyriadofotherstatesthat“changeone’scharacteror

preoccupyhisheart.”62Heshouldalsoavoidlegaltrickery.63

Al‐Nawawialsodiscussesthematterofpayingmuftis.Asfunctionariesinthelegal

system,governmentsoftensupportedmuftis.Wealthyindividualsorgroupswouldalso

hiremuftisasadvisors.Money’sinfluenceonifta’isahighlycontentiousissue.Al‐Nawawi

citesseveraljuristsinhistextwhooffervaryingopinions.Al‐Nawawihimselfconsiders

governmentsupportofmuftistobelegal,aslongasthisisdoneasameansofsupportand

notasabribe.64Al‐SaimariandAl‐Khateebapproveofthepracticeofgroupsorindividuals

hiringmuftistoprovideindividualizedfatwas.65Al‐Nawawirecognizes“judicious

disagreement”66concerningmuftisacceptinggifts,butprovidesastatementfromAbu‘Amr

disapprovingofthepractice.Asthespiritualguidesofthecommunity,muftisareinan

61Ibid,3762Ibid,38‐3963Ibid,37‐3864Ibid,3965Ibid.66Ibid.

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awkwardposition.Likeanyscholar,theyrequiremonetarysupporttomakealiving.

However,theirresponsibilitiesareunique.Al‐Nawawisupportsprovidingalivelihoodfor

muftis,butiswaryofunnecessarypatronage.

Itisclearthatal‐Nawawiencouragesmoderationinifta’.Byassertingthereluctance

amuftishouldexhibit,aswellasthenecessarylimitationsonhisopinion‐givingabilities,

al‐Nawawiencouragesacertaindegreeoftemperanceformuftisandtheiractivities.This

moderatemodelalsoextendstothemannerinwhichheshoulddeterminehisopinions.He

shouldbeinaclearstateofmindandshouldavoidnegativemoodsorinfluences,like

bribes.Thisemphasisonmoderationandobjectivitygreatlydescribestheintendedroleof

themuftiinIslam.Heisaspiritualguidewhosepowershouldbeusedtoencouragepeople

tofollowthecorrectpath.Hismannerandbehaviorshouldalsoencourageindividualsto

seekfatwas.Themufti/mustaftirelationshipisveryimportanttoensuringthatnormative

Muslimpracticeremainsinlinewiththereligion’slaw.

Inabroadsense,al‐Nawawialsoconfrontstheintegrityofthemufti’sopinions

themselves.Whilethemufti’setiquetteimpactshisoveralleffectiveness,asfarasherelates

topetitionersandgivesfair,objectiveopinions,thetextalsoincludesmanyprescriptions

designedtopreservethestrengthofthefatwaitselfasaseparateentity.Thisisbecausethe

fatwanotonlyexistsduringthemufti/mustafticonsultativeprocess,butalsoafterwards

eitheronpaperorinacommunity’sdatabaseoforalinformation.Al‐Nawawiattemptsto

protectthefatwafrommanipulationbythemustaftioranyoneelsewhowoulduseitto

theiradvantage.

23

Al‐Nawawi’spreferenceforface‐to‐faceifta’canbeseenthroughouthistext,butis

mostclearlystatedinhisadabal­fatwasection,wherehewrites:“writingisdangerous.”67

Bywritinganopiniononpaper,themuftigreatlyincreasesthepotentialforcorruption.

Themostperniciouscorruptionistohavetheopinionofa‘good’muftiassociatedwithone

whoisunqualified.Incaseapetitionerbringsanunqualifiedindividual’sopiniontoa

mufti’sattention,al‐Nawawiallowshimtostronglychastisethepetitioner.68Clearly,thisis

anextremelyseriousoffense.

Al‐Nawawi’spositiononthisissuecanbeexplainedinseveralways.Thefirstisthat

heseekstopreventthecorruptionoflegitimateopinionsbyexcludingthosethatare

illegitimate.Theprecariousreligiousnatureofifta’necessitatesahighdegreeof‘quality

control’.Excludingtheopinionsof‘outsiders’alsoreinforcedtheprestigeof‘qualified’

muftiswithinsociety.WritinginIslamicLegalInterpretations,NissreenHaramelaborates

thisroleoftheadabal­muftiliterature:

Muftis…soughttoexerciseeffectivecontrolovertheirpractice.Likemany

otherMuslimprofessionalgroups,muftisenjoyedthebenefitofspecialized

adabmanuals…[these]furnishedmuftiswithprecautionarymeasuresto

preventabuseofifta’byunqualifiedindividualsandunscrupulous

petitioners.69

Later,Haramnotesthattheseunqualifiedindividualswere“ignored”and“systematically

ostracized.”70Whileal‐Nawawi’stextcanbeseenasaninstructionmanualtoencourage

67Ibid,4468Ibid,6169NissreenHaram,“UseandAbuseoftheLaw:AMufti’sResponse”inIslamicLegalInterpretation:MuftisandtheirFatwas,ed.MuhammadKhalidMasud,BrinkleyMessickandDavidS.Powers,(Cambridge,Mass:HarvardUniversityPress,1996),72;italicsmine70Ibid,79

24

thebestmuftietiquette,wemustalsorecognizethatitsspecificpreceptswereusedasa

metrictoevaluatingthequalificationsofamufti.Undoubtedly,muftisfollowedthese

guidelinesnotonlytodothebestjobpossible,butalso,andperhapsmoreso,toavoid

losingtheirpositionofauthorityandrespect.

Beyondallofthespecificimplicationsofhistext,Al‐Nawawiseekstopreserve,or

restore,theintegrityofthemuftiinhisadabmanual.Onecannotbelievehewaswritingin

avacuum.Histextisfullofstatementstotheimportanceofifta’.Heprovidesdetailed

instructionsastoavoidbiasandissueobjectiveopinions.Heenumeratesmeasuretobe

takentoavoidthecorruptionoffatwasbyothers.Thesearenotgeneralinjunctions,but

ratherspecificresponsestotheissuesplaguingthemuftiduringal‐Nawawi’stime.Inhis

analysisofadabal­muftiliterature,AlexandreCaeiroassertstheadabal­muftiliterature’s

positionas“articulatedinandresponsivetoparticularsocialconditions.”71Heconcludes

thatthesepieces“informusoftheshiftingnormativecriteriathathavedefinethecorrect

performanceofaspecificreligiousact”aswellas“[highlight]evolutionsinthemoral

universesthatsustainfatwas.”72Thereforewecanacceptal‐Nawawi’stextasasnapshotof

thesituationofifta’inthelateClassicalperiod.Movingforward,wecanassumethatthe

concernselucidatedinthistextwillnotbeidenticaltotheissuesfacingifta’today.

