The Imperial Cult the Development of Church Order 1999

7/27/2019 The Imperial Cult the Development of Church Order 1999

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T H E I M P E R I A L C U L T A N D T H E D E V E L O P M E N T

O F C H U R C H O R D E R



SU PPL E M E N T S T O

V I G I L I A E C H R I S T I A N A EForm erly Philosophia Patrum

T E X T S A N D S T U D I E S O F E A R L Y C H R I S T I A N L I F E

A N D L A N G U A G E

E D I T O R S

J . D E N B O E F T — R . V A N D E N B R O E K — W . L . P E T E R S E ND . T . R U N I A — J . C . M . V A N W I N D E N

VOLUME X L V



T h i s b o o k is p r i n t e d on a c i d - f r e e p a p e r .

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

B r e n t , A l l e n .

T h e i m p e r i a l c u l t and the d e v e l o p m e n t of c h u r c h o r d e r : c o n c e p t s

a n d i m a g e s of a u t h o r i t y in p a g a n i s m and e a r l y C h r i s t i a n i t y b e f o r et h e Age of C y p r i a n / by A l l e n B r e n t .

p . cm. — ( S u p p l e m e n t s to V i g i l i a e C h r i s t i a n a e , I S S N

0 9 2 0 - 6 2 3 X ; v. 45)

I n c l u d e s b i b l i o g r a p h i c a l r e f e r e n c e s (p. ) and i n d e x e s .

I S B N 9 0 0 4 1 1 4 2 0 3

1. C h u r c h p o l i ty — H i s t o r y — E a r l y c h u r c h , ca. 3 0 - 6 0 0 . 2. E m p e r o r

w o r s h i p — R o m e . 3. C h r i s t i a n i t y and o t h e r r e l i g i o n s — R o m a n .

I . T i d e . II. S e r i e s .

B V 6 4 8 . B 7 3 19992 6 1 . 2 ' 2 0 7 '0 9 0 1 5 — d c 2 1 9 9 - 3 6 6 3 1

C I P

Die Deutsche Bibliothek - CIP-Einheitsaufnahme

[Vigiliae Christianae / Supplements]

S u p p l e m e n t s to V i g i l i a e C h r i s t i a n a e : f o r m e r l y P h i l o s o p h i a P a t r u m ;

t e x t s and s t u d i e s of e a r l y C h r i s t i a n l i f e and l a n g u a g e . - L e i d e n ;

B o s t o n ; K o l n : Bri l l .

Friiher Schriftenreihe

I S S N 0 9 2 0 - 6 2 3 X

V o l . 45. Brent , Al len: The imperial cult and thed e v e l o p m e n t of

church order . - 1999

Brent, Allen:

T h e i m p e r i a l c u l t and the d e v e l o p m e n t of c h u r c h o r d e r : c o n c e p t s and

i m a g e s of a u t h o r i t y in P a g a n i s m and E a r l y C h r i s t i a n i t y b e f o r e the

A g e of C y p r i a n / by A l l e n B r e n t . - L e i d e n ; B o s t o n ; K o l n : B r i l l ,

1 9 9 9

( S u p p l e m e n t s to V i g i l i a e C h r i s t i a n a e ; V o l . 45)

I S B N 9 0 - 0 4 - 1 1 4 2 0 - 3

I S S N 0 9 2 0 - 6 2 3 X

I S B N 90 04 1 1 4 2 0 3

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P R I N T E D IN T H E N E T H E R L A N D S



C a r o l i n e P e n r o s e B a m m e l , F . B . A .

( 1 9 4 0 - 1 9 9 5 )

I n p i a m m e m o r i a m



C O N T E N T S

A b b r e v i a t i o n s i x

P la t e s x v

I n t r o d u c t i o n x i x

I . C h r i s t i a n a n d P a g a n C u l t u s b y t h e T h i r d C e n t u r y 1

A . C y p r i a n i c H i e r a r c h y a n d D e c i u s T r a j a n 2

B . C h r i s t i a n a n d I m p e r i a l C u l t : P a r a l l e l s B e f o r e

C y p r i a n 4

C . C h u r c h O r d e r a s Apologia: T h e R e a c t i v e T h e s i s 8

D . I m p e r i a l a n d C h r i s t i a n O r d e r : C o n t r a - C u l t u r a l

R e l a t i o n s 1 1

I I . T h e F o u n d a t i o n s o f t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t 17

A . R e p u b l i c a n A n t e c e d e n t s o f t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t 19

B . T h e I n a u g u r a t i o n a n d R e c e p t i o n o f t h e

I m p e r i a l C u l t 5 9

I I I . I m p e r i a l I d e o l o g y a n d t h e O r i g i n s o f C h u r c h O r d e r 7 3

A . Luke-Acts: T r a d i t i o n a l E s c h a t o lo g y T r a n s f o r m e d 7 8

B . Luke-Acts i n t h e C o n t e x t o f I m p e r i a l H i s t o r y 8 2

C . L u k a n I m a g e s o f C o n t r a C u l t u r e 1 01

D . C h u r c h O r d e r a n d I m p e r i a l S o c ie ty 1 30

E . I n C o n c l u s i o n : T h e o p h i l u s a n d H i s C i r c l e 1 37

I V . C l e m e n t o f R o m e a n d D o m i t i a n ' s E m p i r e 1 40

A . D o m i t i a n a n d th e W r i t i n g o f C l e m e n t ' s Corinthians ... 141

B . C l e m e n t : C h u r c h O r d e r a n d I m p e r i a l P e a c e 1 44

C . C l e m e n t ' s C o n s t r u c t i o n o f a C o n t r a C u l t u r e 16 1

V . T h e Apocalypse a n d D o m i t i a n ' s I c o n o g r a p h y 1 64

A . D o m i t i a n ' s C u l t a n d t h e D a t e of t h e Apocalypse 1 6 4

B . T h e D o m i t i a n i c B a c k c l o t h t o t h e Apocalypse 177

C . I n C o n c l u s i o n : Apocalypse a n d t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t 2 0 8

V I . I g n a t i u s o f A n t i o c h a n d t h e M a r t y r ' s P r o c e s s i o n 2 1 0

A . I g n a t i a n T y p o l o g y a n d D o m i t i a n ' s I c o n o g r a p h y 2 1 1



viii C O N T E N T S

B . T h e M a r t y r P r o c e s s io n a n d C u l t i c A m b a s s a d o r s ... . 2 2 8

C . O r d e r i n C l e m e n t , I g n a t i u s a n d t h e Apocalypse 2 4 8

V I I . P a g a n a n d C h r i s t i a n M o n a r c h i a n i s m 2 5 1

A . A n t e c e d e n t s o f t h e S e v e r a n * R e f o r m a t i o n 2 5 5

B . P a g a n O n t o l o g i e s : G n o s t i c i s m a n d N e o p l a t o n i s m . ... 2 7 1

C . S o c i a l O r d e r a n d t h e D o c t r i n e o f t h e T r i n i t y 2 8 5

V I I I . T h e E m e r g e n c e o f I m p e r i a l a n d C a t h o l i c O r d e r 3 1 0

A . E l a g a b a l u s a n d U n i v e r s a l M o n o t h e i s m 3 1 1

B . C a l li st us , M o n a r c h B i s ho p s a n d M o n a r c h i a n i s m 3 1 3

C . I n C o n c l u s i o n : T h e L e g a c y f or D e c i u s a n d

C y p r i a n 3 2 8

B i b l i o g r a p h y 3 3 1

I n d i c e s 3 4 5

1. B ib l i ca l C i t a t i o n s 3 4 7

2 . A n c i e n t C h r i s t i a n a n d J e w i s h W r i t e r s 3 5 1

3 . A n c i e n t P a g a n W r i t e r s 3 5 4

4 . I n s c r i p t i o n s a n d C o i n s 3 5 9

5 . G r e e k V o c a b u l a r y 3 6 2

P l a t e s 3 7 1



X A B B R E V I A T I O N S

BeitrHistTh B e i t r a g e z u r h i s t o ri s c h e n T h e o l o g i e

BICS Bu l l e t i n o f t h e In s t i t u t e o f C la s s i ca l S tu d i e s

BiLit B i b e l u n d L i t u r g i e

BJb B o n n e r J a h r b u c h e r de s r h e in i sc h e n L a n d e s m u s e u m s

i n B o n n u n d d e s V e r e i n s v o n A l t e r t u m s f r e u n d e n i m

R h e i n l a n d e

BLUE B u l l e t i n d e l i t t e r a t u r e e c c l e s i a s t i q u e

BR B i b l i c a l R e s e a r c h

BRev B i b l i c a l R e v i e w

BSGT B i b li o t he c a S c r i p t o r u m G r a e c o r u m e t R o m a n o r u m

T e u b n e r i a n a

BThAM B u l l e t i n d e t h e o l o g i e a n c i e n n e e t m e d i e v a l e

Byz B y z a n t i o n : R e v u e i n t e r n a t i o n a l e d e s e t u d e s b y z a n -

t i n e s

ByzZ B y z a n t i n i s c h e Z e i t s c h r i f t

BJ^NW B e i h e f te z u r Z e i t sc h r i ft fu r d i e n e u t e s t a m e n d i c h e W i s -

s e n s c h a f t

B^HT B e i t r a g e z u r h i s t o r i s c h e n T h e o l o g i e

BCCa C i v i l t a c a t t o l i c a

ChH C h u r c h H i s t o r y

CTh C a h i e r s t h e o l o g i q u e s ( N e u c h a t e l : E d i t i o n s D e l a c h a u x

e t N i e s t l e 1 9 4 9 — )

CIG C o r p u s I n s c r ip t io n u m G r a e c a r u m

CIL C o r p u s I n s c r ip t i o n u m L a t i n a r u m

ClAnt C l a s s i c a l A n t i q u i t y

ClassRev C l a s s i c a l R e v i e w

ClassStud C l a s s ic a l S t u d i e s . D e p a r t m e n t o f C l a s si c s o f t h e U n i

v e r s i t y o f K y o t o

CIPl C l a s s i c a l P h i l o l o g y

CSCO C o r p u s S c r i p t o r u m C h r i s t i a n o r u m O r i e n t a l i u m

CSLE C o r p u s S c r i p t o r u m L a t i n o r u m E c c l e si a st ic o r u m

DAC L Dictionnaire d' Archeologie Chretienne et de Liturgie, (Ed . )

F . C a b r o l a n d H . L e c l e r c q ( P a ri s : L i b r a i r e L e t o u z e y

e t A n e 1 9 2 4 )

DAIRM M i t t e i l u n g e n d e s d e u t s c h e n a r c h a o l o g i s c h e n I n s ti tu t s:

r o m i s c h e A b t e i l u n g

DomSt D o m i n i c a n S t u d i e s

DR D o w n s i d e R e v i e w

EglTheo E g l i s e e t t h eo lo g ie

EpAnat E p i g r a p h i c a a n a t o l i c a



A B B R E V I A T I O N S XI

EphL E p h e m e r i d e s l i t u r g i c a e

EPRO E t u d e s p r e l i m i n a i r e s a u x r e l i g io n s o r i e n t a l e s d a n s

l ' e m p i r e r o m a i n , M a a r t e n J . V e r m a s e r e n ( L e i d en : B rill)

EThL E p h e m e r i d e s T h e o l o g i c a e L o v a n i e n s e s

Entretiens F o n d a t i o n H a r d t P o u r P E t u d e d e T A n t i q u i t e C l a s s i q u e

( V a n d o e u v r e s - G e n e v e : O l i v ie r R e v e r d i n )

FRLANT F o r s c h u n g e n z u r R e l i g i o n u n d L i t e r a t u r d e s a l t e n

u n d n e u e n T e s t a m e n t s

F^ThTTi F r e i b u r g e r Z e i t s c h r i f t f u r P h i l o s o p h i c u n d T h e o l o g i e

GCS D i e g r i e c h i s c h e n c h r i s t l i c h e n S c h r if t st e l le r d e r e r s t e n

b e i d e n J a h r h u n d e r t e

GGR 3 G e s c h i c h t e d e r g r i e c h i s c h e n R e l i g i o n , i n Handbuch der

A Itertumswissenschqft

Greg G r e g o r i a n u m

GRBS G r e e k , R o m a n a n d B y z a n t i n e S t ud i e s

Gym G y m n a s i u m

HA H a n d b u c h d e r A l te r tu m s w i s se n s ch a f t

Herm H e r m e s

Hermath H e r m a t h e n a

Hesp H e s p e r i a

Heyjn H e y t h r o p J o u r n a l

Hochl. H o c h l a n d . Z e i t s c h r i f t f u r a l l e G e b i e t e d e s W i s s e n s

u n d d e r s c h o n e n K i i n s t e

H o r s l e y ,

New Docs G . H o r s l e y , New Docum ents Illustrating Early Christianity,

( M a c q u a r i e : A n c i e n t H i s t o ry D o c u m e n t a t i o n R e s e a r c h

C e n t r e 1 9 8 3 — )

HThR H a r v a r d T h e o l o g i c a l R e v i e w

Hypomn. H y p o m n e m a t a : U n t e r s u c h u n g e n z u r A n t i ke u n d z u

i h r e m N a c h l e b e n , A . D i h l e , H . E r b s e , C . H a b i c h t ,

G . P a t z ig , B . S n e l l ( E d it o rs ) , ( G o t t i n g e n : V a n d e n h o e c k

a n d R u p r e c h t 1 9 62 — )

ILCV I n s c r ip t i o n e s L a t i n a e C h r i s t i a n a e V e t e r e s , E d . E . D i e h l ,

V o l s . 1 -3

ICUR I n s c ri p ti o n e s C h r i s t i a n a e U r b i s R o m a e S e p t i m o S a e -

c u l o A n t i q u i o r e s , E d . D e R o s s i G . B . a n d S i l v a g n i A . ,

N o v a s er ie s ( R o m e 1 9 2 1 — )

IG I n s c r i p t i o n e s G r a e c a e , E d . K i r s c h n e r J . ( B e rl in : R h e i -

m a r u s 1 9 1 3 — ; D e G r u y t e r 1 9 2 4 — )

JbAC J a h r b u c h fur A n t i k e u n d C h r i s t e n t u m



xii A B B R E V I A T I O N S

JBL J o u r n a l of B i bl ic a l L i t e r a t u r e

JEgArch J o u r n a l o f E g y p t i a n A r c h e o l o g y

J EH J o u r n a l o f E c c l e s ia s t ic a l H i s t o r y

JES J o u r n a l o f E c u m e n i c a l S t u d i e s

JHS J o u r n a l o f H e l l e n i c . S t u d i e s

JLiW J a h r b u c h fiir L i t u rg i e w i s s e n s c h a f t

JRA J o u r n a l o f R o m a n A r c h e o lo g y

JRH J o u r n a l o f R e l i g i o u s H i s t o r y

JRomS J o u r n a l o f R o m a n S t ud ie s

JSNT J o u r n a l fo r t h e S t u d y o f t h e N e w T e s t a m e n t

JSNT.S J o u r n a l for t h e S t u d y o f t h e N e w T e s t a m e n t : S u p p l e

m e n t a r y S e r i e s

JThS J o u r n a l o f T h e o l o g i c a l S t u d i e s

LeDiv L e c t i o d i v i n a

MAAR M e m o i r s o f t h e A m e r i c a n A c a d e m y in R o m e

M D L a M a i s o n - D i e u

MEFRA M e l a n g e s d e l ' e c o l e f r a n g a i s e d e R o m e : A n t i q u i t e

MemAmAc M e m o i r s o f t h e A m e r i c a n A c a d e m y in R o m e

M GH M o n u m e n t a G e r m a n i a e H i s t o r i c a

M SR M e l a n g e s d e s c i e n c e r e l i g i e u s e

MuTh£ M i i n c h e n e r t h e o l o g i s c h e Z e it sc h ri ft

NA N e u t e s t a m e n d i c h e A b h a n d l u n g e n

NScavAnt No t i z i e d eg l i s cav i d i an t i ch i t a , i n Atti della r. acca-

demia dei Lincei

NT N o v u m T e s t a m e n t u m

NTS N e w T e s t a m e n t S t u d ie s

OECT O x f o r d E a r l y C h r i s t i a n T e x t s , H . C h a d w i c k ( E d. ),

( O x f o r d : C l a r e n d o n P r es s)

Opera M in Sel. L . R o b e r t , O p e r a M i n o r a S e l e c ta , E p i g r a p h i e e t

A n t i q u i t e s G r e c q u e s , V o l s . 1 -7 ( A m s t e r d a m : H a k k e r t

1 9 6 9 - 1 9 9 0 )

OrChr O r i e n s C h r i s t i a n u s

OrChrA O r i e n t a l i a C h r i s t i a n a a n a l e c t a

OrSyr O r i e n t s y r i e n

OstkiSt O s t k i r c h l i c h e S t u d i e n

PL J . P . M i g n e , P a t r o l o g i a L a t i n a

Phil Ph i lo lo g u s , Z e i t s ch r i f t f i i r k l a s s i s ch es Al t e r tu m

PO P a t r o l o g i a o r i e n t a l i s

PG J . P . M i g n e , P a t r o lo g i a G r a e c a - L a t i n a

PTS P a t r is t is c h e T e x t e u n d S t u d i e n ( B e r l i n / N e w Y o r k :

D e G r u y t e r 1 9 6 4 — )



A B B R E V I A T I O N S X l l l

PW K A . P a u l y - W i s s o w a , Real-encyclopadia der classischen Alter-

tumswissenschaft ( M e t z l e r : S t u t t g a r t 1 8 9 9 )

QLP Q u e s t i o n s l i t u r g i q u e s e t p a r o i s s i a l e s

RAC R e a l l e x i k o n fiir A n t i k e u n d C h r i s t e n t u m

RAr R e v u e a r c h e o l o g i q u e

RBen R e v u e b e n e d i c t i n e

Rbib R e v u e b i b l i q u e

RDroitCan R e v u e d e d r o i t c a n o n i q u e

RH R e v u e h i s t o r i q u e

REA R e v u e d e s e t u d e s a n c i e n n e s

REG R e v u e d es e t u d e s g r e c q u e s

RevHisRel R e v u e d e l'histoire d e s r e l i g i o n s

RecSciRel R e c h e r c h e s d e s c i e n c e r e li g ie u s e

RelStudRev R e l i g i o u s S t u d i e s R e v i e w

RBelgPhH R e v u e b e i g e d e p h i l o l o g i e e t d'histoire

ReoEtByz R e v u e de s e t u d e s b y z a n t i n e s

RevHE R e v u e d'histoire e c c l e s i a s t i q u e

RevHPhR R e v u e d'histoire e t d e p h i l o s o p h i c r e l i g ie u s e

ReoScPhTh R e v u e d e s s c i e n ce s p h i l o s o p h i q u e s e t t h e o l o g i q u e s

RevSR R e v u e d e s s c i e n c e s r e l i g i e u s e s

RGG R e l i g io n i n G e s c h i c h t e u n d G e g e n w a r t

RivAC R i v i s t a d i a r c h e o l o g i a c r i s t i a n a

RPARA R e n d i c o n t i d e l la p o n ti fi c i a a c c a d e m i a r o m a n a d i

a r c h e o l o g i a

RPhil R e v u e d e p h i l o l o g i e , d e l i t t e r a t u r e e t d'histoire a n c i

e n n e s

RSLR R i v i s t a d i s t o r i a e l e t t e r a t u r a r e l i g io s a

RThAM R e c h e r c h e s d e t h e o l o g i e a n c i e n n e e t m e d i e v a l e

SBAW S i t z u n g s b e r i c h t e d e r b a y r i s c h e n A k a d e m i e d e r W i s

s e n s c h a f t e n

SC S o u r c e s c h r e t i e n n e s (P a r is : L e s E d i t i o n s d u C e r f

1 9 4 4 — )

SciEspirit S c i e n c e e t e s p r i t

ScuCat L a s c u o l a c a t t o l i c a

SecCent T h e S e c o n d C e n t u r y

Set Stud i e t es t i

SGK S c h r i f te n d e r k o n i g s b e r g e r G e l e h r t e n G e s e l ls c h a ft

SHAW S i t z u n g s b e r i c h t e d e r H e i d e l b e r g e r A k a d e m i e d e r

W i s s e n s c h a f t e n

SJLA S t u d i e s i n J u d a i s m i n L a t e A n t i q u i t y , E d . J . N e u s n e r

(Leiden : Br i l l )



XIV A B B R E V I A T I O N S

SPAW S i t z u n g s b e r i c h t e d e r p r e u s s i s c h e n A k a d e m i e d e r W i s

s e n s c h a f t e n : P h i l o s o p h i s c h - h i s t o r i s c h e K l a s s e

StAns S t u d i a a n s e l m i a n a

StEphAug. S t u d i a E p h e m e r i d i s " A u g u s t i n i a n u m " ( I n s t i t u t u m P a t r i -

s t ic u m " A u g u s t i n i a n q r n " : R o m e )

StPB S t u d i a P o s t - B i b l i c a

StTh S t u d i a T h e o l o g i c a

StudClas Stud i i clasice. Buc ures t i , Soc . de S tud i i Clas ice d in R S R

StudPatr S t u d i a P a t r i s t i c a

StuPat S t u d i a P a t a v i n a

SupplVCh S u p p l e m e n t s to V i g i l ia e C h r i s t i a n a e ( L e i d e n : B r il l

1 9 8 7 — )

TheolStKrit T h e o l o g i s c h e S t u d i e n u n d K r i t i k e n

Theoph T h e o p h a n i a : B e it r ag e z u r R e l i g io n s - u n d K i r c h e n -

g e s c h i c h t e d e s A l t e r t u m s

TheoRev T h e o l o g i s c h e r e v u e

ThG T h e o l o g i e u n d G l a u b e

ThQ T h e o l o g i s c h e Q u a r t a l s c h r i f t

ThR T h e o l o g i s c h e R u n d s c h a u

ThS T h e o l o g i c a l S t u d i e s

ThZ T h e o l o g i s c h e Z e i t s c h r i f t

TU T e x t e u n d U n t e r s u c h u n g e n d e r a l t c h r i s t l i c h e n L i t e r a t u r

TWJVT T h e o l o g is c h e s W o r t e r b u c h z u m n e u e n T e s t a m e n t

TEA T u b i n g e r B e i t r a g e z u r A l t e r tu m s w i s s e n sc h a f t

VC V e r b u m C a r o : R e v u e t h e o lo g i q u e e t o e c u m e n i q u e

( N e u c h a t e l 1 9 4 7 )

VCh V i g i l i a e C h r i s t i a n a e

WMAKT W i ss e ns c ha f tl ic h e M o n o g r a p h i e n z u m a l te n u n d n e u e n

T e s t a m e n t

WUNT W i s se n s c h a f di c h e U n t e r s u c h u n g e n z u m n e u e n T e s t a

m e n t ( M o h r : T u b i n g e n )

ZKG Z e i t s c h r i f t f i i r K i r c h e n g e s c h i c h t e

ZKTh Z e i t s c h r if t f iir k a t h o l i s c h e T h e o l o g i e

ZNW Z e i ts c h r if t fiir n e u t e s t a m e n t l i c h e W i s s e n s c h a f t u n d

K u n d e d e r a l te r e n K i r c h e

ZRGG Z e i t s c h r if t fiir R e l i g i o n s - u n d G e i s t e s g e s c h i c h t e

ZThK Z e i ts c h ri f t fiir T h e o l o g i e u n d K i r c h e

ZWTh Z e i t s c h r i f t fiir w i s s e n s c h a f t l i c h e T h e o l o g i e



P L A T E S *

1. Ara Pad s Au g u s t i

DAI Neg . 5 3 .3 0 7 .

Courtesy of Deutsches Archaologisches Ins t i tu t , Rom.

2. Ara Pacis :

Tel lus : celebrat ion of Pax in nature and society .

DAI Neg . 8 6 .1 4 4 8 .

Cour tesy o f Deu tsches Archao log isches Ins t i tu t , Rom.3. Ara Pacis :

Te llus an d he r child ren in a fruitful ea rth .

DAI Neg . 32 .1744 .

Co urtesy of D eutsche s Archa ologisches Ins t i tu t, R om .

4. Ara Pacis :

N y m p h (Hora) of sea-realm seated on a tam ed dra ggo n.

DAI Neg . 3 2 .1 7 4 6 .

Co urtesy of D eutsche s Archao logisches Ins t i tu t, R om .5. Ara Pacis :

Close-up o f Te l lus ' ch ild in Natu re ' s supe rabu nda nce .

DAI Neg . 8 6 .1 4 5 8 .

Co urtesy of D eutsche s Archao logisches Ins t i tu t , R om .

6. Ara Pacis:

Sacrificial Scene (Suovetaurilia)

DAI Neg . 6 6 .1 0 7 .

Courtesy of Deutsches Archaologisches Ins t i tu t , Rom.7. Altar of Lares :

Augustus as augur with lituus.

DAI Neg . 7 5 .2 9 3 .

Co urtesy of De utsches Archa ologisches Ins t i tu t , R om .

8. Altar of the Lares:

Vicomagistri at jo in t sacrifice.

DAI Neg . 6 0 .1 4 7 2 .

Courtesy of Deutsches Archaologisches Ins t i tu t , Rom.

9. Al tar of Lares :

Augustus hands s ta tuet tes to ministri of a compitum.

M u s . V atic . Arc h. Fotog. Ne g. N . A. 16 .6 .

Courtesy of Monumenti musei e gal ler ie pont i f ic ie .

10. Ministri with statuettes of Lares a n d Genius Augusti.

M u s . Vat i c . Arch . Fo to g . Neg . N . XXXV.5 .9 .

Courtesy of Monumenti musei e gal ler ie pont i f ic ie .

* T h e P l a t e s S e c t i o n c a n b e f o u n d a t t h e e n d o f t h i s b o o k .



xvi PLATES

11. Altar dedicated to the Lares of Augustus.

Roma, Musei Capitolini, Arch. Fotog. Inv. 855/S.

12. Augustus presents statue of Minerva to magistri of woodworkers.

Roma, Musei Capitolini, Arch. Fotog. Inv. 1909/S.

13. Gemma Augustea.

Courtesy of Kunsthistorisches Muse#um, Wien Inv. IX.A.79.

14. Pompei: Priestess with stola and patera.

Naples, Mus. Naz. Inv. 6041.

15. Priest with incense box.

Lyon, Mus. Gallo-Rom. (Photo: Ch. Thioc).

16. Head of Augustus with thunderbolt and star.

BMC (Tiberius) 151.c216.20 (PI. 26.3). (Obv.)

© The British Museum

17. Livia as priestess holding patera and sceptre.

BMC (Tiberius) 151.c216.20 (PL 26.3). (Rev.)


18. Head of Augustus with star.

BMC (Titus) 27l.c.219.86 (PI. 54,3). (Obv.)


19. Altar to Providentia.

BMC (Titus) 27l.c.219.86 (PI. 54,3). (Rev.)© The British Museum

20 . Domitia Augusta.

BMC (Domitian) 65.c 194.56 (PI. 61,9). (Obv.)


2 1 . Domitia (Pietas) with sceptre, left, extending right hand

towards her child.

BMC (Domitian) 65.c. 194.56 (PL 61,9). (Rev.)

© The British Museum22 . Domitia Augusta.

BMC (Domitian) 62 (PL 61,6). (Obv.)


2 3 . Divus Caesar (Domitian's son) as baby Jupiter seated on

a globe circled by seven stars.

BMC (Domitian) 62 (PL 61,6). (Rev.)


24 .Victory (Domitian) draped and holding a shield.

BMC (Domitian) 504 .C .220 .3 . (Rev.)


2 5 . Aeternitas holding the sun and moon.

BMC (Domitian) 346.C.219.94 (PL 73,4)


26 . Sabina Augusta

BMC (Hadrian) 1095.C.391.8 (PL 75,7). (Obv.)


27 . Cybele, towered, draped and seated.

BMC (Hadrian) 1095.C.391.8 (PL 75,7). (Rev.)


http://151.c216.20/

http://151.c216.20/

http://151.c216.20/

http://151.c216.20/



PLATES XVll

28 . Faustina (I) Augusta.

BMC (Antoninus Pius) 1436.C.223.190 (PL 34,4). (Obv.)


29 . Cybele towered and enthroned with two lions.BMC (Antoninus Pius) 1436.c223.190 (PL 34,4). (Rev.)


30 . Faustina (II) Augusta.

BMC (Marcus Aurelius) 934 .C .225.1 (PL 73,11). (Obv.)


3 1 . Cybele (Mater Magna) towered.

BMC (Marcus Aurelius) 934 .C .225.1 (PL 73,11). (Rev.)


32 . Matri Deum Salutari:

Cybele towered and on a lion's back.

BMC (Commodus) 680 (PL 109,15). (Rev.)

33 . Julia (Domna) Augusta.

BMC (Septimius Severus) 77.cl98.154 B (a)

(PL 28,18) (Obv.)


34 . Isis with Horus in both arms.

BMC (Septimius Severus) 77.cl98.154 B (a)

(PL 28,18) (Rev.)


http://1436.c223.190/

http://77.cl98.154/

http://77.cl98.154/

http://77.cl98.154/

http://77.cl98.154/

http://1436.c223.190/



I N T R O D U C T I O N

T h e r e c e i v e d o p i n i o n o n t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t o f p e r h a p s a m a j o r i t y o f

R o m a n h i s t o r i a n s w a s w e l l s u m m e d u p i n t h e w o r k o f K u r t L a t t e ,

w h o c l a i m e d t h a t t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f t h is C u l t h a d b e e n g r e a t l y o v e r

e s t i m a t e d . E m p e r o r W o r s h i p p l a y e d a m i n o r ro l e , o n h is v i ew , a n d

w a s n o t r e al ly a r e li g io u s p h e n o m e n o n a t a ll . " D e r K a i s e r k u l t b l i e b . . .

d i e A n e r k e n n u n g d e s r o m i s c h e n W e l t r e i c h s , i n s e i n e r g e g e n w a r t i g e nF o r m , e i n e k o n v e n t i o n e l l e G e i s t e . "

1

T h e I m p e r i a l C u l t , a s E t i e n n e

q u o t e d L a t t e a s s a y i n g , w a s " u n e i n v e n t i o n d e s p e r e s d e l ' E g l i s e . "2

C e r t a i n l y t hi s v i e w h a s a ls o p r e d o m i n a t e d i n m a n y d i sc u s s io n s o f

w h y t h e E a r l y C h u r c h su ff er ed p e r s e c u t i o n . S h e r w i n - W h i t e a g r e e d

w i t h D e S t e C r o i x i n t h i s r e s p e c t a t l e a s t , w h e n h e c l a i m e d t h a t

" e m p e r o r w o r s h i p is a f a c to r of n o i n d e p e n d e n t i m p o r t a n c e i n t h e

p e r s e c u t i o n o f C h r i s t i a n s . " I t w a s r e fu s a l t o w o r s h i p t h e g o d s i n g e n e r a l t h a t w a s t h e p r i m e r e a s o n f o r p e r s e c u t i o n .

3

I f L a t t e ' s v i e w w e r e

c o r r e c t , t h e s t u d y o f t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e d e v e l o p

m e n t o f E a r l y C h u r c h O r d e r w o u l d b e t h e s tu d y of s o c ia l r e a l it y as

t h e e a r l y C h r i s t i a n s h a d c o n s t r u c t e d it . B u t t h a t c o n s t r u c t i o n o f s o c ia l

r e a l it y w o u l d h a v e b e e n d i s o w n e d b y t h e p a g a n s t h e m s e l v e s .

B u t L a t t e 's s u m m a r y d e f e n c e o f t h e e a r l y c o n s e n s u s of R o m a n

h i s t o r i a n s h a s r e c e n d y s u s t a i n e d a h i g h l y s i g n i f i c a n t c h a l l e n g e . W r i t e r ss u c h a s F e a r s , 4 F i s h w i c k , 5 a n d P r i c e 6 h a v e e m p h a s i s e d t h e i n c r e a s

i n g c e n t r a l i t y o f t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t t o R o m a n r e l i g i o n , p a r t i c u l a r l y

1 K . L a t t e, R o m i s c h e R e l i g i o n s g e s c h i c h t e , in HA 5 , 4 ( 1 9 6 7 ) a n d ( 1 9 7 6 ) , p . 3 2 6 .

T h e m o s t r e c e n t e x a m p l e i s f o u n d i n B . W . J o n e s , The Emperor Domitian, ( L o n d o n :

R o u d e d g e 1 9 9 2 ) .2

Q u o t e d i n G . A l f b l d y , S u b j e c t a n d R u l e r , S u b j e c t s a n d M e t h o d s : a n A t t e m p ta t a C o n c l u s i o n , i n A . S m a l l (E d . ) , S u b j e c t a n d R u l e r : T h e C u l t o f t h e R u l i n g

P o w e r i n C l a s s i c a l A n t i q u i t y , i n JRA: S u p p l . S e r i e s , 1 7 ( 1 9 9 6 ) , p . 2 5 4 .3 A . N . S h e r w i n - W h i t e , T h e e a r ly p e r s e c u t i o n s a n d R o m a n L a w a g a i n , i n JThS

3 , 2 ( 1 9 5 2 ) , p . 2 1 0 cf. G . E . M . D e S t e . C r o i x , W h y w e r e t h e e a r l y C h r i s t i a n s p e r

s e c u t e d ? i n Past and Present, 2 6 ( 1 9 6 3 ) , p . 1 0 .4 J . R . , F e a r s , T h e C u l t o f V i r t u e s a n d R o m a n I m p e r i a l I d e o l o g y , in ANRW 2 , 1 7 , 2

( 1 9 81 ) , p p . 8 2 7 - 9 4 8 . J . R . F e a rs , T h e T h e o l o g y o f V i c t o r y at R o m e , i n ANRW

2 , 1 7 , 2 ( 1 9 8 1 ), p p . 7 3 6 - 8 2 6 .1 D . F i s h w i c k , T h e I m p e r i a l C u l t in t h e L a t i n W e s t : S t u d i e s i n t h e R u l e r C u l t

o f t h e W e s t e r n P r o v i n c e o f t h e R o m a n E m p i r e , 1 , 1 - 2 , 1 1 , 1 - 2 , i n EPRO 1 0 8 ( 1 9 8 7 ) .b S . R . F . P r i c e , Rituals and Power: The Roman Imperial Cult in Asia M inor ( C a m b r i d g e :

U . P . 1 9 8 4 ) .



