The Importance of Research for Music Education

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The importance

af research

for usic

Education

~

Keith Swanwick •

Introduction

views of others with-out criticaI comment Or syr;

thesis; i t is

not

the narrationof selected anecdotes

Is

anything research ?

I

have heard

artists

and

composers claim

that

in

producing works

of

art or

composing they are themselves researching. This

assertion is justified by the observation that the

artistor musician is exploring

newterritory,

creating

novel ideas in a public formo l t is possible

to

make

the

same claim

for

teaching,

that

teaching

itself

is

a constant reshaping of materiais and

activities

and

teaching styles to

meet

changing circumstancesand

that in developing curriculum

activities

the teacher

is a researcher.

I

define research

as

form of structured enquiry.

Composing, painting,

writing

noveIs and

pàetry or

developing a curriculum from inside the classroom

important activities,

indeed

I

would

say

that

are often more important than research.

Re-

earch, is

different.

Let us

not

confuse professional

development with systematic; structured enquiry,

which

is less ambitious and

not

sopersonal. though

i t can be just as creative.

Four essential criteria characterise research:

1.

A field of inquiry

is placed

in a

'Nlder

context

The

implication

here is thatany research problem

~ h o u d

be

seen

as

contributing

to

prafessional de

·Vélopment in

the

fjeld, in

our

case the

field

of

music ed.ucation. There is no point in undertaking

systematic

work 011 thicknesses

of clarinet

reeds,

or

tests

of musical abil ity, or the history of sol-fa,

unless

we

place them in a professional

perspective.

2. The conceptual basis is made explicit

The assumptions

must

be declared. The under

j ~ i n g

value

system must

be revealed.

3. A methodology is

articulated

to move

towards

. objectivity

, . We cannotmanoeuvre

ourselves

into a state of .

-total· neutrality: what we can do is to see

that

ali

precautions are taken to establish the autonomy ot

the findings. Essential!y, the researcher

must

adopt

a seff-critical posture.

4. _The results of the investigation are shared with

others·

Public sharing makes i t possíble to test the

WOiK,S(imetimes torepf icareit irrorderto-reexa

mine the

credibility of

the findings.

From

this it

b-ecomesfairlycleat as

to -

what

~ e s e a r c h Is

noto It

is not stating deeply held c o n ~

iêtions without reasoning

them

through or pre

, senting re!evant evidence; l t is not quotingthe

to support the case; nor is it

the

expression

of

the

obvious in difficult language.

Research in music education seems to have

three main areas of focus.

The first area Is to wíth people, our studentb.

We are interested in what motívates them. what

theirattitudesare tomusico We are concerned about

how

they

d ~ v e l o P

in musical termsand what counts

as achievin in

music

for them. We would like

to

knowmore about whatthey bring tomusic lessons

in

terms

of previous experience. social and

family

background and so on.

The second area

of

interest is to do withmusíc

itself.

What kind of experience

c o n s t i t u t ~ s

musical

experience?

Is there a deep

structure

tothis expe

rience that transcends local and historical diffe

rences of

style

and form ?

The

third

area

of

concern

is to

do

with

institu

tional settings. the places where musical students

meet.

Are

schools appropriate places for music?!

activities

? Can differentethnic

and

cultural groups

relate together

to

different kinds of musíc in an

institutional

framework? What size of groups

ere

optimum

for

special purposes?

Research in the social sciences i8 characterised

by

complexities

unusual in

the

laboratory. This Is

complicatedby théhigh politicalprofileofedl,lcatlon.

Essentially. thís research involves

looking'atpeople

carefully,.

trying

toc ?r i fy , to objectify. There

really only four major

ways

of looking at people.

1. By experiment - rnanipulating one or more

variable[eg.changing

gravitational pull towards

weightlessness)and rneasuring othervariables (pro

blem solving

abilities,

body weight, patterns

of

eating or sleep etc.).