However,thespiritofthedisciplinehasnotentirelychangedoverthecenturies.

AswewillseeinthenextsectionconcerningcontemporaryInternetfatwas,the

proliferationoffatwasinamodernmediumhasgreatlyreducedthemufti’sabilityto

regulatehisdiscipline.Thefreedomwithwhichanindividualmaylaunchandmaintainhis

orherownfatwawebsitegreatlyexacerbatesissuesofauthorityandlegitimacyinifta’. 71Caeiro,67772Ibid,italicsmine

25

Ifta’inContemporaryMedia

Ifta’inthemodernmediaenvironmentisradicallydifferentfromwhatal‐Nawawi

describes.WesternersandMuslimsalikeacknowledgethisdifference.Muslims,both

conservativesandliberals,viewmassmediaashavinga“dreadful”impactonifta’.73This

sectionwillexaminethenatureofthisreligiouscrisis.Wewillfirstdefinethe

characteristicsofthe“chaos”offatwas.Wewillseehowmodernmediahastransformed

ifta’andwhatfacetsofwebsiteareviewednegatively.Nextwewilldiscussthecausesof

this‘chaos’,namelythelackofcontrolovermuftisandtheirfatwas,aproliferationof

contradictoryopinions,andthecorruptionofifta’byextra‐religiousforces.Lastlywewill

lookatsomesolutionstothissituationofferedbyDr.Al‐AshqarandotherMuslim

commentators.Theopinionsoftheseindividualswillbesubstantiatedwithexamplesfrom

thewebsitesinvestigatedforthispaper.

Asshownabove,ifta’intheclassicalperiodwasnotamediated,ittookplacefaceto

face,betweenamuftiandapetitioner.Theonlymediainvolvedwasapieceofpaper,and

wesawhowthoughthiswasnecessary,itwasviewedbegrudgingly.74Furthermore,

despitetheuseofpaperforthetransmissionofquestionsandresponses,theemphasisof

themufti’spracticewashispersonalinteractionwiththepetitioner.

Today,ifta’isafeatureofMuslimmassmedia,dramaticallyalteringits

interpersonaldimension.Withfatwasavailableontelevision,throughthetelephone,in

newspapersandonline,petitionersarenolongerforcedtoconsultwithajuristtoreceive

opinions.Dr.al‐Ashqarcreditsthislackofmufti­mustaftiinteractionasonecauseofifta’’s

73Usama‘Umaral‐Ashqar,Fawdaal­Ifta’,(Amman,Jordan:DaralNafa’li‐lNashrwa‐lTawzi,2009),10974Seeabove,23

26

currentcrisis.75Thisisnottosay,however,thatcertainformsofmediadonotattemptto

preservethisimportantrelationship.Allthreeofthewebsitesinvestigatedforthispaper

trytomaintain,attheveryleast,theabilityforpetitionerstosubmitinquiriestomuftis.

IslamWeb,IslamOnlineandIslamQA,allowuserstosubmitquestionstotheirstaffs.

AtIslamWeb,fatwasarepreparedandcheckedbylicensedIslamicscholarsorgraduatesof

IslamiceducationfromSaudiArabia,MauritaniaandYemen.Dr.‘Abdullahal‐Faqihheads

thefatwacommittee.76SheikhMuhammadSalihal‐Munajjid77oversees,preparesandedits

allofthefatwasonIslamQA.Untilrecently,SheikhYusufal‐Qaradawi78oversaw

IslamOnline.UntilhisremovalbytheQatarigovernmentinMarch2010,79ateamof

hundredsoftrainedIslamicscholarsoversawthefatwacomponentofal‐Qaradawi’s

website.Alloftheopinionsexpressedbythesiteadheredtostrictqualitycontrolmeasures

whichfunctionedasthesite’sownadabal­fatwa.80Currently,itisunclearifal‐Qaradawi’s

removalhasaffectedtheorganizationalstructureofthewebsite.

Inadditiontoallowingusertosubmittheirownquestions,IslamOnlinehosts‘Live

Fatwa’sessions,whichBettinaGrafdescribesas“reminiscentoftheclassicalifta’basedon

immediatecontactbetweenmuftiandmustafti–exceptforthefactthisisovertheinternet

75Fawdaal­Ifta’,11476“AboutFatwa”,IslamWeb,http://english.islamweb.net/ver2/archive/article.php?lang=E&id=13046Accessed:March29,201077BothIslamQAandIslamWebdescribeal‐Munajjidas“awell‐knownIslamiclecturerandauthor”andfromSaudiArabia.78SheikhYusufal‐QaradawiisoneofthemostinfluentialMuslimreligiousscholarsintheworld.Heisabest‐sellingauthorandhostsapopulartelevisionshowaswellasworkswithIslamOnline.Formoresee:AnaBelenSoage,“ShaykhYusufal‐Qaradawi:PortraitofaLeadingIslamicCleric,”MiddleEastReviewofInternationalAffairs,12,no.1(March,2008)79FOXNews,“ModeratesforcedoutoftopIslamWebsite,”March25,2010.http://www.foxnews.com/world/2010/03/25/moderates‐forced‐islam‐web‐site/80BettinaGraf.“IslamOnline.net:Independent,Interactive,Popular,”ArabMediaandSociety,4,(Winter2008)http://www.arabmediasociety.com/index.php?article=576&printarticle

27

ratherthanfacetoface.”81Theseareheldtwiceaday,fivedaysaweek,forArabiclanguage

users.Grafdescribesthesesessionsasakintoan“onlinechatroom.”82Theopinionsof

thesesessionsarenotpreservedinthesite’sarchive,orfatwabank.83IslamWeb’sand

IslamOnline’sfatwasubmissionprocessislessclearthanthatofIslamQA.Bothsites,when

accessedmultipletimesbytheauthor,statedthattheywerenotacceptinginquiriesdueto

limitsonthenumbersofquestionstheyaccepteachday.