XX I N T R O D U C T I O N

t h ro u g h i ts ab i l i t y t o sy n th e s i s e it se lf w i th t r a d i t i o n a l p a g a n cu l t s in

v a r i o u s s u b d e w a y s . I n d e e d , G e z a A l f o l d y w e l l s u m m a r i s e d t h e s i g

n i f i c a n c e o f F i s h w i c k ' s w o r k , r e i n f o r c e d b y t h e p a p e r s o f t h e A l b e r t a

S y m p o s i u m c e l e b r a t i n g t h e l a t t e r ' s s ix ty -f if th b i r t h d a y , a n d e d i t e d b yA l a s t a i r S m a l l , a s h a v i n g t h is b r o a d e r a n d s y n t h e s i s i n g s i g n if i c a n c e

a s t h e m e a n s o f c e l e b r a t i n g i m p e r i a l u n i t y i n a w a y t h a t w a s r e l i

g i o u s a n d e v e n s a c r a m e n t a l .7

I b e l i e v e , t h e re fo re , t h a t , in t h e l i g h t o f t h e r ea s ses sm en t o f t h e

I m p e r i a l C u l t a s a re l i g i o u s p h e n o m e n o n , it is p o s s i b l e t o r e a s s e ss

a l s o its i n f l u e n c e o n t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f m i n i s t e r i a l O r d e r i n t h e

E a r l y C h u r c h . M y a r g u m e n t ( C h a p t e r 2 ), i n f lu e n c e d to s o m e e x t e n t

b y t h e w o r k o f L i e b e s c h u e t z ,8

is t h a t t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t a s f o u n d e d

u n d e r A u g u s t u s w a s b a s ic a ll y a r e o r g a n i s a t i o n o f t h e R e p u b l i c a n C u l t

w h o s e e l e c t e d m a g i s t r a t e s , t h r o u g h t h e c o l le g e o f a u g u r s , h a d t h e

c o n s t i t u t i o n a l a s w e l l a s r e l i g i o u s r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f o b t a i n i n g t h e pax

deorum. T h e c h a o s o f t h e l a te R e p u b l i c , as e v i d e n c e d b y L i v y , L u c a n ,

S u e t o n i u s , a n d D i o h a d a m e t a p h y s i c a l a s w e l l a s a h u m a n l y p o l i t

i ca l b a si s. F u r t h e r m o r e t h e i r h i s t o r i o g r a p h y r e p r e s e n t e d a g e n e r a l l y

r e c e i v e d o p i n i o n .

T h e R e p u b l i c a n C u l t , i n f a i l i n g t o a c h i e v e t h e pax deorum, r e p r e

s e n t e d a c u l t i c f a i l u r e t h a t w a s t h e p e r c e i v e d r e l i g i o u s c o u n t e r p a r t

o f t h e p o l i ti c a l f a il u re o f t h e R e p u b l i c a n C o n s t i t u d o n . T h u s A u g u s t u s

e x e c u t e d a r e li g io u s r e f o r m a t i o n i n w h i c h h i s I m p e r i a l C u l t c o u l d

b e u n d e r s t o o d as p r o d u c i n g a n e x t r a o r d i n a r y pax deorum o f m i l l e n

n i al p r o p o r t i o n s a n d e n d u r a n c e . 9 I d o c u m e n t i n C h a p t e r 1 h o w t h is

p a g a n a n d i m p e r i a l c o n s t r u c t i o n o f s o c ia l r e a l i t y w a s r e i n f o r c e d .

C e r t a i n f e a t u r e s o f t h e e a r l y m a r t y r o l o g i e s e s t a b l i s h t h a t t h e r e a l r e a

s o n f o r t h e p e r s e c u t i o n s w a s a c u l t i c r e a s o n . C h r i s t i a n i t y w a s a super-

stitio t h r e a t e n i n g t h e pax deorum o b t a i n e d t h r o u g h t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t .

I n C h a p t e r s 3 - 6 I e x a m i n e t h e w r i t i n g s o f Luke-Acts, C l e m e n t o f

R o m e , t h e Apocalypse, a n d I g n a t i u s o f A n t i o c h . I n e a c h c a s e I a r g u e

7

A l fo ld y ( 1 9 9 6 ) , p p . 2 5 5 - 2 5 6 .8

J . H . W . G . L i e b e s c h u e t z , Continuity and Change in Roma n Religion ( O x f o r d : C l a r e n d o n

1 9 7 9 ) .9 I r e ly h e r e o n t h e i n s i g h t f u l g e n e r a l t r e a t m e n t b y e .g . , P . Z a n k e r , The Power of

Images in the Age of Augustus, t r a n s. A . S h a p i r o ( A n n A r b o r : U n i v e r s i t y o f M i c h i g a n

P r e s s 1 9 9 0 ) , o r s t u d i e s o f t h e Ara Pacis s u c h a s t h a t o f R . B e r t o l o t t i d e A n g e l i s ,

M a t e r i a l e d e l l' A r a P a c i s p r e s s o il M u s e o N a z i o n a l e R o m a n o , DAIRM 9 0 ( 1 9 8 5 ) ,p p . 2 2 1 - 2 3 4 , o r E . B i a n c h i , Ara Pacis Augustae ( R o m e : F r a te ll i P a l o m b i 1 9 9 4 ) , p p .

1 3 - 1 6 .



I N T R O D U C T I O N XXI

t h a t w e h a v e a n a s c e n t C h u r c h O r d e r , d e v e l o p i n g pari passu w i t h

th a t o f t h e Im p e r i a l Cu l t , i n w h ic h th e co n v e r t e d h e i r s o f t h e A u g u s t an

r e l i g i o u s r e f o r m a t i o n s h o w t h a t t h e i r C h r i s t i a n C u l t , w i t h i t s o f f i c e r s

a n d r i t e s , a r e a b l e t o a c h i e v e t h e t r u e pax dei. I n c o n s e q u e n c e ,

C h r i s t i a n s o c ia l c o n s t r u c t i o n s o f r e a l i t y a r e f a s h i o n e d i n i n t e r a c t i o n

w i t h t h e i r p a g a n a n d i m p e r i a l c o u n t e r p a r t s . I n C h a p t e r s 7 - 8 w e

t r a c e t h e e m e r g e n c e o f P a g a n M o n o t h e i s m a n d C h r i s t i a n M o n a r

c h i a n i s m a s t h e y e m e r g e i n t h e s e c o n d c e n t u r y , a n d a r e r e fl e c te d i n

I m p e r i a l a n d C h u r c h O r d e r u n d e r t h e S e v e r a n s a n d E l a g a b a l u s o n

t h e o n e h a n d , a n d C a l l i s t u s o n t h e o t h e r .

M y d i sc u s s i o n is i n f o r m e d t h r o u g h o u t b y a s o c io l o g ic a l m o d e l i n

w h i c h t h e i n t e r a c t i o n b e t w e e n t h e s e t w o d e v e l o p i n g s oc ia l p h e n o m

e n a , t h e P a g a n a n d t h e C h r i s t i a n C u l t u s , c a n b e f ru it fu lly s t u d i e d

a n d e x p l a i n e d . T h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f E a r ly C h r i s t i a n C h u r c h O r d e r

is u n d e r s t o o d a s t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f a c o n t r a - c u l t u r e ( C h a p t e r 1). A

g r o u p , d e p r i v e d o f s t a t u s a n d s ig n i f ic a n c e b y t h e w i d e r c u l t u r e , s et s

u p its o w n c o n t r a - c u l t u r e t h a t m i r r o r s a n d r e v e r s e s t h e v a l u e s o f t h e

f o r m e r , g r a n t i n g t h e s t a t u s a n d s i g n if i c a n c e t o it s m e m b e r s t h a t t h e

f o r m e r h a s d e n i e d t h e m .1 0

M y th e s i s is i n t e n d e d t o s h o w finally h o w t h e C h u r c h o f C y p r i a n

f a c e d t h e E m p i r e o f D e c i u s T r a j a n a n d V a l e r i a n a s t w o r iv a l c u l ti c

o r g a n i s a t i o n s w h i c h h a d b e h i n d b o t h o f t h e m t w o c e n t u r i e s o f i n t e r

a c t i v e d e v e l o p m e n t .

I w i s h t o a c k n o w l e d g e financial s u p p o r t b o t h f r o m t h e B r i t i s h

A c a d e m y fo r t h e c o m p l e t i o n o f c h a p t e r s 1 -6 , a n d f ro m t h e L e v e r h u l m e

T r u s t f or c h a p t e r s 7 - 8 . T h e g e n e r o u s a s s i st a n c e o f b o t h b o d i e s h a v e

e n a b l e d m e t o c o n t i n u e m y r e s e a r c h i n e a r l y C h r i s t i a n h i s to r y w i t h

t h e r e s o u r c e s o f t h e L i b r a r ie s o f C a m b r i d g e U n i v e r s i t y a n d o f R o m e .

M y m o s t g r a t ef u l t h a n k s m u s t g o t o P r o f e s s o r e M a n l i o S i m o n e t t i ,

o f L a S a p i e n z a a n d o f t h e L a t e r a n U n i v e r s i t y . A t th e B r it is h S c h o o l

i n R o m e I h a v e e n j o y e d f r ie n d s h i p a n d d i s c u ss i o n w i t h n u m e r o u s

s c h o l a r s , i n p a r t i c u l a r w i t h t h e D i r e c t o r , P r o fe s s o r A n d r e w W a l l a c e -

H a d r i l l . I h a v e g r e a t l y b e n e f i t e d f r o m t h e m u c h v a l u e d s u p p o r t o f

t h e A u g u s t i n i a n u m i n R o m e , i n p a r t i c u l a r t h a t o f t h e i r V i c e P r a e s e s ,

D r R o b e r t D o d a r o , a n d f r o m t h e k i n d e s s a n d h o s p i t a l i t y o f D r

G e o r g e L a w le s s a n d m a n y o t h e r s t h e r e .

1 0 S . L e v e n t m a n ( E d . ) , Counterculture and Social Transformation: Essays on Megativistic

Themes in Sociological Theory ( I ll in o i s: T h o m a s 1 9 8 2 ) .



x x i i I N T R O D U C T I O N

I n C a m b r i d g e I m u s t m e n t i o n P r o fe s so r W i l l ia m H o r b u r y , F . B .A . ,

a n d D r J a m e s C a r l e t o n P a g e t fo r t h e i r e n c o u r a g e m e n t o f m y w o r k ,

a n d a l so t h e P a t r is t ic s S e m i n a r u n d e r t h e l e a d e r s h i p o f D r L i o n e l

W i c k h a m . W h e t h e r in R o m e o r in C a m b r i d g e m y t h a n k s is a ls o d u e

t o D r C h r i s t o p h e r K e l l y , f o r h i s v a l u e d i n s i g h t s a n d s u g g e s t i o n s .

I a ls o a c k n o w l e d g e w i t h t h a n k s p r o v i s i o n o f p h o t o g r a p h s a s w e l l

a s p e r m i s s i o n t o r e p r o d u c e t h e m f r o m :

(i) D e u t s c h e s A r c h a o l o g i s c h e s I n s t i t u t , R o m ( P l a te s 1 -8 ).

(ii) M u s e i V a t i c a n i ( P la t e s 9 - 1 0 ) .

(iii) M u s e i C a p i t o l i n i , R o m a (P l a t es 1 1 - 1 2 ) .

(iv) K u n s t h i s t o r i s c h e s M u s e u m , W i e n ( P la t e 1 3).

(v) M u s e o N a z i o n a l e , N a p o l i (P l a t e 14 ).

(vi) M u s e e d e l a C i v i l i s a t i o n G a l l o - R o m a i n e , L y o n ( P l a te 1 5 ).

(vii) T h e B r i t is h M u s e u m , L o n d o n ( P l a te s 1 6 - 3 4 ) .

A L L E N B R E N T

5 T H M A R C H 1 9 9 9

B R I TI S H S C H O O L A T R O M E



C H A P T E R O N E

C H R I S T I A N A N D P A G A N C U L T U S B Y

T H E T H I R D C E N T U R Y

Contra-cultural theory and Cyprianic Order

T h e v i c t o r y o f e a r l y C h r i s t i a n i t y a n d it s s u c c e s s i n a n n i h i l a t i n g its

p a g a n r i v a l b o th a s a p o l i t i ca l a n d in t e l l ec tu a l fo rce is t h e v i c to ry

o f a s t a t e w i th i n a s t a t e , a n imperium in imperio, w h i c h b o t h c h a l l e n g e d

t h e S t a t e itself, a n d so u g h t fin ally a n d u n su cce s s fu l ly t o r e p l ac e i t

t o ta l ly . T h e a m b i g u o u s s uc c e ss o f t h e la t e r C h u r c h i n s e e k i n g t h e

l a t t e r o b j ec t i v e n eed s i n an y case ca re fu l q u a l i f i ca t i o n . In l a t e r t im es

n e i t h e r G r e g o r y V I I n o r I n n o c e n t I I I w e r e t o s u c c e e d finally i n

e i t h e r d i s e n g a g i n g t h e C h u r c h f r o m l a y c o n t r o l , o r i n s u b j e c t i n g l a y

p o l i t i c a l a u t h o r i t y e n t i r e l y t o e c c l e s i a s t i c a l a u t h o r i t y .

T h e e ss e nt ia l f e a tu r e s o f l a t e r C a t h o l i c C h u r c h O r d e r e m e r g e d ,

i n a c l e a r a n d u n a m b i g u o u s f o r m , i n t h e L e t t e r s of I g n a t i u s o f A n -

t i o ch , t h e s ch o la r ly co n sen su s fo r wh o se d a t e s I accep t a s t h e f i r s t

d e c a d e o f t h e s e c o n d c e n t u r y .1

H e r e a s i n g l e b i s h o p , t o g e t h e r w i t h

a c i rc l e o f p r e s b y t e r s a n d a n u m b e r o f d e a c o n s , e m e r g e d a s t h e l it u r

g i c al a n d o r g a n i s a t i o n a l m a r k o f t h e t r u e C h u r c h . T h o s e e s s e n ti a l f ea t u r e s , wi th ce r t a in m o d i f i ca t i o n s an d ad d i t i o n s t h a t d id n o t a f f ec t t h e i r

f u n d a m e n t a l f o r m , w e r e t o f i n d e x p r e s s i o n i n t h e t h e o l o g y o f C a t h o l i c

O r d e r o f I r e n a e u s , P s e u d o - H i p p o l y t u s , a n d finally C y p r i a n . I r e n a e u s

m i g h t a d d t h a t t h e b i s h o p i n l i t u r g i c a l a c t a n d i n g o v e r n i n g t h e c o m

m u n i t y h a s t o s h o w h i s p l a c e i n a n u n b r o k e n s u c c e s s i o n ( 8ia 8o% r|)

o f t e a c h e r s e x t e n d i n g b a c k t o t h e a p o s t l e s .2

P s e u d o - H i p p o l y t u s m i g h t

a d d t h a t t h e s u c c e s s i o n o f t e a c h e r s a l s o " s h a r e s i n t h e h i g h p r i e s t h o o d (|Li£TexovT£<; d p x i e p a x e i a q ) . "

3

F i n a l ly C y p r i a n w a s t o a d d a c a t h

o l ic t o a n ap o s to l i c c r i t e r io n o f v a l id i t y : o th e r b i s h o p s h a d to g iv e

1 F o r a d i s c u s s i o n o f t h is q u e s t i o n a n d r e l e v a n t b i b l i o g r a p h y , s e e A . B r e n t , T h e

R e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n I g n a t iu s o f A n t i o c h a n d t h e Didascalia Apostolorum, in SecCent 8 ,3

( 1 9 9 1 ) , p p . 1 2 9 - 1 5 6 .2

I r e n a e u s , Adv. Haer., I l l , 3 , 3 cf. E . M o l l a n d , I r e n a e u s o f L u g d u n u m a n d t h e

A p o s t o l i c T r a d i t i o n , i n JEH 1,1 ( 1 9 5 0 ) , p p . 1 2 - 2 8 ; Idem. L e d e v e l o p p e m e n t d e l 'i d eed e s u c c e s s i o n a p o s t o l i q u e , i n RevHPhR 3 4 ( 1 9 5 4 ) , p p . 1 - 2 9 .

3 P s e u d o - H i p p o l y t u s , El. I p r o e m . 6 cf. Ap. Trad. 3 .



2 C H A P T E R O N E

a n a l m o s t u n i v e r s a l a c k n o w l e d g m e n t t o a g i v e n e p i s c o p a l s u c c e s s i o n .

B u t t h e n o r m a t i v e s t r u c t u r e o f l i tu r g y a n d O r d e r o f a g i v e n C h r i s t i a n

c o m m u n i t y w a s t o r e m a i n e s se n ti a ll y a s I g n a t i u s o f A n t i o c h h a d

d e s c r i b e d i t .

C y p r i a n ' s f inal q u a l i f i c a t io n o f t h e ed i fi ce c o n s t r u c t e d b y I g n a t i u s

a n d e m b e l l i s h e d b y I r e n a e u s w a s t h a t f o r a b i s h o p t o b e v a l i d h e

m u s t n o t s i m p l y b e b o t h i n t h e p l a c e o f G o d t h e F a t h e r a n d in t h e

a p o s t o l i c s u c c es s io n b u t i n c o m m u n i o n w i t h a ll o t h e r f a t h e r - b i s h o p s .

I n o r d e r t o b e in c o m m u n i o n w i t h t h e C a t h o l i c C h u r c h o n e h a s t o b e

i n c o m m u n i o n w i t h a b i s h o p w h o is i n c o m m u n i o n w i t h o t h e r b i s h o p s .

T h e final l i n k a s i t w e r e i n t h e i n t e r l o c k i n g b o n d s o f m u t u a l r e c o g

n i t io n a n d c o m m u n i o n b e t w e e n t h e b i s h o p s is t h e S e e o f R o m e t h a t

t h u s p r o v i d e s a f o cu s o f u n i t y . T h e C a t h o l i c C h u r c h t h u s b e c a m e a n

a l t e r n a t i v e imperium, p r e s i d e d o v e r b y b i s h o p s i n c o m m u n i o n w i t h e a c h

o t h e r , w h i c h n o w s t a n d s i n s t a rk c o n t r a s t to p a g a n I m p e r i a l O r d e r .

C h u r c h O r d e r is a k i n d o f r e v e r s e d m i r r o r i m a g e o f I m p e r i a l O r d e r .

P A R T A . C Y P R I A N I C H I E R A R C H Y A N D D E C I U S T R A J A N

I n C y p r i a n ' s e dif ic e w e h a v e t h e c l e a r e s t e x a m p l e o f C h u r c h O r d e r

a r r a i g n e d a g a i n s t I m p e r i a l O r d e r . B o t h t h e i n s t it u t i o n o f t h e e m p e r o r

a s Pontifex Maximus o f h i s o w n cu l t , a n d th a t o f t h e b i sh o p a s t h e

sacerdos a n d r u l e r o f t h e C h r i s t i a n c u l t , h a d u n d e r g o n e , i n t h e first

t w o c e n t u r i e s , e x t e n s i v e d e v e l o p m e n t . B u t n o w t h e finally d e v e l o p e de dif ic e o f C h u r c h O r d e r w a s t o c o n f r o n t a n I m p e r i a l O r d e r t h a t h a d

it se lf u n d e r g o n e e x te n s i v e d e v e l o p m e n t . S i n c e C a r a c a l l a ' s c i t iz e n

sh ip l aw o f A . D . 2 1 2 , t h e Constitutio Antoniniana, t h e S e v e r a n p o l i c y

o f i n t e g r a t i n g t h e d i v e r s e c u l t u r e s i n t o a s i n gl e w h o l e h a d f o u n d i ts

t h e o l o g i c a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n i n t h e i c o n o g r a p h y o f t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t .

C a r a c a l l a a p p e a r s o n c o i n s a s t h e L o r d o f t h e w o r l d a n d a s t h e

r e f l e c ti o n o f t h e d i v i n e l ig h t o f t h e s u n , p e r m e a t i n g a ll t h i n g s a n dc r e a t i n g u n i v e r sa l o r d e r . T h e e m p e r o r a n d h is c o n s o r t w e r e t o p o s

s e ss t h e r e l i g io u s fu n c t io n o f e f f ec ti n g s a c r am en ta l l y t h e u n i ty o f t h e

e m p i r e o f w h i c h t h e c i t iz e n s h i p la w w a s t h e h o p e .4

O v e r a g a i n s t a n d re f le c t in g a r e v e r s e i m a g e o f I m p e r i a l O r d e r

4

A b d e l M o h s e n e l K h a c h a b , 6 K a p a i ca X X o q K o ou o Kp d xc op , i n JEgArch 4 7 ( 1 9 6 1 ) ,

p p . 1 1 9 - 1 3 3 . F o r f u r t h e r d i s c u s s i o n a n d b i b l i o g r a p h y , s e e A . B r e n t , H i p p o l y t u s a n d

t h e R o m a n C h u r c h in t h e T h i r d C e n t u r y : C o m m u n i t i e s in T e n s i o n b e fo r e t h e E m e r

g e n c e o f a M o n a r c h - B i s h o p , in Suppl.VCh 3 1 ( L e i d e n : E J . B r il l 1 9 9 5 ) , p p . 8 3 - 8 4 .



C H R I S T IA N A N D P A G A N C U L T U S B Y T H E T H I R D C E N T U R Y 3

s t o o d t h e n o w d e v e l o p e d , C y p r i a n i c h i e r a r c h y . T h e b i s h o p a s h i g h

p r i e s t n o w e x p r e s s e d i n h is i n t e r c o m m u n i o n w i t h o t h e r b i s h o p s t h e

u n i t y o f t h e C h u r c h j u s t a s t h e c u l t o f D e c i u s T r a j a n , f o r m e d i n t h e

S e v e r a n i d e o lo g y o f t h e p r e v i o u s g e n e r a t i o n , e x p r e s s e d s a c r a m e n t a l l y

t h e u n i t y o f t h e E m p i r e . T o b e i n c o m m u n i o n w i t h C h r i s t y o u h a v e

t o b e in c o m m u n i o n w i t h a b i s h o p w h o p r e s i d e s o v e r a g e o g r a p h i

c a l t e r r i t o r y c a l l e d a d i o c e s e . I n o r d e r t o b e i n c o m m u n i o n w i t h

o t h e r C h r i s t i a n s o u t s i d e y o u r d i o c e s e , y o u r b i s h o p h a s t o b e in c o m

m u n i o n w i t h t h e i r b i s h o p a n d so o n . B u t t h e w a y i n w h i c h C y p r i a n

ex p res ses h im se l f i s s i g n i f i can t :

Thus the church o f the Lord (sic et ecclesia domini) directs its rays of

l ight spread through the whole world (luce perfusa per orbem totum radios

suos porrigit). However the l ight is one (unum tamen lumen est) which is

shed everywhere (quod ubique diffunditur), nor is the unity of its physical

form divided from it (nec unitas corporis separatur). . .

De Catholicae Ecclesiae Unitate 5

C y p r i a n ' s j u s ti f ic a t i o n o f ecclesia una est is t h a t e a c h b i s h o p i n t h e

ap o s to l i c su cces s io n wi l l m u tu a l ly r eco g n i s e t h e f a i t h an d l i f e o f t h e

o t h e r . B u t b e h i n d t h e p l u r a l i t y is t h e o n e a n d in d i v i s ib l e u n i t y w h i c h

e a c h e x p r e s s e s . T h a t u n i t y is d e s c r i b e d a l m o s t in P l o t i n i a n t e r m s , a s

in Enneads V I , 9 , 9 , o f t h e a r c h e t y p a l l i g h t (unum tamen lumen est) t h a t

c h a r a c t e r i s e s t h e i n d iv i si b le a n d t h e r e f o r e u l t i m a t e O n e . I t w a s " e t e r

n a l ( d{ 8i a) ". F o r P lo ti n u s th e dp%r| of al l t h in g s, " o f life (^ooffe) . . .

m in d (voB) a n d b e in g (ovxoq) . . . re m a in s a s suc h (waauxcoq u iv e i ) , no t

b e i n g d i v i d e d i n t o t h e m (ou | i e u £ p i a | j iv r | eiq a u x d ) , b u t r e m a i n i n g

w h o l e (aXk* oXr\ u i v o u a a ) . "

M o r e o v e r , t h e i m a g e r y a n d u n d e r l y i n g N e o - P l a t o n i c p h i l o s o p h y

o f t h e s e s e n t i m e n t s b e a r s tr i k in g r e s e m b l a n c e t o t h e i c o n o g r a p h y o f

t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t . P a g a n t h i n k e r s a t t h i s t i m e w e r e a l s o l o o k i n g f o r

a u n i v e r s a l r e l ig i o n b a s e d u p o n t h e c u l t o f Sol Invictus, t h e U n c o n -

q u e r e d S u n , o f w h i c h a ll o t h e r d e it i e s w o u l d b e b u t a s p e c t s a n dr e f l e c t i o n s . A s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t , t h e c u l t o f Sol Invictus

w o u l d i m p l y a t h e o l o g y of i m p e r i a l u n i t y . T h a t t h e o l o g y w a s s u s

t a i n e d b y N e o - P l a t o n i s m , as r e p r e s e n t e d b y P l o t in u s . H i s a r c h e t y p a l

l i g h t g i v i n g u n i t y a n d t h e r e f o r e r e a l i t y t o l e s s e r e x i s t e n c e w i t h o u t

t h e r e b y b e i n g d i m i n i s h e d w a s s y m p t o m a t i c o f a s o c ia l c o n s t r u c t i o n

o f r e a l it y i n w h i c h a n i m p e r i a l a u t o c r a t a n d h is p r e d e c e s s o r s a n d

s u c c e s s o r s g a v e u n i t y t o a d i v e r s e e m p i r e a t t h e c e n t r e o f w h i c h t h e ys t o o d . T h r o u g h t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t w o r s h i p w a s s o u g h t o f p a s t e m p e r

o r s a s a v i si b le e x p r e s s i o n o f i m p e r i a l a u t h o r i t y .




r e c o r d e d a s h a v i n g o c c u r r e d .1 4

T h e r e v u l s i o n o f t h e m o b w a s a r e a c

t i o n t o C h r i s t i a n i t y v i e w e d a s a n exitiabilis superstitio, a s T a c i t u s (Ann.

X V , 4 4 , 4 ) w a s t o v i e w i t , a n d t h e r e f o r e t o C h r i s t i a n i t y a s a c u l t i c

p r a c t i c e .

I t is t h e r e f o r e t o b e e m p h a s i s e d t h a t o n e s t r a n d i n t h e p a r a l l e l i s m

b e t w e e n C h u r c h a n d E m p i r e w a s a c u l ti c s t r a n d . I t w a s n o t s i m p l y

t h a t C h r i s t i a n s c l a i m e d a n a l l e g i a n c e to a n o t h e r b u t s p i r i tu a l k i n g

d o m , a n d t h a t t h e E m p i r e m i s c o n s t r u e d th i s a s d i sl o y a lt y . R a t h e r

t h e y a l so p a r t i c i p a t e d i n a c u l t t h a t w a s , l ik e t h e B a c c h a n a l i a n c u l t

d e s c r i b e d b y S p u r i u s P o s t u m i u s A l b i n u s , t h e c o n s u l o f 1 8 9 B . C . , v i o

l a t i n g t h e d i v i n e l a w . S u c h v i o l a t i o n s u p s e t t h e pax deorum a n d w e r e

m a r k e d b y p r o d i g i e s r e q u i r i n g a c t s o f a u g u r y i n o r d e r t o s e t r i g h t

a n a t u r a l o r d e r u p s e t b y t h e p r a c t i c e s o f a prava religio. W e sh a ll

a r g u e t h a t p a r t o f t h e p a r a l l e l i s m b e t w e e n I m p e r i a l a n d C h r i s t i a n

Cu l t s was t h e i s su e o f t h e pax deorum. A u g u s t u s a s a u g u r h a d e x t r a

o r d i n a r i l y s u c c e e d e d i n s e c u r i n g t h i s r i t u a l a n d m e t a p h y s i c a l pax in

t h e w a k e o f t h e f a il ur e R e p u b l i c a n m a g i s t r a t e s . T h e s u p e r i o r C h r i s t i a n

pax dei w a s s e c u r e d b y C h r i s t a n d p e r p e t r a t e d t h r o u g h t h e c u l t i c a c t s

o f t h e C h r i s t i a n c o m m u n i t y a n d its m i n i s t e r s a c c o r d i n g t h e Luke-Acts

( C h a p t e r 3), C l e m e n t Corinthians ( C h a p t e r 4 ), a n d I g n a t i u s o f A n t i o c h

( C h a p t e r 6) . T h e C h r i s t i a n c u l t w a s t h u s t h e ri v a l m e a n s f or o b t a i n

i n g t h e c u l ti c o b j e c t iv e s o f t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t , a n d r e p r e s e n t e d a

d e n i a l o f t h e c l a i m s o f t h e l a t t e r t o h a v e a c h i e v e d s u c h o b j e c t i v e s

( C h a p t e r 2 ) .

C y p r i a n ' s i d e o l o g i c a l r e s p o n s e t o D e c i u s ' u n i v e r s a l d e c r e e d i d n o t

c r e a t e t h e c u l ti c p a r a l l e l i s m b u t r a t h e r w a s t h e o u t c o m e o f a l o n g

l in e o f d e v e l o p m e n t . M y t h es is w ill s e e k t o e x a m i n e t h e b y C y p r i a n ' s

t i m e l o n g s t a n d i n g p a r a l l e l r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n t h e E a r l y C h u r c h a n d

t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t , w h i c h prima facie h a d q u i t e d i f f er e n t o b j e c t i v e s ,

a n d w h i c h h i s t o r i c a l l y a p p e a r e d a b o u t t h e s a m e t i m e a n d i n c o n f l i c t

w i t h o n e a n o t h e r . T h e r e a r e t w o p o s si b il it ie s r e g a r d i n g t h e f o r m t h a t

s u c h a r e l a t i o n c o u l d h a v e t a k e n , n a m e l y r e a c t i o n o r i n t e r a c t i o n . L e t

m e b e g i n b y g i v i n g m y g r o u n d s f o r r e j e c t i n g a p u r e l y r e a c t i v e t h e s i s .

1 4

L i v y 3 9 , 8 - 1 9 cf. W . C . H . F r e n d , Ma rtyrdom and Persecution in the Early Church,

( O x f o r d : B l a c k w e l l 1 9 6 5 ) , p p . 1 0 9 - 1 1 2 . T h e p o i n t w a s m a d e o r i g i n a ll y b y R . M .

G r a n t , P l i n y a n d t h e C h r i s t i a n s , i n HThR 4 1 (1 9 4 8 ) , p . 2 7 3 cf. S . B e n k o , P a g a n

C r i t i c i s m s o f C h r i s t i a n i t y , ANRW ( 1 9 8 0 ) I I, 2 3 , 2 , p p . 1 0 6 6 - 1 0 7 2 a n d R . L . W i l k e n ,The Christians as the Rom an saw them, ( N e w H a v e n a n d L o n d o n : Y a l e U . P . 1 9 8 4 ) ,

p p . 2 5 - 3 0 .




I t is p o s s i b le t o p r e s e n t a n a c c o u n t o f t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f C h u r c h

O r d e r as a r e a c t iv e a p o l o g e t i c t o e x t e r n a l m i s - r e p r e s e n t a t i o n a b o u t

t h e t r u e c h a r a c t e r o f t h e C h r i s t i a n c u l t. T h u s Luke-Acts, C l e m e n t ,

J u s t i n , T a t i a n , A t h e n a g o r a s , a n d T e r t u l l i a n d e f e n d e d C h r i s t i a n i t y

f r o m t h e m o r a l c h a r g e s b r o u g h t a g a i n s t it . T h e s e w r i t e r s , s o it is

a r g u e d , s o u g h t t o e s t a b l i s h t h e f o u n d a t i o n s f o r a l e g a l a r g u m e n t f o r

t h e r e c o g n i t i o n o f t h e C h r i s t i a n c u l t u s a s a s o c a l l e d religio licita,

t h o u g h t h e v a l id i t y o f t h e c o n c e p t i n R o m a n L a w h a s b e e n q u e s

t i o n e d . S u r e l y , t h e r e f o r e , a n a p o l o g e t i c a i m h a s i n f l u e n c e d t h e d e v e l

o p m e n t of C h u r c h O r d e r ? If t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f a religio illicita is

tha t i t i s no t rue religio b u t a d e g e n e r a t e superstitio a n d , o n t h e e x a m

p l e o f t h e B a c c h a n a l i a n r i o t , a t h r e a t t o p u b l i c o r d e r , m o r a l i t y , a n d

t h e civ il p e a c e , t h e n a n y c h a r i s m a t i c a p p e a r a n c e s m u s t b e p l a y e d

d o w n o r s u p e r s e d e d b y a n o r d e r e d m i n i s t r y .

T h u s i n t h e c o m m u n i t y e x h i b i t e d b y t h e Didache t h e m i n i s t r y o f

w a n d e r i n g a p o s t l e s m u s t b e d i s c o u n t e d , a n d p r o p h e t s r e p l a c e d b y

d u l y e l e c t e d eTUGKorcoi a n d SHXKOVOI. A t C o r i n t h w h e n C l e m e n t w r i te s

i n A . D . 9 5 a n y si gn o f d i s o r d e r m u s t b e r e d u c e d , a n y o u t b r e a k o f

f r e n z ie d d i s p u t e s a b o u t O r d e r a n d s u c c e s s io n m u s t b e p u t d o w n .

C l e m e n t e x h o r t s t h e C o r i n t h i a n c o m m u n i t y to e x h i b i t p u b l ic a l ly a n

a u t h o r i t y s t r u c t u r e c o n s i s t i n g o f a n o r d e r e d 8 i o c 5 o x r | o f rcpeapuiepoi-

e7uoK07toi. C l e a r l y o n e o f h i s p u r p o s e s w a s t o s u g g e s t o b l i q u e l y h o w

h i s C h r i s t i a n c o m m u n i t y m i g h t find a n a c c e p t a n c e w i t h i n t h e a u t h o r

i t y s t r u c t u r e of t h e R o m a n e m p i r e . T h e p r ie s t o f D i o n y s u s h a d d o n e

a s m u c h fa r m o r e d ir e c tl y w h e n h e p r e s e n t e d t o t h e A l e x a n d r i n e

m a g i s t r a t e t h e c e r ti fi c a te s t a t i n g w h o w e r e h is i m m e d i a t e t w o p r e

d e c e s s o r s i n a d m i n i s t e r i n g t h e D i o n y s i a c c u l t .1 5

W i t h i n s u c h a p e r

s p e c t iv e , t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n C h r i s t i a n a n d p a g a n c u l t is c l e a r ly

i n t e r a c t iv e , h o w e v e r r e l u c t a n t t h e g r o u p in q u e s t i o n m a y h a v e b e e n

t o a d m i t s u c h i n f l u e n c e e x p r e s s l y . ( C h a p t e r 3 . )

T h e C h u r c h r e a c t s t o p a g a n s o c ie t y b y s i m p l y r e b u t t i n g its a c c u

s a t i o n s o f c a n n i b a l i s m , i n c e st , a n d c h a r i s m a n i a . T h a t it r e a c t s a l s o

t o t h e p a g a n c u l t u s is c o n s i d e r e d p u r e l y c o - i n c i d e n t a l , a s if t h e r e l a

t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t h a t c u l t u s a n d R o m a n s o c ie t y w a s p u r e l y c o n t i n -

'* E . B a m m e l , S u k z e s s i o n s p r i n z i p i m U r c h r i s t e n t u m , i n StEphAug 31 ( 1 9 9 0 ) , p p .