2. By observation without intervention as in

research ínto the natural habits

of

creatures or

ethnographic/anthropological study

3. By verbal inquiry - asking questions. inter

viewing.usirigaquestionnaireorattitude inventory,

etc.

4. By

product

analysis - looking at the

artifacts

of ancient G-reeks

orRomans,

exarnining the pain

ting,

writing

or music-rnaking

of

children, analysing

tapes

of

children's language or

their written

solu

t ions to

mathematícal problems. Product evaluation

is non-interactive,

i t takes

place atone remove.

Experimental.

methodology

is one towards rnany

researchers consciously ar unconsciously aspire,

It

is the

'scientific'

approach. So,

we

plant seeds,

fertilize some but leave others aloneand rneaslire

differencE?s i

l1

.growth. controlling

the laboratory

conditions ofheat, hum.idity and light.man'ipulating .

onli the

'independent' variable (the

type

of

fertilizer)



400

30ü

200

probab!y kept outside in the snow.

;,élàmparticularly'intêre's'ted .irl ih ê'evaluationof

mUsiccu'rricUlúrií activ'iti'es and 'i:hê" músicaldeve

lcipment'

bf.

c h l l d r e n ; í r W o l v i n g ; ; " c ~ ~ ' r e f ú l ' ó b s é : r v à t j on

ano "prõdtiCí " ~ v a r U ~ H C ) r í > ' ' ô v e r ' ~ e ~ ~ R ? J e d , ar . ?good

theoryofthe nature'oL,musicalexp8I'ience... c

. Here áre

just

t h r e e ' ~ ~ ~ ' ; n p l e s f r ó m current 'work

Ob

niorlstrafe, h e ~ ~ ã 6 U i w ~ ; g ~ p r ~ y ~ ; I P : . L I ~ f i ~ r ) 9 ~ . ~ $ Ó : f i : ~ ~ t o . : } E ~ ( ) ( ) l s f()r those •with.be.havioral proble!!,s.:-_9

ur

- á eh

ieve . th

i

S = r e c r t í l f ê S i H e ~ a b i l i t y ~ ~ t o ~ p J ~ T T o u d

-iria

''!:.esearch <iuestion was

whEtth

er

groupmusi

c

i

s

a

s b f t ~ . J ~

- ª J : : h l º - ' i ~ J : I i i . ~ L r ~ q l 1 . [ E i : s

jhç:..abiJity:to.changeyiable, manageable

activlty

withthese chi Idren.

and

measuring the 'depúndent variable (the size

of the crop). From time to time we come across

some amusing attenpts to carry out experimental

work without controls.

Onelady

once confided in

that she had proved

that talking

to plants made

.Iem grow and

had

three groups of plants in three

different boxes.

One group was spoken to

:n

a kindly kind of

way. a second group was spoken to in a somewhat

abusive manner and the thirdgroup was ignored.

The

plants thrived best in

that

order.

Clearly'all

the plants must have been in a

dífferent

atmospheric

condition and therefore in

different

rooms in the

house ar they would have overheard the conver·

sations. I fear that the plants being ignored were

in m ~ i d e p a r t 1 e ~ t . · . .

" " " : . . ; ; . , . . , , , " ~ : , . . - ~ ~ : : - " . : . . : : . . '

Teaching

the

violin

. l h e research context he're fs theschema 'theory

o r ~ ~ H I learning and tlú:i concept'of :váried practice.

For

example,if

we throw

beanbags

a target. we

im'prove

ouraeeuracyby'

pràetising Jromcdifferent

distanees and,.with .different'weightsofmissife.

Does iaried p r a é t i c e h ~ i p : i l 1 , 6 1 u ' 8 . L c : ~ ? l n ~ t b i s ' p a r t i ,

Gular

.:.ease

we ;are· trying , t o ~ a s s e s s : : h o w : e f f e c t i v e : · ·

is

the"üseof t h e \ i i o l i i l b õ v v - : - ~ B o w

control aeteFITíines'

thejevel, ôr J ó u a n e s - s . ~ J ) u P l l s ~ t h e r e f o F ê ~ h c l a · t ( ; .de- .. Here

DOW

speed and length. Slx obsiúvations were made

by seven judgeslistef'ling

to

'tapes of the pupils

. e f f < ? r ~ s . ;

. ~ . .