Nomatterhowsimilara‘LiveFatwa’sessionmaybetoclassicalifta’,orhowmuch

mufti­mustaftiinteractiontakesplaceviathe‘SubmitaQuestion’sectionsonthesesites,

thefatwaprocessonlineisaradicaldeparturefromal‐Nawawi’svision.Theinteractive

elementsoftheonlineexperienceareanattempttocreatetheface‐to‐faceinteraction

betweenmuftiandmustafti,yetinevitablytheprocessremainsmediatedandthepetitioner

remainsanonymous.AnonymitydoesnotfeaturehighlyinAl‐Nawawi’sadab.Theface‐to‐

faceinteractionallowedthemuftitoverifycertainfactsandidentifytheintentsand

feelingsofthepetitioner.84TheInternet’sanonymityeliminatesthistypeofaccountability

inifta’.Thereisnowayforanyofthesewebsitestobesuretheirpetitionersaretellingthe

truth,eitheraboutthemselves,orthecircumstancesaboutwhichtheyinquire.Assuch,

whiletheInternetmayallowforcertaintypesofmufti­mustaftiinteractions,itfallsshorts

oftheclassicalguidelines.

Inaddition,theroleoffatwabanksisparticularlytroublingtothesewebsites’

critics.Eachoftheaforementionedsitescontainfatwabanks,orarchives,offatwason

givenissues.Theseareorganizedcategorically,allowingvisitorstobrowseandread

81Graf82Ibid.83Ibid.84Al‐Nawawi,56

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opinionsbyarangeofmuftisonawiderangeoftopics.Mattersofcreed,‘aqidah,and

Muslimetiquettepredominateallofthesite’sfatwabanks,thoughtraditionalifta’subjects,

liketransactionsandissuesoftheQur’anandSunnah,arealsoprevalent.

GrafdescribesIslamOnline’sfatwabankashelpingMuslims“liveeasily”,inlinewith

itsfounder’sidealsofwasatiyyaandi’tidal,bothmeaning“moderation”,andtayyasir,

“beinglenient.”85However,al‐Ashqardiscouragespetitionersfromutilizingfatwabanks

becauseofthepresenceofcompetingpersonalitiesandfactionsthatmayconfusethe

petitioner.86Theactofperusingafatwaarchivealsoviolatestheprinciplethatfatwasare

personalopinions.Al‐Nawawidiscouragestherepetitionofopinions,insistingmuftis

examineeachcircumstancepresentedtothemonitsown.87Fatwabanksallowpetitioners

toseekpre‐publishedopinionsonissuesrelatedtotheirown.Theymay,inturn,takethese

opinionsasbeingapplicabletothemselves.Theprominenceofthesefatwabanks,andthe

inaccessibilityofsomeofthesites’muftis,shiftstheemphasisawayfromactualifta’and

moretowardstheperusaloffatwaarchives.Onecouldarguethatfatwabanksareno

differentthanclassicalfatwacollections.Whilefatwacollectionshaveexistedforcenturies,

theirimpactwaslimitedbytheslowdisseminationofinformationintheclassicalandpre‐

modernworld.Theunparalleledaccessibilityandthediversearrayofopinionsina

website’sfatwabankcontributetothe‘chaos’ofifta’inthecontemporaryMuslimworld.

Beyondchangesintheprocessofifta’,thesheerincreaseinthevolumeoffatwas

hascreatedacrisissituationwithintheMuslimworld.Dr.UsamaUmaral‐Ashqarlabels

85ThesetermsaredefinedbyGraf86Fawdaal­Ifta’,11887Al‐Nawawi,48

29

this“thechaosofifta’.”88Dr.al‐Ashqar’scritiqueemphasizesthreeaspectsofthe

contemporarymediaifta’environmentwhichheseetobeparticularlydetrimental:thelack

ofcontrol,thepresenceofextremedisagreement,andthecorruptionofifta’.Hisconcerns

areechoedbyotherMuslimcommentatorswho,likeDr.al‐Ashqar,feelanewsetofrules,

dawabit,needtobeestablishedtoregulatecontemporaryifta’.

Theabsenceofacontrollingforceinifta’referstotwocircumstances.Thefirstis

contemporarymedia’sabilitytounderminetheclassicaladabal­muftiregulations.Wecan

seethisintherapiditywithwhichfatwasareissued.Aswesawabove,hasteinifta’was

consideredtobenegligence.However,whenmuftisissueopinionsinstantaneouslyoverthe

Internet,ontelevision,oroverthetelephone,thepatienceanddeliberationrequiredinifta’

isdifficulttoverify.89Additionally,contemporarymediaallowsanyonewiththewebsiteor

televisionshowtogivefatwasdespitetheirqualificationsorlegitimacyasamufti.A

commonthemethroughmostofthecontemporaryifta’commentaryistheneedtoensure

thatonlyqualifiedindividualsissuefatwas.90Al‐Nawawipreoccupieshimselfsimilarly,but

wecanimaginethatintheInternetage,adeficientmufticanhaveamuchlargerimpact

thancouldhisclassicalpredecessor.Thereforethesecallshavegreaterurgencyand

relevance.

Anearlyuniversalresponsetothethreatofdeficientmuftisistheestablishmentof

newdawabitorrulesforifta’.Newer,simplerrulesmusttaketheplaceof‘obsolete’

classicalregulations.Thesemainlyrelatetothequalificationsofmuftis.Inhisessay“The

88Ibid.89Fawdaal­Ifta’,111‐11290Ibid,113.Alsosee:Al‐Katib,Ahmad,“Halyumkindbt‘amaliyyaal­ifta’?”http://www.alkatib.co.uk/iftaa.htm;‘Azm,AhmadJamil,“Waqf Fawda al-Ifta’”,Al‐Ghad,24August2006;MuhammadAmin,“Al­Fatwaal­Mu’asaramalahawama‘alayha”http://www.shareeah.com/index.php?/records/view/action/view/id/2380/