6 3 7 2 .

P A R T C . C H U R C H O R D E R A S APOLOGIA: T H E R E A C T I V E T H E S IS




g e n t . Y o u c o u l d b e a m o r a l c i ti z e n , a n d t h e r e f o r e a g o o d a n d l o ya l

m e m b e r of t h e s o ci et y o f t h e R o m a n E m p i r e a n d n o t p a r t i c i p a t e i n

t h a t c u l t u s . T h e e v o l u t io n o f C h u r c h O r d e r w a s t h e r e f o r e e q u a l l y

r e a c t i v e — a n a t t e m p t t o se t a ll t h i n g s i n o r d e r so a s t o b e r e c o g

n i s e d a s o n e o f t h e r e l i g i o u s o p t i o n s i n a m u l t i c u l t u r a l e m p i r e . A s

s u c h t h e C h u r c h s i m p l y w i s h e d t o l e a v e t h e p a g a n c u l t u s a l o n e w h i l s t

n o - d o u b t c o n v e r t i n g its w a y w a r d m e m b e r s t o t h e t r u e fa i th . I t c e r

t a i n l y c o u l d n o t i n t e r a c t w i t h it s o a s t o i n c o r p o r a t e a n y o f i ts c o n

c e r n s i n t o its o w n s t r u c t u r e .

T h e r e a r e a h o w e v e r n u m b e r o f p r o b l e m s w i t h s u c h a p e r s p e c

t i v e s t a t e d i n t h e s e t e r m s :

1. I t fa ils t o a c c o u n t f or t h e p h e n o m e n o n o f s t a g e s i n t h e d e v e l o p

m e n t o f C h u r c h O r d e r r e fl e ct e d i n t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e I m p e r i a l

C u l t a n d vice versa. T h i s w a s c l e a r ly t h e c a s e w i t h C h r i s t i a n , C y p r i a n i c

O r d e r i n c o m p a r i s o n w i t h D e c i a n I m p e r i a l O r d e r , a n d it is c l ea r ly

r e l e v a n t t o a s k h o w t r u e it w a s a l s o f o r s t a g e s i n d e v e l o p m e n t b e f o r e

C y p r i a n .

2 . I t a s s u m e s t h a t t h e r e s p o n s e s o f t h o s e w h o w r i t e t h e j u s t i f ic a t i o n

fo r C h u r c h O r d e r — a n d t h u s i n c o n c e p t u a l i sa t i o n a n d r e c o n c e p t u -

a l i s a t i o n a c t u a l l y s h a p e i t — a r e i n f a c t s i m i l a r r e s p o n s e s a s t h o s e o f

t h e a p o l o g i s t s w h o a r e o s t e n s i b l y c l a i m i n g l e g a l r e c o g n i t i o n f r o m t h e

R o m a n s t a t e .

3 . I t u n d e r v a l u e s t h e w a y i n w h i c h t h e A p o l o g i s t s t h e m s e l v e s , w h i l s t

a p p e a r i n g a s s u p p l i a n t s f o r l e g a l r e c o g n i t i o n , a c t u a l l y a t t a c k i n t h e i r

w o r k s t h e v a l u e s o f R o m a n s o c ie t y a n d t h e p a g a n c u l t u s it se lf t h a t

u n d e r p i n s t h o s e v a l u e s . T h e a p o l o g i st s a r e n o t s i m p l y r e a c t i n g t o

R o m a n s o c i et y b u t c r it ic i si n g a n d i n d e e d u n d e r m i n i n g it , w h i l st b e i n g

p r e p a r e d t o u s e p a g a n r e l ig i o u s c o n c e p t s r a d i c a l l y r e o r i e n t a t e d f or

t h e i r o w n C h r i s t i a n e n d s .

4 . I t fa ils t o g r a s p h o w i n t e g r a l w a s t h a t e x p r e s s i o n o f R o m a n r e l i

g i o n w h i c h w a s t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t t o t h e R o m a n c o n c e p t i o n o f s o ci

e t y . T h e c u l t u s i ts e lf u n d e r t h e S e v e r a n s a n d finally u n d e r D e c i u s

b e c a m e th e s a c r a m e n t t h a t c o n s t i t u t e d t h a t s o c ie t y , a n d w h i c h f o r g e d

s o m a n y d i s p a r a t e c u l t u r e s i n t o o n e so c ia l w h o l e . S u c h a d e v e l o p

m e n t r e f l e c te d t h e u n i t y a n d p u r p o s e first o f a S t o i c a n d t h e n l a t e r

o f a N e o - P l a t o n i c u n i v e r s e . W e s ha l l t r a c e t h e e m b r y o n i c a l l y s a c r a

m e n t a l c h a r a c t e r f r o m t h e i n c e p t i o n o f t h a t c u l t w i t h A u g u s t u s , a n d

e m p h a s i s e h o w i m p o r t a n t h i s ius augurium as Pontifex Maximus w a s t o

a s o c ie t y i n f l u e n c e d b y t h e w i d e s p r e a d b e l i e f t h a t its e x i s t i n g c u l t u s




h ad fa i l ed i n augurium a n d haruspicium t o s e c u r e t h e pax deorum i n t h e

ev en ts o f th e c ivi l w a r ( C h a p te r 2 ). W e sha l l ob se rv e th e ful ly fledged

d e v e l o p m e n t of w h a t w a s i n it ia l ly e m b r y o n i c w i t h A u g u s t u s i n t o t h e

k i n d o f p a g a n m o n o t h e i s m t h a t p a r a l le l e d C h r i s t i a n M o n a r c h i a n i s m

i n t h e c o u r s e o f t h e s e c o n d c e n t u r y ( C h a p t e r 7 ), a n d w h i c h w e r e

r e fl ec te d b o t h i n I m p e r i a l a n d i n C h u r c h O r d e r u n d e r E l a g a b a l u s

a n d C a l l i s t u s ( C h a p t e r 8 ). I m p e r i a l r e l i g io u s f u n c t i o n s w e r e n o t t h e r e

f o r e s i m p l y a n a c c i d e n t a l a p p e n d a g e t h a t c o u l d h a v e b e e n d i f f e r e n t

a n d l e f t u n a l t e r e d a R o m a n s o c i e t y t h a t c o u l d s i m p l y t o l e r a t e C h r i s

t i an i ty if p re se n t e d w i th a su cces sfu l apologia.

A t a l l e v e n t s , t h e c h a r g e o f superstitio r a t h e r t h a n religjto d i d n o t

s u r v iv e t h e a g e o f S e p t i m i u s S e v e r u s . T h e c h a r g e o f i n c e st a n d c a n

n i b a l i s m a n d t h r e a t s t o s o ci a l o r c o s m i c o r d e r w e r e a l m o s t u n h e a r d

i n t h e p e r s e c u t i o n s o f D e c i u s T r a j a n , V a l e r i a n , a n d D i o c l e t i a n . Y e t

t h e C h u r c h w a s p e r s e c u t e d d e s p i te t w o d e v e l o p m e n t s t h a t p e r h a p s

o u g h t t o h a v e le a d t o a r e o r i e n t a t i o n o f c h u r c h - s t a t e r e l a t i o n s . F i r s d y ,

t h e a p o l o g i st s r e b u t t e d t h e g r o s s e r s lu r s o n t h e C h r i s t i a n n a m e , a n d ,

s e c o n d l y , t h e s u c c es s o f a h i e r a r c h i c a l l y g o v e r n e d , C h u r c h m a r g i n

a l i z e d t h e M o n t a n i s t s w h o s e c h a r i s m a t i c e x c e s s e s c o u l d h a v e o t h e r

w i s e s u g g e s t e d a B a c c h a n a l i a n t h r e a t t o p u b l i c o r d e r .

W e s h al l t h e r e f o r e a r g u e th a t t h e r e l a ti o n s b e t w e e n C h u r c h a n d

S ta t e were i n t e rac t i v e r a th e r t h an r eac t iv e , an d n eces sa r i l y i n v o lv ed in

t e r ac t i o n w i th t h e r e l i g io u s a n d cu l t i c f ace o f a s i n g le p o l i t i co - re l i g io u s

u n i t y . I n t h a t i n t e r a c t i o n , n e i t h e r p a r t y s i m p l y r e a c t e d t o t h e o t h e r .

E a c h t r i e d to t a k e o v e r a n d r e f a s h i o n t h e c o n d i t i o n s a n d t h e i r j u s t i

fica tion o f ea ch o th e r ' s so c i a l a n d p o l i t i c a l ex i s t e n c e .

M y q u e s t is t h e r e f o r e f or a s o c i o l o g ic a l m o d e l in c o n t r a - c u l t u r a l

t h e o r y t h a t w i ll e n a b l e d i s c r e t e r e l a t i o n s t o b e t e a s e d o u t a n d e x a m

i n e d . T h e s t u d y o f b o t h i n s t i t u t io n s h a s b e e n b e d e v i l l e d b y t h e

a s s u m p t i o n b y h i s t o r i a n s u n t i l f a i r l y r e c e n d y , e n c o u r a g e d b y E u s e b i u s ,

t h a t t h e f o r m i n t o w h i c h b o t h i n s t i t u t i o n s d e v e l o p e d finally a r o u n d

2 5 1 , u n d e r C y p r i a n o f C a r t h a g e o n t h e o n e h a n d , a n d D e c i u s T r a j a n

o n t h e o t h e r , h a d b e e n w h a t t h e y w e r e f r o m t h e v e r y first. T h e r e

w a s n o d e v e l o p m e n t o f e i t h e r i n s t i tu t i o n t h e r e f o r e t o e x a m i n e , a n d

s o n o p o s si b il it y o f t h e i r d e v e l o p m e n t i n t e r a c t i n g w i t h o n e a n o t h e r .

B u t g i v e n t h a t b o t h i n s t i t u t i o n s d e v e l o p e d t o s o m e e x t e n t pari passu

f r o m t h e a g e o f a n d T i b e r i u s o n w a r d s , l et u s e x a m i n e a s o c i o l o g i

c a l m o d e l t h a t w ill e n a b l e t h e i n t e r a c t i o n b e t w e e n b o t h t o b e s t u d i e d

a s t h e y d e v e l o p e d a lo n g s i d e e a c h o t h e r .




P A R T D . I M P ER IA L A N D C H R I S T I A N O R D E R :

C O N T R A - C U L T U R A L R E L A T I O N S

D u r i n g t h e 1 9 5 0 s C o h e n a n d h is a s s o c ia t e s o u t l i n e d a t h e o r y o f h o w ,

w i t h i n t h e c o n t e x t o f a w i d e r c u l t u r e , a s u b c u l t u r e is f o r m e d f r o m its

i n t e r a c t i o n w i t h t h e w i d e r c u l t u r e . W e s h a ll a r g u e t h a t s u c h a n i n t e r

a c t i o n is r e f l e c te d i n t h e r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n C h u r c h a n d S t a t e i n t h e

e a r ly c e n t u r i e s . W h e n th e C h u r c h b e c a m e a n imperium in imperio,

it h a d f o r m e d a c o u n t e r - c u l t u r e t h a t h a d a b s o r b e d e l e m e n t s f r o m i ts

h o s t c u l t u r e . A s u b c u l t u r e , i n t e r m s o f w h a t D u r k h e i m d e s c r i b e d a s

a p o s t - i n d u s t r i a l s o c i e ty f u n c t i o n i n g o n t h e p r i n c i p l e o f o r g a n i c s o l

i d a r i t y , co u ld l i v e a t p eace wi th wid e r so c i e ty . I t co u ld ex i s t , l i k e t h e

d i v i s i o n o f l a b o u r , a s p a r t o f a m u l t i c u l t u r a l i s m i n w h i c h s o c i e t y

h a n g s t o g e t h e r b y its v e r y d i v e r s i t y c o n t r i b u t i n g t o t h e u n i t y o f t h e

w h o l e .1 6

B u t s o m e t i m e s t h e s u b - c u l t u r e b e c o m e s a c o n t r a - c u l t u r e ,

a n d a t t h is p o i n t C o h e n a n d hi s a s s o c i a t e s w e r e t o g o b e y o n d

D u r k h e i m ' s o r i g i n a l s i m p l i c i t y .1 7

D e l i n q u e n c y , f o r e x a m p l e , w a s n o t s i m p l y r e g a r d e d a s t h e r e a c

t i o n o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l t o a w i d e r s o c i e ty t h a t r e j e c t e d t h a t i n d i v i d

u a l , d ep r iv ed h im o f r i g h t s , an d c rea t ed i n h im a f ee l i n g o f a l i en a t io n

o r anomie. R a t h e r d e l i n q u e n c y w a s a p o s i t i v e s o l u t i o n i n w h i c h d e l i n

q u e n t s c r e a t e d a c o n t r a - c u l t u r e i n t e r m s o f w h i c h th e y c o u l d a c h i e v e

t h e s t a t u s a n d p o w e r t h a t w i d e r s o c i e t y h a d d e n i e d t h e m . T h e c o n t r a -

c u l t u r e a c c o r d i n g l y c h a n g e d t h e s c a l e o f v a l u e s o f t h e c u l t u r e w i t h

w h i c h it i n t e r a c t e d , r e f o r m u l a t i n g a n d r e c o n s t r u c t i n g its a u t h o r i t y

r e l a t i o n s a n d t h e r a t i o n a l e f o r t h e s t a t u s a w a r d e d t o a u t h o r i t y figures.

T h u s a c o n t r a - c u l t u r e w a s n o t p r o d u c e d b y a r e a c t i o n t o t h e g e n

e r a l c u l t u r e t h a t s im p l y a c c e p t e d t h e d e fi n it io n s o f t h a t c u l t u r e r e g a r d

in g its s t a tu s a n d ro l e . M o r e p os i ti v e ly t h e co n t r a -c u l tu re wa s p ro d u ce d

b y a n i n t e r a c t i o n t h a t r e d e f i n e d t h e d e m a n d s o f t h e h o s t c u l t u r e ,

a c c e p t i n g s o m e o f t h e m a n d r e f o r m u l a t i n g o t h e r s .

T h u s , i n t h e c a s e o f t e e n a g e g a n g s , s t a t u s w a s a w a r d e d t o t h o s e

1 6

F o r a d i s c u s s i o n o f D u r k h e i m i a n s o c i o l o g y a n d i t s i m p l i c a t i o n s f o r s e c u l a r

a n d r e l i g i o u s m u l t i c u l t u r a l is m , s e e A . B r e n t , C u l tu r a l E p i s c o p a c y a n d E c u m e n i s m ,

R e p r e s e n t a t i v e M i n i s t r y i n C h u r c h H i s t o r y f r o m t h e A g e o f I g n a t i u s o f A n t i o c h t o

t h e R e f o r m a t i o n , w i t h s p e c i a l r e f e r e n c e t o c o n t e m p o r a r y e c u m e n i s m , i n Studies in

Christian Mission 6 , (L e i d e n : E . J . B r i ll 1 9 9 2 ) , c h a p te r s 1 -2 a n d 6 .1 7

A . K . C o h e n , Delinquent Boys: The Culture of the Gang, ( L o n d o n : R o u t l e d g e a n d

K e g a n P a u l 1 9 5 5 ) a n d S o c i o l o g i c a l R e s e a r c h in D e l i n q u e n t S u b c u l t u r e s , i n American

Journal of Orthopsychology, 2 7 , 4 (1 9 5 7 ), p p . 7 8 1 - 7 8 8 .




w h o h a d " h e a r t " , w h o w o u l d ri sk t h e i r li ve s i n a c t s c o n s i d e r e d b y

w i d e r s o c i e t y a s f o o l h a r d y . T o b e c y n i c a l l y u n f a i t h fu l i n h u m a n r e l a

t i o n s h i p s e t c . r e v e r s e d a c c e p t e d n o r m s o f t h e v a l u e o f t r u s t . S u c h a

p h e n o m e n o n w a s d e s c ri b e d a s inverse polarity. C r i m i n a l a c t i v i t y d i d

n o t c o n f o r m t o t h e u t i l i t a r i a n v a l u e s o f w i d e r s o c ie t y , s i n c e t h e r e

w a s l it tl e m a t e r i a l a d v a n t a g e i n " b o r r o w i n g " c a r s f or " l a u g h s , " a n d

t h i s m a r k s t h e non-utilitarian c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f a c o n t r a - c u l t u r e . Malice,

i n t h e c a s e o f d e l i n q u e n t s m a n i f e s t e d i n g r a t u i t o u s v i o l e n c e , w a s i n

e v i d e n c e a g a i n s t n o n - g r o u p m e m b e r s . A short run hedonism c h a r a c

t e ri s e d b e h a v i o u r in w h i c h u n p l a n n e d a n t i- s o c ia l a c ts s p o n t a n e o u s l y

t o o k p l a c e . F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e g r o u p w a s c h a r a c t e r i s e d b y a group

autonomy t h a t r e s i s t e d a n y c o n s t r a i n t e x c e p t t h a t w h i c h a r i s e s i n f o r

m a l l y f r o m g r o u p m e m b e r s . Y e t , i n C o h e n ' s w o r d s , " i t is n o t t h e

i n d i v i d u a l d e l i n q u e n t b u t t h e g a n g t h a t i s a u t o n o m o u s . "1 8

H a r g r e a v e s a p p l i e d t h e s a m e k i n d o f s o c i o l o g i c a l a n a l y s i s t o a se c

o n d a r y s c h o o l o r g a n i s e d in t e r m s o f s t r e a m s r a t h e r t h a n se ts . H e

d e t e c t e d i n t h e fo u r s t r e a m s o f a s e c o n d a r y m o d e r n s c h o o l f o u r d i s

t i n c t s u b c u l t u r e s t h a t w e n t f r o m t h e " A " s t r e a m w h e r e g r o u p n o r m s

a n d v a l u e s w e r e t h o s e o f t h e o ff ic ia l s o c ie t y , w h e r e a s s t r e a m s " B " ,

" C " , a n d " D " s h o w e d v a r i a t i o n s o n t h e t h e m e o f c o n t r a - c u l t u r e s

i n v e r t i n g t h o s e n o r m s a n d v a l u e s , a n d e x h i b i t i n g v e r s i o n s o f non-

utilitarianism, inverse polarity, malice, hedonism, a n d group autonomy. M a l i c e

is s h o w n in t h e d e e p h o s ti li ty b e t w e e n A a n d D s t r e a m b o y s , a n d

i n t h e s t e r e o t y p e s t h u s c r e a t e d . I n v e r s e p o l a r i t y is m a n i f e s t e d i n t h e

w a y i n w h i c h e s t e e m e d m e m b e r s o f a C o r D s t r e a m a r e th o s e w h o

d o n o t p e r f o r m a c a d e m i c a l l y , d o n o t u n d e r t a k e v o l u n t a r y ta s k s f or

t e a c h e r s , e t c . " M e s s i n g " is d o n e b y c u l t u r a l i s o l a te s i n t h e A s t r e a m ,

w h o s e m e m b e r s fr o w n o n i t a s p u r p o s e l e s s d e s t r u c t iv e n e s s . Y e t t h o s e

w h o d o n o t j o i n i n s u c h a c t i v it i e s i n t h e C a n d D s t r e a m s a r e t h e

c u l t u r a l i s o la t e s w h o d o n o t a d m i r e t h e a i m l e s s n e s s a n d u s e l e ss n e s s

o f s u c h b e h a v i o u r ( n o n u ti li ta r i an ) . G r o u p p u n i s h m e n t s s u c h a s d e t e n

t i o n s r e i n f o r c e g r o u p a u t o n o m y . T h e r e is a d e f e r r a l o f g r a ti f ic a t i o n

i n A s t r e a m b o y s a s o p p o s e d t o t h e h e d o n i s m o f " h a v i n g f u n " o f

s t r e a m s C a n d D .1 9

1 8

A . K . C o h e n a n d J . F . S h o r t, R e s e a r c h in D e l i n q u e n t S u b c u l t u r e s , i n Journal of

Social Issues, 1 4 , 3 ( 1 9 5 8 ) , p p . 2 0 - 3 7 , d is c u ss e d b y D . M . D o w n e s , The Delinquent

Solution, ( L o n d o n : R o u t l e d g e 1 9 6 6 ), p p . 2 2 - 3 0 , 2 0 2 - 2 0 8 .1 9

D . H . H a r g r e a v e s , Social Relations in a Secondary School, ( L o n d o n : R o u t l e d g e a n d

K e g a n P a u l 1 9 6 7 ), p p . 1 6 4 - 1 7 6 ff.




2 0

S . L e v e n t m a n ( E d . ) , Counterculture and Social Transformation: E ssays on Nega tivistic

Themes in Sociological Theory, ( I ll in o i s: T h o m a s 1 9 8 2 ) .2 1

E . V i c t o r W a l t e r , F r o m C o u n t e r c u l t u r e t o S u b c u l t u r e : a n E p i s o d e i n t h e H i s t o r y

o f P o v e r t y , in L e v e n t m a n ( 1 9 8 2 ) , p p . 7 5 - 8 6 .

W h e t h e r i n C o h e n ' s t e e n a g e g a n g s , o r i n t h e C a n d D s t r e a m s

o f H a r g r e a v e s s e c o n d a r y s c h o o l , it is t o b e e m p h a s i s e d , a s w e h a v e

s a id , t h a t t h e p h e n o m e n a a r e n o t t o b e r e g a r d e d a s i n d i v i d u a l r e a c

t i o n s o f a l i e n a t i o n t o a w i d e r c u l t u r e t h a t p l a c e s t h e m l o w i n i t s

h i e r a r c h y a n d t h e i r p e r s o n a l v a l u e s l o w i n its o w n s c a le . R a t h e r t h e

f o r m a t i o n o f a c o n t r a - c u l t u r e is a p o s i t i v e i n t e r a c t i o n t h a t c r e a t e s a

p o s i t i v e s o l u t i o n t o t h e p r o b l e m o f s o c i al a l i e n a t i o n . A s o c i e t y w i t h i n

a s o c i e t y , f r a m i n g a l t e r n a t i v e v a l u e s , a n d a n a l t e r n a t i v e s t a t u s s y s

t e m , is c r e a t e d i n w h i c h t h e i n d i v i d u a l c a n g a i n t h e s t a t u s a n d

s i g n if i c a n c e t h a t w i d e r s o c i e t y d e n i e s h i m .

I n 1 9 8 2 a n a t t e m p t w a s m a d e to a p p l y c o n t r a c u l t u r a l t h e o r y t o

t h e o r i e s r e g a r d i n g t h e s o c io l o g ic a l s ig n i fi c an c e o f p o v e r t y a n d w e a l t h .2 0

P a r t o f t h a t a t t e m p t l e a d W a l t e r t o a t t e m p t a n a n a l y si s o f t h e m e d i e v a l

C h u r c h ' s a t t i t u d e t o p o v e r t y in t h e c o n t e x t o f s u c h a t h e o r y .2 1

W e

m a y f o l l o w W a l t e r ' s s u g g e s t i v e r e m a r k s a n d u s e t h e a n a l y t i c c o n

c e p t s t h a t w e h a v e d i s t i l l e d f r o m c o n t r a - c u l t u r a l t h e o r y g e n e r a l l y t o

e x p r e s s t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f m o n a s t i c m o v e m e n t s , l e a d b y C l u n y in

t h e 9 t h c e n t u r y .

T h e m e n d i c a n t D o m i n i c a n s m a d e p o v e r t y a n d d e p e n d e n c y o n

o t h e r s t h e p o s i t i v e m a r k o f s t a t u s a n d so e x h i b i t e d i n v e r s e p o l a r i t y .

T h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f r u l e s o f life f or t h e c o m m u n i t y a s a w h o l e , a n d

t h e i r r e m o v a l f r o m e p i s c o p a l c o n t r o l w i t h d i r e c t a c c e s s t o t h e P a p a l

c o u r t , m a r k e d t h e c r e a t i o n o f g r o u p a u t o n o m y . T h e r e w a s n o i n d i

v i d u a l f r e e d o m a s s u c h , s i n c e e i t h e r t h e f o r m a l o r i n f o r m a l n o r m s

o f t h e g r o u p s w o u l d p r o d u c e c o n f o r m i t y , o r i n d e e d t h e i n d i v i d u a l

c o u l d b e c h a r g e d b y e x t e r n a l e c c l e s i a s t i c a l a u t h o r i t y . B u t t h e g r o u p

a s a w h o l e h a d a c h i e v e d a n i n v i o l a t e s t a tu s .

T h e F r a n c i s c a n s i n a d d i t i o n t o t h e i n v e r s e p o l a r i t y t h a t m a d e

p o v e r t y r a t h e r t h a n w e a l t h th e m a r k of s t a tu s a n d d iv i n e a p p r o v a l

a l so e n g a g e d d e v o t i o n a l l y in a k i n d o f s p i r i tu a l h e d o n i s m o f i m m e

d i a t e g r a t i f i c a t i o n . T o b e l os t i n t h e l o v e o f G o d e x h i b i t e d b y a n a t

u r a l u n i v e r s e filled w i t h b e n i g n l y h u m a n a t t r i b u t e s w a s c o n s i d e r e d

p r e f e r a b l e t o t h e life o f c a r e e r a d v a n c e m e n t b y r a t i o n a l a n d c a l c u l a t e d

p l a n . T h u s t h e c o n t r a c u l t u r a l v a l u e o f n o n - u t i l i t a r i a n i s m a g a i n s t t h e

u t i l i ta r i a n i s m o f w i d e r so c i e ty is s e e n i n e v i d e n c e . I n t h e d e v e l o p m e n t s




m a r k e d b y t h e r a d i c a l o r S p ir i t u a l F r a n c i s c a n s , s u p p r e s s e d b y J o h n

X X I I i n t h e fourteenth c e n t u r y , n o n - u t i l i t a r i a n i s m is m a n i f e s t e d i n

t h e c l a i m t h a t t h e r e n u n c i a t i o n o f a n y p r o p e r t y is n e c e s s a r y t o s a l

v a t i o n . H e r e a c o n t r a - c u l t u r e i s s e e n r e i n f o r c i n g i ts i n v e r s a l o f t h e

v a l u e s o f w i d e r s o c i e t y .

C e r t a i n l y C y p r i a n ' s C h u r c h e x e r c i s e d g r o u p a u t o n o m y i n r e j e c t

i n g t h e c o n s t r a i n t s t o w o r s h i p t h e E m p e r o r . F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e d i s c i p l i n e

t h a t o n e d i d n o t s a c r i f i c e i n c e n s e u n d e r s a n c t i o n o f e x c o m m u n i c a

t i o n a r o s e i n f o r m a l l y f r o m g r o u p m e m b e r s . I t w a s t h a t i n f o r m a l i t y

t h a t p r o d u c e d t h e v a r i e t y o f a p p r o a c h e s t o n o n - c o n f o r m i t y t h a t w a s

t h e c a u s e o f C y p r i a n ' s d i l e m m a . T h e libellatici c l e a r l y h a d o n e v i e w

o f r e a d m i s s i o n t o c o m m u n i o n , t h o s e w h o s o u g h t libelli pacis f r o m t h e

c o n f e s s o r s a n o t h e r , a n d t h e N o v a t i a n s y e t a t h i r d .2 2

C y p r i a n c l e a r l y

h a d t o m a k e f o r m a l c o n s t r a i n t s t h a t h a d a r i s e n i n f o r m a l l y , i n t h e

m a n n e r of c o n t r a - c u l t u r a l g r o u p s .

I n d e e d o t h e r r e g u l a r f e a t u r e s of a c o n t r a - c u l t u r e c a n b e s e e n i n

t h e m a r t y r o l o g i c a l te x t s t h e m s e l v e s , t o w h i c h I h a v e a l r e a d y m a d e

re fe r en c e . In v e r s e p o l a r i t y is s een in t h a t w h a t t h e h o s t cu l tu re r eg a r d s

a s e x e c u t e d c r i m i n a l s a r e d e s c r i b e d , i n t h e c a s e o f t h e S c i l l i ta n

M a r t y r s , b y t h e c o n t r a - c u l t u r e a s " c r o w n e d (coronati) a n d " r e i g n i n g

(regnunt)" a s a c o n s e q u e n c e o f t h e ir m a r t y r d o m .2 3

T h e d a y o f t h e i r

i g n o m i n i o u s d e a t h is , f or P e r p e t u a a n d h e r c o m p a n i o n s , th e d a y o f

t h e i r v i c t o r y (dies victoriae).2*

N o n - u t i l i t a r i a n i s m i s c l e a r l y s e e n i n t h e q u e s t i o n s o f m a g i s t r a t e s

a s t o t h e u s e o r p o i n t o f n o t s w e a r i n g o r s a c ri f ic i n g t o t h e E m p e r o r ' s

genius, a s w h e n P e r p e t u a ' s f a t h e r a p p e a l s t o h e r t o a v o i d t h e f a m

i ly 's s o c ia l d i s g r a c e , a n d t o c a r e fo r t h e n e e d s o f h e r b a b y s o n .2 5

T h e E i r e n a r c h H e r o d , a n d N i c e t e s h is f a t h er , a sk P o l y c a r p : " W h a t

h a r m i s t h e r e i n s a y i n g ' C a e s a r is L o r d , ' a n d s a cr i fi c in g , a n d t h e

r e s t o f i t, a n d s o s a v i n g y o u r s e l f ? "2 6

M a l i c e is s h o w n , i n r e f e r e n c e s

in Acta Justini 1, t o " t h e w r e t c h e d d e f e n d e r s o f i d o l a t r y a n d t h e i r

i m p i o u s d e c r e e s . " W e find a s h o r t - t e r m h e d o n i s m i n B l a n d i n a ' s affir

m a t i o n t h a t b r i n g s h e r " r e f r e s h m e n t (avah]\\fi<;) and res t (dvdrcouo iq) . "

(H.E. V , 1,19)

2 2

C y p r i a n , De Laps. 2 8 ; Ep. 3 0 , 3 ; 6 5 , 1 3 a n d 1 7 .23 Passio Scillitanorum 1 8 ,1 ( A r m i t a g e R o b i n s o n ( 1 8 9 1 ) , p p . 8 6 , 1 6 ) .24 Passio S. Perpetuae 1 3 - 1 4 ( A r m i t a g e R o b i n s o n ( 1 8 9 1 ) , p . 1 1 6 ).2 5

I b id . 3 ,1 ( A r m i t a g e R o b i n s o n ( 1 8 9 1 ) , p p . 6 2 / 6 3 , 2 - 6 4 / 6 5 ) .2 b

P i o n i u s , Passio Polycarpi, 8 , 2 ( J . B . L i g h t f o o t , T h e A p o s t o l i c F a t h e r s , L o n d o n :

M a c M i l l a n 1 8 9 1 ) .




T h u s w e f ind c o n t r a - c u l t u r a l f e a tu r e s i n e a r l y C h r i s t i a n d e s c r i p

t io n s o f t h e c l a s h b e t w e e n t h e C h r i s t i a n c o m m u n i t y a s a c u l ti c c o m

m u n i t y , a n d t h e R o m a n E m p i r e s ee k in g s a c r a m e n t a l u n it y t h r o u g h

i ts o w n cu l t i c ac t o f s ac r i f i c in g in c en se t o t h e g en iu s o f C ae sa r . B u t

w h a t o f m i n i s t e r i a l , s a c e r d o t a l O r d e r its elf i n b o t h I m p e r i a l a n d

C h r i s t i a n C u l t ?

I p r o p o s e in t h e f o ll o w i n g c h a p t e r s t o n o w a p p l y c o n t r a c u l t u r a l

a n a l y si s s y s te m a t i c a l ly t o t h e p h e n o m e n o n o f t h e i n t e r a c t i o n b e t w e e n

C h u r c h a n d S t a t e d u r i n g t h e f i r s t t w o c e n t u r i e s s p e c i f i c a l l y i n t e r m s

o f t h e o ffic es o f t h o s e w h o s u p e r i n t e n d e d t h e i r t w o p a r a l l e l c u l t s .

M y th e si s w ill b e t h a t t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f C h u r c h O r d e r c a n b e

u n d e r s t o o d a s t h e c r e a t i o n o f a c o n t r a - c u l t u r e i n w h i c h t h e v a l u e s

o f t h e d o m i n a n t c u l t u r e a r e re v e r s e d , a n d m e m b e r s o f t h a t c o n t r a -

c u l t u r e a c h i e v e a s t a t u s d e n i e d t o t h e m b y w i d e r s o c i e t y . I t i s i n

r e s p o n s e t o t h e d e m a n d s o f s u c h a p r o c e s s t h a t t h e s u p p r e s s i o n o f

t h e c h a r i s m a t i c t a k e s p l a c e , a n d a s t a b l e a n d o r g a n i s e d s o c i e t y is

c r e a t e d i n C l e m e n t Corinthians a n d t h e Didache ( C h a p t e r 4 ) . I g n a t i u s

a s t h e m a r t y r b i s h o p a n d h is p r o c e s s i o n f r o m A n t i o c h i n S y r i a t o

R o m e c a n b e u n d e r s t o o d a s m a r k i n g t h e i n te r fa c e b e t w e e n t h e P a g a n

an d th e Ch r i s t i an Cu l t . H i s o f f i ce an d s ac r i f i ce can b e s een to b e

t h e c r e a t i o n o f a r e v e r s a l o f i m a g e s d e r i v e d f r o m t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t

( C h a p t e r 5 ) .

F e a t u r e s o f C o h e n ' s d e f i n it i o n o f a c o n t r a - c u l t u r e w ill m o r e o v e r

be seen a l so in Luke-Acts, I g n a t i u s a n d t h e Apocalypse. W e find a n

i n v e r s e p o l a r i t y i n t h e Apocalypse w h e r e b y m e a n s o f a r e v e r s a l o f

v a l u e s t h e a p p a r a t u s a n d l it u r g y o f t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t is a p p l i e d t o

t h e h e a v e n l y w o r s h i p o f t h e t r u e G o d . T h e n t h e r e w i ll b e t h e e x a m

p l e o f I g n a t i u s t h e b i s h o p w h o b o t h l e a d s t h e C h r i s t i a n c u l ti c p r o

c e s s i o n t o R o m e a n d t h e n b e c o m e s a s a c ri fi c e o n t h e a l t a r o f t h e

I m p e r i a l C u l t w h i c h s e e m s a l m o s t t h e r e b y a p p r o p r i a t e d a n d C h r i s

t i a n i s e d . H e r e w e s h a l l s e e a n i n v e r s i o n o f c u l t ic e l e m e n t s a n d a

b u r n i n g ( he d o n is t ic ? ) d e s i r e f or m a r t y r d o m t h e g lo r y o f w h i c h w e l l-

m e a n i n g R o m a n C h r i s t ia n s m a y t ry t o d e p r i v e h i m w h o d o n o t

g r a s p t h e fu ll si g n i f i c a n c e o f t h e i n v e r s e p o l a r i t y v a l u e d b y t h e i r

c o n t r a - c u l t u r e (Rom. 1_

2 ) . W e s h a ll f u r t h e r m o r e a r g u e t h a t t h e s a c

e r d o t a l i m a g e r y o f t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t is i n f l u e n c i n g i c o n o g r a p h y o f

e c c l e s i a l O r d e r b o t h i n I g n a t i u s a n d i n t h e Apocalypse, w i t h t h e f o r m e r

p r o d u c i n g in v e r s e p o l a r i m a g e s o f t h e l a tt e r . Luke-Acts t o o ( C h a p t e r 3)

w i ll b e s h o w n t o m i r r o r A u g u s t a n h i s t o r y , w i t h t h e pax Christi p r o

d u c e d b y t h e C h r i s t i a n , a p o s t o l i c c u l t a s t h e c o n t r a - c u l t u r a l p a r a l l e l




t o t h e pax deorum p r o d u c e d b y A u g u s t u s ' a u g u r a l a c t a n d w i t n e ss e d

o n his m o n u m e n t , t h e Ara Pacis ( C h a p t e r 2 ) .