. ._ c:

: ~ ~ ~ - ~ ~ f : ; ~ ~ : ; ~ ~ ~ - ~ ~ i G } = ; · : : : ; n . ,

,

~ _ , . s e s s i o n s : L , : . : . 3 J n v o l v e d

~ o b s e L v a t i ó f ' l s b e f o r e

inter,

ventionvvitlivarfêd p r a C t i c e : ' c S e s : : l i o n s 4 ' ~ - 6 í n c l u c l e d

' o b s ~ r y a t i 6 n s J o l l ( ) w i n ª \iúiaole

.practice goTngwell

~ y o n d what was required for the task itself - í 6

'l'erent bow lengths.

_The seores

of on:;group

. ofpupi ls are here

shown.

We found

it

almost impossible to find any musi

~ a l activities in these schools. .

c

'The

reasons we . weregiven ranged from lack

of confidence among the teáchers alÍd serious·i::!oubts

as

to the social management

of

groups making

musico IlIness, absenee

of

teaehers, trüãncy and

the volatile' nature of the groups makes steady

observation difficult. We adopted the strategy of

pairíng several observationsmade under lhe' expe,

rimental

conditionswith

those in similar but non

-experimental (no musie) settings.Teachers i n ~ s e v e -

ral schools were asked to chose a subject that

they

though might

mostcloselycorrespond with'iijúsie

i

ll

.

terms

of self-control ,caO'pefatloll all d

g f o u f 5 - d e c i ~

sionmaking:forexample home economics:and

physical education. .. -

We were interested primarily in the effeet of

music on

their

social relationships; their attitudés

to teachers

and

eaeh other, theír behaviour in school.

A te rmof musical activities .had

alreadytaken

p,laee

with the hoped c º n s e q u ~ J 1 G e .()J redl1cin91he

~ - ' n o v e l t y effeet of

the aetivity

and the new teaeher.

--,

Our procedurewasto ask theregülaI'-feacners

to

observe sessions of musie and the other-than

music

.'s.essions(<<l\;lusieu

and

~ O t h e r l l }

and assess .

the children

on

Gooperation wíth

eachother,

with .

thestaff and to estimate the appanint satisfaction

The best

and

worst

pupils respond

differently:

the least able gaining mosto

Figure 2

GROUP ONE

600 ~ - - - - - - . . . . :

lfCItT

-::r-

EEst

~ o o

00

300

We a r e s t i l l ~ o r k i n g

on ne'wand

appropriate

,statistical measures to make sense of this, though

we are fairly certain that varied practice makes a

positive difference. The research continues

..

:·2.: Music with childrenwíth.behavioral problems

.

....

.....

w€ w e r e c . . ~ n c e r D e 9 . childr§ln incsPE?cjal

ib l

Ob

Ir. ter_c:

4'

..

tbey appeared to display. Thereweresix djfferent

100



groups. Here is

the

pattern

of

response in

terms

of positive

ar negative effects.

Music

appears

to

make a positive difference.

3

Perceptions of pupil behaviour

Wheo ~ i e s

=

posítive lcores

6Q

10

20

The developmental spiral

In 1986

the publ ication

of the article

by Swan

wick

and Tillman, The Sequence

of Musical

Deve

lopment: A

Si.udy

of

Children s Composition, marked

the first systematíc attempt in Britain to map out

th9

musical development of

chíldren

(British

Journal

of

Musíc

Edt:r:ation

3.3.

Nov.

1986).

It

also hi::ippens to be the first developmental

study to focus on the compositions

of

children or

scnool age 2 3 a major source

Clf

data, as can be

seen in the comprehensive

review of the literature

by Hargreave:::

(1986).