30

AbolitionoftheChaosofIfta’”AhmadJamil‘Azm91listsknowledgeofArabic,knowledgeof

Islam’susul,andmemorizationandstudyoftheQur’anandHadithasbasicdawabit.He

addsthatno‘‘ulamaobjecttotheseguidelines.92Beyondqualifications,thesedawabitalso

relatetothemufti’spractice.InhisreviewofDr.MuhammadYasri’sTheContemporary

Fatwa:ItsRightsandObligations,MuhammadAmin93enumerates‘new’rulesformuftis,

whichboildowntothemhavingcorrectintent,stayingwithintheirbounds,andrespecting

thepreexistingifta’regulations.94

Alongsimilarlines,contemporarymediaabolishesallpracticalandlegallimitations

onmuftisbasedongeography.Al‐Ashqarstatesthatpetitionerswhoaccessfatwasthrough

themediafaceopinionsthatviolatethecustoms,traditions,andspecificcircumstancesof

theirhomecountries.95Additionally,becausedifferentmediaoutletsrepresentthe

interestsoftheirrespectiveregions,thosewhoseekopinionsfrommultiplesourcesare

metwithinconsistencies.96Lastly,heconcludesthat‘mediamuftis’oftenseektoaddress

theMuslimworldratherthantheirspecificnationorregion,whichheviewsasalsobeing

detrimental.97Thiscriticismisdirectedtowardstwotypesofopinions.Thosemadeby

muftisfromoneregioninresponsetoinquiriesfrompetitionersinanother,andthose

fatwasthatclaimtobeuniversalintheirscope.Totheformer,Al‐Ashqarstatesthatmuftis

withalackofunderstandingofapetitioner’slocalcustomsandcircumstancescannot

91 Dr.AhmadJamil‘AzmisapoliticalresearcherbasedinDubai.Hemaintainsablogwhichcanbeaccessedhere:http://ajazem.maktoobblog.com/92AhmadJamil‘Azm,“Waqf Fawda al-Ifta’”,Al‐Ghad,24August200693MuhammadAminisanIslamiccommentatorwhowritesforwww.shareeah.com.Hisotherarticlescanbefoundhere:http://www.shareah.com/index.php?/authors/view/id/185/s/1/94MuhammadAmin,“Al­Fatwaal­Mu’asaramalahawama‘alayha”http://www.shareeah.com/index.php?/records/view/action/view/id/2380/19November200895Fawaal­ifta’,11496Ibid.97Ibid.

31

accuratelyissuefatwastothatpetitioner.Concerningthelatter,hesaysthatitisimpossible

foranyopiniontoclaimuniversalityduetothespecificcircumstancesofMuslimsin

differentregionsthroughouttheworld.98Aswewillsee,muftis’treatmentofMuslim

minoritycommunitiesexcellentlyillustratesthisdeficiency.

Evenifnewregulationswerecreatedtocombattheissuesplaguingifta’today,it

remainsunclearhowtheycouldbeenforcedeffectively.Currentlytherearenobodies

governingifta’.ManyMuslimcommentatorsconsidertheabsenceofregulatoryinstitutions

asamajorcontributingfactortothefatwacrisis.Whiletheyrecognizethiscommon

problem,thereseemstobenoclearsolution.

Asnotedabove,intheclassicalperiod,adabliteratureservedasaself‐regulatory

mechanismformuftis.Inthenewmediaenvironment,thisisnotthecase.While

unqualifiedmuftisarecriticized,theirabilitytoself‐publishonlineorthroughothermeans

makesitverydifficulttocensureanomalousfatwas.Partofthisisduetothenatureof

SunniIslam.Withoutahierarchyofauthority,whichcould,akintotheCatholicChurch,

censureorexpel‘unorthodox’muftis,Sunnismlackstheabilitytoswiftlyactagainstsuch

‘heresy’.Additionally,andalsoasaresult,theSunniMuslimworldlacksaunified

governingbodytoleadonthisissue.Thisreality,combinedwiththerapidityandeaseof

transmissionnotedabove,resultsinafatwaenvironmentthatiswhollyunregulated.As

radicalShi’ireformerAhmadal‐Katibstates,“Idonotbelievethatwiththeexistenceofthe

televisionandtheInternetthatanyauthorityhaspoweroverifta’.”99100

98Buntnotesthisregional“diversity”,butinamuchdifferentlight.Seeabove,599Al‐Katib100WhileShi’ismisnotthefocusofthispaper,Dr.Al‐Katib’sopinionsareusedbecausehisideasaddressSunnismandtheyrepresentanalternativesolutiontoal‐Ashqar’s,andother’s,callforincreasedregulationinifta’.

32

Thislackofregulationinevitablyleadstodiscordinifta’.InaneditorialinAl­Ahram

Weekly,SaifAbdel‐Fattah101credits“instantfatwas”withcausing“questioningofissues,

confusionoverfatwasandconfusingfatwas.”102Thissummarizestheargumentsofmany

Muslimcommentators.InasimilaropinionpiecefromAl­Arabiyyah,‘AbidKhazandar

writesaboutthe“turmoil”ofcontradictoryfatwas.103Hecomparesafatwaissuedbythe

lateSheikh‘AliTantawiallowingwomentowearjeansintheprivacyoftheirhomesand

withtheirhusbandspresent,tooneofDr.RishadKhalilthatstatesamarriageisvoidifthe

womantakesoffallofherclothesinfrontofthemanwhilehavingsex.104Admittinghis

owninabilitytoassignpreponderancetooneoftheseopinionsovertheother,Khazandar

assertsthatthepresenceofthese,andother,confusingandseeminglycontradictory

opinionsnecessitateschangeinrealmofcontemporaryifta’.105Thissituationisnotedby

Al‐Ashqaraswell.106Themultiplicityofopinions,andlackofdefiniteguidelinesastowhich

aremorelegitimatethanothers,createsanutterlyconfusingsituationfortheaverage

Muslimseekingreligiousopinionsthroughcontemporarymedia.

Al‐Ashqar’sfinalcriticismrelatestothemedia’scorruptiveinfluenceonifta’.He

assertsthatmediaoutletsdonotalwaysrepresentfatwascompletelyandaccurately,and

sometimesmisrepresentfatwaswiththeintentto“defame”and“insult.”107Hethen

addresseshowthoseinchargeofmediaoutletswill,attimes,actintheirowninterests

whenpublishingfatwas.Whetherforbusinessorpoliticalreasons,Al‐Ashqarbelievesthat

101ProfessorofIslamicThoughtatCairoUniversity102SaifAbdel‐Fattah.“DivergentVoices”,Al­AhramWeeklyOn­Line,No.865,(October2007)http://weekly.ahram.org.eg/2007/865/op56.htm103‘AbidKhazandar.“Fawdaal­fatawa”,Al­‘Arabiyyah,25June2006.http://www.alarabiyya.net/save_print.php?print=1&cont_id=20580104Ibid.105Ibid.106Fawdaal­Ifta’,118107Ibid.,111

33

somemediaoutletsseektochangeMuslims“personalopinions”and“interests.”108This

corruptionalsoaffectstheselectionofmuftiswhomanagetheifta’operationsatvarious

mediaoutlets.Hecitesfinancialgainasthecauseofemployingunspecializedmuftis.