B u t a c o n t r a - c u l t u r e n e e d s t h e m o d e l o f t h e w i d e r s o c i e ty w i t h

w h i c h it is i n t e r a c t i n g in o r d e r t o d e t e r m i n e w h a t v a l u e s n e e d t o b e

r e c o n s t r u c t e d , w h a t s y s te m o f p r i v i le g e a n d h o n o u r n e e d s t o b e

r e v e r s e d . H e r e w e s h a ll find D o m i t i a n a n d t h e f u r t h e r d e v e l o p m e n t

o f t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t p r o v i d i n g t h e h i s t o r ic a l m a t r i x t h a t d e t e r m i n e s

t h e c h a r a c t e r o f w h a t d e v e l o p s i n C h u r c h O r d e r a t t hi s p a r t i c u l a r

p e r i o d . W e h a v e a r g u e d h e r e a s i m i l a r r e l a t i o n s h i p fo r t h e a g e o f

C y p r i a n w i t h c o n t e m p o r a r y d e v e l o p m e n t s i n t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t . S u c h

a p r o c e s s w e s h a l l a r g u e t o b e i n e v i d e n c e n o t o n l y i n C l e m e n t o f

R o m e , b u t in h is n e a r c o n t e m p o r a r i e s i n Luke-Acts, t h e Apocalypse, a n d

th e Ig n a t i a n L e t t e r s (C h a p t e r s 3 , 5 a n d 6 ) . W e sh a l l f in ally d i s cu s s

h o w a M o n a r c h i a n t h e o l o g y o f t h e T r i n i t y m i r r o r s t h e M o n a r c h i a n

p h i l o s o p h i c a l b a s i s f o r t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t u n d e r t h e S e v e r a n s , a n d i s

r e fl ec te d i n d e v e l o p m e n t s b o t h i n I m p e r i a l a n d C h u r c h O r d e r u n d e r

E l a g a b a l u s a n d C a l l i s tu s ( C h a p t e r s 7 - 8 ) .

F r o m o u r a n a l y si s o f t h e i d e o l o g y o f t h e c o m m u n i t i e s p r e s u p p o s e d

b y t h e s e d e v e l o p m e n t s , w e s h a l l d e r i v e a f r a m e w o r k f o r u n d e r s t a n d i n g

t h e s u b s e q u e n t C y p r i a n i c d e v e l o p m e n t s w i t h t h e i r o w n r e f l e c t i o n s o f

i m p e r i a l O r d e r a n d I m p e r i a l C u l t .



C H A P T E R T W O

T H E F O U N D A T I O N S O F T H E I M P E R I A L C U L T

The religious character of the Augustan Revolution

T h e A u g u s t a n r e v o l u t i o n w a s a s m u c h r e l i g io u s a s it w a s p o l i ti c a l .

D i v i n a t i o n a n d t h e r it e s o f t h e augur w e r e c o n s t i t u t i o n a l a s w e l l a s

re l i g io u s n eces s i t i e s i n a so c i e ty i n wh ich b o th r e l i g io n an d p o l i t i c s

w e r e i n t e r t w i n e d . T h e I m p e r i a l C u l t r e p r e s e n t s t h e r e f o r e b o t h a c o n

s t i t u t i o n a l r e v o l u t i o n a n d a r e l i g i o u s r e f o r m a t i o n . T h e c u l t c a r r i e d

a s s o c i a t i o n s w i t h t h e l e g e n d a r y k i n g s o f R o m e t h a t le ft i ts m a r k o n

t h e R e p u b l i c a n c o n s t it u t i o n . T h e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f R e p u b l i c to P r i n -

c i p a t e r e q u i r e d t h e r e f o r e a t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f t h e c u l t i n w h i c h t h e

final ex er ci se of th e ius augurium w a s i n t h e h a n d s o f t h e h e n c e f o r t h

i m p e r i a l a n d h e r e d i t a r y Pontfex Maximus. T h e h i s t o r y o f t h e c iv il

w a r s , b e g i n n i n g w i t h M a r i u s a n d S u ll a , a n d e n d i n g w i t h A c t i u m h a d

m o r e o v e r i m p r e s s e d o n R o m a n m i n d s t h e n e e d t o a c h i e v e t h r o u g h

t h e c u l t u s t h e pax deorum.

I n t h e n e x t t h r e e c h a p t e r s w e s h a l l e x a m i n e f i r s t a n d e a r l y s e c

o n d c e n t u r y w o r k s , n a m e l y Luke-Acts, C l e m e n t , Corinthians, t h e Apocalypse,

a n d t h e e p i s d e s o f I g n a t i u s o f A n t i o c h . W e s h a ll a r g u e t h a t t h e s e

w r i t e r s e x p r e s s v a r i e t ie s o f C h r i s t i a n , c o n t r a - c u l t u r a l c o n s t r u c t i o n s m i r

r o r i n g t h e R o m a n E m p i r e w i t h i ts c e n t r a l c u l ti c e x p r e s s i o n i n t h e

I m p e r i a l C u l t w h i c h w a s , w i t h its n e w a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h Fortuna Redux,

t o m a k e w i d e r e s c h a t o l o g i c a l c l a i m s . P r e l i m i n a r y t o o u r d i s c u s s io n

i n t h e s e f u t u r e c h a p t e r s w e s h a l l e x a m i n e h e r e , i n s e c t i o n A , t h e

g r o w t h o f t h e c o n c e p t o f t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t f r o m its r e p u b l i c a n r o o t s

t o i ts u n i q u e a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h A u g u s t u s . I n s e c t i o n B w e s ha l l e x a m

i n e t h e i n c e p t i o n o f t h a t c u l t a t t h e ludi saeculares o f 1 3 B . C . , a n d

t h e b e g i n n i n g s o f its w i d e r r e c e p t i o n , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n A s i a M i n o r b u t

a l s o i n t h e L a t i n W e s t .

W i t h i n t h e l i t e r a t u r e o f t h e first c e n t u r y B . C . , C i c e r o ' s De Natura

Deorum b e a r s w i tn es s t o a S to i c j u s t i f i ca t i o n fo r t h e p r ac t i c e s o f b o th

augur a n d haruspex. In ea r ly a n d m id first ce n t u r y A .D . w e sh a l l fin d,

p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t h e c a s e o f L u c a n , b u t w i t h r e f e r e n c e t o L iv y t o o , a

h i s t o r i o g r a p h y t h a t r e a d s t h e e v e n t o f t h e lo s t a n d r e s t o r e d o r d e r o f



18 C H A P T E R T W O

n a t u r e a n d s o c i e t y i n t e r m s o f a S t o i c , h y l o h o l i s t i c th e o l o g y o f for-

tuna, fatum a n d taS ycx;. W e s h a l l s h o w h o w t h e A u g u s t a n c o n s t i t u

t i o n a l a n d c u l t ic d e v e l o p m e n t s r e f le c t e d s u c h S to i c a s s u m p t i o n s .

A u g u s t u s ' c o n t r o l o f t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t , s e c u r e d t h r o u g h h i s o ffic e o f

Ponttfex Maximus, h a d a s i ts o b j e c t i v e t h e o b t a i n i n g o f t h e pax deorum.

T h e e x p l a n a t i o n a n d j u s t if i c a ti o n o f s u c h a n o b j e c t i v e w a s a p h i l o

s o p h i c a l t h e o l o g y i n f o r m e d b y S t o i c i s m .

W e s ha l l f ol lo w t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e S t o i c t h e o l o g y u n d e r p i n

n i n g A u g u s t u s ' s p e c i f i c c u l t i c c l a i m t o c o n t r o l t h e ius augurium, a l o n g

s i d e o t h e r f e a t u r e s o f t h e A u g u s t a n i d e o l o g y . I n p a r t i c u l a r , w e s h a l l

e x a m i n e h o w t h e c o n c e p t s o f pax, fortuna, a n d salus w e r e l i n k e d w i t h

e x p e c t a t i o n s o f a r e t u r n i n g g o l d e n a g e . T h e f u r t h e r s y n t h e s i s a l so

t o o k p l a c e w h e n t h e b i r t h o f b o t h J u l i u s C a e s a r a n d t h a t o f O c t a -

v i a n / A u g u s t u s a s h i s h e i r w a s a l s o l i n k e d w i t h fortuna redux. B o t h a s

a r e s u l t c a m e t o b e p e r s o n a l l y a n d i n d i v i d u a l l y d e s c r i b e d i n w h a t i n

t h e J u d a e o - C h r i s t i a n t r a d i t i o n w o u l d b e " M e s s i a n i c " t e r m s . I n m a k

i n g s u c h a c l a i m I a c k n o w l e d g e t h e i n f l u e n c e o f t h e d i s t i n g u i s h e d

a r t h i s t o r ia n J o h n E i s n e r , w h o h a s r e c e n t ly a p p r o a c h e d t h e s t u d y o f

t h e Ara Pacis e m p h a s i s e d a n a l t e r n a t i v e m o d e l o f a r t t o n a t u r a l i s m

t h a t t a k e s a c c o u n t o f t h e n a t u r e a n d i m p o r t a n c e o f v i e w i n g i n t h e

u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f i m a g e s .1

I n t h e c r o s s c u r r e n t o f m u l t i c u l t u r a l c o n c e p t s in t h e e a r l y R o m a n

E m p i r e , s u c h a n a r t e f a c t n e e d s t o b e i n t e r p r e t e d i n t h e l i g h t o f a

r e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e p r o b a b l e d i a l o g u e b e t w e e n t h e v i e w e r a n d a r t

o b j e c t i n w h i c h t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e o b j e c t is " p e r m a n e n t l y

i n c o m p l e t e a n d y e t a l w a y s t e m p o r a r i l y fu lfille d b y t h e v i e w e r ' s o w n

p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n t h e s a cr if ic ia l r i t e . " A s E i s n e r c l a i m s : " v i e w e r s c r e

a t i ve ly c o n s t r u c t e d n u m e r o u s m e a n i n g s w h i c h m i g h t d e c o n s t r u c t ,

u n d e r m i n e , o r c o n fl ic t w i t h o n e a n o t h e r . A J e w i s h v i e w , f or i n s t a n c e ,

o r a P y t h a g o r e a n o n e m i g h t h a v e b e e n v e r y d i f f e r e n t f r o m t h a t o f

1

J . E i s n e r , C u l t a n d S c u l p t u r e : S a c r if i c e in t h e A r a P a c i s A u g u s t a e , in JRomS

8 1 ( 1 9 9 1 ) , p p . 5 0 - 6 1 . S t r o n g s u p p o r t h a s b e e n g i v e n t o t h e p u r s u i t o f s u c h a n a r t -

h i st o ri c al m e t h o d o l o g y b y o n e d i s t in g u i s h e d R o m a n h i st o r ia n , A n d r e w W a l l a c e -

H a d r i l l , i n h i s r e v i e w a r t i c l e ( R o m e ' s C u l t u r a l R e v o l u t i o n , i n JRomS 7 9 ( 1 9 8 9 ) , p p .

1 5 7 - 1 6 4 ) o f P . Z a n k e r , The Power of Images in the Age of Augustus, t r a n s . A . S h a p i r o ,

( A n n A r b o r : U n i v e r s i t y o f M i c h i g a n P r e s s 1 9 9 0 ) . A s W a l l a c e - H a d r i l l c l a i m s : ". . . it

i s n e c e s s a r y f o r a n y o n e w h o w i s h e d t o d i s c u s s A u g u s t u s t o t a k e t h e a r t - h i s t o r i c a l

m a t e r i a l s e r i o u s l y . T h i s m a k e s i t t h e m o r e l a m e n t a b l e th a t t h e st u d y o f R o m a n a r th i s to r y h a s s o t e n u o u s a h o l d i n B r i t i s h u n i v e r s i t i e s " (p . 1 6 4 ) . S e e a l s o K . G a l i n s k y ,

V e n u s , P o l y s e m y , a n d t h e A r a P a c i s A u g u s t a e , i n AmJArch 9 6 , 3 (1 9 9 2 ), p p . 4 5 7 - 4 7 5 .



T H E F O U N D A T I O N S O F T H E I M P E R IA L C U L T 19

a R o m a n p ri e s t. "2

W h a t I wall b e s eek in g in t h e fo l lo w in g d i s cu s

s i on is a n e x p l o r a t i o n o f s o m e i n t e r s e c t i o n s o f s u c h v a r i o u s a n d m u l t i

c u l t u r a l d i a l o g u e s w i t h t h e i c o n o g r a p h y o f t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t as

e x e m p l i f i e d a ls o i n firstly P a g a n a n d t h e n e a r l y C h r i s t i a n d o c u m e n t s .

Su ch in te rsec t ions wi ll b e su ff ic iendy la rg e in n u m b e r , I be l ieve , to co n

s t i tu t e a c l a i m f o r s o m e d e g r e e o f n o r m a t i v e n e s s o f t h e p i c t u r e t h a t

I w i l l d e v e l o p .

P A R T A . R E P U B L I C A N A N T E C E D E N T S O F T H E I M PE R IA L C U L T

T h e p r a c t i c e of w o r s h i p p i n g d ei fi ed e m p e r o r s , w h e t h e r a li ve o r d e a d ,

w a s n o t p a r t o f R e p u b l i c a n r e l i g i o u s o r p o l i t i c a l p r a c t i c e b e f o r e

Au g u s tu s . Bu t ev en in Rep u b l i can t im es t h e p r in c ip l e was ack n o wled g ed

th a t i t w a s th e resp on s ib i l i ty o f pu b l i c o ff ic ia ls to seek th e wi l l o f th e

g o d s i n d iv in a t io n . T o m a k e th is p o s s ib l e , p o l i t i ca l f igu res w er e e l ec t ed

to the off ice of pontifex, a n d t h e i r c o l l e g e w a s h e a d e d b y a Pontifex

Maximus. I t is c l e a r f ro m C ic e r o ' s t r ea t i s e t h e De Natura Deorum t h a tt a k i n g t h e auspicia w a s a p o l i t i c a l a s w e l l a s a r e li g i o u s r e q u i r e m e n t .

I n t h i s t r e a t i s e , w e h a v e a d i a l o g u e b e t w e e n G a i u s V e l l e i u s a n d

Q u i n t u s L u c i u s B a l b u s , w h o r e p r e s e n t re s p e c ti v e ly t h e E p i c u r e a n s

a n d t h e S to i c s, b u t w h o a r e o t h e r w i s e u n k n o w n e x c e p t f or t h e i r

n a m e s ,3

a n d G a i u s C o t t a , t h e A c a d e m i c i a n in w h o s e h o u s e t h e d i a

l o g u e is s e t ( 1 ,6 ) . C o t t a i n d e e d s h o u l d h a v e f o u n d t h e d i s c u s s i o n p a r

t i c u l a r l y r e l e v a n t , s in c e , a s B a l b u s is q u i c k t o p o i n t o u t , h e h a s b e e ne l e c t e d pontifex, a n d h a s a s o l e m n r e l i g i o u s d u t y t o t h e s t a t e c u l t .

T h e M i d d l e A c a d e m y c l a i m e d t h a t a t m o s t p r o b a b i l i ty , b u t n e v e r

c e r t a i n t y w a s p o s si b le a b o u t t h e p h e n o m e n a l w o r l d . I n o p p o s i t i o n

t o s u c h a v i e w , B a l b u s p r o p o s e s b y m e a n s o f S t o i c i s m t o j u st if y p h i l o

s o p h i c a l l y t h e re l i g i o u s rites a n d p r a c t i c e s i n w h i c h t h e w a v e r i n g

C o t t a h a s t o p a r t i c i p a t e , a l t h o u g h t h e l a t t e r h a s s o m e d o u b t s a b o u t

the i r f ina l va l id i ty .4

2

E i s n e r ( 1 9 9 1 ) , p . 5 2 .3

I n C i c e r o , De Orat. 3 , 7 8 V e l l e i u s i s m e n t i o n e d a s a f r i e n d o f L . L i c i n i u s C r a s s u s ,

a n d a l s o t h e t w o B a l b i .4 De Nat. Deor. 2 , 2 : " E s t e n i m e t p h i l o s o p h i e t p o n t i f i c i s e t C o t t a e d e d i s i m m o r -

t a l i b u s h a b e r e n o n e r r a n t e m e t v a g a m u t A c a d e m i c i s e d u t n o s t r i s t a b i l e m c e r t a m -

q u e s e n t e n t i a m . "



2 0 C H A P T E R T W O

2A 1 . The political and constitutional significance of divination

A s B a l b u s is q u i c k t o p o i n t o u t , C o t t a ' s p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n d i v i n a t i o n

a n d a u g u r y w e r e n o t a m a t t e r o f p r i v a t e c o n s c i e n c e s e p a r a t e f r o m h is

c iv i c d u t y a s a m a g i s t r a t e . I n hi s s e c o n d c o n s u l a t e T i b e r i u s G r a c c h u s

p r o c e e d e d w i t h t h e e l e c t i o n o f h i s s u c c e s s o r s e v e n t h o u g h t h e o r i g

i n a l r e t u r n i n g o ffic er h a d d r o p p e d d e a d . H e h a d t o a d m i t o n r e fl e ct io n

t h a t h e h a d p r o c e e d e d i r r e g u l a r l y b e c a u s e th e t e n t i n w h i c h h e h a d

c o n d u c t e d t h e a u g u r y w h i c h v a l i d a t e d h is c o u r s e of a c t i o n w a s i n

S c i p i o 's p a r k o u t s i d e t h e c it y b o u n d a r y . H e h a d a t t e n d e d a m e e t

i n g o f t h e S e n a t e f r o m t h is t e n t a n d h a d f o r g o t t e n t o t a k e t h e aus-picia o n h is r e t u r n . I n c o n s e q u e n c e , a s a r e s u l t o f a f o r m a l r e f e r e n c e

b y t h e c o ll e g e o f A u g u r s , t h e S e n a t e c a u s e d t h e r e s i g n a t i o n o f t h e

e l e c t e d c o n s u l s F i g u l u s a n d S c i p i o .5

O n e o b s e r v e s h e r e t h a t d i v i n a t i o n w a s m o r e t h a n a k i n d o f s u p e r

s t i ti o n t o b e p r a c t i c e d b e f o r e m a j o r b a t t l e s o r a k i n d o f p r a y e r f o r

s u c c e s s i n a c r it i c a l s i t u a t i o n . R a t h e r it w a s a n i n t e g r a l a s p e c t o f t h e

o r d i n a r y , c o n s t i t u t i o n a l p r o c e s s . I n th i s r e s p e c t o n e s u p p o s e s t h a t t h er u l e s o f p r o p r i e t y i n r e s p e c t o f d i v i n a t i o n a t k e y m o m e n t s i n t h e p o l i

t ic a l p r o c e s s w e r e n o t fo r m a l l y u n l i k e t h e r u l e s o f p r o p r i e t y i n c o n

s u l ti n g m o d e r n o p i n i o n p o ll s te r s .

A P r i m e M i n i s t e r , h a v i n g c o n s u l t e d t h e p o l l s, a n d h a v i n g f o u n d

t h a t t h e y p r e d i c t e d a n e l e c t i o n v i c t o r y , m i g h t s till l o s e . B u t h e w o u l d

s t a n d a f ar b e t t e r c h a n c e o f r e m a i n i n g l e a d e r o f h is p a r t y a n d , if

t h e p a r t y w a s a m a j o r o n e i n t h e n e w p a r l i a m e n t , L e a d e r o f t h eO p p o s i t i o n , b e c a u s e h e h a d d o n e so . A P r i m e M i n i s t e r , w h o c a l le d

a G e n e r a l E l e c t i o n w i t h e v e r y c o m p u t a t i o n o f c u r r e n t o f e l e c t o r a l

o p i n i o n a g a i n s t h i m a n d l os t, w o u l d u n d o u b t e d l y e x p e r i e n c e a s t o n

i s h e d d i s b e l i e f a t h is s h e e r r e c k le s s n e s s a n d l a c k o f j u d g m e n t .

B u t n e i t h e r th e f o r m e r P r i m e M i n i s t e r n o r h i s c r it ic s w o u l d n e c e s

s a ri ly u n d e r s t a n d t h e t h e o r i e s o f m a t h e m a t i c a l p r o b a b i l i t y , t h e t e c h n i q u e s

o f s a m p l i n g a n d t h e u n d e r l y i n g t h e o r y o f s o c i o l o g ic a l c l a ss i fi c a ti o na n d s t ra t if i ca t ion w hi ch jus t i f i ed the use o f suc h po l l s . Di f fe ren t ex pe r t s

a r e i n d e e d a t v a r i a n c e a b o u t t h e p r e c i s e j u s t i f i c a t i o n o f s u c h s e c o n d

o r d e r t h e o r i e s . B u t d e s p i t e s u c h l a c k o f c o n s e n s u s o n a n o v e r a l l t h e

o r y , a n d i n d e e d i n d e p e n d e n t l y o f it , t h e r e a r is e s a g e n e r a l n o r m a

t i v e e x p e c t a t i o n t h a t s u c h a d v i c e s h a l l b e t a k e n i n s u c h a f o r m .

5 Ibid. 2 , 4 , s e e a l s o C i c e r o , De Divinat., 2 , 7 4 .



T H E F O U N D A T I O N S O F T H E I M P ER I AL C U L T 2 1

S u c h was c l ea r ly t h e case w i th t h e i n s t i t u t i o n o f t h e co l l eg e o f

p o nt if fs a n d a u g u r s . T h e y w e r e r e g a r d e d as h a v i n g a r e g u l a t o r y r o le

u p o n t h e p o li t ic a l i n s t it u t io n s o f R o m e .6

I t w a s n o t s i m p l y a q u e s

t i o n o f t h e divinatio augurum, o f t h e i r p o w e r s o f f o r e t e l li n g t h e f u t u r e ,

b u t o f t h e disciplina, o r d i s c i p l i n e t h a t t h e y e x e r c i s e d o v e r m a g i s t r a t e s .

T h i s disciplina w a s s u p p o r t e d b y a ius augurum, a. p o l i t i c a l p r e r o g a t i v e

e x e r c i s e d b y t h e a u g u r s a s o f r i g h t . C i c e r o is t h e r e f o r e a b l e t o c o n

c lu d e o f t h i s iu s t h a t : " e v e n t h o u g h i t w a s o r i g i n a l l y c o n s t i t u t e d a s

a r e s u l t o f t h e g o o d r e p u t a t i o n t h a t d i v i n a t i o n h a d (etsi divinationis

opinione principio constitutum sit), h o w e v e r a f t e r w a r d s it h a s b e e n p r e

s e r v e d a n d r e t a i n e d b y r e a s o n o f t h e p u b l i c b e n e fi t (tamen postea rei

publicae causa conservatum ac retentum)" (De Divinatione 2 ,75 . )

F u r t h e r m o r e C i c e r o w a s t o e x p r e s s t h e v i e w i n h i s d i a l o g u e De

Legibus t h r o u g h t h e c h a r a c t e r o f M a r c u s t h a t t h e ius augurium w a s o f

t h e h i g h e s t p o l i t i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e a n d l i n k e d w i t h auctoritas:

The greatest and most significant right in the state (maximum autem et

praestantissimum in re publico) is the right of augurs (ius est augurum) wh ichis linked to political authority (cum auctoritate coniunctum). . . For w ha t

right is greater (quid enim maius est) if we examine legal right (si de iure

quaerimus), than to be able to adjourn (dimittere) commit tees and coun

cils (comitiatus et concilia) based on the h ighest const i tu t ional or personal

p o w e r (a summ is imperiis et summis potestatibus), or their decisions (insti-

tuta), or to rescind them if they have al ready bee n m ad e (vel habita

rescindere).

Cice ro , De Legibus, 2,31

T h i s , as w e sha l l s ee , w as a co n s t i t u t i o n a l p o in t n o t l os t u p o n A u g u s tu s

(Res Gestae c . 7) i n a s s u m in g th e ius augurium ( 2A 4 . 1 .5 ) . H o w e v e r w e

s h o u l d b e w a r e o f t h i n k i n g t h a t it w a s m e r e l y a u s ef u l p o l i t i c a l d e v i c e

n o t t r e a t e d s e ri ou s ly b y h i m s e l f o r hi s e d u c a t e d c o n t e m p o r a r i e s . W h e n

A t t i c u s s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e auspicia m i g h t h a v e b e e n i n v e n t e d t o b e o f

m e r e l y p o l it i c a l u s e , M a r c u s r e p l i e s :

I think that the art of divination which the Greeks call tiavcucrj really

exists (divinationem, quam Graeci u.avxncr|v appellant, esse sentio) and par t o f

th is which concerns b irds and other s igns (et huius banc ipsam partem,

quae est in avibus ceterisque signis), is part of our discipline (quod disciplinae

nostrae). Fo r if we co nce de tha t the gods exist , an d the u niverse is ruled

6

W . W a r d e F o w l e r , The Religious Exp erience of the Rom an People from the Earliest Times

to the Age of Augustus, ( L o n d o n : M a c M i l l a n 1 9 11 ) , p p . 2 7 0 - 3 1 3 ; J . H . W . G . L i e b e sc h u e tz ,Continuity and Change in Roman Religion, ( O x f o r d : C l a r e n d o n 1 9 7 9 ) , p p . 7 - 2 9 ; J . L i n d e rs k i,

T h e A u g u r a l L a w , i n ANRW ( 1 9 8 6 ) 1 1 , 1 6 , 3 , p p . 2 1 4 7 - 2 3 1 2 .




by their will , that they are mindful of the human race, and that they

have power to give indications of the future, then I do not see any

reason for denying divinat ion .

De Legibus 2,32

W e s h a l l n o w s e e , i n t h e c o n t e x t o f t h e l a t e r r e p u b l i c , h o w s u c h a

m e t a p h y s i c a l p o s i t i o n w a s g i v e n p h i l o s o p h i c a l j u s t i f i c a t i o n .

2 A 2 . Stoic justifications for the validity of cu ltic acts

I n De Natura Deorum C i c e r o w a s t o g o o n t o r e p r e s e n t B a l b u s a s

a r g u i n g a S t o i c j u s t if i c a t io n o f w h y d i v i n a t i o n w o r k e d , a n d o f w h yi t p o s s e s s e d t h e p o l i ti c a l f u n c t i o n t h a t it d i d . T h e u n i v e r s e w a s p e r

v a d e d a n d a ll t h i n g s h e l d t o g e t h e r b y a fiery b r e a t h t h a t w a s r e a

s o n (Xoyoq) a n d G o d . " T h e w o r l d f or t h a t r e a s o n w a s G o d a n d e v e r y

p o w e r o f t h e w o r l d w a s c o n t a i n e d w i t h i n t h e d i v in e n a t u r e . "7

T h e

d i v i n i t y o f t h e w o r l d m u s t b e a s s i g n e d a l s o t o t h e s t a rs t h a t e x h i b i t

a l i k e r a t i o n a l o r d e r .8

T h u s in t h e w o r d s o f C l e a n t h e s , in s u c h a

m a t e r i a l m o n i s m w i t h o u t t h e d u a l i s m o f m a t t e r a n d S p ir i t: " A l l a r eb u t p a r t o f o n e s t u p e n d o u s w h o l e , w h o s e N a t u r e b o d y is a n d G o d

t h e s o u l . "9

B e c a u s e , t h e r e f o r e , t h e u l t i m a t e c o n s t i t u e n t o f m a t t e r w a s r e f i n e d

fire, b o t h s p i ri t u a l a n d r a t i o n a l , t h e r e f o r e t h e m o v e m e n t o f t h e w o r l d

w a s b y p r o v id e n c e (rcpovoioc). B u t pronoia w a s n o t t o b e p e r s o n i f i e d

a s a p a r t i c u l a r d e i t y a n d t h u s r i d i c u l e d b y t h e E p i c u r e a n V e l l e i u s

a s " a n o l d h a g o f a f o r t u n e t e l l e r . "1 0

I t is r a th e r a fu n c t io n o f t h eflYeuoviKov o r r u l i n g p r i n c i p l e w h i c h a n y n o n - h o m o g e n e o u s e n t it y ,

t h a t is t o s a y a n e n t i t y m a d e o f p a r t s , m u s t p o s s e s s i n o r d e r t o b e

h e l d t o g e t h e r . I n a n i m a l s o r i n p l a n t s it is t h e s o u r c e o f m o t i o n s o f

t h e a p p e t i t e s , l o c a t e d i n t h e r o o t s , i n h u m a n b e i n g s i t is i n t e l l i g e n c e ,

7

De Nat. Deor.2 , 3 0 : " Q u o d c i r c a s a p i e n t e m e s s e m u n d u m n e c e s s e e s t , n a t u r a m q u e

e a r n q u a e r e s o m n e s c o n p l e x a t e n e a t p e r f e c t i o n e r a t io n i s e x c e l l e r e , e o q u e d e u m e s se

m u n d u m o m n e m q u e v i m m u n d i n a t u r a d i v i n a c o n t i n e ri . "8

Ibid. 2 , 3 9 : " A t q u e h a c m u n d i d i v i n i t a t e p e r s p e c t a t r i b u e n d a e s t s i d e r i b u s e a d e m

d i v i n i ta s , q u a e e x m o b i l i s s i m a p u r i s s i m a q u e a e t h e r i s p a r t e g i g n u n t u r n e q u e u l l a

p r a e t e r e a s u n t a d m i x t a n a t u r a t o t a q u e s u n t c a l i d a a t q u e p e r l u c i d a , u t e a q u o q u e

r e c t i s s i m e e t a n i m a n t i a e s s e e t s e n t i r e a t q u e i n t e l l e g e r e d i c a n t u r . "9

A . P o p e , Essay on Man, I p . 2 6 7 q u o t e d i n F . C o p l e s t o n , A H i s t o r y o f P h i l o s o p h y ,

V o l . 1: G r e e c e a n d R o m e , i n Bellarmine Series I X ( L o n d o n : B u r n s O a t e s 1 9 6 1 ) , p . 3 8 8 .10 De Nat. Deor. 2 , 7 3 : " V e l u t a t e i p s o h e s t e r n o d i e d i c t u m e s t a n u m f a t i d i c a m

rcpovoiav a S t o i c i s i n d u c i , i d e s t p r o v i d e n t i a m ; q u o d e o e r r o r e d i x i s t i q u i a e x i s t u m a sa b ii s p r o v i d e n t i a m fingi q u a s i q u a n d a m d e a m s i n g u l a r e m q u a e m u n d u m o m n e m

g u b e r n e t e t r e g a t . "



T H E F O U N D A T I O N S O F T H E I M P E R IA L C U L T 2 3

b u t i n t h e u n i v e r s e a s a w h o l e i t m u s t b e r e a s o n (ratio = A,6yo<;) w h i c h

r u l e s t h e w h o l e .1 1

F r o m s u c h a p o s i t i o n it is b u t a s h o r t r e m o v e t o

a r g u e t h a t s i n c e t h e o r d e r o f n a t u r e c a n b e r e a d b y t h e d i s c e r n i n g

e y e i n t h e s t a r s , s o c a n t h e f u t u r e b e r e a d b y t h o s e w h o u n d e r s t a n d

t h a t r a t i o n a l o r d e r a n d w h o c a n t h e r e f o r e r a t i o n a l l y s u b m i t t o t h e

d e c r e e o f f a te f o u n d m a p p e d o u t t h e r e . I f f a te c a n b e r e a d v i a s u c h

ra t i on a l o r d e r o r A,6yo<; in th e s ta r s , th e n i t c a n a l so b e d i sc er n ed in

t h e e n t r a i ls o f s h e e p w h e n r i g h d y c u t u p a n d o b s e r v e d .1 2

T h u s C i c e r o

w a s t o r e m a r k t h a t t h e S t o i c d o c t r i n e o f d e t e r m i n i s m o r f a te , b e

c a u s e it w a s b a s e d u p o n t h e e n d o w m e n t o f n a t u r e w i t h m i n d , w a s

c o n s i s t e n t w i t h " o r a c l e s a n d e v e r y t h i n g el se w h i c h is c o n n e c t e d w i t h

d i v i n a t i o n . " 1 3

T h u s t h e r o le p l a y e d b y a u g u r y a n d d i v i n a t i o n i n t h e R o m a n c o n

s t i t u ti o n a l s c h e m e w a s l e g i t i m a t e d i n t e r m s of a S t o ic c o s m o l o g y .

P h y s ic s w a s s t u d i e d i n G r a e c o - R o m a n p h i l o s o p h i c a l s c h o o ls i n o r d e r

t o a c h i e v e n e i t h e r a d i s i n t e r e s t e d u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f n a t u r e n o r a t e c h

n o l o g y w i t h w h i c h t o c o n t r o l it . R a t h e r p h y s i c s , l ik e m e t a p h y s i c s ,

w a s u s e d to s e r v i c e t h e o r i e s o f e t h i c s . T h e r e w a s a n e e d t o k n o w

t h e n a t u r e o f t h e u n i v e r s e in o r d e r t o d i s c o v e r h o w e t h i c a l l y t h e

b e h a v i o u r o f h u m a n b e i n g s c o u l d fit w i t h i n i t. T h e E p i c u r e a n d i s

c o v e r e d t h a t d e a t h , i n t h e l ig h t o f a n a t o m i c t h e o r y o f t h e u n i v e r s e ,

w a s d i s s o l u t io n a n d t h a t t h e r e w a s n o fe a r o f e t e r n a l p u n i s h m e n t ,

a n d t h is a s s u c h w a s t h e p u r e l y e t h i c a l v a l u e o f G r e e k a t o m i s m .