Since then there has been consíderable

interest

in thís accodnt

af

the development

of

children s

mllsical

understanding and

versions

have appeared

in

various

languages, including Polish and Japanese.

In

Britain and elsewhere.

attention

-hasfocussed

on

the

music curriculum implications of the model:

for example. the Dutch have invested research

jnto

its potential for music

education in

mary

schools and the

Arts

Propel in

the

Usa has

~ , ( r o d u c e d

the ideas to

their prcject

colleagues in

Pittsburgh,

with

special reference

to

the creatíon

of assessment criteria. Several generations of

students

in

teacher

education have

reviewed the

theory

and

<I

number

of

college

and

university

student dissertations

have explored some

of its

possibilities.

Teachers have

frequently

expressed a

shock of recognitíon when confronted

with the

model.

The

theoretical

basis was

first

declared in a

public ecture. The

Arts in·

Education: Dreaming or

Wide Awake?, delivered on 4 November,

1982

and

subsequently published in 1983 by

the University

of

London

Institute of

Education. In

this

paper

i

argued

that

the

essential elements of artistic

enga

gement are mastery,

imitatioflancIiffiaginative_play

anel -thãi:

th ese

psychological processes have corres

ponding

artistic elements, namely the

handling and

perception

of sensory materiais, expressiv-e cha

~ t e r

and structure. The thesis is

amplified

in

lsic Mind and Education (Swanwiek, 1988).

Bet.yeen 1981 and

1985 we collected

campos

tions

mainly from children aged 3 to 11 years. These

children were pupils in three london

schools and

came

from

many

different ethnic

and

cultural

groups, including Asian, West Indian. African. Nor

thern

and Southern European backgrounds.

They ali had regular cJass

muslc

essons

with

one of the researchers and during

this time

each

child was

given

opportunities to

make

music

in a

variety of

ways in a rough sequence

of

íncreasing

complexity.

Their musical utterances

were

recorded

nine

times

each year. yielding 745 compositions

from

48

children Qver

four

years.

We

were

then looking

not

only

at

a cross-section

of

children

of different

ages, but in some cases, at

a longitudinal spectrum

of compositions from

the

same children over a long period of

time,

in some

cases up

to

four years.

The central question

was:

could

the compositions

be grouped into a

coherent framework?

As the

data began

to

unfold

it

became possible to develop

and

refire

the

theoretical

model. Basically, and we

were

able to organise the compositions into the

three previously ídentifíed

main

elements

of

artistic

experience; materiais. expression

and form, pius

one other, the component

of

«values». However.

i t

beca me necessary

to

be

more specific and

detailed

and each of these leveis came

to

be seen as com·

prising

a

polarity between assimilatory

and accom

modating tendencies.

On the left

síde is the internai

individual

motivation

of children: the exploration

of

the sensory qualities of sound; personal expressi

veness; structural speculation;

Gommitment

to the

symbolic significance of

musico On the

right

side

is

the public

domain:

skill mastery;

the conventions

of the musical vernacular;

idiomatic

authenticity:

the

systematic

extension

of

musical

possibilities.

Visual

representation therefore íequired

tiNO

dimen

sions.

that

of aspiraI. or

perhaps

more

accurately,

a helix.

Figure 4 *

MUSICAL DEVELOPMEr..i

(15".)

META

COGNmON

(10-15)

IMAGINATIVE.

PLAY

(4-9)

IM1TATlON

(0-4)

MASTERY

VALUE

[ FORM.

l

EXPRESSION

TOWARDS SOCIAL SHARING

•

WCl1 wick

a nd

illman - 985

5

I



The main characteris1ics

of

these developmental

modes are here very

briefly

restated, along

with

the

age-leveis

of

our sample at that time. For an

adequate account consuit

Swanwick

and Tillman

1986) or Swanwick (1989).