Specificallytargetingsatellitetelevision,al‐Ashqarstatesthisleadsto“alackofregardfor

thedisagreementofthesituationsoftheviewers”and“theoutlets’neglectofcrucial

issues”relatedtotheifta’process.

Al‐Ashqar’saforementioneddiscussionofthe“disruptionofboundariesandregion”

bycontemporaryfatwasalludestothesituationofMuslimminorities.Thesituationof

MuslimminoritieslivingoutsideoftheMuslimworldisunprecedentedandloomslargein

contemporaryjurisprudentialdebates.Bycriticizingfatwasthatarenotcorrectbasedon

thecustomsofaMuslim’scountries,al‐AshqarhighlightstheabsenceofMuslimlegal

theoryconcerningthestatusofMuslimminorities.Simply,therearenotheoretical

structurestodescribehowamuftishouldrespondtothesetypesofinquiries.Thelackofa

fiqhal­aqliyyah,orjurisprudenceofminorities,contributestotheconfusioninifta’.The

contentanalysisofIslamWeb,IslamQA,andIslamOnlineillustratesthisproblem.

Allthreewebsitesofferedanswerstoquestionsrelatingtothepermissibilityof

befriendingnon‐Muslims.ThisisanurgentquestionformanyminorityMuslimsand

impactstheirmentalitytowardsassimilatingandbeingactiveinthenon‐Muslim

communitiesinwhichtheylive.Eachsiteofferedadifferentanswertothesequestions,

clearlydemonstratingtheaforementioned‘chaos’.

IslamWebtreatedtheissuesasamatterofMuslim’sloyaltytonon‐Muslims.Intwo

relatedfatwas,thesite’sFatwaCenterdescribesthelimitationsofdealingwithnon‐

108Ibid.,112

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Muslims.Inresponsetoaquestionabout“dealing”withJewsandChristians“forthesakeof

benefittingfromtheirknowledgeinthefieldofscience”,IslamWebstates,“itispermissible

tobenefitfromtheirknowledgeinthefieldofscienceincollege…providedthattheperson

cankeepintactthefeaturesthatdistinguishhimasaMuslim.”109Theissuehereisthe

imitationofnon‐believers,thoughtheauthorsofthefatwadonotquoteanysourcesto

substantiatethisopinion.Inadifferentfatwa,theFatwaCentercondemnsbefriending

ChristiansorJews,invokingtheQur’anandHadithasjustification.110Oneversequotedis

Sura3,verse118:

Oyewhobelieve!Takenotforintimatesothersthanyourownfolk,who

wouldsparenopainstoruinyou;theylovetohamperyou.Hatredis

revealedby(theutteranceof)theirmouths,butthatwhichtheirbreastshide

isgreater.Wehavemadeplainforyoutherevelationsifyewill

understand.111

Thisversepaintsnon‐MuslimsaspeopleseekingtocorruptandharmMuslims.Itcertainly

discouragesinteractionbetweenMuslimsandnon‐Muslims,anditsuseinthefatwacastsa

ratherantagonistictoneoverthewholeissue.However,afewlinesdowntheFatwaCenter

callsforthepetitionertodealjustlywithJewsandChristiansanddeclaresprofessional

relationsbetweenMuslimsandnon‐Muslimstobepermissible.

ForSheikhal‐Munajjid,editorandauthorofIslamQA,theissueisverysimple.All

non‐Muslimsareunbelieversandpolytheists,andtointeractwiththemiscompletely

forbidden.Inonefatwahestates:“TheJewsandChristiansarebothkaafirsand

109“ConditioneddealingwithChristiansandJews”,IslamWeb,FatwaNo.4277110“Limitsofrelationshipwithnon‐Muslims”,IslamWeb,FatwaNo.88293.Qu’ranverses:58:22,3:118111Qu’ran3:118,Pickthalltranslation

35

mushrikeen.Theyarekaafirsbecausetheydenythetruthandrejectit.Andtheyare

mushrikeenbecausetheyworshipsomeotherthanAllah.”112Labelingthe“Peopleofthe

Book”insuchawaybasicallyprohibitsanyandallinteractionwiththem.Heemphasizes

thispointinafatwaaboutimitatingWesterners.113HequotesSurahal‐Ma’idah,which

states,“…Andifanyamongstyoutakesthem[JewsandChristians]asAwliyaa’[friends,

helpers],thensurelyheisoneofthem…”114Clearlyinal‐Munajjid’smind,anyassociation

withnon‐Muslimsisimpermissibleandwarrantsapostasy,oneofIslam’sgravestsins.

IslamOnlineoffersyetadifferentinterpretation.Asnoted,al‐Qaradawi’swebsiteis

basedonnotionsofmoderationinIslam.Fromthiswecanpresumethathewouldtakea

moreopen‐mindedapproachtothisissue.Thesite’sShari’aResearchersmakethisclear

earlyoninafatwaoutlinetherulesgoverningrelationsbetweenMuslimsandnon‐

Muslims:

[W]ewouldliketostressthatMuslimsshouldhavegoodrelationswithall

peopleofeveryreligion.Atschool,atwork,intheneighborhood,etcetera,a

Muslimshouldbekindandcourteoustoeveryone…Islamencourages

Muslimstocooperatewitheveryoneregardlessofhis/herreligionorcreed

inallprojectsthatarevirtuousorbeneficialtohumanityorothercreatures

ofGod.115

112“Thedifferencebetweenthemushrikeenandthekuffaar,andtowhichcategorydotheJewsandChristiansbelong?(sic)”IslamQA,http://islamqa.com/en/ref/islamqa/67626113“Guidelinesconcerningimitationofthekuffar(sic)”IslamQAhttp://islamqa.com/en/ref/islamqa/21694114Qu’ran5:51,translationfromIslamQA115“ScopeofAmicableDealingswithNon‐Muslims”IslamOnline,17September2006

36

Inthisstatementthereisnomentionofnon‐Muslims’desiretodowrongtoMuslimsor

thatassociatingwiththemwillleadtoone’sapostasy.Infact,thesewordsseemto

contradictal‐Munajjid’sassertions.