L u c r e t i u s n o t o r i o u s l y , a t t h e e n d o f h i s g r e a t w o r k , p r o d u c e d s e v

e r a l q u i t e c o n f l i c ti n g e x p l a n a t i o n s o f t h e b e h a v i o u r o f a c e r t a i n s p r i n g

w i t h o u t c o m i n g t o a n y c o n c l u s i o n a b o u t w h i c h of t h e m w a s t h e

11

Ibid. 2 , 2 9 : " N a t u r a es t i gi tu r q u a e c o n t i n e a t m u n d u m o m n e m e u m q u e t u e a -

tur , e t e a q u i d e m n o n s i n e s e n s u a t q u e r a t i o n e ; o m n e m e n i m n a t u r a m n e c e s s e es t

q u a e n o n s o li t ar i a s it n e q u e s i m p l e x s e d c u m a l i o i u n c t a a t q u e c o n e x a h a b e r e

a l i q u e m i n s e p r i n c i p a t u m , u t i n n o m i n e m e n t e m , i n b e l u a q u i d d a m s i m i l e m e n t i su n d e o r i a n t u r a d p e t i t u s . . . P r i n c i p a t u m a u t e m i d d i c o q u o d G r a e c i f iy e uo v iK o v

v o c a n t , q u o n ih i l i n q u o q u e g e n e r e n e c p o t e s t n e c d e b e t e s se p r a e s t a n t i u s . . . "12 De Divinat. 1 , 1 1 : " d u o s u n t e n i m d i v i n a n d i g e n e r a , q u o r u m a l t e r u m a r t i s e s t ,

a l t e r u m n a t u r a e . Q u a e e s t a u t e m g e n s a u t q u a e c iv i t a s, q u a e n o n a u t e x t i s p i c u m

a u t m o n s t r a a u t f u l g o r a i n t e r p r e t a n t i u m a u t a u g u r u m a u t a s t r o l o g o r u m a u t s o r t i u m

( e a e n i m f e r e a r t i s s u n t ) a u t s o m n i o r u m a u t v a t i c i n a t i o n u m ( h a e c e n i m d u o n a t u -

r a li a p u t a n t u r ) p r a e d i c t i o n e m o v e a t u r ? q u a r u m q u i d e m r e r u m e v e n t a m a g i s ar b i-

t r o r q u a m c a u s a s q u a e r i o p o r t e r e . e s t e n i m v i s e t n a t u r a q u a e d a m , q u a e t u rn

o b s e r v a t i s l o n g o t e m p o r e s i g n i f i c a t i o n i b u s , t u r n a l i q u o i n s t i n c t u i n f l a t u q u e d i v i n o

f u t u r a p r a e n u n t i a t . "13 De Fato 1 5 , 3 3 : " Q u o d c i r c a si S t o i c i s q u i o m n i a f a t o fieri d i c u n t c o n s e n t a n e u m

e st h u i u s m o d i o r a c u l a c e t e r a q u e q u a e a d d i v i n a t i o n e m p e r t i n e n t c o m p r o b a r e . . ."




" t r u e " e x p l a n a t i o n .1 4

S o l o n g a s a n y e x p l a n a t i o n i n t e r m s o f t h e a t o m i c

t h e o r y f i t t e d , t h e n t h e u n i v e r s e w a s m a d e s a f e f o r E p i c u r e a n e t h i c s .

L i k e w i s e t h e S t o i c c o s m o l o g y j u s t if i e d S t o i c e t h i c s . T o li ve a c c o r d i n g

t o n a t u r e w a s t o l iv e a c c o r d i n g t o t h e r a t i o n a l w il l o f t h e w o r l d - s o u l ,

a n d t o s u b m i t t o t h e d e c r e e o f t h a t r a t i o n a l w i ll w a s to a c t r a t i o n a l l y

a n d t h e r e f o r e f re e ly .

B u t w e h a v e s e e n t h a t t h e r e c o u l d b e a p o l i t i c a l a n d e v e n c o n s t i t u

t i o n a l d i m e n s i o n t o S t o i c e t h i c s i n t h i s r e s p e c t . D i v i n a t i o n b e c a m e

t h e w a y o f r e a d i n g t h e w i l l o f t h e w o r l d s o u l , w h e t h e r i n t h e s t a r s

o r o n t h e l i n i n g o f a s h e e p ' s s t o m a c h , a n d h o w t h e f u t u re a c c o r d i n g

t o w h a t w a s r e a d t h e r e w o u l d b e d e t e r m i n e d b y t h e o p e r a t i o n o f

r i g h t r e a s o n . I n d e e d p o l it i c a l p h i l o s o p h y , i n a n y a g e , a s t h e e t h i c a l

j u s t if i c a ti o n o f f o r m s o f h u m a n g o v e r n m e n t , h a s n o t u n f a i rl y b e e n

r e g a r d e d a s a b r a n c h o f e t h i c s . I n m o d e r n t i m e s t h e f a c t -v a l u e d i s

t i n c t i o n i n e t h i c s h a s l e a d t o t h e d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n p o l i t i c a l s c i e n c e

a s t h e c li n ic a l s t u d y o f t h e m a c h i n e r y o f g o v e r n m e n t , a n d p o l i ti c a l

p h i l o s o p h y a s t h e j u s t if i c a ti o n o f t h e f o r m o f g o v e r n m e n t b y w h i c h

h u m a n b e i n g s " o u g h t t o b e g o v e r n e d , " g iv e n a n y n u m b e r o f r a d i

c a ll y d i ff e re n t, p o ss i b le g o v e r n m e n t a l m a c h i n e s .

T h u s w i t h S t o i c i s m a s a j u s t i f i c a t i o n o f d i v i n a t i o n a s a f e a t u r e o f

a p o l it ic a l c o n s t i t u t i o n w e f in d c o s m o l o g y e m p l o y e d a s a m e a n s o f

e x p l a i n i n g h o w p e o p l e o u g h t t o l iv e , n o t s i m p l y a s i n d i v i d u a l s b u t

a s a s o c ie t y . R o m a n m a g i s t r a t e s n e e d e d t h e r e s o u r c e s o f d i v i n a t i o n

i n o r d e r t o p e r c e i v e t h e d i v i n e , r a t i o n a l o r d e r o f t h e w o r l d a n d t o

d e d u c e t h e f u t u r e f r o m i ts p r e s e n t r a t i o n a l o p e r a t i o n s (pronoia). T h e y

n e e d t h i s , n o t s i m p l y s o t h a t t h e y a s i n d i v i d u a l s c a n " l iv e a c c o r d i n g

t o n a t u r e , " b u t so t h a t t h e y c a n a li g n s o c i e t y w i t h n a t u r e ' s i n e x

o r a b l y r a t i o n a l w i l l, a n d s o t h a t s o c ie t y c a n fr e el y a n d r a t i o n a l l y

a c c e p t w h a t is i ts d e s t i n y t o b e a n d t o a c h i e v e .

2 A 3 . Augury and d ivination: Imperial Cult as sacrament

I n t h i s r e s p e c t S t o i c i s m of f er e d a k i n d o f s a c r a m e n t a l t h e o l o g y w h e n

a p p l i e d t o d i v i n a t i o n . B e r g e r a n d L u c k m a n n p o i n t e d t o t h e w a y i n

w h i c h r e l i g i o n o r d e r s s o c i a l r e a l i t y . E x p e r t s a r i s e i n t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n

o f u n iv e r s e s o f so c i a l r ea l i t y , w h o se so c i a l fu n c t io n is t o h a rm o n i s e

m y t h s a n d p r o d u c e a p i c t u r e of t h e n a t u r a l a n d s u p e r n a t u r a l w o r l d

i n t o w h i c h h u m a n s o c ia l r e l a ti o n s , i n c l u d i n g p o l it ic a l a r r a n g e m e n t s ,

14 De Rer. Nat. 6 , 8 4 8 - 9 0 5 .



T H E F O U N D A T I O N S O F T H E I M P E RI A L C U L T 2 5

c a n b e a n c h o r e d . T h u s th e so c ia l o r d e r is b o t h h a r m o n i s e d a n d s ta

b il is ed , a n d i m m u n i s e d a g a i n s t c h a o t i c c h a n g e a n d d i s o r d e r . H u m a n

s o c ie t ie s t h u s a p p e a r t o b e c o m e a s u n c h a n g e a b l e a n d g i v e n a s t h e

n a t u r a l o r s u p e r n a t u r a l o r d e r in a p r o c e s s t h a t is o b v i o u s l y a n i ll u

s i o n . 1 5 W e ca n s ee t h e so c i a l fu n c t io n o f co l l eg es o f au g u rs in s u c h

a l i g h t .1 6

B u t s u c h u n i v e r s e s o f d i s c o u r s e , p r o d u c e d b y s u c h e x p e r t s , d o n o t

c o m e i n t o e x i s t e n c e s u d d e n l y a n d p e r f e c d y , b u t h a v e t h e i r o w n h i s t o r y

o f d e v e l o p m e n t . A c c o r d i n g t o a S t o i c u n i v e r s e o f d i s c o u r s e , d i v i n a t i o n

s o u g h t t o i n c a r n a t e t h e s u p e r n a t u r a l o r d e r i n t o p r e s e n t p o l i t i c a l p l a n s

a n d p r o p o s a l s i n o r d e r t o g i ve t h e m v a l u e a n d e n a b l e t h e m t o r ef le c t

t h e d i v i n e p u r p o s e (pronoia). T h e a u g u r s , w h o r e a d t h e f u tu r e a n d

th e d iv in e wi l l i n su c h ev e n t s a s t h e flig ht o f b i r d s an d th e co u r se

o f t h u n d e r s t o r m s , w e r e a d i s t in c t c o l le g e i n C i c e r o ' s t i m e . T h e harus-

pices, w h o c o n s u l t e d t h e e n t r a i l s o f v i c t i m s , o n l y b e c a m e a c o l l e g e in

th e tim e o f C lau d i u s a n d co n t r ib u t ed fu r th e r t o su ch a p ro j e c t l i cen sed

b y S t o i c i s m .1 7

A t th e c lo se o f t h e d i a lo g u e , i n t h e co u rs e o f t h e first

c e n t u r y b e f o r e C h r i s t , C i c e r o c o n c e d e d g r u d g i n g l y h i s b e l i e f t h a t

B a l b u s ' S t o ic i sm " s e e m e d to b e m o r e a p p r o x i m a t e d t o t h e a p p e a r

a n c e o f t h e t r u t h . "1 8

T h e r e w e r e c l e a rl y a s y e t still p o w e r f u l E p i c u r e a n

a n d A c a d e m i c a l te r n a t i v e s t h a t w o u l d d e n y l e g i t i m a t i o n to s u c h

p o l i ti c o - c u l ti c a c t s a s d i v i n a t i o n , a n d s o d e p r i v e t h e o r d e r o f R o m a n

s o c ie t y o f s u c h a c o m p r e h e n s i v e a n d t o t a li s i n g l e g i t i m a t i o n .

N o r i n d e e d w a s y e t t h e w o r s h i p o f t h e E m p e r o r p a r t o f t h e s a c r a

m e n t a l b o n d w h i c h r e i n f o r c e d a n d r e n e w e d r i g h t r e a s o n ( o p G o q Xoyoq)

a n d l aw (vouxx;), a n d m a d e th e c i t i zen su b jec t t o t h e n eces s i t y o f

t h e r a t i o n a l pronoia o f F a t e . W e s h a ll o b s e r v e a t e n d e n c y , b e g u n b y

A u g u s t u s , t o c o n n e c t th e s a c r a m e n t a l p o l it ic a l a c t s o f d i v i n a t i o n w i t h

t h e E m p e r o r t h r o u g h r e o r g a n i s a t i o n o f t h e c o ll eg e o f a u g u r s a n d

1 5

P . B e r g e r a n d T . L u c k m a n n , The Social Construction of Reality, ( L o n d o n : P e n g u i n

1 9 6 7 ) , p p . 1 3 0 - 1 3 3 f f . , a n d P . B e r g e r , The Social Reality of Religion, ( L o n d o n : P e n g u i n

1 9 7 3 ) , p p . 3 0 - 3 5 ff.1 6

J . B a y e t , Histoire politique et psychologique de la religion romaine, (P a r is : P a y o t 1 9 5 7 ) ,

p p . 5 8 - 5 9 : " L e s h a r u s p i c e s i n t e r p r e t a i e n t d ' a p r e s l ' e t a t d u f l u x s a n g u i n , l a c o u l e u r ,

l a c o n fo r m a t i o n d e t e l l e o u t e l l e p a r t i e d u fo i e (pars familiaris, ' d e c h e z n o u s ' ; pars

hostilis, ' d u d e h o r s ' ; o u n e u t r e ) . L e s exta p o u v a i e n t a i n s i d o n n e r d e s i n d i c a t i o n s s u r

l ' o r dr e , l e d e s o r d r e , l e c h a o s d e l 'u n i v e r s e . M a i s il s p o u v a i e n t , p o u r l ' i m m e d i a t , c o n -

s e il le r o u d e c o n s e i l l e r u n e a c t i o n . "1 7

L i e b e s c h u e t z ( 1 9 7 9 ) , p . 2 2 .18 De Nat. Deor. 3 , 9 5 : " . . . m i h i B a l b i a d v e r i ta t i s s i m i l i t u d i n e m v i d e r e tu r e s s e

p r o p e n s i o r . "




p o n t i f f s o v e r w h i c h h e w a s t o p r e s i d e a s Ponttfex Maximus. Bu t i t was

to t ak e t h r ee an d fo u r cen tu r i e s u n t i l D ec iu s T ra j a n , a n d f in a lly Ju l i a n ,

fo r t h e cu l t t o b e fo cu sed o n a s in g l e s ace rd o ta l ac t i n wh ich a l l c i t

i z e n s m u s t l e g a l l y p a r t i c i p a t e . I t w a s o n l y t h e n t h a t f i n a l l y a n d u n

a m b i g u o u s l y t h is c e n t r a l a c t o f w o r s h i p b o t h s y m b o l i s e d i m p e r i a l

u n i t y a n d e ff ec te d w h a t it s y m b o l i s e d t h r o u g h o u t t h e w o r l d w h i c h

R o m e r u l e d .

B u t i n i ti a l ly m o s t o f t h e i n g r e d i e n t s t h a t w e r e t o d e v e l o p i n t o t h e

l a t e r , fu ll y - fl ed g ed c u l tu s w er e t h e r e . W e ca n s ee r e f l ec t i o n s o f t h e

s a c r a m e n t a l i t y o f t h e a c t s o f h i m w h o e x e r c i s e d t h e ius augurium, a n d

wh a t was b e l i ev ed to b e a t s t ak e i n t h o se ac t s , r e f l ec t ed i n t h e h i s

t o r i o g r a p h y o f t w o w r i t e r s w h o d e s c r i b e d h i s t o r ic a l e v e n t s i n t h e

R e p u b l i c a n d la t e R e p u b l i c a t t h e t i m e of t h e t r a n s i t i o n t o t h e

P r i n c i p a t e o r s h o r d y a f t e r w a r d s .

2 A 4 . Livy and Lucan: Augury as political sacrament

T i t u s L i v iu s ( 59 B . C . - 1 7 A . D . ) , b o r n i n t h e y e a r o f J u l i u s C a e s a r ' sf i r s t c o n s u l s h i p , c o m m e n c e d w r i t i n g h i s h i s t o r y i n 2 7 B . C . , f i v e y e a r s

a f t e r O c t a v i a n ' s v i c t o r y a t A c t i u m ( 3 1 B . C . ) . I n Ab Urbe Condita 4 , 2 0 , 7

h e r e c o r d s a c o n v e r s a t i o n w i t h A u g u s t u s in w h i c h t h e l a t t e r h a d

r e c a l l e d a n i n s c r i p t i o n o n a l i n e n b r e a s t p l a t e t h a t h e h a d r e a d i n

t h e t e m p l e o f J u p i t e r F e r e t r i u s . H e r e " A u g u s t u s C a e s a r " is d e s c r i b e d

a s " t h e f o u n d e r o r r e s t o r e r o f a ll t h e t e m p l e s (templorum omnium con-

ditorem aut restitutorem )"19

L i v y , li ke L u c a n , a p p e a r s t o h a v e h a d r e p u b l i c a n s y m p a t h i e s t h a t

w e r e s h o w n i n t h e w a y i n w h i c h h e d e s c r i b e s a l m o s t l o v i n g l y t h e

o l d r e p u b l i c a n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l f o r m s . N o d o u b t h e b e l i e v e d i n A u g u s t u s '

i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f h i s a c t s , n o t a s r e v o l u t i o n a r y , b u t a s res publicae resti-

tutae. T h u s L iv y w a s n e v e r p a r t y t o a n y p o l it ic a l m o v e m e n t t o r e s t o r e

th o se fo rm s . I t m ay b e t h a t h e was s a t i s f i ed b y th e way in wh ich

A u g u s t u s n o t o r i o u s l y c l o a k e d h i s m i l i t a r y a u t o c r a c y b y u s i n g s u c hr e p u b l i c a n t i d e s a s princeps (senatus), o r h is p r e r o g a t i v e s i n t e r m s o f

t h e r e p u b l i c a n imperium proconsular, o r tribunicia potestas. B u t o n e w o n

d e r s w h e t h e r a m a n o f h is i n t e ll i g e n c e c o u l d e v e r h a v e b e e n p e r

s u a d e d b y t h e k i n d o f p o l i t i c a l s t r a t e g i s t w h o a s s u r e s u s t h a t h e h a s

a b o l i s h e d n e i t h e r t h e o ffic e o f M o n a r c h , P r i m e M i n i s t e r , n o r L e a d e r

o f t h e O p p o s i t i o n , s in ce h e ca r r i e s a ll t h re e of fices i n h i s o n e p e r so n .

1 9

L i v y 4 , 2 0 , 7 .



T H E F O U N D A T I O N S O F T H E I M P ER I A L C U L T 2 7

T h e r e m u s t , o n e fe els , h a v e b e e n s o m e t h i n g m o r e , w h i c h c o n

v i n c e d h i m t h a t t h e p a s t a g e , b y s o m e f at ef ul n e c e s s i t y , h a d g o n e

f o r e v e r . T h a t c o n v i c t i o n I a m g o i n g t o s u g g e s t w a s a r e l i g io u s c o n

v i c t i o n a b o u t t h e n e e d f o r t h e pax deorum i n a so c i e ty wh ich h ad lo s t

it. T h e e m p e r o r A u g u s t u s , a s Pontifex Maximus, c o n t r o l l i n g t h e ius

augurium, a l o n e c o u l d r e s t o r e t h a t p e a c e a n d s ta b i l it y . I t w a s i n d e e d

a f a t e f u l n e c e s s i t y t h a t L i v y , t h o u g h n o t L u c a n , m i g h t h a v e c o n s i d

e r e d t o h a v e e x i s t e d n o t i n r e a l i t y b u t o n l y i n t h e m i n d s o f t h e

su p e r s t i t i o u s m a sse s . B u t i t w as a so c i a l r ea l i t y t h a t L iv y fo u n d i r r e

s is ti ble a n d u n a b l e t o b e c o u n t e r e d .

A s i m i l a r t h e m e w e sh a l l t r a c e a l so i n t h e c a s e o f M a r c u s A n n a e u s

L u c a n u s ( 3 9 - 6 5 A . D . ) , w h o w a s i n v o l v e d i n f a il ed c o n s p i r a c y t o t a k e

N e r o ' s l i f e ,2 0

i n c o n s e q u e n c e o f w h i c h h e c o m m i t t e d s ui c id e a l o n g

w i t h h i s c o - c o n s p i r a t o r s , h i s u n c l e s S e n e c a a n d G a l l i o . W e s h a ll s e e

i n h i s c a s e p a r t i c u l a r S t o i c d o c t r i n e s u n d e r p i n n i n g h i s b e l ie f i n t h e

n e e d f o r a c u l t o f a u g u r y t o s e c u r e t h e pax deorum w h i c h w a s a l s o

l i n k e d w i t h a s i n g l e dominus. L u c a n h i m s e l f h a d b e e n a p p o i n t e d

b o t h quaestor a n d augur. S i n c e L u c a n c o n s p i r e d t o r e p l a c e N e r o w i t h

a n o t h e r princeps, h i s a i m w a s n o t t o r e s t o r e t h e r e p u b l i c . I n h i s c a s e

t o o , t h e r e f o r e , w e w it n e ss t h e p h e n o m e n o n o f s o m e o n e h o s ti le t o a n

e m p e r o r , a n d i n d e e d h o st il e t o t h e m e m o r y o f J u l i u s C a e s a r , n e v e r

t h e le s s a c c e p t i n g t h e e n d o f r e p u b l i c a n g o v e r n m e n t as s u c h . H e r e

t o o w e s h a l l a r g u e t h a t t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t , a s t h e m e a n s o f a c h i e v

i n g t h e pax deorum, w a s c r i t i c a l i n L u c a n ' s h i s t o r i o g r a p h y , a n d w a s

s e e n a s a re a l i t y r e f l e c t e d i n t h e n a t u r a l o r d e r o f t h i n g s a n d n o t s i m

p l y a s a p u r e l y s o c i a l p r o d u c t .

W e s h a ll s e e h o w e v e r t h a t b o t h w o r k s a r e p r o b l e m a t i c i n v i e w o f

t h e f a c t t h a t w e c a n n o t b e s u r e h o w t h e y e n d e d . T h e t e n t h b o o k

o f L u c a n ' s Pharsalia was l e f t u n f in i sh ed , an d th e c lo s in g b o o k s (4 6 -1 4 2 )

o f L iv y ' s Ab Urbe Condita h a v e a ls o b e e n l o st , t h o u g h w e d o h a v e

f r a g m e n t s t h a t s u r v i v e . B o o k 4 5 e n d s a b r u p t l y i n 1 6 7 B . C . T h e

r e m a i n i n g lo st b o o k s , u s e d b y D i o C a s s i u s as h is p r i n c i p l e s o u r c e ,

c o n t i n u e d u n t i l t h e P r i n c i p a t e o f A u g u s t u s a n d th e d e a t h o f D r u s u s

i n 9 B . C . W e w i ll n e e d t h e r e f o r e t o t r y t o r e c o n s t r u c t h o w L i v y

w o u l d h a v e c o m p l e t e d h i s b a s i c t h e m e s f r o m t h e w a y i n w h i c h h e

b e g a n t h e m .

W e s h a ll b e g i n w i t h t w o p a s s a g e s w h i c h e x e m p l i f y f ro m t h e e a r l i e r

M a r t i a l , Epigr. 7 , 2 1 a n d 2 3 ; S ta t i u s Silvae V I I , 3 1 - 3 2 .




b o o k s o f L i v y h o w i n f ac t h e w o u l d h a v e r e g a r d e d A u g u s t u s in t h e

l a t e r b o o k s h a d t h e y s u r v i v e d . W e s h a ll t h e n e x a m i n e t h e s pe c if ic

r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n a u g u r y a n d t h e pax deorum a n d t h e p e r c e i v e d

p o p u l a r w e i g h t t h a t t h is h a d i n t h e la t e R e p u b l i c , a s e x e m p l i f i e d i n

L i v y , s u p p o r t e d a s w e s h a ll s e e b y S u e t o n i u s a n d C a s s i u s D i o .

2 A 4 . 1 . Livy, augury and the p a x d e o r u m

O n s e v e r a l o c c a s i o n s L i v y m a k e s it c l e a r t h a t a m a g i s t r a t e is r e s p o n

s i b l e t h r o u g h t h e c u l t u s f o r o b t a i n i n g t h e pax deorum. T h e pax r e q u i r e d

m i g h t b e u p o n m a n - m a d e d i s a s te r s s u c h a s w a r o r c iv il w a r , b u t it

m i g h t a l so b e u p o n t h e d e s t r u c t i v e c h a o s o f n a t u r e itself. I n 4 6 4 - 4 6 3

B . C . L i v y r e c o r d e d t h e r a v a g e s o f d i s e a s e i n R o m e t h a t f o ll o w e d

d e f e a t in b a t t l e a t t h e h a n d s o f t h e A e q u i a n d o t h e r l os se s ( 3 ,7 , 6 ).

T h e d i s e a s e a l s o w a s a c a s e o f d i v i n e d i s p l e a s u r e , o f t h e deum ira 21

T h e S e n a t e o r d e r s i n d i v i d u a l p r a y e r s ( 3 ,7 ,7 ) . T h e w a y i n w h i c h t h e

d i s eas e p as ses is d e sc r ib ed a s fo l lo ws :

. . . l i tde by l i t tle, ei the r bec aus e th e p ea ce of the g ods h ad be en ob tained by request (pace deum impetrata) or because the more difficult

t ime of yea r had passed, bodies dea de ne d by diseases beg an to recover

the i r hea l th .2 2

I t is a t first s i g h t cu r io u s t h a t L iv y is s cep t i ca l ab o u t t h e o b t a in in g

t h e pax deum impetrata b y i n d i v i d u a l p r i v a t e p r a y e r , i n p l a c e o f t h e

deum ira m a r k e d b y t h e p l a g u e . L i v y i n t r o d u c e s h e r e a s m a l l n o t e o f

s c e p t i c i s m s in c e h e a d m i t s a p u r e l y n a t u r a l a l t e r n a t i v e . B u t L i v y ' sp e r s o n a l s c e p t i c i s m o n th i s a n d o t h e r o c c a s i o n s s h o u l d n o t b l i n d u s

t o t h e f a c t t h a t h e d e s c r i b e s t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e f o r t h e g e n e r a l p o p u

l a t i o n o f w h a t h e p e r s o n a l l y finds s u p e r s t i t i o u s .2 3

G e n e r a l l y , h o w e v e r , t h e pax deorum is o b t a i n e d t h r o u g h t h e s p ec if ic

in s t ru m en t o f o ff ic ia l cu l t b y m e a n s o f a pontifex e x e r c i s i n g t h e iu s

2 1

3 , 6 , 5 : ". . . u r b e m R o m a m s u b i ta d e u m i ra m o r b o p o p u l a r i . "2 2

3 , 8 , 1 : " i n d e p a u l a t i m s e u p a c e d e u m i m p e t r a t a s e u g r a v i o r e t e m p o r e a n n i i a m

c i r c u m a c t o d e f u n c t a m o r b i s c o r p o r a s a l u b r i o r a e s s e i n c i p e r e . "2 3

1 , 3 1 , 6 - 8 : T u l l u s " w h o p r e v i o u s l y h a d t h o u g h t i t l e s s f o r k i n g s t o d e v o t e t h e i r

m i n d s to s a c r e d r i t e s (sacris dedere animum), s u d d e n l y b e c a m e s u b j e c t t o a l l k i n d s o f

g r e a t a n d d e p r a v e d s u p e r s t i t i o n s (magnis parvisque superstitionibus), and f i l l ed the p o p

u l a c e w i t h r e l i g i o u s s c r u p l e s (religionibus)." A t t h e e n d o f t h e P u n i c W a r , i n 2 0 4 B . C .

w e r e a d , 2 9 , 1 4 , 2 : " t h e s i t u a t i o n h a d f il le d m i n d s w i t h s u p e r s t i t i o u s f e a r s (supersti-

tionum), a n d t h e y w e r e i n c l i n e d t o b e l i e v e p o r t e n t s (ad credenda prodigia)." Cf. also 1

p r . 7 . F o r a d i s c u s s i o n o f L i v y ' a a p p r o a c h t o r e l i g i o n a n d f o r b i b l i o g r a p h y , s e e P . G .W a l s h , Livy: His Historical Aims and Method s, 2 n d E d . (B r i s to l : C l a s s i c a l P r e s s 1 9 8 9 ) ,

c h a p t . 3 .




augurium. T h e pax deorum is n o r m a l l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h o ff ic ia l a u g u r y

a n d n o t p r i v a t e p r a y e r .2 4

I n 2 0 8 B . C . , i n t h e c o u r s e o f t h e e l e v e n t h

y e a r o f t h e F ir s t P u n i c W a r , t h e c o n s u l s w e r e p r e o c c u p i e d w i t h " a

n u m b e r o f r e p o r t e d p o r t e n ts (prodigiis aliquot nuntiatisf f o r w h i c h " t h e y

d i d n o t s u c c e e d i n a n y s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d e x p i a t i o n (non facile litabant)."

(2 7 ,2 3 ,1 )

T h e T e m p l e s o f F o r t u n a a n d M a r s a t C a p u a h a d , a l o n g w i th

m a n y t o m b s , b e e n s tr u c k b y l i g h te n i n g , a n d m i c e h a d g n a w e d t h e

g o l d i n J u p i t e r ' s t e m p l e a t C u m a e . A s w a r m o f b e e s h a d s e tt le d a t

C a s i n u m ' s f o r u m , a t C a e r e a v u l t u r e h a d f low n i n t o t h e t e m p l e o f

J u p i t e r , a n d V o l s i n i i' s l a k e w a s s t a i n e d w i t h b l o o d ( 2 7 , 2 3 , 2 - 4 ) . E a c h

o f s u c h o m e n s w e r e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f t h e n a t u r a l s i g n s i n t e r m s o f

w h i c h a u g u r s r e a d t h e f u t u r e . Y e t i t w a s c l e a r l y t h e d u t y o f t h e c o n

su ls t o o b t a in i n t h e f ace o f t h e se o m e n s t h e pax deorum m a r k e d b y

t h e i r r e v e r s a l :

On account of these prodigies (horum prodigiorum causa) for one whole

d ay (diem unum) suppl icat ion was made (supplicatio juit). For several days(per dies aliquot) full-grown victims were slaughtered but without suc

cessful expiation (hostiae maiores sine litatione caesae), with the invited peace

of the gods asked for so long but not secured (diuque non impetrata pax

deum). On the heads of the consuls (in capita consulum) terrible conse

que nces revolved even thoug h the republ ic it self was un ha rm ed (re pub

lico incolumi exitiabilis prodigiorum eventus vertit).

27 ,23 ,4

I t w as t h u s o f p o l i t i ca l a s we l l a s o f cu l t i c im p o r t a n c e t h a t t h e v is

ib le pax deorum w a s s e c u r e d in r e s p o n s e t o w h a t a u g u r y h a d first

e s t a b l i s h e d . T h e c o n s u l s w e r e c l e a r l y a s r e s p o n s i b l e in 2 0 8 B . C . f or

o b t a i n i n g t h e pax deorum a s S u l p i c i u s S e v e r u s , t h e m i l i t a r y t r i b u n e

h a d b e e n in 3 8 9 B . C . w h e n th e F a b i i w e r e m a s s a c r e d a t C r e m a r a

a n d th e r o u t a t A l i a o c c u r r e d . R o m e w a s d e s t r o y e d b e c a u s e " o n t h e

d a y a f t e r t h e I d e s o f J u l y (postridie Idus Quintiles) h e h a d n o t m a d e

a n a c c e p t a b l e s a c r i f i c e (non litasset)" a n d t w o d a y s l a t e r h a d e x p o s e d

t h e a r m y t o t h e e n e m y " w i t h o u t s e c u r i n g t h e p e a c e o f t h e g o d s (neque

inventa pace deum)." (6 ,1 ,12)

I t is im p o r t a n t , i n v i ew o f t h e l a t e r s ig n i f i can ce o f a u g u ry fo r t h e

I m p e r i a l C u l t , t o p o i n t o u t t h a t a u g u r y per se w a s n o t a c c e p t e d b u t

o n l y t h a t w h i c h c o n f o r m e d t o R o m a n t r a d i t i o n . I n 4 3 0 B . C . , i n

2 4

W a r d e F o w l e r ( 1 9 1 1 ) , pp . 3 0 0 - 3 0 1 ff.; B a y e t ( 1 9 5 7 ) , pp. 5 9 - 6 0 ; L i e b e s c h u e t z

( 1 9 7 9 ) , pp. 5 6 - 6 5 .




r e s p o n s e t o a p l a g u e t h a t h a d b r o k e n o u t i n s u c c e s s i o n t o a d r o u g h t ,

s t r a n g e s a cr if ic i al r it e s w e r e i n t r o d u c e d i n t o h o m e s i n o r d e r t o s e c u r e

t h e pax deorum. T h e r e w a s s e e n " i n e v e r y s t r e e t a n d s h r i n e (in omnibus

vicis sacellisque) f o r ei g n a n d u n c u s t o m a r y r it e s o f p r o p i t i a t i o n (peregrina

atque insolita piacula) f o r s e e k i n g t h e p e a c e o f t h e g o d s (pacis deum

exposcendae)." ( 4 , 3 0 , 1 0 ) A c c o r d i n g l y t h e aediles w e r e to s ee " t h a t n o n e

b u t R o m a n g o d s (non nisi Romani di) s h o u l d b e w o r s h i p p e d , n o r i n

a n y o t h e r w a y t h a n t h e a n c e s t r a l (neu quo alio more quam patrio cole-

rentur)." (4 ,3 0 ,1 1 )

W e find f u r t h e r m o r e t hi s p r i n c i p l e a g a i n e m p h a s i s e d in t h e c o u r s e

o f t h e w a r a g a i n s t H a n n i b a l ( 2 1 3 B . C . ) . H e r e i t w a s n o t s i m p l y a

case o f sacr i f ices mo re patrio per se b u t i n d e e d a c a s e o f p r o p h e c y a n d

r i t u a l s u c h a s m i g h t b e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a u g u r y . T h e r e w a s a " c r o w d

o f w o m e n w h o w e r e f ai li n g t o f o ll ow t h e c u s t o m s o f t h e f a t h e r s i n

the i r sacr i f ices (nec sacrificantum. . . deos patrio more)." (2 5 ,1 ,7 ) I t was

p r o p h e t s (vates) as we l l a s p e t ty p r i e s t s (sacrificuli) w h o w e r e i n v o l v e d

(2 5 ,1 ,8 ) , so t h a t t h e augur's a r t w a s c l e a r l y i n v i e w . T h e r e l i g i o u s

m o v e m e n t w a s p u t d o w n v i o le n d y b y t h e p r a e t o r M a r c u s A e m i l i us

( 2 5 , 1 , 1 1 ) . H i s e d i c t s t a t e d :

. . . wh oev er has pro phe t ic books or p raye rs (quicunque libros vaticinos pre-

cationesve) or a written ritual for sacrifice (aut artem sacrificandi conscriptam

haberet), he should bring all those books and let ters to him (eos libros

omnis litterasque ad se) befo re 1st A pril (ante kal Apriles defend), in o rder

that no one in a public or sacred place (neu quis in publico sacrove loco)

should sacrifice by means of a new or foreign rite (novo aut externo ritusacrificaret).

25,1 ,12

C l e a r l y t h e r e f o r e t h e d i v i n a t i o n o f t h e f u t u r e (vates), a n d t h e r i t u a l

i n t e n d e d t o s e c u r e t h e pax deorum a g a i n s t p r o p h e c i e s o f t h e i r ira, w e r e

b o t h u n d e r t h e p o l it i c a l c o n t r o l o f t h e m a g i s t r a t e s , w h o a ls o w e r e

t o m a i n t a i n s tr ic tl y t h e i r t r a d i t i o n a l R o m a n c h a r a c t e r .