Sensory: Up

to

about

the

age

of

three. young

children are responsive to the impressiveness of

sound,

particularly

timbre and

dynamic

leveis. There

is

a

great

deal

of

exper;mentation

with

and explo

ration

of

musical ínstrurnents and vocal sound,

Manipulative:

Childreil are

acquiring

techniques

involved in handling

instruments,

organising regular

pulse and using technica devices suggested by

the

physicaJ structure and layout

of

available instru

ments. The manipulat ve mode is

most

apparent in

the compositions

of

chHdren around the age

of

four

and five.

Personal expressiwmess :

Direct

personal

expression appears

firstiy

and

most

evidently in sung

music at four to

six

years,

becoming particufarly

apparent

In

the exploit8tion

of

changes

of

speed

and loudness leveis.

lhe

vernacular: Chi't.:-en

gravitate

towards esta

general musical conventions. Phrases tend

J fali into standard

tvv0. four

or eight bar units

with metrical

organisation. The vernacular mode

begins to appear at aro:md the age

of five

but is

more

clearly establish::,d

at

seven or eight,

Figure 5

SW F J ~ W ] C K í T I L L M N DATA

AG,

. t /5

l:(AD(5Z%)---.

/

=====---,

"

,t.:

1

-

f

I

j

V

-

II

I I

LI

I I I,:

,;

'IUlJ-T<en>(lX)

~ n : . : u , , )

lhe

.speculative: Repetition of patterns

is

brokell

by

imaginative deviations. Surprises occur

as chil

dren explore

structural possibilities,

looking to

contrast

or vary established musical ideas, Specu

lative compositions can sometimes be found earlier,

but

between

the

ages of nine and

11

is

:nost

frequento

lhe idiomatic: Around the ages

of

'13-14. structu

,ai surprises become more

firmly

Integrated into

recognisable

styles

and

contrast

and variation ':lre

handled

on

the

basis

of

emulated models :md

chosen

stylistic

practices,

The

symbolic:

Particular pieces

of

music,

aften

certain turns

of

phrase

or an

harmonic progression

become

significant

for

an

individual. There is a

growing consciousness

of music s affective power

and a tendency

to reflect

on the experience and to

communicate something

of these

responses to

others.

The

age

of

about 15 and beyond seems

optimum.

The

systematic: Music becomes an important

part of a vaiue system and is conceptualised in ways

which may be historical, musicological, psycholo

gical ar philosophica .

Musical compositions

may

be based on sets

of newly

generated musical ma·

teriaís.

We found encouraging and

sympathetic

reso

nances in the

literature,

including

work

by Moog

(1976). Gardner (1973), Ross (1984) and Buntinç;

(1977),

Figure 5 shows the

emergent

modes

of

devE)

lopment at

four

age-leveis

on

the partern

of

analysis

gíven

;n

the spiral (Swanwick and Tillman. 19851,

There are

questions

about the sample

of

chiiclre:1:

for

instance. could these findings be repeated in

anotner

cultural

setting?

There

were worries

to

about the

age-relatedaspect

of the spiral, though

we

had always acknowledged

that different

environ

ments would

inevitabiy

produce

different

rates

of

development and

that individuais would

in any case

djffer

f romothers.

AGE:

10 11

T . r n ( 4 Z ) - . ~

L 3' )V

- ~ .

J - . . - I . . . . . I . - ~ ~ ( t 9 % )

"

~ ~ 5 ~

iJ

Ii illiB

1 ..m<5a%}-'

.sp.e.,( 500 r



Our

main

claim

was

that the sequential order

may be invariant. For

these

and

other

reasons,

replication

of

the original study became necessary

what follows

:s

an

account of an investigation

n a

different

cultural

setting. namely

Cyprus. This

data became available thanks

to

Michael Stavrides.

who is the Music Inspector for the island and

currently a resear::::h student with the

writer.