Goingintomoredetail,thefatwaquotesextensivelyfromal‐Qaradawi’sbookAl­

Halalwa­lHaramfi­lIslam.116Thesepassagesmakenoteofthe“mercyandspiritual

kinship”betweenMuslimsandJewsandChristians.TheyinstructMuslimsto“avoidsuch

approachesthatmaycausebitternessorarousehostility.”Al‐Qaradawiaddressestheverse

quotedbyal‐Munajjid,stating,“[t]heversesthatimplybreakingtieswithPeopleofBook

refertothosepeoplewhowerehostiletoIslam”andthatthatverseandothersimilar

verses,“arenotunconditional,tobeappliedtoeveryJew,Christianornon‐Muslim.”For

thesereasons,IslamOnlinedeclaresinteractionsbetweenMuslimsandnon‐Muslimstobe

permissible.

Thesethreewebsitesexemplifyboththegeneralchaosinifta’andtheneedforafiqh

al­aqliyyahdescribedbyal‐Ashqar.Fromthesethreesourceswehavethreediffering

opinionsimpactingthelivesofMuslimminorities.ItisnosurprisethatAl‐Munajjid,a

SheikhfromSaudiArabia,oneofthemostconservativecountriesintheMuslimworld,

wouldconsiderJewsandChristianstobekuffar,andprohibitinteractionswiththem.

Conversely,IslamOnline,whichhostsarticlesandopinionsfromMuslimsandnon‐Muslims

aroundtheworld,takesthemostliberalstanceonthisissue.Theissueofafiqhal­aqliyyah

isjustonemanifestationofthechaosofifta’.MuhammadAminascribesmostthe

“accidents”ofifta’tothiscircumstance.117BecausethecircumstancesofMuslimminorities

falloutsidetheboundsoftraditionaljurisprudence,muftisactwithlittleguidanceand116SheikhYusufal‐Qaradawi,Al­Halalwa­lHaramfi­lIslam,(IslamicBookTrust,2001)117Amin

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thereforethepotentialtoopineinerrorincreases.HeinsiststhatafiqhforMuslim

minoritiesisanecessarystepinreformingcontemporaryifta’.

ThisoneissueillustratesthegreaterproblemspresentintheMuslimworlddueto

theproliferationoffatwas.HowisaMuslimsupposedtodeterminewhichofthese

discordantopinionsiscorrect?Currently,heorshemustmakedueonhisorherown.Allof

thecommentatorsstudiedforthispaperpresenttheirownsolutionstothispredicament.

Ingeneral,thesecallforoneoftwothings:increasedregulationofifta’incontemporary

media,orchangingtherolefatwasplayinMuslimsociety.

Al‐Ashqarpresentsseveralpossiblesolutions.Heisinfavorofmoreregulationof

ifta’throughgovernmentintervention:

“[S]upervisionoverpublicmediaoutletsiswithinthescopeofthestate,

concerningtheremovalofuntrainedmuftis…frommediaoutlets,and

accountingforthenegligentones.Itisthestate’srighttoleadasthe

promoterofinteractionbetweenifta’andthemedia,onthebasisofcalling

onsuitable‘‘ulama.”118

Clearly,al‐Ashqarviewsthestateastheonlybodycapableofregulatingifta’in

contemporarymedia.Itishardtothinkanyotherentitywouldbepowerfulenoughto

removemuftisfrommediaoutlets.Hedoeshaveadisclaimerforthispoliticalheavy

handedness;thestatemustactneutrally.119Thisideamaylookgoodonpaper,butitishard

toimaginecertainArabgovernments,alreadyambivalenttowardsIslam,tobothtakean

interestinrescuingifta’fromitschaosandtoregulatefatwasinafairandjustway.

118Ibid.,113119Ibid.

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Bangladeshservesasanexampleofgovernmentinterventionintoifta’.InJanuary

2001thenation’sSupremeCourtoutlawed“themalpracticeoffatwa.”120Therulingstated

that“anyfatwaissuedfromanunauthorizedsourceisillegal,”and“givingafatwabyan

unauthorizedperson(s)mustbemadeapunishableoffencebyParliamentimmediately.”121

Thisrulingrespondedtoaninstanceinwhichawomanwasforcedtomarryherhusband’s

paternalcousinbasedoffofafatwaissuedbytheirneighbor.122Itisunclearhow

enforceablesucharulingwillbe,butitprovideslegalprecedentfornullifyingerrant

fatwas.TheQatarigovernment’srecentremovalofSheikhYusufal‐Qaradawifromhis

websiteIslamOnline,demonstratesasecondtypeofgovernmentinterventionmoreinline

withal‐Ashqar’ssuggestion.AccordingtoFOXNews,themovefollowedastrikebythesite’s

employees.Theseindividuals,IslamOnline’seditorsandwriters,protestedincreased

pressurefromtheirmanagementtoavoid“unIslamic”topics,specificallycoverageofthe

DohaFilmFestival.123Al‐Qaradawi’sremovalrepresentsashifttowardsamore

conservativetone,andwasinitiatedbyQatar’sgovernment.

Al‐Ashqarisoneofthefewwhotrumpetsstateinterventionasasolutiontothis

crisis.Ofcommentatorspreferringsomesortofincreaseinregulation,mostpreferan

increaseinthepowerandinfluenceofpreexistingreligiouscouncils,congressesand

organizations.Attheendofhisessay,KhazandarcallsforIslamicorganizationsto“oppose

theseattacks[i.e.badifta’]byrejectingthem,examiningthemthoroughlyandclarifyingthe

120A.H.MonjurulKabir“OutlawingUnauthorizedFatwathroughJudicialActivism.”Interventions,4,no.2,224121Ibid.122Ibid.,225123“ModeratesforcedoutoftopIslamWebsite”

39

truthofIslam.”124ThisideaisreflectedinAhmadJamil‘Azm’sessay,“TheAbolitionofthe

ChaosofIfta’.”125

Heagreeswithal‐Ashqar,butdoesnotidentifythestateasapotentialregulatory

entity.Ratherhecallsfor“unity”amongIslam’sfiqhcouncils,congressesandleagues.Unity

isnecessarybecauseatthepresenttime,competitionbetweensuchorganizations,either

sectarianorpolitical,hascausedthefatwatobecomeapoliticalinstrument.‘Azmasserts

thatmorerigorousstandardsformuftisaswellasandenrichmentoftheifta’process

wouldremedythismalady.Unityisnecessarytoensurethatthesenewguidelinesare

enforced.