T h u s L i v y d e s c r i b e s , a l b e i t w i t h s c e p t i c a l r e f e r e n c e s t o t h e g r o u n d s

fo r b e l i ev in g th e superstitio, t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t h e c u l t a i m e d

a t a v e r t i n g t h e ira a n d p r o d u c i n g t h e pax deorum impetrata, a n d t h e

p o l i t i c a l r e s p o n s i b i l i ty o f m a g i s t r a t e s .2 5

T h i s r e s p o n s i b i l i t y i s m o r e -

2 3

A d m i t t e d l y h e r e s e r v e s T a c i t u s ' d e s c r i p t i o n o f e a r l y C h r i s t i a n i t y a s prava religio

f o r t h e B a c c h a l i a n c u l t t h a t p r o d u c e d t h e r i o t ( 2 9 , 1 6 , 6 ) f r o m w h i c h t h e s t a t e r e l i g i o n h a d d e l i v e r e d t h e m a s s e s ( 2 9 , 1 6 , 7 ) . B u t i n 1 , 3 1 , 8 t h e t r a d i t i o n (tradunt) is

r e c o r d e d t h a t t h e " s a c r i f i c e w a s b e g u n a n d c o n d u c t e d i m p r o p e r l y (non rite initum aut



T H E F O U N D A T I O N S O F T H E I M P ER I A L C U L T 31

over specif ical ly pont i f ical in that i t extends to the minut iae of sacri f ices

t h a t m u s t b e p e r f o r m e d more patrio. A s t h e e x a m p l e o f A e m i l iu s s h o w s ,

s u c h s a c r i f i c i a l p r a c t i c e s i m p l i e d t h e k n o w l e d g e a n d e v e n c o n t r o l o f

t h e f u t u r e . I t e x t e n d s m o r e o v e r f r o m t h e p o l i t i c a l t o t h e n a t u r a l o r d e r

i n t h a t t h e p o p u l a r m i n d a s s o c i a t e d n a t u r a l d is a s t e rs w i t h p o l i ti c a l

e v e n t s , d e s p i t e L i v y 's p e r s o n a l s c e p t i c i s m . T h u s fa r w e c a n l e a r n

f r o m t h e full p o r t i o n o f L i v y ' s w o r k t h a t s u r v i v e s d o w n t o 1 67 B . C .

w h e re it b r ea k s off.

B u t c a n w e g l e a n a n y f u r t h e r i n f o r m a t i o n r e l e v a n t f o r o u r i n q u i r y

f ro m th e f r ag m en t s o f t h e r e m a i n d e r o f h i s w o r k th a t h a s n o t su rv iv ed ?

L u c a n , a s w e s h a ll s h o r d y s e e , d e s p i t e L i v y ' s p e r s o n a l s c e p t i c i s m ,

a g r e e s w i t h h i m t h a t p r o d i g i e s a n d o t h e r s ig n s o f t h e ira deorum

i n c r e a s e d d r a m a t i c a l l y d u r i n g t h e c o u r s e o f t h e civ il w a r f r o m t h e

d e a t h o f C a e s a r o n w a r d s . F o r L u c a n t h e e x i s t in g c u l t w a s g e n e r a l l y

r e g a r d e d a s b e i n g u n a b l e , w i t h o u t r e f o r m a t i o n , t o a c h i e v e t h e pax

deorum. Did L iv y ' s o r ig in a l t ex t t h e re fo re co n ta in ev id en ce t h a t Au g u s tu s ,

a s Pontifex Maximus a n d s u p e r i n t e n d e n t o f t h e c u lt o f a u g u r y , w a s

p o p u l a r l y s e e n t o b r i n g t h e s o l u t i o n t o t h e s p e c i f i c a l l y r e l i g i o u s p r o b

l e m o f a c h i e v i n g t h e pax deorum, i n a s o c i e t y o t h e r w i s e u n s t a b l e a n d

i n a s t a te o f i n e v i ta b l e c o ll ap s e ? T h e A u g u s t a n p r o p a g a n d a m a c h i n e

d e v e l o p e d a n d f o s te r e d t h a t p o p u l a r f e el in g i n o r d e r to p r o v i d e p o l i t

i c al l e g i t i m a t i o n f or t h e P r i n c i p a t e .

O f t h e e x i s t in g s u r v i v i n g n a r r a t i v e o f L i v y , b o o k s 1 1 - 2 0 a r e a l s o

l o st , a s w e l l a s t h e e n d i n g f r o m 1 6 7 B . C . o n w a r d s , f r o m b o o k s

4 6 - 1 4 2 . W e p o ss e ss v a r i o u s O x y r h y n c h u s f ra g m e n t s a l o n e w i t h s u m

m a r i e s f r o m o t h e r s o u r c e s o f B o o k s 3 7 - 1 4 2 . T h e s e th e r e f o r e o v e r

l a p w h a t s u r vi v e s ( 3 7 - 4 5 ) a n d w h a t is l os t ( 4 6 - 1 4 2 ) , a n d w h i c h e n d

i n 9 B . C . W e a ls o h a v e th e w o r k k n o w n u n d e r t h e n a m e o f Julius

Obsequens, w h i c h is a b o o k o f p r o d i g i e s a t R o m e t h a t b e g i n s 1 9 0

B . C . a n d e n d s i n 1 1 B . C .

W e w il l t h e r e f o r e a s k t h e s p e c u l a t i v e q u e s t i o n a s t o h o w in g e n

e r a l t e r m s L i v y w o u l d h a v e e n d e d h is h i s t o r y i n 1 1 B . C . a n d w i t h

w h a t c u l ti c c o n c o m i t a n t s h e w o u l d h a v e d e s c r i b e d t h e p e a c e o f

A u g u s t u s f r o m A c t i u m i n 3 1 B . C . o n w a r d s . W e c a n l o o k f irsdy a t

h o w A u g u s t u s is d e s c r i b e d i n t h e f ew r e f e r e n c e s i n B o o k s 1 a n d 4 ,

curatum id sacrificium) w i th th e r e s u l t th a t , b e c a u s e o f h i s " fa u l ty c o n d u c t o f th e r i t e "

(prava religione), J u p i t e r s t r u c k h i m w i t h a t h u n d e r b o l t . H e r e q u i t e c l e a r l y prava reli

gio r e fe r s t o i m p r o p e r as o p p o s e d t o q u i t e p r o p e r c e r e m o n i a l a c t i v i ty a n d n o t t o

b a r e r e l i g i o u s b e l i e f .




a n d h o w o n t h e b a s i s o f t h i s L i v y c o u l d h a v e d e s c r i b e d h i m i n h i s

final B o o k 1 4 2 . W e c a n t r y t o g a u g e t h e c u l t i c c o n c o m i t a n t s t o

O c t a v i a n ' s v i c t o r y f r o m t h o s e a c c o m p a n y i n g o t h e r v i c t o ri e s a n d

d e f e a t s t h r o u g h o u t L i v y ' s h i s t o r y . Julius Obsequens w i l l h e l p u s h e r e ,

s i n c e o n e o f h i s s o u r c e s w a s L i v y ' s l a t e r b o o k s t h a t h a v e n o t s u r

v i v e d . W e a r e a b l e f r o m t h i s w o r k t o v i e w t h e k i n d s o f p r o d i g i e s

r e c o r d e d f r om 1 67 B . C . o n w a r d s , i n c o m p a r i s o n w i t h w h a t p r e c e d e d .

W e sh a l l first s ee h o w L iv y p re f ig u r es Au g u s tu s m y s t e r io u s ly i n

h i s ea r ly ch a p t e r s , a n d h o w h e a s so c i a t e s h i s figu re w i th t h e augur's

office.

2 A 4 . 2 . Augustus' Early prefiguration: 8,6,9 and 5,23,4-11

I n 3 4 0 B . C . T o r q u a t u s t h e c o n s u l p e r s u a d e d t h e s e n a t e t o w a r w i t h

t h e L a t in s a ft er t h e d e a t h o f A n n i u s w h o h a d s p u r n e d R o m a n J u p i t e r .

In the f ie ld o f ba t t l e :

There in the st i l lness of the night both consuls are said to have been

visited by the same apparit ion (visa species) of a man of greater than

h u m an s t a tu re (viri maioris quam pro hum ano habitu) an d m o re au g u s t

(augustiorisque) w ho dec la red tha t the co m m an de r o f one side an d the

army of the other must be offered to the Manes an d M o th e r E a r th

(Deis M anibus M atrique Terrae deberi).

8 ,6 ,9 -1 0

T h e a d v i c e g i v e n b y t h i s vir augustior w a s c l e a r l y c u l ti c a n d a u g u r a l .

T h e y r e s p o n d e d w i t h t h e d e c i s i o n t h a t " v i c t i m s m u s t b e s l a i n t o

a v e r t th e w r a t h o f h e a v e n (averruncandae deum irae victimas caedi)" T h e

" e n t r a il s c o r r e s p o n d e d t o w h a t h a d b e e n s e e n i n t h e d r e a m (extis

eadem quae in somnio visa fuerant portenderentur)." ( 8 , 6 ,1 1 ) T h e p r e v i s i o n

o f A u g u s t u s a s s o c i a t e s h i m t h e r e f o r e w i t h t h e c u l t o f a u g u r y .

W e m a y n o t e s e v e r a l o t h e r s u c h p a s s a g e s t h a t p r e f i g u r e A u g u s t u s

i n t h e e a r l y c h a p t e r s o f L i v y . H e r c u l e s is d e s c r i b e d a s formamque viri

aliquantum amp liorem augustioremqu e hum ana. T o t h e g o d t h a t b e a r s t h i s

h u m a n f o r m is m a d e t h e p r o m i s e t h a t h e s h o u l d h a v e t h e aram max-

imam d e d i c a t e d b y t h e " g r e a t e s t n a t i o n o n e a r t h . " ( 1 , 7 , 9 )2 6

L i v y w o u l d

2 6

S e e a l s o L i v y praef. 7 ; 5 , 4 1 , 8 ; 8 , 9 , 1 0 . T h e r e f e r e n c e t o A u g u s t u s is d e n i e d b o t h

i n t h e s e p a s s a g e s a n d t h o s e c i t e d i n m y t e x t b y W a l s h ( 1 9 8 9 ) , p p . 1 5 - 1 6 s u p p o r t

i n g H . E r k e l l , Augustus, Felicitas Fortuna, ( G o t e b o r g 1 9 5 2 ) , p . 1 9 , b u t s e e L . R o s s

T a y l o r , T h e D i v i n i t y o f t h e R o m a n E m p e r o r , i n American Philological Association,Philological Monographs, 1 ( C o n n e c t i c u t 1 9 3 1 ) , p p . 1 6 4 - 1 6 5 w h o p o i n t s o u t th a t i n

L i v y 1,7 H e r c u l e s a n d R o m u l u s in a t t a i n i n g D i v i n i t y a r e p r o t o t y p e s o f A u g u s t u s




h a v e s e e n t h e f u lf il m e n t o f t h i s p r e f i g u r e m e n t i n t h e d e d i c a t i o n o f

t h e Ara Pacis t o A u g u s t u s (Augustae) o n h is r e t u r n f r o m S p a i n a n d

G a u l i n 9 B . C . , w h i c h w a s t h e v e r y d a t e o n w h i c h A u g u s t u s c o n

d u c t e d h i s o w n lustrum o f t h e c i ty . T h u s w e c a n s e e t h e d i a l o g u e

b e t w e e n L iv y a n d t h e Ara c o n c e p t u a l l y i n t e g r a t e d w i t h h i s p e r c e p

t io n s a n d i d e a l i z a t i o n s of A u g u s t u s a n d h i s d i v i n e p u r p o s e . I t s h o u l d

b e f u r t h e r p o i n t e d o u t t h a t L iv y is q u i t e f o n d o f d i s c r e t e a l l u s i o n s

t o A u g u s t u s ' l a t e r c u l t. F o r e x a m p l e , h e c it e s t h e c a s e o f t h e i r r e v

e r e n c e o f M a r c u s F u r i u s C a m i l l u s , w h o s u b d u e d t h e V e i i i n 3 9 6

B . C . , a n d d e s c r i b e s h i m a s maximus imperator omnium. At h i s adventus

t h e c r o w d s t h r o n g e d i n u n u s u a l n u m b e r s , t h o u g h n o t q u i t e w i t h t h e

cuncta ex Italia ad comitia mea confluente multitudine t h a t m e t t o e l e c t

A u g u s t u s a s Pontifex Maximus in Res Gestae c. 10 .

F u r t h e r m o r e F u r i u s r o d e in t o t h e c it y o n a c h a r i o t d r a w n b y w h i t e

h o r s es i n i m p e r s o n a t i o n o f J u p i t e r a n d t h e S u n G o d ( A p o ll o; 5 , 2 3 , 4 - 1 1 ) .

T h e l a t t e r , a s w e s h a ll l a t e r s e e , w a s t h e d r e s s o f O c t a v i a n w h e n h e

c o m m e m o r a t e d A c t i u m i n 2 8 B . C . T h u s t hi s w a s t h e f o r m o f d r e s s

t h a t a M a r c u s F u r i u s C a m i l l u s c o u l d o n l y h a v e w o r n w i t h i r r e v e r

e n c e , b u t w h i c h t h e A u g u s t u s of s u p e r h u m a n p r o p o r t i o n s (visa species

viri maioris quam pro humano habitu augustiorisque) c o u l d n o w w e a r a s

b e f i t t i n g h i s s t a t u s n e a r i n g d i v i n i t y ( 8 , 6 , 1 2 ) .2 7

2 A 4 . 2 . 1 . Aug ustus: 1,19,1-3, 28,2,2 and the lost ending

W e c a n s e e m o r e o v e r a c l e a r p a r a l l e l b e t w e e n t h e l e g e n d a r y r o le o f

N u m a a n d t h e h i s to r i c a l r o l e o f A u g u s t u s , i n r e l a t i o n t o a u g u r y a n dt h e pax deorum.

N u m a i s p r o p o s e d a s k i n g ( 7 1 6 B . C . ) . H e i n si st s t h a t t h e g o d s b e

co n su l t ed a s fo l l o ws :

Be in g su m m o n ed , h e co m m an d ed th a t j u s t as Ro m u lu s h ad o b ey ed

the augural omens in founding his ci ty (augurato urbe condenda) and assum

ing regal power (regnum adeptus est), so too in his own case the gods

should be consul ted . Accordingly an augur, who thereafter , as a mark

j u s t a s i n H o r a c e Odes 111 ,14 ,1 ; I V , 5 , 3 5 ; Ep. 1 1 , 1 , 5 . B o th a r e c a l l e d augustus, a n d

" i n s e v e r a l p a s s a g e s i n th e e a r l y b o o k s L i v y u s e s th e w o r d augustus i n c o n tr a s t t o

humanus i n w h a t w o u l d s e e m t o b e a c o n s c i o u s e f f o r t t o c a l l t o m i n d t h e e m p e r o r ' s

p o s i t i o n . " S e e a l s o L . R o s s T a y l o r , L iv y a n d t h e N a m e A u g u s t u s , i n ClassRev 3 2

( 1 9 1 8 ) , p p . 1 5 8 - 1 6 1 .2 7

B . O . F o s t e r i n t h e L o e b e d i t i o n r e m a r k s t h a t h e w a s p r o b a b l y m i s t a k e n a b o u t

p o p u l a r r e s e n t m e n t s i n c e t h e s u g g e s t i o n o f J u p i t e r i n d r e s s a n d c h a r i o t w a s c u s

t o m a r y . B u t th i s m i s s e s th e p o i n t t h a t L i v y is m a k i n g r e g a r d i n g A u g u s t u s a n d h i s

s u c c e s s o r s b y p r e t e n d i n g t h a t F u r i u s ' b e h a v i o u r w a s s o u n u s u a l .



34 C H A P T E R TWO

of honour, was made a priest of state in permanent charge of that

function (publicum id perpetuumque sacerdotiumJiiit), conducted him to the

citadel. . .

1,18,6

T h e augur took his lituus, the crooked staff, marking out the right

and left sides of the hea vens , and po in te d to wh ere the gods should

send signs, which accordingly they did (1,18, 7-10). Livy therefore

co nne ct ed special acts of au gu ry with N um a ' s second foundin g of

R o me after Romu lus. Thi s fact on its own might not appea r significant,

but Livy then immediately associates the event with Augustus' estab

lish ment of the pr inc ipa te:

When he was thus empowered with kingship (qui regno ita potitus), he

prepared to found the new city afresh (urbem novam . . . de integro condere

parat), that had been founded on force and armed might (conditam vi

et armis), upon law, and statutes, and morals (iure earn legibusque ac moribus)

. . . He thought it necessary that his warlike people should be softened

by the disuse of arms, and built the temple of Jan us at the bot tom of

the Argilentum, as an index of peace and war . . . Twice since Numa 'sreign it has been closed: once in the consulship of Titus Manlius, after

the conclusion of the First Punic War; the second time, which the

gods permitted our own generation to witness, was after the battle of

Actium, when the emperor Caesar Augustus had brought about peace

on land and sea . . .

1,19,1-3

T h u s the re is a parallelism bet wee n Nu m a an d Augus tus, wh o also

sought to replace power based vi et armis with an authority that was

founded iure earn legibusque ac moribus. Furthermore, the inaugurat ion

of peace was associated with the Te mpl e of J a nu s . Wo ul d not Livy's

lost ending have exploited further this parallel?

Augustus himself gives direct confirmation that this is the case in

the Res Gestae. He records that on his return from his successes in

Spain and Gaul:

The altar of the peace of Augustus (aram PacisAugustae/pcou.6v Eipf|VT|<;

lepaoTfjq) the Senate, in thanks for my return (pro reditu meo/bnzp xr\c,

E \ I T \ < ; inavobov) ordered to be consecrated in the Campus Martius, in

which it ordered that magistrates and priests and Vestal Virgins should

make an annual sacrifice.

The temple of Ja nu s on the Quirinal, which our ancestors wished

to remain shut, when peace (pax) had been secured by victories through

out the whole Roman empire, by land and by sea, had been remembered to have been closed only twice from the foundation of the city




(a condita urbe) before I was born, this the Senate decreed should be

closed three t imes while I was princeps.

Res Gestae 1 2 - 1 3

T h i s p a s s a g e t h e r e f o r e c l e a r l y c o n n e c t s t h e a n n u a l s a c r i f i c e s a t t h e

Ara Pacis w i t h a u g u r y a n d t h e pax deorum, a n d al so w i t h t h e T e m p l e

o f J a n u s . T h e Res Gestae m a y o n l y s u r v i v e i n o n e o f i ts s e v e r a l r e p r o

d u c t i o n s a s t h e m o n u m e n t f ro m A n k y r a . B u t t h e o r i g i n a l o f t h a t

i n s c r i p t i o n , b y i ts o w n a d m i s s i o n , w a s o n t w o b r o n z e p i l l a r s s e t u p

a t R o m e ,2 8

p r e s u m a b l y i n r e l a t io n t o t h e m o n u m e n t a l c o m p l e x o f

Solarium a n d M a u s o l e u m o f w h i c h t h e Ara o r ig i n al ly f o r m e d p a r t .2 9

T h e r e m a i n s o f t h e Ara Pacis, d e d i c a t e d i n 9 B . C . , w e r e i d e n t i fi e d

o r i g in a l l y b y F . v o n D u h n i n 1 8 7 9 , u n d e r t h e P a l a z z o F i a n o o n t h e

wes t s i d e o f t h e V ia F l am in ia , an d acco rd in g ly r ec o n s t ru c t e d (P la t e l ) .3 0

O n t h e s o u t h e r n s i de o f t h e a l t a r A u g u s t u s a n d A g r i p p a (a t t h a t

t i m e h i s d e s i g n a t e d s u c c e s s o r ) , a r e b o t h d e p i c t e d w e a r i n g v e i l s t h a t

a r e t h e sy m b o l s o f p r i e s t l y o ff ice : p r i e s t s w o re v e i l s fo r s ac r i f i ce .

A r o u n d A u g u s t u s s t a n d t h e pontifices a n d augures, w i t h flamines i n t h e i r

h e l m e t - l i k e l e a t h e r h e a d c o v e r i n g , t h e galerus, w i t h t h e p o i n t o r apex

a t t h e t o p . T h e c u l ti c e m p h a s i s o n t h e pax deorum is q u i t e t r a n s p a r

e n t . T h e Pontifex Maximus i s A u g u s t u s himself, wh o , a s s i s t ed b y h i s

h e i r A g r i p p a , is t o p e r f o r m t h e r i t e h i m s e l f t h a t is t o s e c u r e t h a t

m e t a p h y s i c a l pax.31

I n t h e i c o n o g r a p h y o f t h e Ara Pacis, Au g u s tu s a t f i r s t s i g h t m ay

28 Res Gest. praef.: " . . . in c i s a r u m i n d u a b u s a h e n e i s p i ll is , q u a e su n t R o m a e p o s i -

t a e , e x e m p l a r s u b i e c t u m . "2 9

E . B i a n c h i , Ara Pacis Augustae, ( R o m e : F r a te ll i P a l o m b i 1 9 9 4 ) , p p . 7 - 8 . T h e

a c c u r a c y o f t h e r e c o n s t r u c t i o n h a s b e e n q u e s t i o n e d b y N . H a n n e s t a d , i n T r a d i t i o n

i n L a t e A n t i q u e S c u l p t u r e . C o n s e r v a t i o n - M o d e r n i s a t i o n - P r o d u c t i o n , i n Acta Jutlandica

6 9 , 2 , H u m a n i t i e s S e r i e s 6 9 , (A a r h u s : U n i v e r s i t y P re s s 1 9 9 4 ) w h o a r g u e s t h a t c o n

t i n u o u s r e w o r k i n g h a s r e m o v e d a n y o r i g i n a l A u g u s t a n c o n t e n t t o t h e f r i ez e s . B u t

s e e i n re p l y A . C l a r i d g e , L a t e - a n t i q u e r e w o r k i n g o f t h e A r a P a c i s a n d o t h e r i m p e

r ia l s cu lp ture? in JRA 1 0 ( 1 9 9 7) , p p . 4 4 7 - 4 5 3 .3 0

E . P e t e r s o n , A r a P a c i s A u g u s t a e , i n Sonderschriften des Osterreichischen A rchaologischen

Instituts in Wien, B d I I, ( W i e n : A l f r e d H o l d e r 1 9 0 2 ) , p p . 1 3 8 - 1 3 9 ; E . L a R o c c a , Ara

Pacis Augustae in occasione del restauro delta fronte orientate, ( R o m a : " L ' E r m a " d i B r e t sc h n e i d e r

1 9 8 3 ) ; G . K o e p p e l , D i e h i s t o r i s c h e n R e l i e f s d e r r o m i s c h e n K a i s e r z e i t , V , A r a P a c i s

A u g u s t a e , i n BJb, 1 8 7 ( 1 9 8 7 ) , p . 1 0 2 ; D . F i s h w i c k , T h e I m p e r i a l C u l t i n t h e L a t i n

W e s t : S t u d i e s i n t h e R u l e r C u l t o f t h e W e s t e r n P r o v i n c e o f t h e R o m a n E m p i r e ,

in EPRO 1 0 8 ( 1 9 8 7 ) 1 , 1 , p . 9 8 d i s c u s s e s t h e p r e c i s e d a t i n g o f t h e c o m p l e t i o n a f te r

i ts o r i g i n a l " c o n s t i tu t i o n " i n 1 3 B . C . S e e a l s o ibid. p p . 2 0 3 - 2 0 6 .3 1

B i a n c h i ( 1 9 9 4 ) p p . 1 3 - 1 6 ; D . C a s t r i o t a , The Ara Pacis Augustae and the Imagery

of Abund ance in Later G reek and Early Rom an Imperial Art, ( P r i n c e t o n : U . P . 1 9 9 5 ) , p p .

1 2 4 - 1 4 4 .




appear to be Pontifex Maximus and augur simply priest at an altar of

an auguriumof ext rao rd ina ry dimens ion tha t produc es the golden age

over which Tellus, and Pax preside, in which the earth yields its abun

da nc e (Plate 2). It migh t be th ough t therefore t ha t aug ury, the pax

deorum, and the aetas aurea form one distinct aspect of the rel igious

significance of Augustus quite different from tha t of his dei fication

as Roman emperor. The two strands are often considered to be quite

separate. My argument here will be that nevetheless in the ideology

of the Imperial Cult both strands were in fact conflated, at least in

ma ny instances of "th e reciprocal rela tion of art-objec t an d viewer,

viewer an d art-object tha t creates a 'di alogue' out of whi ch me an

ing is born."3 2

Firsdy, as Fears pointed out,3 3

abstract qualities and virutes such

as Pax and Concordia wer e personified in the form of gods a nd god

desses. The Ara Pacis was therefore not simply the means of secur

ing pax th rough augurium bu t also the mea ns of wor shi ppi ng the

goddess Pax herself. But note the addi tio n of the adjective that points

to the divinity of the Emperor himself (Augustus/lefiacToq). The full

tide of the alt ar is the Ara Pacis Augustae or the PCOJJXX; Eipr|vr|<; lePaaxriq.

Both the sacerdotal and augurial strand is thus in process of conflation

with that which asserts the emperor's divinity. The divine essence of

Pax loses its in de pe nd en ce an d is ma de par t of the divine essence

of the Emperor whose name is Augustus.

Secondly the distinction between the priest of a cult and the divin

ity worshipped was not always strictly maintained. Augustus may

appear depicted on the Ara Pacis as a priest veiled for sacrifice. But

Tiberius was so depicted in the Temple at Smyrna erected in his

hono ur as a priest of the cult of whose worsh ip he was the object.

As Price points out, "the gods often held their own eponymous priest

hoods, an d are often shown ma ki ng sacrificial offerings," pr es um ab ly

to themselves.3 4

We must note therefore the centrality of the cult to the Augus ta n

settl ement , and to the pe rso nal role of bo th Augus tus himself a nd

his successors in the sacral acts or auguria of that cult. Pax Augusta is

an abstraction, personalised as a divinity, but related when used as

3 2 E i s n e r ( 1 9 9 1 ) p. 52, and f o o t n o t e 1 and re l a t ed t e x t .3 3

J.R. F e a r s , The C u l t of V i r t u e s , in ANRW 2 , 1 7 , 2 ( 1 9 8 1 ) , pp. 8 2 7 - 9 4 8 .3 4

S . R . F . P r i c e , Rituals and Power: The Roman Imperial Cult inAsia Minor, ( C a m b r i d g e :U . P . 1 9 8 4 ) , p. 185.




a q u a l i f y i n g a d j e c t i v e t o t h e e m p e r o r ' s o w n d i v i n i t y . T h e r e w o u l d

t h e r e f o r e s e e m to b e a c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n t h e Res Gestae, L i v y ' s c o n

c e r n s w i t h p r o d i g i e s a n d t h e c u lt i c m e a n s f or d e a l i n g w i t h t h e s e

t h r o u g h augurium, a n d d e v e l o p i n g c o n c e p t s o f t h e e m p e r o r ' s o w n

d i v in i t y . T h e r e m a r k t h a t t h e t e m p l e o f J a n u s h a d o n l y b e e n c l o s e d

t w i c e a(b) condita urbe in Res Gestae 13 recal ls , af ter a l l , the t i t le of

L i v y 's o w n w o r k . F u r t h e r m o r e , it w i ll b e im p o s s i b l e t o s e p a r a t e t h e

a u g u r a l a n d p r i e s d y t h e m e s o f t h e Ara w i t h t h o s e o f t h e p r o c e s s o f

d i v i n i s a t i o n o f t h e e m p e r o r himself. W e d o w e l l t h e r e f o r e t o a s k

w h e t h e r s u c h a r o l e w a s n o t p r e s e n t i n t h e l o s t e n d i n g o f L i v y .

N u m a ' s a u t h o r i t y , m o r e o v e r , a s L i v y d e s c r i b e s i t, w a s c l e a r ly r e l a t e d

to the o f f ic ia l cu l t o f augury , to the publicum id perpetuumque sacerdotium.

W e m a y w e l l a s k w h e t h e r it is n o t p o s s i b l e t h a t L iv y e n d e d h i s h i s

t o r y b y d r a w i n g s i m i l a r f e a t u r e s i n t h e c a s e o f A u g u s t u s , p a r t i c u l a r l y

t o h i s s e c u r i n g t h e pax deorum af te r ce n t u r ie s o f c iv il s t ri fe a n d d iv ine

p o r t e n t s . C e r t a i n l y in t h e s e c o n d r e f e r e n c e t o A u g u s t u s w e f in d

p r e f i g u r e d h i s c l a i m e d , u n i v e r s a l r e i g n o f p e a c e . R e g a r d i n g S p a i n ,

h e r eco r d s t h a t i n 2 0 6 B .C . i t w as o n ly p a r t l y co n q u e re d a n d co n t in u es :

Accordingly the f i rs t of the provinces entered by the Romans (Itaque

ergo prima Romanis inita provinciarum), at least those of the mainland (quae

quidem continentis sint), are the las t to be conquered in our own age by

the leadership an d good fortune of Aug ustus Ca esa r (postrema omnium

nostra demum aetate ductu auspicioque Augusti Caesaris perdomita est).

28,12,12

W e c a n p a r a l l e l t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e v i c t o r y i n S p a i n w i t h t h e i d e

o l o g y o f A u g u s t u s ' n a s c e n t I m p e r i a l C u l t . T h e a n n u a l sa c ri fi ce s o f

t h a n k s g i v i n g a t t h e Ara Pacis w e r e , a c c o r d i n g t o Res Gestae c. 12, for

h i s r e t u r n (pro reditu/urcep xfjq eufjq £7cav68o\)) ex Hispania Galliaque. T h e

s a c e r d o t a l r a t h e r t h a n i m p e r i a l r o l e , w i t n e s s e d a s w e h a v e s e e n i n

t h e s o u t h p a n e l o f t h e Ara, w o u l d a ls o s u p p o r t th i s c o n c l u s i o n .

L i v y ' s l o s t e n d i n g c r i e s o u t f o r t h e f e a t u r e t h a t o t h e r s o u r c e s b yt h e m s e l v e s w o u l d b e su ff ic ie n t t o e s t a b l i s h . R o m a n p o l i ti c a l t h e o l o g y

c o n n e c t e d A u g u s t u s ' ius augurium with h is off ice of Pontifex Maximus,

an d a l so wi th h i s h i s to r i ca l ro l e a s ach i ev in g th e pax deorum w h e r e

o t h e r s h a d f a i l e d . B e f o r e t h e r e f o r e w e l o o k a t L i v y ' s t r e a t m e n t o f

p r o d i g i e s , l e t u s r e c o r d t w o w r i t e r s w h o c o n n e c t A u g u s t u s ' o f f i c e s p e

c if ica ll y w i th t h i s au g u ra l fu n c t io n . In b o th Su e to n iu s a n d Di o C as s iu s

w e h a v e l a t e r r e f e r e n c e s t o t h e o r i g i n a l s i g n if i c a n c e o f A u g u s t u s ' t it lea n d r o l e i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h e ius augurium.




2 A 4 . 2 . 2 . Suetonius A u g u s t u s 7

S u e t o n i u s , w r i t i n g i n t h e r e i g n o f H a d r i a n ( A . D . 1 2 0 ), c l e a r ly r e g a r d s

t h e d i v in e ti d e o f A u g u s t u s , t a k e n b y O c t a v i a n , a s c lo s el y c o n n e c t e d

w i t h h i s a u g u r a l f u n c t i o n . T h i s m a y r e fl ec t t h e e x t e n s i o n o f t h e

I m p e r i a l C u l t u n d e r D o m i t i a n t h a t w e sh a ll d e s c r i b e a n d e v a l u a t e

i n a l a t e r c h a p t e r . B u t t h e i c o n o g r a p h y o f t h e Ara Pacis h a d r e f l e c t e d

s u c h a f u n c t i o n , a s w e s h a ll a r g u e f u r t h e r ( 2 B 1). S u e t o n i u s m a y

h a v e u s e d L iv y a s a s o u r c e , a n d w e m a y t h e r e f o r e h e r e t o o c a t c h

t h e t e n o r a n d t e n d e n c y o f L i v y 's l os t e n d i n g .

S u e t o n i u s r e c o r d s t h a t O c t a v i a n t o o k C a e s a r ' s n a m e u n d e r h i s

g r e a t u n c l e ' s w i ll , a n d t h a t o f A u g u s t u s , o n t h e a d v i c e o f M u n a t i u s

P l a n c u s . R a t h e r t h a n c al l h i m s e l f R o m u l u s as f o u n d e r o f t h e c i ty ,

h e c h o s e t h e n a m e A u g u s t u s . T h e r e a s o n t h a t S u e t o n i u s g i v e s c o n

n e c t s t h a t t i d e w i t h t h e ius augurium:

He preferred to be called Augustus (Augustus potius vocaretur), not only

with a new but more s ignif icant surname (non tantum novo sed etiam

ampliore cognomine), but also because religious places which are conse

crated by an "augur ' s" r i tual (quod loca quoque religiosa et in quibus augu-

rato quid consecratur) are cal led "august" (augusta dicantur), either from the

increase or from the m ov em en t an d feeding of b i rds (ab auctu vel ab

avium gestu gustuve) jus t as Ennius informs us when he wri tes (sicut etiam

Ennius docet scribens):

Afterwards Rome had been founded by an augus t augury

(Augusto augurio postquam incluta condita Roma est).

Sueton ius , Augustus, 1

T h u s S u e t o n i u s r e g a r d e d t h e t i d e Augustus a s m e a n i n g a n d i m p l y i n g

someone assoc ia ted wi th the o f f ice o f augur a n d t h e p r a c t i c e o f augurium.

W e sh a l l n o w , f r o m a d i f fe r e n t p e r s p e c t i v e , s e e h o w D i o C a s s i u s

a l so m a k e s t h is c o n n e c t i o n .

2 A 4 . 2 . 3 . Dio Cassius 37,24,1 and (Epitome) 51,20,4

D i o w r o t e h i s w o r k , o f w h i c h a l a r g e p a r t s u r v i v e s o n l y i n t h e f o r m

o f an Epitome ( 5 1 - 7 7 ) , d u r i n g t h e r e i g n o f A l e x a n d e r S e v e r u s a n d

e n d e d it a t h i s o w n s e c o n d c o n s u l s h i p i n 2 2 9 A . D . I t s e e m s c l e a r

t h a t u n t il t h e e n d o f t h e S e c o n d P u n i c W a r D i o h a s a n a l t e r n a t i v e

s o u r c e t o L i v y . B u t f r o m t h e n o n w a r d s , t h e r e is a c l e a r d e p e n d e n c e

o n t h e l a t t e r a s is s h o w n b y t h e o v e r l a p w i t h t h e b o o k s t h a t s u r v i v e

f or t h e p e r i o d u n t i l 1 6 7 B . C . w h e n L i v y ' s a c c o u n t b r e a k s off. D i o

ex p l i c i t y r e fe r s t o L iv y , Sa l lu s t , an d Ar i an a s h i s so u rces .3 5

6 7 , 1 2 , 4 ; 4 0 , 6 3 , 4 ; 6 9 , 5 1 , 1 .