The

Cyprus

Data

The music curricululrl

In Cyprus

schools

ís

in

the

process of positive

development with

specific

encouragement beíng given to teachers to include

composing in the classroom. This

work

is still

fairly

new

and appears somewhat patchy, unsupported

as

lt is by established

pfâctíces

such

as those

pro

moted in Britain

by

various

curriculum

development

projects and endorsed by

the

assessment requíre·

ments of the GCSE. However a number of curricu

lum

activities

have been devised in Cyprus wíth

composing

as

a

r e a t i v e ~ v new but essential

element.

It

is possible to draw

0;1 this work to assist

in repli

crucial aspects

of

the Swanwick-Tillman

testingthe 'v'alidlty of the theoretical model

únderpinning the deve Gpmental spiral.

During 1990,

Orla

of the Cyprus

music curriculum

undertakings was

tO

':lsk children in school to

make a piecs of muslcJ.sing «contrasts». We chose

te in\estígate

the Qutco'"es

of

thís

particular

project.

6

G)''"}'R;jS DATA

A 1 ~ E .4/5

AGE 10/11

'-5PlIC(:omr;) .. '

Througn the teachers

we

collected recordings from

several primary and secondary schools,

over 600

items

in alI. From these were selected

at

random

28 compositions the only

sortíng rule being

that

there

should be seven

items

from each

of four

age

groups:

4/5; 7/8;

10/11; 14(15. These 28

items

were then assembled in random arder

on

one

cassette

tape.

We played a taped sample

of 28

compositions

was to eight judges in Britain, primary and secon

dary

music

teachers

on In-Service courses in

my

Department. They

were flrst

gíven

time

to absorb

and discuss the categories

of

the developmental

spíral. These

were

then

to

be used

to

assess the

Cyprus compositions; each was

to

be placed in a

category.

From our findings we can therefore confidentiy

assume that the sequence of developmentaJ leveis

we originally

mapped

is

reasonably accurate and

that the

averall theoreticaJ

framework

has consi

derable predictive power.

Figure 6 shows the proportion

of the 196

jud

gments made in each

of

the spiraJ categories at

each age leveI. It can be seen that the spiral modes

arríve on cue and exactly in the predicted sequence.

The Sensory,

Manipulative

and PersonaJ Expression

leveis are already in place by age

4/5;

by age

7/8

the Vernacular is established;

by 10/11

the Specu

lative appears; and compositions at age 14/15

shovv

the first emergence of the Symboiic mode.

AGE

i .

l l { { ~

1

l'KP.S(33%)-- 'I,-.

'-Vll:m'I(21 }

AGE 14/15

rYE m{8X)

1DI0000031X)-



ifferences between the

dara

There is one i m p o r t a i : ~ difference

between

these

~ ~ w

sets of data. The difference is predicted by

,3wanwíck and Tillman: « Ne suspect that, if children

are in an

environment

'Nhere

t h e r e ~

are

musical

encounters,

then

this

s'equence may be followed

more quickly. The opposite may also, unfortunately,

be true' in an impove;'ished environment, deve

opment is likely to be mínimal, arrested (Swanwick

and

Tillman,

1986,

p.

338).

The children in the Cyprus schools are certainly

not

in an impoverished musical environment but

there

is unquestionably :ess

of

a

tradítion

of com

posing

in the classroom.

We

were also assessing

compositions from several Cyprus

schools

where

chíldren

had different teachers, unlike the earlier

data from the UK where one teacher was systema

tically engaged in developing a rich musical pro

gramme during the four·year period of the research.

We might therefore expact more

variability

in the

Cyprus compositions afíd

possible lower

leveis of

achievement as assessed by the criteria. For exam

among

the

UK

childr8fl

we

could

anticipate more

:onfidence with the musical vernacular and greater

fluency in structural speculation with a greater dis

persion of 'lhe

100ver

criterion leveis in the higher

age groups among the Cyprus sample. An inspection

of

the

data suggests tlli ) may be so.

From OUi' an2!ysis

Wê-.

can assume that, althaugh

tne sequential arder d

development

may be iden

tical,

the compositions Jf the UK children appear

general y

to be ~ ' n o r e advancec than

those

of thelr

Cyprus peers.