Ahmadal‐Katibalsodisagreeswithmovestoregulateifta’becauseitviolates

certainfundamentalIslamicvalues.Hisessay,“Halyumkindabt‘amaliyyaal­ifta’”ishighly

criticalofthestateofcontemporaryifta’intheMuslimworldaswellasthemannerin

whichmanyMuslimshopetorectifythesituation.126

Al‐Katibfirstdisagreesthatanyorganizationisabletocontrolifta’.Hefeelsthat

modernmediahasmadeifta’“uncontrollable”.127Healsofeelsthattheirlacksalegitimate

entitytoperformsuchregulation.Unlikeal‐Ashqar,heviewsautocraticgovernmentsas

onesourceofifta’scurrentcrisis.Hestatesthatgovernmentsappointunqualifiedmuftis,

whointurnsupportthesegovernments’effortstoseize“thefundamentalrightsofthe

peopleinthenameoffatwaandtheDivineLaw.”128However,al‐Katibdoessupporttheuse

ofdemocraticinstitutions,whetherthatbeinter‐orextra‐governmental,toformulateand

124Khazandar125‘Azm126Al‐Katib127Ibid.128Ibid.

40

mandatefatwas,andsaysthatonlygoverningbodiesthatrepresentthepeoplehavethe

righttoimposefatwasaslaw.

Al‐Katibalsodisagreeswithincreasingtheroleofreligiouscouncilsand

organizations.Firsthenotesthattheseinstitutionsarenotcredible:

Thefirstwhorushtoviolatethesestipulations[i.e.thoseofamufti]arethe

veryprominent‘‘ulama’hereandthere.Idonotneedtoremindanyoneof

theoddandstrangefatwasthathavebeenissuedbythese‘official’muftisor

thelike…[Idonotneedtoremindanyone]ofthefatwasthatarenotissued

bysomeofthesilentauthoritiesintimesofneed…thesilenceisaformofbad

fatwawhichtakepartinleadingthepeopleastrayanddeprivingthemof

guidancetothetrueandsoughtafterplaceconcerning[their]temptations

andconfusions.129

Thesebodieslackcredibilitybecausethescholarswhocomprisetheirranksarenobetter

atifta’thanthosetheywouldseektoregulate.Al‐Katibalsodoubtstheywillbeableto

providetheguidancenecessarytocorrectthecrisisofifta’because,uptothispoint

historically,theyhavenotdoneso.ItisasifAl‐Katibasks,‘Ifthesereligiousand

governmentinstitutionshavefailedtoimproveifta’inthepast,whyshouldtheybetrusted

toremedythecurrentsituation?’

Beyondthislackofcredibility,hedisagreeswithregulatingfatwasona

philosophicallevel.Hebelievesthatifitwerepossibletoregulatetheseopinions,itwould

greatdamageIslam.Regulationis“theworst”solutionbecause“imprisoningIslamina

congressorofficialfatwacouncilwill[press]allofthereligionintotheserviceofacorrupt

129Ibid.

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sovereign.”130Regulationwillalso,“leadtotheimpositionofasingle,controllingvision

uponeverything.”Forthesereason,Al‐Katibfeelsregulationisaterribleanswertothe

problemofcontemporaryifta’.

Hissolutionisnottoincreaseregulation,buttoaltertheroleofthefatwainthe

MuslimcommunityaswellasthemannerinwhichMuslimsinterpretit.Hesaysthat

Muslimsmustberemindedthatfatwasare“personalopinionsthatrestonassumptions.”131

Thisistrue,infact,andcanbeseeninal‐Nawawi’stext.132Al‐Katibcriticizesmuftisnot

onlyforpurportingtheseopinionstobeinlinewithGod’sjudgment,butalsoforthusly

imposingtheseopinionsonotherpeople:“Itisbesttoacknowledgethatthefatwaisan

opinionandisnotmandatoryexceptonit’sowner…Inthissituationtheresponsibilityfalls

uponthepetitioner,whohascompletefreedominfollowingthefatwaorturninghisback

toit.”133

130Ibid.131Ibid.132Seeabove,14‐15133Ibid.

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Conclusion

ThedisparateanddiverseopinionsillustratedaboveclearlyprovethattheInternet

isdemocratizingIslam.The“chaosofifta’”isidenticaltothe“creolizeddiscourse”heralded

byBunt,andtheotherWesternscholarsnotedinthispaper’sintroduction.The“new

religiousintellectuals”134identifiedbyKhamisandal‐NawawyareidentifiedbyMuslimsas

unqualifiedmuftis.AsBuntandhisMuslimcounterpartsnote,the‘rules’ofifta’have

changed.Nolongerdoyouneedtomeettraditionalqualificationstohaveyourvoiceheard,

youmustonlyhaveagoodwebsite.135

Aswecansee,whetherthisdemocratizationpositiveornegativedependsonyour

perspective.ScholarslikeBuntimplythatthisprocessisinherentlygood.Theintroduction

ofnew,differentvoicesintoMuslimdiscoursewillleadtoreform.Thisreformwilltakethe

formofnew“e‐ijtihad”,which,implicitly,willleadtoliberalization.Evenbeforearrivingat

Muslimopinions,KortnotesthattheInternetdoesnotinherentlyliberalizeMuslim

discourse.AswesawintheMuslimcommentaries,thedemocratizationofifta’isviewed

verynegatively.Theparticipationof“newvoices”hascreatedasituationofdireconfusion.

TheInternethasaffectedMuslimdiscoursebygivingcredencetomanydiverseopinions,

andtherebypointingMuslimsindivergentdirections.Whiletherehasalwaysbeen

diversityinIslam,ithasneverbeenmanifestinthiswaybefore.Neverbeforehavesomany

peoplepresentedsomanydifferentversionsof‘trueIslam’inoneplace.Thissituationmay

necessitatethereformthatBuntandhiscolleaguessodesire,butuntilnewsolutionsare

developed,the‘chaosofifta’’enactingtremendousharmonIslam.

134El‐Nawawy,47‐48135Bunt,iMuslims,32

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Theanswersoutlinedabovearenotperfect.Increasedgovernmentinterventionhas

thepotentialtodestabilizethesometimesalreadytenuousrelationshipbetweenIslamand

government.ThereisnoguaranteethatgovernmentswhomayalreadybehostiletoIslam

willnotabusetheirregulatoryoversight.CountingonIslam’smanyleaguesand

organizationstounifybehindthecauseofreformingfatwasmayalsobeunsound,asthey

arealreadycompetingagainsteachotherfortheattentionofanevermoremedialiterate

Muslimcommunity.Additionally,asAl‐Katibpointsout,the‘ulamawhocomprisethese

groupsarenotcredible,asmanycontributetothecurrentchaostheincreasetheirpolitical

andreligiousprestige.