M i l l a r h a s d e s c r i b e d D i o ' s a c c o u n t o f t h e r e i g n o f A u g u s t u s a s

" t h e m o s t c o m p l e t e a n d s a t i s f a c t o r y o n e t h a t w e h a v e . "3 6

T h e q u e s

t i o n o f D i o ' s s o u r c e s is a c o m p l e x o n e . T h e r e is a d i s p u t e r e g a r d

i n g w h e t h e r 5 3 , 1 7 - 1 9 m a r k s t h e t r a n s i t i o n f r o m L i v y ' s l os t e n d i n g

a n d t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e lo s t h i s t o r y o f A u f i d i u s B a s s u s , o r w h e t h e r

t o t h e c o n t r a r y t h e b r e a k w i t h L i v y c o m e s a t B o o k 5 4 . B u t s i n c e

t h e p a s s a g e s o n w h i c h I w i ll r e l y a r e b e f o r e e i t h e r p u t a t i v e p o i n t o f

d e p a r t u r e , th is d i s p u t e n e e d n o t d e t a i n u s h e r e .3 7

I n v i e w o f w h a t w e h a v e a r g u e d t o b e t h e r o l e o f t h e prodigia in

L i v y a s a n i n d e x o f t h e b r e a k d o w n o f R e p u b l i c a n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l

o r d e r , w e m a y b e c o n f i d e n t t h a t D i o , a t l e a s t i n h i s e x p l a n a t i o n o f

t h e m e a n i n g o f A u g u s t u s ' n a m e , is f o ll o w i ng L i v y . S t o i c n a t u r a l t h e

o lo g y a s a t h eo lo g y o f t h e augurium is spec i f ica lly re f lec ted in b o th

a c c o u n t s . D i o d o e s n o t h o w e v e r f o l l o w S u e t o n i u s , a n o t h e r o f h i s

s o u r c e s ,3 8

i n h is d e r i v a t i o n o f t h e n a m e o f " A u g u s t u s . " M e n t i o n i n g

O c t a v i a n ' s d e s i r e t o b e c a l le d R o m u l u s , r e p r e s s e d i n f a v o u r o f t h is

t i d e , X i p h i l i n u s ' Epitome c l a i m s t h a t t h e t i t l e r e f e r s t o " w h a t i s m o r e

t h a n h u m a n (nkz\6\ xi r\ Kccxd dvGpcoTcoix;)," a n d to h o w p re c io u s a n d

sa c re d o b j ec t s a r e d es c r ib ed (rcdv xa y a p i d ev x iu d x ax a m i x d i ep cox axa

a u y o u a x a 7rpoaayopeuexa i ) . F u r t h e r m o r e , it is t h e e q u i v a l e n t o f Sebastos

( l e p o c o x o q ) i n G r e e k , w h i c h c o m e s f r o m t h e v e r b " t o r e v e r e ( a e p d £ -

e o G a i ) . " ( 5 3 , 1 6 , 8 ) T h u s t h i s t i t l e d o e s n o t i m m e d i a t e l y s u g g e s t a n y

c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h e n a m e o f " a u g u r " a s it d i d i n S u e t o n i u s .

Y e t D i o ( X i p h i l i n u s ) m a k e s t h e c o n n e c t i o n i n a n o t h e r w a y , a n d

o n e t h a t r e la t e s h i s a c c o u n t to t h e u n d e r l y i n g t h e o l o g y o f L u c a n ' s

Pharsalia, if n o t L i v y ' s . D i o r e c o r d s a s h o r t r e s p i t e f r o m w a r d u r i n g

t h e e v e n t s o f t h e F i r s t T r i u m v i r a t e i n 6 3 B . C . I t is a t t h i s p o i n t t h a t

h e r e fe r s t o t h e augurium saiutis, t h e s a c r e d r i t u a l f o r s e c u r i n g s a l v a

t i o n o r s a fe ty , f o r t h e c e l e b r a t i o n o f w h i c h t h e s e e v e n t s c a l l. H e

c l a i m s : " . . . t h e y e v e n h e l d t h e so c a l l e d augurium salutis, af te r a very

l o n g i n t e r v a l . F o r t h i s o f c o u r s e i s a k i n d o f a u g u r y . "3 9

H e e x p l a i n s

t h a t p e r m i s s i o n w a s s o u g h t w h e t h e r t h e y c o u l d a s k f or p r o s p e r i t y ,

3 6

F . M i l l a r , A Study of Cassius Dio, ( O x f o r d : C l a r e n d o n 1 9 6 4 ) , p . 8 3 .3 7

I n f a v o u r o f t h e f o r m e r , s e e M . A . L e v i , D o p o A z i o : a p p u n t i s u l le f o n t i a u g u s -

tee: D i o n e C a s s i o , i n Athen. 1 5 (1 9 3 7 ) , p . 3 ; i n fa v o u r o f th e l a t t e r s e e F . A . M a r x ,

D i e Q u e l l e n d e r G e r m a n e n k r i e g e be i T a c i t u s u n d D i o , Klio 2 9 ( 1 9 3 6 ) , p . 9 4 . S e e

a l s o M i l l a r ( 1 9 6 4 ) p p . 8 3 - 8 7 ff.3 8

M i l l a r ( 1 9 6 4 ) p p . 8 5 - 8 7 .3 9

3 7 , 2 4 , 1 : c oa xe m i TO oicov iouoc TO Tfjq hyeiaq cov ouo cop ivov 5 i a 7cdv\> noXkov

Tcoifjaai. TOVTO 8e 8f | uavTe(a<; Tiq xponoq E O T { .




and that this special augural rite would only be offered on a day in

which there was a complete military cessation (37,24,2). Thus dur

ing civil wa r it was impossible to cel ebr ate this rite. Th ei r at te mp t

nevertheless on this occasion is thus described:

Nevertheless it was in some way possible at that time for the divina

tion to be held (TO oicoviouxx eiceivo rcoir|9f)vai), but it was impure (ox>

(xevToi KocBotpov eyevexo). For certain birds flew from the unlucky quar

ter, and for this reason they repeated the augury (dvejiavTevaavTo).

Other unlucky omens too occurred.

Dio 37,25,1

Amongst these were thunderbolts from a clear blue sky, earthquakes,

and ghos ts (ei8coA,d xe 7toMxx%60i dvBpcorccov e(pavida0r|).

Dio therefore records the firm belief that due to civil war, the

means for securing by augury the pax deorum we re no t effective.

Whenever they were tried, they proved to be counterproductive:

augury at that time only resulted in further supernatural disturbances.

But when his Epitomist, Xiphilinus deals with his account of Augustus,

an d the op en ing of the door s of the tem ple of Ja nus, whi ch as we

have seen Livy most certainly described, he is able to show how

Augustus has achieved the pax deorum and performed the augurium

salutis with favou rable o ut co me . O f all the ho no ur s th at Ca es ar

(Augustus) received, this was the most significant:

Nevertheless the action which pleased him more than all the decrees

was the closing by the senate of the gates of the temple of Janus ,implying that all their wars had entirely ceased, and the taking of the

augurium salutis (TO oicbviauxx TTI<; i)y£(a<;), which had at this time fallen

into disuse for the reasons that I have noted.

Dio (Xiphilinus) 51,20,4

Xiphilinus has already explained that Caesar (Augustus) by now con

trolled the state cult, and although he does not use the title Pontifex

Maximus, which by his time was an ecclesiastical title, he nevertheless tells us that Augustus could "choose as many priests as he wished

and appoint them in office (iepeocq... ocovq av del eGeAriaei TtpoaipeioOai

7cpoaKaTeaxr |aavTo) ." (51,20,3) Thus for Dio the re is a direct con

nection between Augustus' role in history, the Imperial Cult, and

the cultic means of achieving the pax deorum through augury that

appears to reflect what he found in Livy as the primary source for

this part of his work.We shall shortly see that the pax deorum, that fails in the civil war




t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e a u g u r y w h o s e f u n c t i o n i t is t o s e c u r e i t, is a t h e m e

t o o o f L u c a n ' s Pharsalia. Bu t l e t u s b r i e f ly n o w see wh e th e r L iv y sh o ws

a n y i n d i c a t i o n o f s u b s c r i b i n g t o s u c h a t h e o l o g y o f h i s t o r y a s w e l l .

2 A 4 . 2 . 4 . Livy and Augustus: portents and a u s p i c i a

I n 4 , 2 0 , 7 , o f w h i c h w e h a v e a l r e a d y m a d e m e n t i o n , L iv y c r e d i t s

A u g u s t u s w i t h r e b u i l d i n g t h e t e m p l e s a s t h e conditor et restitutor omnium

templorum. I n Res Gestae c . 1 9 a n d 2 1 h e b o a s t s , a m o n g s t o t h e r t h i n g s ,

o f e r e c t i n g t h e t e m p l e s o f A p o l l o i n t h e P a l a t i n e , o f D i v u s J u l i u s i n

t h e C i r c u s F l a m i n i u s , a n d a t t h e C a p i t o l o f Juppiter Triumphans a n d

Juppiter Tonans. H e a ls o r e s t o r e d s a c r e d o r n a m e n t s to t h e s h r i n e s o f" a l l t h e p r o v i n c e s o f A s i a . " (c . 2 4 ) I t m u s t b e a d m i t t e d i n L i v y ' s c a s e

t h a t t h e n a t u r e a n d t y p e o f p r o d i g i e s a r e si m i l ar t h r o u g h o u t h i s w o r k ,

a n d n o d i f f e r e n c e i n t h i s r e s p e c t a p p e a r s i n Julius Obsequens a s e v e n t s

d r a w n e a r e r t o t h e d e a t h o f C a e s a r i n 4 4 B . C . B u t t h e s h e e r v o l

u m e o f t h e s e p r o d i g i e s , o c c u r r i n g n o w e v e r y o n e y e a r o r t w o , s h o w s

a d r a m a t i c i n c r e a s e o n h is e a r l i e r b o o k s . T h e c e n t u r y b e f o r e t h e

c iv il w a r was o n e i n w h i ch t h e ira deorum i n c r e a s e d , r e q u i r i n g s t r o n g e ra n d d i v i n e r m e a n s o f s e c u r i n g th e i r m o r e l a s t i n g pax.

P r o d i g i e s f r o m t i m e t o t i m e t h r o u g h o u t L iv y ' s h i s t o r y a r e r e c o r d e d

w i t h s u c h f e a t u r e s a s l i g h t e n i n g st r i k i n g t e m p l e s , s h o w e r s o f e a r t h o r

s t o n e s , a m u l e p r o d u c i n g a c o l t , a t w e l v e y e a r o l d h e r m a p h r o d i t e

e x e c u t e d b y o r d e r o f t h e haruspices, a r a in o f b l o o d , a n e w i s l an d in

t h e s e a , a m u l e w i t h t h r e e fe e t, J u n o ' s i m a g e s h e d d i n g t e a r s , t u r n

i n g h e a d s o f i m a g e s o f t h e g o d s d u r i n g a n e a r t h q u a k e , a b s e n c e o fv u l t u r e s o v e r c o r p s e s , b l o o d t r i c k l i n g f r o m l a n d , w o o l g r o w i n g f r o m

t r e e s , w a t e r d r i p p i n g f r o m a s t a t u e , a k i t e d r o p p i n g a w e a s e l i n t h e

S e n a t e , a m e t e o r s e e n i n t h e sk y, a n d a b o y b o r n w i t h f ou r h a n d s

a n d f e e t , e t c .4 0

T h e c u l t ic m e a n s o f d e a l i n g w i t h s u c h prodigia so a s t o r e s to re t h e

pax deorum a r e f r o m t i m e t o t i m e r e c o r d e d i n a n s w e r t o s u c h prodi

gia. B u t , f r o m t h e b e g i n n i n g u n t i l 1 7 6 B . C . , t h e r e c o r d s o f d i v i n a

t i o n a r e r e c o r d s o f c o n t i n u a l l y s uc c es sf ul c o n d u c t o f t h e r i t u a l w h e t h e r

it r e c o r d s f a v o u r o r h o s ti l it y f or a p r o p o s e d c o u r s e o f a c t i o n . F o r

e x a m p l e , i n 3 4 0 B . C . D e c i u s a n d M a n l i u s t h e c o n s u l s o f f e r s a c r i f i c e

a n d t h e haruspices a r e p r e s e n t t o i n f o r m t h e m o f w h e t h e r t h e g o d s

h a v e b e e n p r o p i t i o u s :

4 0

1 , 2 0 , 7 ; 4 , 2 1 , 5 ; 5 , 1 4 , 4 ; 5 , 1 5 , 1 ; 2 4 , 1 0 , 1 3 ; 2 7 , 3 7 , 6 - 8 ; 4 1 , 1 6 , 6 , e t c.




T h e haruspex i s reported to have indicated to Decius that the head of

the liver (caput iocineris) had been cut on the friendly side (a familiari

parte caesum): otherwise the v ict im had been accepted by the gods (alio-

qui acceptam dis hostiam esse); Manlius had succeeding in gaining propi

t iat ion (Manlium egregie litasse).

8,9,1

B u t f r o m 2 1 5 B . C . , a l t h o u g h s o m e auspicia ar e s ti ll success fu l , e x a m

p l e s a r e i n t r o d u c e d i n w h i c h t h e auspicium f a i l s o r e n c o u n t e r s g r e a t

d i f f i c u l t y . I n 2 1 5 B . C . i n t h e w a r a g a i n s t H a n n i b a l , F a b i u s d i d n o t

v e n t u r e t o l e a d h i s a r m i e s a c r o s s t h e r i v e r V o l t u r n u s :

. . . he was con cer ned at f irst (occupatus primo) that he should repeat the

auspicia (auspiciis repetendis); then with portents (dein prodigiis) which were

reported one af ter another (quae alia super alia nuntiabantur) and while

he was making expiat ion (expiantique) th e haruspices continually replied

that i t was by no means easy to gain propit iat ion (ea baud facile litari

haruspices respondebant).

2 3 , 3 6 , 9 - 1 0

T h e cu l t i ts e lf w as b e g i n n in g to f ail t o ac h i e v e t h e pax deorum t h a t

w a s t h e o b j e c t o f expiare a n d litari, an d to f a i l b ecau se t h e cu l t i c r i t

u a l i ts e lf w as u n su c ces s fu l .

I n 2 1 2 B . C . , i n t h e m i d s t o f t h e P u n i c W a r , t h e c o n s u l T i b e r i u s

G r a c c h u s e x p e r i e n c e d a m o r e se r i o u s f a il u re o f t h e a p p a r a t u s o f

haruspicium:

As Gracchus was sacri f ic ing (sacrificanti) before he left Lucania, anunfavourab le por ten t (triste prodigium) occurred . When sacri f ice had been

accompl i shed (sacrificio perpetrato), two snakes glided stealthily up to the

entrails (ad exta) and set about devouring the l iver (adedere iocur). W h e n

for that reason the sacrifice was repeated (sacrificium instauraretur) on the

advice of the haruspices (haruspicum monitu), and the entrai ls were pre

served with greater care (intentius exta reservarentur), they relate that a

second and third t ime the snakes sl i thered forward, and, having tasted

the liver (libatoque iocinere) escap ed u n h a rm ed . T h o u g h th e haruspices h a d

forewarned that the portent appl ied to the general (a d imperatorem id

pertinere prodigium) and that he should beware of the h idden plans of

men, st i l l the impending fate could not be averted by any foresight

(nulla tamen providentia fatum imminens moveri potuit).

2 5 , 1 6 , 1 - 4

T h u s fo r L iv y th e cu l t i c m ean s fo r s ecu r in g su cces s sh o w co n tam in a t io n

a n d f a i l u r e a t a c r i t i c a l m o m e n t i n R o m e ' s h i s t o r y , a t t h e p i v o t a l

m o m e n t f or t h a t h i s to r y a n d its s u b s e q u e n t d e v e l o p m e n t t h a t w a s

t h e w a r w i t h C a r t h a g e . T h i s p a s s a g e is o f i n t e r e s t fo r t h e f u r t h e r




r e a s o n t h a t L i v y r e v e a ls t h a t , b e y o n d h is s c e p t i c is m a b o u t t h e m y t h s

o f t h e g o d s , t h e r e li es a S t o i c c o n v i c t i o n o f t h e n a t u r a l o r d e r a n d

t h e w a y i n w h i c h N a t u r e lo se s its h a r m o n y .4 1

L i v y c o n t i n u e s w i t h s o m e e x a m p l e s o f f a v o u r a b l e u s e s o f t h e c u l t .

I n 2 0 9 B . C . t h e auspicia a r e u n f a v o u r a b l e i n t h a t t h e y g i v e w a r n i n g ,

bu t s t i l l there i s no t fa i lu re o f the r i tua l itself. T h u s F a b i u s i s p r e

s e r v e d t h r o u g h a u g u r y f r o m H a n n i b a l ' s t r i c k e r y .4 2

Sim i l a r ly i n 2 7 ,2 6 ,1 4

M a r c e l l u s s i m p l y i g n o r e d t h e hostia caesa iocur sine capite a n d i s d e f e a t e d ,

w i t h o u t a n y fa i lu r e o f t h e c u l t itself. I n t h e M a c e d o n i a n w a r in 2 0 0

B . C . t h e C o n s u l s ' r i t u a l (rem divinam rite peractarri) fin ds a p p ro v a l b y

t h e haruspices w h e n t h e y p r o n o u n c e t h e exta t o b e laeta. T h e y e v e n

o n t h i s o c c a s i o n c l a i m t h a t t h e e n t r a i l s " p o r t e n d e x t e n s i o n o f t h e

b o r d e r s , v i c t o r y a n d t r i u m p h (prolationem finium victoriamque et triumphum

portendi)" (3 1 ,5 ,7 ) S im i l a r s cen es a re wi tn es sed in 1 9 1 B .C . a s we l l

a s i n 1 7 2 B . C .4 3

B u t i t r e m a i n s p o s s i b l e t h a t , g i v e n a n e v e n t s u c h

a s t h e civ il w a r f r o m 4 4 B . C . o n w a r d s , a n d t h e d e c a d e s t h a t l e a d

u p t o i t, L i v y s h o u l d h a v e r e c o r d e d t h e fa i lu r e s o f t h e augurium a n d

haruspicium, a i m e d a t s e c u r i n g t h e pax deorum t h a t h a d e m e r g e d in

t h e e a r l i e r cr is is o f t h e P u n i c W a r . I n t h a t c a s e a f a r s t r o n g e r e x p i

a t i o n a n d c l e a n s i n g o f t h e c i ty w o u l d b e r e q u i r e d , in t h e f o r m o f

a n A u g u s t a n I m p e r i a l C u l t t h a t w o u l d h a v e t h e s u p p o r t o f fortuna,

fatum, a n d providentia t h a t T i b e r i u s G r a c c h u s h a d l a c k e d i n 2 1 2 B . C .

A s I h a v e a l r e a d y m e n t i o n e d , f r o m 1 71 B . C . o n w a r d s o u r o n l y

so u rce t h a t w i l l en ab le u s t o s tu d y L iv y ' s u se o f prodigia is Julius

Obsequens.^ H e r e w e find s o m e e v i d e n c e o f a n i n t e n s i f i c a t io n b o t h o f

prodigia a n d t h e i n c a p a b i l i t y of t h e R e p u b l i c a n c u l t t o d e a l w i t h t h e m

w i t h o u t r e f o r m a t i o n . I n 1 7 6 B . C . t h e l iv e r o f a n a n i m a l , s a c r if i c ed

b y t h e c o n s u l , m e l t e d a w a y (Julius Obsequens 9 cf. L iv y 4 1 ,1 4 ,7 ) . T h e

C o n s u l P o s t u m i u s in 1 5 2 B . C . f o u n d n o h e a d o n t h e l i v e r o f a l a r g e

n u m b e r o f s a cr if ic i al a n i m a l s w h i l s t s a c r if i c in g b e f o r e d e p a r t u r e f or

b a t t l e ( 1 7) . I n t h e s a m e y e a r , a ll m a g i s t r a t e s a n d p r i e s t s r e s i g n e d

4 1

W a l s h ( 1 9 8 9 ) , p p . 5 4 - 6 1 .4 2

2 7 , 1 6 , 1 5 : " F a b i o a u s p i c a n t i , p r i u s q u a m e g r e d e r e t u r a b T a r e n t o , a v e s s e m e l

a t q u e i t e r u m n o n a d d i x e r u n t . H o s t i a q u o q u e c a e s a c o n s u l e n t i d e o s h a r u s p e x c a v e n -

d u m a f r a u d e h o s t i l i e t a b i n s i d i i s p r a e d i x i t . "4 3

3 6 , 1 , 3 : " e a o m n i a s a c r i f i c i a l a e ta fu e r u n t , p r i m i s q u e h o s t i i s p e r l i t a tu m e s t , e t

i ta h a r u s p i c e s r e s p o n d e r u n t , e o b e l l o t e r m i n o s p o p u l i R o m a n i p r o p a g a r i . . . ." C f.

a ls o 4 2 , 2 0 , 2 - 4 .4 4

T h e n u m b e r s c it e d a r e f r o m t h e e d i t i o n b y A . C . S c h l e s i n g e r a n d R . M . G e e r ,

in vo l . 14 o f L ivy in the Loeb Classical Library ( L o n d o n / M a s s a c h u s e t t s : H e i n e m a n n /

H a r v a r d 1 9 6 7 ) .




w h e n haruspices p r o p h e s i e d t h a t t h e y w o u l d a ll d i e f o l lo w i n g a w h i r l

w i n d t h a t d e s t r o y e d a g i l d e d s t a t u e i n f r o n t o f t h e t e m p l e o f J u p i t e r

(18) . W h i l e t h e a u s p i c e s w e r e b e i n g t a k e n , i n 1 3 7 B . C . , t h e c h i c k e n s

escap ed an d f l ed (2 4 ) .

A t J u l i u s C a e s a r ' s s a c r if ic e a s d i c t a t o r ( 4 4 B . C . ) , t h e exta w e r e

d i s c o v e r e d t o b e d e v o i d o f a h e a r t (exta sine corde). (6 7) B u t G a i u s

O c t a v i u s , a s h e e n t e r e d R o m e t o b e e n r o l l e d i n t h e gens Julia, a p p e a r e d

s u r r o u n d e d b y a r a i n b o w - l i k e a r c . A c o m e t a p p e a r e d a s h e s ac r if ic e d

a t t h e t e m p l e o f h i s d i v i n e m o t h e r , V e n u s . A h o w l i n g o f d o g s w a s

h e a r d b y n i g h t b e f o r e t h e h o u s e o f t h e Pontifex Maximus, a m o n g s t

m a n y o t h e r p o r t e n t s ( 6 8) . B u t a t t h is p o i n t , i n 4 2 B . C . , Julius Obsequens

b r e a k s f r o m t h e l u r i d d e t a i l s o n l y t o r e c o u n t , n o t i n t h e u s u a l y e a r

o r t w o a f t e r w a r d s , b u t i n 1 7 a n d 11 B . C . s o m e s m a l l d e t a i l s c o n

c e r n i n g a n e a r t h q u a k e a n d t h e s w a r m o f b e e s a r o u n d D r u s u s .

W h e r e Julius Obsequens f a i l s , D io f ro m h i s so u rce en ab le s u s t o co n

t i n u e L i v y 's s t o r y . I n 4 7 , 4 0 , 1 - 5 h e lis ts t h e p o r t e n t s o f 4 2 B . C . i n

l u r i d d e t a i l s , b u t t h e n g o e s o n t o p o i n t t o c u l t i c i r r e g u l a r i t y w h e n

h e r e c o r d s t h a t t h e praefectus urbanus c e l e b r a t e d t h e f es ti va l o f J u p i t e r

L a t i a r i s t h a t w a s n e i t h e r h is p r e r o g a t i v e , n o r w a s it o r d i n a r i l y o b s e r v e d

a t t h a t t i m e .

W e s e e t h e r e f o r e t h a t t h e s c e n e w a s se t f o r t h e r e l ig i o u s r e f o r

m a t i o n o f t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t . T h e g r a n t i n g t o A u g u s t u s o f t h e iu s

augurium c o u l d h a v e p r e f i g u r e d i n L i v y ' s f i n a l b o o k .4 5

W h e n w e n o w

t u r n t o L u c a n ' s t r e a t m e n t o f t h e e v e n t s o f t h e c iv il w a r , w e a r e o n

firm er g r o u n d . H e r e , le ss s p e c u l a t i v e l y , i t c a n b e e s t a b l i s h e d t h a t

L u c a n c l e a rl y c o n c e i v e d t h e s u p e r n a t u r a l c h a r a c t e r o f t h e pax Augusta,

w h i c h h e s a w a s t h e a c h i e v e m e n t o f t h e pax deorum t h r o u g h t h e iu s

augurium o f t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t . F u r t h e r m o r e , t h a t c o n c e p t o f pax is

u n d e r p i n n e d b y a S t o i c m e t a p h y s i c of fatum a n d fortuna, a n d b y t h e

c o n c e p t o f a r a t i o n a l , m e t a p h y s i c a l o r d e r t h a t u n i t e s t h e r a t i o n a l

a c t i o n o f n a t u r e w i t h t h e r i t e s o f t h e haruspicium p e r f o r m e d t o d i v i n e

th e fu tu re a n d in d ee d in so m e s en se t o co n t ro l i t. I t is t h e re fo re t o

L u c a n ' s t r e a t m e n t o f s u c h t h e m e s t h a t w e n o w t u r n .

2 A 4 . 3 . Lucan's Stoic theology and h a r u s p i c i u m

L i v y w a s u n d o u b t e d l y s c e p ti c a l a b o u t t h e m y t h s a n d le g e n d s o f t h e

g o d s a n d t h e i r c u l t , a l t h o u g h h i s g r a s p o f S t o i c c o n c e p t s o f fatum

A:> Res Ges. 7 , 2 : p o n t i f e x m a x i m u s , a u g u r , X V v i r u m s a c r is f a c i u n d i s , V I I v i r u m

e p u l o n u m , frater arval i s , sodal i s T i t ius , fe t ia l i s fu i .



T H E F O U N D A T I O N S O F T H E IM P E R I A L C U L T 4 5

a n d fortuna w a s s li gh t. W e s a w i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h T i b e r i u s G r a c c h u s

i n 2 1 2 B . C . t h a t L iv y w a s p r e p a r e d t o s et fatum a n d fortuna a g a i n s t

t h e o p e r a t i o n s o f augurium a n d haruspicium, a n d t o a r g u e t h a t t h e f or

m e r h a d v a n q u i s h e d t h e p o w e r s o f t h e l a t t e r . L u c a n w i ll n o t a g r e e

to such a poss ib i l i ty .

L u c a n d o e s n o t i n t r o d u c e i n t o h i s e p i c p o e t r y , q u i t e c o n t r a r y t o

c o n v e n t i o n , t h e i n t e r v e n t i o n o f g o d s a n d g o d d e s s e s . T h e s e h e r a t h e r

r e p l a c e s w i t h t h e S t o i c c o n c e p t i o n o f fatum a n d fortuna u n d e r p i n n e d

b y t h e S t o i c m o n i s m o f n a t u r e o r (p ua iq a s t h e m a t t e r w h o s e u l t i

m a t e c h a r a c t e r i s Xoyoq a n d w h i c h is t h e r e f o r e r e a s o n a b l e , d i v i n e

a n d e n d o w e d w i t h p u r p o s e . B u t t h o u g h h e w ill d i sm i s s a n a n t h r o

p o m o r p h i s m t h a t c o n c e a l s t h e t r u e n a t u r e o f t h e d i v i n e W h o l e a n d

i t s o p e ra t i o n , h e wi l l n o t d i sm i s s a l so t h e cu l t o f augurium a n d harus

picium, an d so s e t t h i s ag a in s t fatum a n d fortuna a s L i v y h a d d o n e .

T h e r e a s o n is t o b e f o u n d i n t h e S t o i c i s m o f h i s u n c l e , S e n e c a ,

w i t h w h o m h e w a s t o b e i n v o l v e d i n a c o n s p i r a c y a g a i n s t N e r o t h a t

w o u l d c o s t b o t h o f t h e m t h e i r l iv e s . S e n e c a r e p l ie s t o t h e q u e s t i o n

o f t h e w a y i n w h i c h t h i n g s s u c h a s auspicia r e v e a l f u t u r e e v e n t s w i t h

o u t b e i n g d e li b e r a te l y se n t t o d o s o b y s o m e a n t h r o p o m o r p h i c a l l y

c o n c e i v e d d i v i n e a g e n c y i n t h e f o l l o w i n g w a y :

You make God too lazy and the adminis t ra tor of something t r iv ial , i f

he is the d isposer of dreams to some people but exta to o thers . The

lat ter nonetheless are conducted under the resources of the d iv ine (ista

nihilominus divina ope geruntur), even if the wings of birds are not directly

guided by a god (si non a deo pennae avium reguntur), nor the entrails of

catde shaped by their very axe (nec pecudum viscera sub ipsa securi for-

mantur). T h e scroll of fate is un w ou nd on a different, r at ion al prin ci

p le (alia ratione fatorum series explicatur), which issues everywhere indications

of the future (indicia venturi ubique praemittens), some of which are pro

pit ious to us (ex quibus quaedam nobis familiaria) an d o th e r s u n k n o wn

(quaedam ignota sunt). Whatever has happened is a s ign of some future

even t (Quicqu id Jit, alicuius reijuturae signum est). Chance even ts and ran

dom occurrences wi thou t Xoyoc, (fortuita et sine ratione vaga) do not al lowdivinat ion (divinationem non recipiunt); in whatever subject mat ter there is

o r d e r (cuius res ordo est), there is also the possibility of prediction (etiam

praedictio est).

Sen eca Quaestiones Maturates 2,32,4

T h e w i n g s o f b i r d s a r e n o t d i r e c t e d b y t h e g o d (non a deo pennae avium

reguntur), b u t d i v i n e r e s o u r c e s a r e s till i n v o l v e d (divina ope geruntur).

T h a t d iv i ni ty is t h e i m m a n e n t ratio o r Xoyoc, o f t h e w o r l d a n d b e c a u s ethe wor ld cons i s t s o f an o rder ly se r ies o f even ts , the fu tu re i s p red ic tab le

(cuius res ordo est, etiam praedictio est) a n d c a n b e r e a d i n p r e s e n t o b j e c t s




s u c h a s exta o r flights o f b i r d s . D i v i n a t i o n t h e r e f o r e b e c o m e s a r a t i o

n a l p o s s i b i l i t y . S e n e c a h a s c l e a r l y f o r g e d a n e c e s s a r y l i n k b e t w e e n

ordo ( i n co n t ra s t t o fortuita et sine ratione vaga), ratio (Xoyoq), fatum a n d

divinatio. H e h a s al so d e m y t h o l o g i s e d h i s t h e o l o g y i n t h e p r o c e s s . W e

s h a l l n o w s e e t h i s p e r s p e c t i v e r e f l e c te d i n L u c a n ' s h i s t o r i o g r a p h y .

2 A 4 . 3 . 1 . Lucan's P h a r s a l i a and the p a x d e o r u m

L u c a n i n Pharsalia, 1, 5 2 2 - 6 0 5 d e s c r i b e s t h e n a t u r a l t u r m o i l o f t h e

c iv il w a r b u t a l so e m p h a s i s e s its s u p e r n a t u r a l c o u n t e r p a r t . T h e c h a o s

o f s o c ie t y w a s m i r r o r e d i n a c h a o s in n a t u r e . T h e i m a g e s o f t h e

Lares i n h o m e s b e g a n t o s w e a t (5 7 ), a n d w i l d b e a s t s le ft t h e w o o d sb y n i g h t a n d m a d e t h e i r l a ir s i n t h e c it y ( 5 5 9 - 5 6 0 ) . M o n s t r o u s b i r t h s

t o o k p l a c e ( 5 6 2 - 5 6 3 ) . T h e a n c i e n t , S y b i ll in e p r o p h e c i e s , f o r e b o d i n g

ill (diraque per populum Cum anae carmina vatis), w e r e r e p e a t e d a g a i n

(volgantur). ( 5 6 4 - 5 6 5 ) A F u r y w i t h a flam ing p i n e tr e e h e l d d o w n

w a r d s w i t h h i s s i n g h a i r a n d o f g i g a n t i c s iz e s t a l k e d t h e c i ty ( 5 7 2 - 5 7 4 ) .

T h e g h o s ts o f S u l l a a n d o f M a r i u s , t h e m s e l v e s t h e f o r m e r d e s t r o y

e r s o f t h e c iv il p e a c e , w e r e s e e n t o w a l k a g a i n a m i d t h e s e s u p e r n a t u r a l d i s o r d e r s :

. . . e medio visi consurgere Campo

Tristia Sullani cecinere oracula manes,

Tollentemque caput gelidas Anienis ad undas

Agricolae Marium jracto fugere sepulchro.

L u c a n , Pharsalia, 1 , 5 8 0 - 5 8 3 .4 6

A c u l t i c n o t e is s o u n d e d i n t h e p a s s a g e b y t h e u s e o f t h e t e r m tristia.

Tristis, a s w e h a v e s e e n in c o n n e c t i o n w i t h L i v y 's a c c o u n t o f T i b e r i u s

G r a c c h u s i n 2 1 2 B . C . , o f t e n c o n t r a s t s w i t h laeta a s a n a d j e c t i v a l

d e s c r i p t i o n o f a n u n f a v o u r a b l e a s o p p o s e d t o f a v o u r a b l e c o n s u l t a

t i o n o f t h e exta}1 T h e i n h a b i t a n t s o f A r i m i n u m , w h e n t h e y s ee

C a e s a r ' s l e g i o n s h a v i n g c r o s s e d t h e R u b i c o n , c r y o v e r t h e i r " c i t y

w a l l s d a m n e d b e c a u s e o f t h e i r u n l u c k y s it e (o tristi damnata loco)," a n d

s i g h f o r " d e e p p e a c e a n d t r a n q u i l i t y (pax alta. . . tranqu illa quies)." ( 1 ,

2 4 8 - 2 5 0 )

A r r u n s t h e o l d E t r u s c a n haruspex is n o w s u m m o n e d (Tuscos de more

vetustolacciri vates), o f w h o m i t is s a id :

. . . F r o m t h e c e n t r e o f t h e C a m p u s M a r t i u s w a s s e e n t o r i se ,

T h e s h a d e o f S u l l a p r o p h e s y i n g i n a u s p i c i o u s t h i n g s ,

A n d r e a r i n g h i s h e a d b e s i d e A n i o ' s c o o l s t r e a m s ,M a r i u s b u r s t f r o m h i s s e p u l c h r e a n d p u t th e fa r m e r to f l i g h t .

L iv y , 2 5 , 1 6 , 3 - 4 , q u o t e d a b o v e p . 4 8 ; 2 7 , 2 6 , 1 4 .




.... Quorum qui maximus aevo

Arruns incoluit desertae moenia Lucae,

Fulminis edoctus motus venasque calentes

Fibrarum et monitus mantis in aere pinnae.1 , 5 8 5 - 5 8 8 .4 8

H e o r d e r s t h e b u r n i n g o f t h e m o n s t e r s " w h i c h n a t u r e , a t v a r i a n c e

w i t h herself, h a d b r o u g h t f o r t h (discors protulerat natura)" ( 5 8 9 - 5 9 0 )

C l e a r l y t h e ratio o r Xoyoq t h a t fo l l o ws a p ro g res s io n o f ordo w a s n o t

n o w p r e s e n t i n N a t u r e w h i c h h a s l o s t i t s pax.