Conclusion

This evidence strOrlf:HY supports the sequence of

the original musi..:; developmental map and justifies

theprojections made fr)r the o der age group. Fur

thermore, in the

light 8f

the differences between

the

twosamples

i t is

tempting

provísionally

to

adop t the hypothesis that music education in

schools

s

able to make a diHc:ence to the musical deve

lopment or chilc-en.

However.

theexperiment was

not designed to test this and

i t

would be unwise

to rely onthese "esults to

support what

would be,

for

music educ2i"Drs, ::

attractive

thesis.

Further

work

is indicated. A comment by one

of

the

UK

teach8r-judges

was

made to the effect

that the

criterio'l

state;nents would be an

impro

vement on some currr:;nt practices in

assessing

children's compositions

for

tne GCSE. There is

indeed a need i',i1d SOí"e. potentia here for deve

loping more reliable, more musically valid and cross

-cultural assessment techniques and the necessity

of training judges responsible for the assessment

of musical compositions. Similar criteria may be

he!pful in the assessment of performances.

In the Music department of the Institute of Edu

cation, London University, a number of researcners

at

this

time are investigating ways in which people

respond to music

as

audlence-listeners. There a.rE'

several

further

questions relating

to

developmental

model, one

of

which

is

whether

or not

the same sequential order is evident in the listening

mode

and another the extent to which audiencE

listening may influence composing. One thing

certain: whenever the sequential map is tabled

discussion

it

become possible

to

think in a more

focussed way about musical experience, musical

development, the articulation of a progressive musir

curriculum, pupi! assessment and the psycholog.,

of musical development.

In the 16th century. Frances Bacon said,

'we,

are more

likely to

reach the

truth

through erro,

than through confusion'. What ! ask

of

myse f and

my

research

students

is

that error

should

expressed In a

clear

and lively fashion and be th\:!

more easily recognised for what

it

is because

l t 2

stripped of unnecessary jargon. The student '/vho

has been

through

the

fire

of research may

not

alway",

produce earth-shattering findings, but the student is

helped by the experience and usual[y loaks

at

ths

world rather

differently,

at

their

own teaching ano

the

teaching

of

other people differently, at students

and

institutions

differently because there has ~ e n

systernatic enquiry. ihe researcher is alvvays

tr.e

first of his r her own rindings.

References

BUNTING, R.. (1977).

«The

Common Language of Musico.

Music

in the Secondary School Curriculum. Working

Paper 6. Sehools Counell. York University.

GARDNER, H., (1973]. The Al1s and Human Deveiopment.

New

York: Wiley.

HARGREAVES, D. J. (1936). «Developmentaí Psychoiogy and

Musie Edueationn, Psycnology of Music, 14 (2). 33-96.

ivlOOG, H..

(1976).1he

Musical Experience of tne ?re·Scnool

ChHd.

(Translated by Claudia Ciarke]

London:

Scnott.

Hrst published in Germany, 1963.

ROSS. Í\iÍ., (1984). The Aesthetíc Impulse. Oxrord: Pergamon

Press.

SWANWICK, K., (1983), The Atts in Education: Dreaming ar

Wide

Awake?

Special Professorial Lecture. London Uni

versity Institute of Education.

SWANWICK. K. & TiLLMAN. J., (1986). «The Sequence of Musical

Development., British Joumal of Music Education. Voi.

3. No. 3. November 1986. Cambridge University Press.

SWANWICK. K.. 11988), Music. Mind and Educationll. London:

Routledge.

Chairperson of the MDsi-c Depal1ment of the London Universlty Institute of Education

No Boletim 68. p á ~ J s 16-18 está publicada no artigo ara

um

modelo da criatividade musical nas crianças de June Tillman,

a

espiral de desenvolvimento musical. trad. em português. .

. 8

The Importance of Research for Music Education

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