Al‐Katib’sreformswouldalterthementalityofifta’inprofoundways,butmaynot

gofarenoughtoremedythesituationsthatcharacterizethediscipline’s‘chaos’.Ifmuftis

weretobemoremodestintheirifta’thenitwouldlimitedthenumberofscholarswho

makeglobalfatwasorseekfameintheirwork.Ifpetitionersdidnotfeelobligedbyevery

fatwatheyreadorheard,thentheirconfusionwould,seemingly,decrease.Theywouldfeel

moreconfidentintheirdecisiontoshoparoundforfatwasorignoredissidentopinions.

However,whatal‐Katiblacksisadefiniteframeworkastohowthischangecouldtake

place.Itisdoubtfultheulamaandgovernments,whobenefitfromthecurrentsituation,

wouldwillinglyhumblethemselvesforthiscause.

IfMuslimsaretoremedythesituationofifta’incontemporarymedia,twochanges

musttakeplace.ThefirstistoallowtheaverageMuslimtodeterminewhichopinionsheor

shefindsmostsuitable.ThisalreadyoccursandisaccountedbyNadirsyahHosen.Henotes

howIndonesianMuslimsperformtakhayyur,pickingthe‘best’opinion,andtalfiq,the

44

combiningofopinions,inaprocesshelabels“fatwashopping.”136Thesepracticesarenot

innovative.Hallaqstatesthattakhayyurisaclassicaljurisprudentialpracticethatfelloutof

practiceinthepre‐modernperiod.137Additionally,henotesthatthelegitimationofa

pluralityofopinionsgoesbacktoal‐Shafi’i.138Withinjurisprudence,onlyscholars

performedthesepractices.But,inthecontemporarymediaenvironment,thesetoolsof

legalreasoningmustbeextendedto‘lay’Muslimsaswell.Asal‐Katibnotes,itisimpossible

toeliminateunqualifiedscholarsfromcontemporaryifta’.Whilegovernmentalofnon‐

governmentalregulationofmuftisseemsattractive,thefacilitywithwhichapersonmay

startawebsitecombinedwiththedifficultyofcensoringInternetaccess,makesthe

ostracizationof‘bad’muftis,asperformedclassically,apracticalimpossibility.Inthisnew

reality,averageMuslimsmustbeempoweredwiththeabilitytodiscernthevalidityof

variousfatwasontheirown.Thisgrassrootsreformmustalsobeempoweredbyandwork

inconcertwithIslamicinstitutions.

ThesecondchangeinvolvesthecreationofasupportstructureforMuslimsto

practicetakhayyur.WhileIslamiccongressesandnon‐governmentalinstitutionsmaybe

unabletoproperlyregulateifta’,theycanplayaveryinfluentialroleinitsreform.Thisrole

hasthreeparts.Thefirstistheuniversalrecognitionofnewstipulationsformuftisand

fatwas.Asseenabove,thecriteriaforimprovedifta’practicesalreadyexists,eitherbased

onclassicalmodelsorthroughthenewdawabit.ItisuptoIslamicorganizationsto

recognizethesecriteriauniversally,andtoenforcethemamongtheirmembership.This

136NadirsyahHosen,“OnlineFatwainIndonesia:FromFatwaShoppingtoGooglingaKiai”inExpressingIslam:ReligiousLifeandPoliticsinIndonesia,ed.GregFealyandSallyWhite,(Singapore:InstituteofSoutheastAsianStudies,2008),164137WaelB.Hallaq,“CantheShari’abeRestored?”inIslamicLawandtheChallengesofModernity,ed.YvonneYazbeckHaddadandBarbaraFreyerStowasser,(WalnutCreek,CA:AltaMiraPress,2004),24138Ibid,27

45

willhelptoincreasethequalityandquantityofifta’overtimebyincreasingthequalityof

muftis.However,thisisnotenough.Thesemeasuresshouldhaveapositiveimpactonifta’

overtime,butarenotperfectandareinsufficientasaresponsetotheimmediatecrisisof

ifta’.Theenforcementofstricterguidelinesonmuftis,muchliketheirregulation,cannot

eliminateeverydeficientmuftiorfatwa.Asaresult,theseinstitutionsmustworkto

empoweraverageMuslimswithinformationwithwhichtheycanbetterjudgetheaccuracy

ofagivenmufti’sopinions.

Thisinformationshouldtaketheformofasystematiccategorizationofprominent

mufti’sadherencetotheaforementioneduniversallyacceptedifta’guidelines.Islamic

scholarsandorganizationsmustworktogethertocategorizetheopinionsproducedbythe

mostpopularmuftisandprovidethisinformationinaneasilyaccessible,publicdatabase.

Theratingsofmuftisandfatwasinsuchadatabasewouldprovideinvaluablesupporttothe

averageMuslimscurrentlyconfusedinthecontemporaryfatwaenvironment.Muchlike

takhayyurandtalfiq,suchasystematicevaluationoffatwasisnotentirelyunprecedented.

Inthe8th,9thand10thcenturies,theMuslimcommunityunderwentasimilarlylargeand

systematicprocessinordertoregulateandverifytheproliferationofProphetictraditions,

orhadith.Thisprocessoccurredinresponsetosimilarconfusionandsoughttoprovidethe

Muslimcommunitywithacorpusoftraditionstheycouldtrust.Itisinthespiritofthe

codificationofthehadithliteraturethatMuslimscholarstodayshouldstrivetocategorize

thefatwascausingturmoilwithintoday’summah.

Doesthe‘chaosofifta’’warrantsuchamonumentalresponse?Absolutely.Asal‐

Nawawistates,themuftiistheheirtotheProphet.Ifta’isvitaltothespiritualsustenance

oftheMuslimcommunity.ItsimportanceasasourceofguidancetoaverageMuslimsis

46

unparalleled.However,itscurrenttrajectorywillinevitablyleadtoitsdemise.Whilemost

Muslimleadersrecognizethedirenessofthiscircumstance,itremainstobeseenwhether

theywilltakeaneffectivecourseofactiontorectifythesituation.

47

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