T h e p o n t i f f s , w h o a l o n e c l e a r l y h a v e t h e a u t h o r i t y (pontifices, sacri

quibus est permissa potestas), i n c l u d i n g t h e " F l a m e n s p o r t i n g a r o u n d h i s

p o i n t e d c a p o n h i s e x u l t e d h e a d (tollens apicem generoso verticeflameri)"

( 60 4) p e r f o r m t h e c e r e m o n y o f p u r i f ic a t i o n t h a t h e r e c o m m e n d s

a r o u n d t h e pomerium, o r ci ty b o u n d a r y ( 5 9 1 - 5 9 5 ) , j u s t a s L i v y h a d

f r e q u e n d y d e s c r i b e d a s i m i l a r p r a c t i c e f o l l o w i n g prodigia tristia.49 B u t

a c c o r d i n g t o L u c a n , w h o m a y h a v e h a d s o m e s u p p o r t i n L i v y ' s l o s t

c lo s in g b o o k s , t h ey a r e u n su cc es s fu l . F o r A r r u n s is f i n a ll y t o f ail t o

a c h i e v e t h e pax deorum.

H e tr i e s e x p i a t i o n o v e r t h e r e m a i n s o f t h e f a ll en t h u n d e r b o l t s

( 6 0 6 - 6 1 0 ) . H a v i n g p e r f o r m e d o f a ll t h e s e r i te s , h e tr i es t o p e r f o r m

a s ac r i f ice . T h e b u l l ' s n e ck , w h e n su b jec t ed t o a b l o w o f t h e k n i fe ,

p r o d u c e d a t e r r ib l e v e n o m i n s t e a d o f r e d b l o o d (diffusum rutilo dirum

pro sanguine virus). ( 6 0 9 - 6 1 5 ) H e is m o r t i f i e d (palluit attonitus), a n d c o n

s u l t s t h e e n t r a i l s t o s e e t h e r e , n o t t h e p e a c e , b u t t h e a n g e r o f t h e

g o d s (iram superum raptis quaesivit in extis). ( 61 7 ) Q u i t e a p a r t f r o m t h e

s ic kly a n d d e f o r m e d o r g a n s , a s e c o n d l o b e is g r o w i n g u p o n o n e l o b e

o f t h e l iv e r ( 6 1 7 - 6 2 9 ) .

T h u s A r r u n s , maximus aevo o f a l l t h e E t ru sc an s , fa ils t o s e cu re t h e

pax deorum b u t o n l y t h e i r ira, e v e n t h o u g h h e i s edoctus i n t h e s c i en ce

o f t h e haruspex. F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e pax r a t h e r t h a n t h e ira i s m a r k e d

b y t h e o b s e r v a t i o n o f a c h a o t i c n a t u r a l o r d e r o f t h i n g s . T h e g h o s t s

o f S u l l a a n d o f M a r i u s h a d w a l k e d a g a i n , w o m e n h a d g iv e n b i r t h

4 8

. . . o n e o f w h o m o f g r e a t e s t a g e ,

A r r u n s d w e l t i n t h e d e s e r t e d s i t e o f L i c a ,

L e a r n e d i n t h u n d e r b o l t ' s c l a s h a n d i n t h e w a r m e n t r a i l s ,

A n d i n d a n g e r h e r a l d e d a l o ft t h e a i r b y e a c h w i n g e d b ir d t h a t

w a n d e r s t h e r e . . .4 9

E . g . L iv y 3 9 , 2 2 , 5 : " H o s t i i s m a i o r i b u s c o n s u l e s p r o c u r a r u n t u r b e m q u e l u s -

t r a v e r u n t " ; 4 5 , 1 6 , 6 : " E t a l i o r u m p r o d i g i o r u m c a u s a . . . s a c r i f i c a t u m e s t e t u r b s l u s-

trata ." Julius Obsequ. 1 2 : " U r b e lu s t r a ta p a x d o m i fo r i s q u e fu i t. "




t o m o n s t r o u s c h i l d r e n , a n d A r r u n s ' c o n c l u s i o n fr o m h is o b s e r v a t i o n

o f t h e s t r a n g e a n d m o n s t r o u s exta w a s t h a t t h e i n f e r n a l g o d s h a d

e n t e r e d t h e b o d y o f t h e s l a u g h t e r e d b u l l (caesique in pectora tauri inferni

venere dei). ( 6 3 3 - 6 3 4 ) C l e a r l y t h e o b t a i n i n g o f t h e pax deorum r e q u i r e d

t h e c o r r e c t i o n o f discors natura.

2 A 4 . 3 . 2 . Lucan's explanation of the i r a d e o r u m

N i g i d i u s F i g u l u s n o w m a k e s c l e a r w h a t is a t s t a k e ( 6 3 8 - 6 7 2 ) . T h e

u n i v e r s e m a y b e f o r e v e r g o v e r n e d b y n o l a w (nulla cum lege per aevum/

mundus, et incerto discurrunt sidera motu), o r b y a f a t e f ro m n o w o n h o s

t i le t o R o m e a n d h u m a n i t y (aut, si fata mo vent, urbi generique paratur/humano matura lues)." ( 6 4 1 - 6 4 5 ) T h e p e r s o n of t h e E m p e r o r h i m s e l f

m a y n o t y e t b e , b e f o r e D e c i u s T r a j a n , r e g a r d e d g e n e r a l l y , e v e n b y

th e Greek c i t y - s t a t e s t h a t so u g h t t o e s t ab l i sh h i s cu l t , a s t h e s ac ra

m e n t a l b o n d th a t e s t a b li s h e d p o li ti c al a n d n a t u r a l o r d e r t h r o u g h o u t

a n e m p i r e t h a t s o u g h t to e n c o m p a s s t h e w o r l d . B u t i t is s i g n if i c a nt

t h a t L u c a n r e g a r d s t h e p r o b l e m o f s e c u r i n g p o l it ic a l o r d e r a t R o m e

a s a c o n c o m i t a n t o f r i g h t i n g t h r o u g h its o ffic ia l c u l t — t h r o u g h t h epontifices, sacri quibus est permissa potestas— an u p s e t a n d c h a o t i c n a t u r a l

o r d e r (discors natura), w h i c h h a s c o n s e q u e n c e s th e r e f o r e fo r t h e h u m a n

r a c e (urbi generique. . . humano).

A c c o r d i n g t o L u c a n (F i g u lu s ), a p o l i t i c a l s o l u t i o n w o u l d g o h a n d

i n h a n d w i t h a r e l i g i o u s a n d c u l t i c s o l u t i o n . T h e p o l i t i c a l c h a o s o f

t h e c iv il w a r o f s o m e s e v e n t y y e a r s b e f o r e O c t a v i a n w a s t h u s b u t a

r e f l e c ti o n o f t h e m y s t e r i o u s c o s m i c c h a o s w h i c h w a s t h e ira deorum.B o t h n e e d e d t o b e r i g h t e d , a n d b y a d if fi cu lt , m y s t e r i o u s p r o c e s s ,

t h e pax deorum o b t a i n e d . T h a t pax w i l l o n l y c o m e w i t h a dom inus (cum

dom ino pax ista venit). ( 6 7 0 ) R o m e ' s f r e e d o m (civili tantum iam libera bello)

(672) is b u t a re f lec t ion o f co sm ic d i s o r de r : i t i s b u t the c iv il w a r a s

a r e f le c t i o n o f c o n s t e l l a t i o n s s t r a y i n g f r o m t h e i r c o u r s e s (cur signa m ea

tus/deseruere suos mundoque obscura feruntur?). (664)

I n s e t t i n g t h e s c e n e f or h i s e p i c p o e m o n t h e ci vi l w a r L u c a n h a sth e re f o re e f fec ti v e ly r u l ed o u t t h e k i n d o f ro l e fo r t h e g o d s w h i ch

t h e y w e r e g i v e n b y V e r g i l i n i m i t a t i o n o f H o m e r .5 0

T h e g o d s p l a y

5 0

S . H . B r a u n d , Lucan: Civil Wa r: T ranslated w ith Introduction and Notes, ( O x f o r d :

C l a r e n d o n 1 9 9 2 ) , p p . x x i i - x x i i i ; F . M . A h l , Lucan: An Introduction, ( I th a c a a n d L o n d o n :

C o r n e l l 1 9 7 6 ) r e m a r k s p e r c e p t i v e l y , p . 2 8 3 : " T h e r o l e o f t h e g o d s in t r a d i t i o n a l

e p i c is s u p e r s e d e d b y a k i n d o f S t o i c h y l o z o i s m ; t h e O l y m p i a n s y i e l d t o t h e w o r k i n g s o f n a t u r a l p h e n o m e n a . F o r b e t w e e n m a n a n d n a t u r e t h e r e is s ti ll a b o n d t h a t

n o l o n g e r ex i st s b e t w e e n m a n a n d t h e g o d s . "




n o d i r e c t p a r t i n t h e a c t i o n : t h e y d o n o t i n t e r v e n e t o g i v e s u c c o u r

o r e n c o u r a g e m e n t t o t h e h e r o e s i n t h e t a le . T h e y a r e r e p l a c e d b y

t h e S t o i c c o n c e p t s o f fortuna, fatum, o r fata. T h u s t h e c e n t r a l i t y o f t h e

cu l t o f au g u ry a t t h e o p e n in g o f t h e w o r k is o f g r ea t s ig n i f i can ce i n

d e s c r i b i n g t h e u l t i m a t e m e a n i n g o f t h e h i st o r ic a l e v e n t s . T h e pax deo

ru m a n d t h e ira deorum, r e f l ec t ed i n t h e n a t u ra l a s we l l a s i n t h e c iv il

o r d e r , p l a y a s i g n i f i c a n t r o l e i n d e t e r m i n i n g t h e u l t i m a t e c h a r a c t e r

o f R o m a n p o l it i c a l lif e. T h u s L u c a n ' s S t o i c i s m d e m y t h o l o g i s e s h i s

acco u n t , b u t l eav es i t n ev e r th e l e s s wi th a (p u o iq wh ich i s u l t im a te ly

e n d u e d w i th Xoyoc;, b u t w i th a n opGoq Aoyoq f r ac tu re d by th e m ys

t e r io u s s u p e r n a t u r a l f or ce s a t w o r k w i t h i n b o t h n a t u r e a n d h u m a n

so c i e ty .

T h u s L u c a n p r o d u c e d a t h e o l o g y e x p l i c i t l y i n S t o i c t e r m s t h a t

j u s t i f i e d b o t h t h e e m p e r o r a s Pontfex Maximus a n d p r o c u r e r o f t h e

pax deorum. H i s s u c c e s s w a s m o r e o v e r i r o n i c a l i n v i e w o f h i s c l e a r

m i s t r u s t o f N e r o ' s a m b i t i o n s ,5 1

an d h i s c l ea r r eg re t s a t t h e l o s s o f

r e p u b l i c a n l i b e r t y .5 2

B u t h i s d o c t r i n e o f f a t e , j u s t i f i ed i n t e rm s o f

S t o i c i s m , w i t h i ts c l e a r i m p l i c a t i o n s f or t h e l e g i t i m a c y o f a u g u r y a n d

d i v i n a t i o n , s e e m s t o h a v e m a d e w h a t h a d c o m e t o p a s s n e c e s s a r y

a n d i n e s c a p a b l e . H i s c o n s p i r a c y , af t er al l, w a s n o t a i m e d a t t h e

r e s t o r a t i o n o f t h e r e p u b l i c , b u t si m p l y t h e r e m o v a l o f t h e t y r a n t N e r o

i n f a v o u r o f a n o t h e r princeps.

L u c a n e n d s h i s c l e a r l y u n f i n i s h e d w o r k i n t h e y e a r 4 8 - 4 7 B . C . T h i s

is u n f o r t u n a t e f or o u r p u r p o s e s in c e w e d o n o t k n o w o n w h a t n o t e

h e w a s t o c o n c l u d e h i s e p i c . S o m e c o u n t e r p a r t s e e m s r e q u i r e d t o

t h e ira deorum d e s c r i b e d s o v i v i d l y i n s u c h l u r i d h u e s . B y w h a t s u c

c es sf ul m e a n s , a s t h e c o u n t e r p a r t t o A r r u n s ' f a i l u r e , w a s t h e final

pax deorum t o b e s e c u r e d ? S u r e l y b y m e a n s o f s o m e t h i n g li ke t h e

augurium salutis t h a t D i o ( X i p h i l i n u s ) h a d c l a i m e d t h a t A u g u s t u s s u c

c e s s f u l l y c e l e b r a t e d w h e r e o l d e r , R e p u b l i c a n m a g i s t r a t e s , h a d f a i l e d ?

W h e r e a n d w h e n w a s e n a c t e d t h e s uc c es sf ul c l e a n s i n g o f t h e pomerium,

a n d t h e s a c ri fi ce o f a b u l l w h i c h w e n t n o r m a l l y w i t h t h i s c e r e m o n y ?

5 1 L u c a n , Pharsalia 1, 2 6 5 - 3 3 0 ff.) 2

I n v i e w o f t h i s I fin d t o o s tr o n g J . C . B r a m b l e , L u c a n , i n E J . K e n n e y a n d

W . V . C l a u s e n ( e d s . ) , The Cambridge History of Classical Literature, V o l . 2 : L a t i n L i t e r a t u r e ,

( C a m b r i d g e : U . P . 1 9 8 2 ) , p p . 5 4 3 - 5 4 5 : " t h er e is n o t h i n g i n t h e p o e m t o w a r r a n t

t h e h y p o t h e s i s o f a g r o w i n g d i s c o n t e n t w i t h C a e s a r i s m , " q u o t e d i n B r a u n d ( 1 9 9 2 ) ,

p . x v i . I t i s h o w e v e r tr u e t h a t N e r o w o u l d h a v e id e n t i f ie d h i m s e l f w i t h P o m p e y a s

o p p o s e d t o C a e s a r in v i e w o f h i s g r e a t -g r e a t g r a n d f a t h e r L u c i u s D o m i t i u s A h e n o b a r b u s ,

P o m p e y ' s g e n e r a l w h o is d e s c r i b e d m o s t f a v o u r a b l y i n Pharsalia 2 , 4 7 8 - 5 2 5 , s ee

B r a u n d ( 1 9 9 2 ) , p . x v .




n e c t i o n i n t e r m s o f S t o i c m e t a p h y s i c s r e g a r d i n g e i u o c p u i v r ) o r fatum

o r fortuna, a n d ratio or opGoq Xoyoq i n S t o i c t h e o l o g y . M o r e o v e r w e

h a v e e s t a b l i s h e d a s t r o n g s e n s e i n t h e l i t e r a t u r e o f t h e A u g u s t a n a g e

t h a t t h e c iv il w a r h a d c o n s t i t u t e d a s u p e r n a t u r a l d i s t u r b a n c e in t h e

o r d e r o f n a t u r e a s w e l l a s s o c ie t y u n p a r a l l e l e d i n R o m e ' s h i s t o ry .

S u c h a d i s t u r b a n c e r e q u i r e d a n e q u a l l y u n p a r a l l e l e d s e t t i n g r i g h t

t h r o u g h t h e m e d i u m o f t h e i m p e r i a l augurium. W e h a v e s e e n s u c h a

t h e o l o g i c a l d i a g n o s i s o f c o n s t i t u t i o n a l f a i lu r e i n L u c a n a n d L iv y , a n d

i n w r i t e r s s u c h a s S e n e c a o r D i o .5 5

T h e t r a d i t i o n a l c u l t, n o m o r e t h a n t h e t r a d i t i o n a l c o n s t i t u t i o n , h a d

e s t a b l i s h e d e i t h e r r e l i g i o u s o r ci vi l p e a c e . A u g u s t u s w a s r e q u i r e d t o

p e r f o r m a n a c t o f a u g u r y w h i c h w o u l d b e su f fi ci en tl y p o w e r f u l , a s

t h e e x i s t i n g c u l t w a s n o t , t o c o p e w i t h t h is d i s o r i e n t a t i o n o f t h e n a t

u r a l o r d e r o f t h i n g s , a n d t h u s t o p r o v i d e t h e s a c r a m e n t a l m e a n s o f

s e t t in g b o t h n a t u r e a n d s o c ie t y r i g h t . A s w e h a v e s e e n , A u g u s t u s

m a d e p o s s i b le a c c o r d i n g t o D i o t h e c e l e b r a t i o n o f t h e augurium salutis,

a n d h i s n a m e f or S u e t o n i u s w a s s y n o n y m o u s w i t h o n e w h o p o s s e s s e d

t h e ius augurium (Augustus — augur, augurium).^

I n Res Gestae c . 4 ,2 A u g u s tu s c l a im s th a t h is " su cces s fu l m i l i t a r y

a c h i e v e m e n t s , b y l a n d a n d b y s e a , d i r e c t l y o r t h r o u g h l e g a t e s (res a

me aut per legatos meos. . . terra marique prospere gestas)," a r e u n d e r " m y

f a v o u r a b l e o m e n s (auspicis meis)," ac co rd in g ly t r an s l at e d ociaio ic ; o icovoiq

i n t h e G r e e k i n s c r i p t i o n o f t h e Res Gestae w h o s e o r ig i n a l p o s i t i o n w a s

o n t w o b r o n z e c o l u m n s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e Ara Pacis f r o m t h e r e i g n

o f T i b e r i u s o n w a r d s . T h e r e h a d b e e n m e n t i o n i n c . 3 o f t h e o a t h

s w o r n t o h i m p e r s o n a l l y (sub sacramento meo) b y " t h r e e t h o u s a n d R o m a n

c i t i z e n s . " T h e Ara Pacis is n o t y e t t h e a l t a r o n w h i ch h i s d iv in i t y is

d i r e c t ly w o r s h i p p e d , w i t h t h e p e a c e o f t h e e m p e r o r s u p p l i c a t e d w i t h

i n c e n s e a c c o m p a n i e d b y a n o a t h o f i m p e r i a l lo y a l ty as it w a s t o

b e c o m e i n t h e r e i g n o f D e c i u s T r a j a n ( A . D . 2 5 1 ) . I t is a s y e t t h e

i m m o r t a l g o d s w h o a r e to b e t h a n k e d f o r h i s v i c t o r y , b y d e c r e e o f

t h e S e n a t e (ex senatus consulto), a n d n o t h i s d i v i n e p e r s o n a g e itself. B u t

w e h a v e a r g u e d t h a t t h e a p p r o p r i a t i o n o f t h e d i v i n e a n d p e r s o n a l

i z e d Pax b y t h e q u a l i f i c a t i o n Pax Augusta s h o w s t h e d i s c r e t e a s s i m i

l a t i o n o f Pax t o t h e e m p e r o r ' s o w n d i v i n it y .

5 5

F o r n a t u r e r e s p o n d i n g t o t h e c h a o s a n d o r d e r o f c i v il s o c i e t y s e e L u c a n , Phar

salia, 4 , 4 9 - 1 3 0 , e s p e c i a l ly e .g . 1 2 1 - 1 2 6 , w h e r e " . . . p a r v o F o r t u n a v ir i c o n t e n t a

p a v o r e , p l e n a r e d i t . . . " a n d " . . . s e r v a t o q u e l o c o r e r u m d is c es s it a b as tr is u m o r , e t

i m a p e t i t . . ."%

R o s s T a y l o r ( 1 9 3 1 ) , p p . 1 5 8 - 1 5 9 .




In c . 7 ,3 we read : Pontifex M aximus, augur, XV virum sacris faciundis,

VII virum epulonu m, frater arvalis, soda lis Titius, fetialis fui. T h u s a s p a r t

o f t h e p r o c e s s t h a t l in k e d d i v i n a t i o n w i t h t h e p e a c e o f t h e G o d s ,

A u g u s t u s w a s t o r e o r g a n i s e t h e f o u r m a j o r c o l l e g e s (fetiales, Salii,

Sodales Titi, a n d t h e jratres Arvaks). T h e ab i l it y o f t h ese co ll eg es t h ro u g h

a u g u r y t o a f f e c t t h e p o l i t i c a l p r o c e s s w a s r a d i c a l l y r e d u c e d . A f t e r 4 4

B . C . t h e r e w a s o n l y o n e c a se o f t h e t e m p o r a r y b l o c k i n g o f a n e l e c

t i o n , a n d t w o c o n s u l t a t i o n s o f t h e S i b y l li n e b o o k s .5 7

T h e i r m a r k o f

s u b m i s s i o n t o h i m a s n e w l y h e r e d i t a r y Pontifex Maximus w a s t o m a k e

sac r i f i ce s an n u a l ly a t t h e Ara Pacis a n d o n i m p e r i a l a n n i v e r s a r i e s a t

t h e Ara Numinis Augusti o n t h e C a p i t o l a n d i n t h e T e m p l e o f Mars

Ultor.58 T h e a c h i e v e m e n t b y s o c ie t y o f t h e pax deorum w a s f r o m n o w

o n to b e t h ro u g h th e of fice o f t h e princeps. 59

T h a t h i s o ff ice as Pontifex Maximus, t h o u g h de iure fo r l ife , w as n o w

to b e de facto h e r e d i t a r y is i m p l i e d i n c . 1 0 :

I refused the office of Pontifex Maximus when the people offered me

that pr ies thood (poputo id sacerdotium deferente mihi) which my father hadheld, so that I should not replace my still-living colleague. After some

years , w he n he [Lepidus] who ha d occupied th is pr ies thoo d (quod sac

erdotium) at the outbreak of the civil war had died, I accepted i t , dur

ing the consulship of P. Sulpicius and C. Valgo [ 1 2 B . C . ] , from all

I ta ly when such a mult i tude had gathered together for my comitia as

never before was repor ted a t Rome.

C l e a r l y it w a s n o t a n of fic e f r o m w h i c h A u g u s t u s w o u l d a d m i t , f ol

l o w i n g h i s s e l f - s e r v i n g e x a m p l e , t h a t a p e r s o n c o u l d b e d e p o s e d b y

p o p u l a r c o n s t i t u t i o n a l m e a n s . I t w a s n o t a n o r d i n a r y b u t a n e x t r a

o r d i n a r y g a t h e r i n g t h a t h a d c o n v e y e d t h e t i d e o n h i m . I n a s s u m i n g

t h e p o s i t i o n o f Pontifex Maximus h e h a d u n i t e d t h e R o m a n R e l i g i o n

o r g a n i c a l l y i n h i s p e r s o n .6 0

F r o m e a r l i e s t t i m e s , t h e ius divinum w a s e x e r c i s e d b y t h e c o l l e g e

o f p o nt if fs a n d a u g u r s . I n d e e d , b e f o r e t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f r e p u b l i -

5 7

W a r d e F o w l e r (1 9 1 1 ) , p p . 4 3 5 - 4 3 7 ; L i e b e s c h u e t z ( 1 9 7 9 ) , p . 6 3 .5 8

R o s s T a y l o r ( 1 9 3 1 ) , p . 1 9 9 a n d p p . 2 2 2 - 2 2 3 .59 Ibid. p . 6 5 .6 0

B a y e t ( 1 9 5 7 ) , p . 1 7 9 : " L e p i d e m o r t , A u g u s t fu t p l e b i s c i t e G r a n d P o n t i f e . E t

s o u d a i n il a f f ir m a d e s d r o i t s e x o r b i t a n t s s u r l a f o n c t i o n . N o n s e u l e m e n t il n e d e s c e n -

d i t p a s a u F o r u m o c c u p e r l a d e m e u r e o f f i c i e l l e d e s a c h a r g e , p r e s d e l a Regia; m a i s

il n a t i o n a l i s a p o u r y s u p p l e e r u n e p a r t i e d e s a d e m e u r e d u P a l a t i n ; y c o n s a c r ao f f i c i e l l e m e n t u n e s ta tu e e t u n a u te l d e V e s ta ; u n i t l e c u l t e d e l a d e e s s e a c e l u i d e

s e s P e n a t e s . "




c a n g o v e r n m e n t , t h e p r e s i d e n t o f t h a t c o l le g e s e e m s t o h a v e b e e n

t h e k i n g , a n d t h e leges regiae w e r e a b o u t t h e r i tu a l a n d m o r a l m e a n s

o f a c h i e v i n g t h e pax deorum, b e f o r e t h e p u b l i c a t i o n o f t h e T w e l v e

T a b l e s . 6 1 T h e k i n g , o r i g i n a l l y , a d v i s e d b y t h e t w o a u g u r s w h o w i t h

h i m c o n s t i t u t e d a c o l l e g e , p o s s e s s e d t h i s r i g h t t o t a k e t h e a u s p i c e s

(habere auspicia)? 2 T h e ius divinum t h a t h a d p a s s e d t o t h e Pontifex Maximus

w i t h t h e a d v e n t o f r e p u b l i c a n g o v e r n m e n t w a s n o w t o p a s s a g a i n t o

a h e r e d i t a r y r u l e r ,6 3

e v e n t h o u g h A u g u s t u s m i g h t c l o a k h i s m o n a r

c h i c a l p r i n c i p l e s u n d e r t h e r e p u b l i c a n f o r m s o f princeps, tribunicia potes-

tas, imperium proconsulare e t c .6 4

H i s v e r y t i t l e o f a r e c o n s t r u c t e d imperator

i n p r e f e r e n c e t o rex f u r t h e r e m p h a s i s e d t h e c o n t i n u i t y o f a u t o c r a c y

l e g i ti m i s e d i n r e p u b l i c a n f o r m s . B u t a s L i e b e s c h u e t z p o i n t e d o u t , t h e

i m p e r a t o r h a d t h e r e s p o n s ib i l it y o f t a k i n g t h e auspicia w i t h t h e r e s u l t

t h a t t h e l i f e l o n g a n d h e r e d i t a r y Pontifex Maximus w a s n o w t h e r e l i

g i o u s e q u i v a l e n t o f t h e n o w l if e lo n g a n d h e r e d i t a r y imperator. I f po l i t

i c a l p o w e r w a s t o b e f o r l i f e , t h e n c l e a r l y r e l i g i o u s p o w e r w i t h w h i c h

it w a s i n e x t r i c a b l y a s s o c i a t e d m u s t b e s o t o o . T h e r e s u l t w a s t h u s

t h e f u r t h e r c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f b o t h s e c u l a r a n d s p ir i t u a l p o w e r in t h e

h a n d s o f a s in g le p e r s o n . 6 5

F r o m h i s a s s u m p t i o n o f t h e final c o n t r o l o f t h e ius divinum a s Pon

tifex Maximus c e r t a i n e s c h at o lo g i ca l a n d e v e n — t o t r a n s p o s e a J u d a e o -

C h r i s t i a n c o n c e p t i n to a p a g a n c o n t e x t — " m e s s i a n i c " c o n s e q u e n c e s

t h e r e b y f o ll o w e d . T h e r e o r g a n i s a t i o n o f t h e c u lt i n t e r m s o f t h e e x t r a

o r d i n a r y pax o f a n e x t r a o r d i n a r y princeps w a s t h e s o l u t i o n t o t h e

6 1

W a r d e F o w l e r ( 1 9 11 ) , p p . 2 7 2 - 2 7 3 .6 2

Ibid. p p . 3 0 1 - 3 0 1 .6 3

B a y e t ( 1 9 5 7 ) , p . 1 0 1 : " . . . c e G r a n d P o n t if e n e p u t p r e n d r e c o m p e t a n c e

r e l i g i e u s e " r o y a l e " , a c o te d u Rex Sacrorum, q u ' a p r e s l a f i n d e l a m o n a r c h i c : a l u i

a l o r s a p p a r t i n r e n t l a h a u te m a i n s u r l e f o y e r p u b l i c , v o i s i n d e l a Regia; sur l e ca l -

e n d r i e r e t l e s f e t e s ; l e c h o i x d e s V e s ta l e s , d u Flamen Dialis; l a d i s c i p l i n e s a c e r d o t a l e ;

l a s u r v e i l l a n c e d e s r e l i g i o n s fa m i l i a l e s e t d u c u l t e d e s m o r t s . . . . P o u r v u d u d r o i t

d ' au s pi ce e t d e c o m m a n d e m e n t (auspicium e t imperium), il d o m i n a i t l ' e n s e m b l e d e l ar e l i g i o n . . ." ; E . P a i s , L e r e l a z i o n i f r a i s a c e r d o z i e l e m a g i s t r a t u r e c i v i l i n e l l a

R e p u b l i c a r o m a n a , i n Ricerche sulla storia e sul diritto publico di Rom a, I , ( R o m e 1 9 1 5 ) ,

p p . 2 7 3 - 3 3 5 : " C o n A u g u s t o s i c h i u d e i l c i c l o d e i r a p p o r t i d e i s a c e r d o t i d e f r o n t e

a i m a g i s t a t i c u r u l i . . . C o n A u g u s t o si r i t o r n o a l io st e s s o p e r i o d o r e g i o , q u a n d o P a u -

to r i ta s a c r a , i l c o m a n d o m i l i t a r e e l a g i u r i s d i z i o n e c i v i l e s i t r o v a v a n o r i u n i t e n e l l a

u n i c a p e r s o n a d e l rex." ( Q u o t e d B a y e t 1 9 7 1 ) , p . 2 7 6 f o o t n o t e 2 .6 4 Res Gest. 6 , 2 ; 1 0 , 1 c f . R . S y m e , The Roman Revolution, ( O x f o r d : U . P . 1 9 6 0 ) , p p .

3 1 3 - 3 3 6 f f .b

* L i e b e s c h u e t z ( 1 9 7 9 ) , p . 1 0 : " T h e c o n s t i t u t i o n a l a u t h o r i t y w h i c h e n t i t l e d a

R o m a n m a g i s t r a t e t o g i v e o r d e r s , t h e i m p e r i u m , h a d a r e l i g i o u s c o u n t e r p a r t , t h e

a u s p i c i u m , w h i c h e n t i t l e d i t s h o l d e r t o r e c e i v e d i v i n e c o m m u n i c a t i o n s o n b e h a l f o f

t h e c o m m u n i t y b y t a k i n g t h e a u s p i c e s . "




t h e o lo g i c a l p r o b l e m o f h o w t o s e c u r e a n e x t r a o r d i n a r y pax deorum

f r o m q u i t e e x t r a o r d i n a r y d i s s o lu t i o n o f t h e n a t u r a l o r d e r : t h e c h a o s o f

n a t u r e m i r r o r e d t h e p o l i t i c a l c h a o s , t o w h i c h t h e prodigia t h a t m a r k e d

t h e f a i l u r e o f t h e r e p u b l i c a n auguria a n d haruspicium b o r e w i t n e s s . T h u s

A u g u s t u s w a s d u l y a u t h o r i s e d t o u s e t h e s a c r a m e n t a l m e a n s o f augurium

t o c o n t i n u e t h e i n c o r p o r a t i o n o f p o l i ti c a l s o c ie t y i n t o a n a t u r e w h o s e

o r d e r , in t e r m s o f 6p06<; Aoyoq, h a d b e e n e x t ra o r d i n a r i l y r e s to re d . I t

w a s a g o l d e n a g e o f pax a n d fortuna t h a t w a s a c c o r d i n g l y n o w c o m

i n g a b o u t . W e s h a ll n o w t r a c e s o m e l i t e r a r y e x a m p l e s o f h o w t h is

n e w c o n s t r u c t i o n o f s o c ia l r e a l it y w a s a c c o m p l i s h e d .

2 A 6 . Augustus' Messianism and the p a x d e o r u m

I n Res Gestae c . 1 1 w e re ad o f t h e a l t a r o f Fortuna Redux, c o n s e c r a t e d

b y t h e s e n a t e b e f o r e t h e t e m p l e o f Honor a n d Virtus a t t h e C a p e n a n

G a t e , i n t h a n k s g i v i n g f o r A u g u s t u s ' s a f e r e t u r n (pro reditu meo). I m

m ed ia t e l y fo l l o win g , i n c . 1 2 , w e a l so fin d t h a t A u g u s tu s d e sc r ib e s

t h e pax t h a t h e b r i n g s i n t h e c o n t e x t o f a r e t u r n i n g a g e o f p e a c e ,p l e n t y a n d h a p p i n e s s . T h a t c o n t e x t c a n b e r e a d a l r e a d y i n t h e e a r l y

w o r k o f V e r g i l . I n Eclogues 4 w e r e a d o f a n e w a g e , a s s o c i a t e d w i t h

t h e a n c i e n t k i n g d o m o f S a t u r n , i n w h i c h t h e V i r g i n A s t r a e a o r J u s t i c e

is t o r e t u r n , h a v i n g b e e n t h e l a s t o f t h e g o d s t o l e a v e t h e e a r t h .

T h e " l a s t a g e (ultima aetas)" f o r e t o l d b y t h e S i b y l l i n e b o o k s (Cumaei

carminis) h a d c o m e , w h i c h w a s t h e a g e o f t h e r a c e o f i r o n (ferrea).

N o w w i t h t h e b i r t h o f t h e b o y - c h i l d (nascenti puero), t h e g o l d e n a g er e t u r n s t o t h e e a r t h (aetas aurea mundo), a n d w i t h it t h e k i n g d o m o f

S a t u r n a n d A s t r a e a g o d d e s s o f J u s t i c e (iam redit et Virgo, redeunt Saturnina

regno). T h u s t h e aetas aurea is a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a d i v i n e c h i l d b o r n o f

a V i r g i n . T h e puer is a d d r e s s e d a s : " d e a r o f f sp r i n g o f t h e g o d s (cara

deum suboles), g r e a t s o u r c e o f g r o w t h f r o m J u p p i t e r (magnum incre-

mentum lows)" (I. 4 9 ) A l t h o u g h w e m a y d e s c r i b e th i s o d e a s " m e s

s i a n i c , " it is i m p o r t a n t t o r e m e m b e r t h a t t h e g o l d e n a g e t h a t is h e r ein v i ew is n o t o n e t h a t ex i s t s e t e rn a l ly a s t h e g o a l o f h i s to ry , b u t is

r a t h e r a r e t u r n i n g g o l d e n a g e (Eclogues 4 , / . 4 - 1 0 ) .6 6

" T h e g r e a t s e r i e s

6 6

A J . B o y l e , The Eclogues of Virgil: Translated with Introduction, Notes, and Latin Text,

( M e l b o u r n e : H a w t h o r n P r e s s 1 9 7 6 ) , p p . 1 1 1 - 1 1 2 m e n t i o n s t h a t , a c c o r d i n g t o t h e

S i b y l l i n e o r a c l e s , t h e r e w e r e t o b e t e n a g e s w i t h t h e la s t r u l e d b y A p o l l o . T h e G r e a t

Y e a r (magnus ordo) i s a n a s t r o l o g i c a l r e f e r e n c e t o t h e c o m p l e t i o n o f a v a s t p e r i o d o ft i m e c o m p l e t e d w h e n t h e p l a n e t s o c c u p i e d t h e p o s i t i o n s t h e y h a d h e l d a t t h e b e g i n

n i n g o f t h e w o r l d . S e e H e s i o d , Works and Days, and c f . P lato Repub. 4 1 5 A - C . S e e




s i g n i f i c a n t m e a n s f o r a c h i e v i n g s u c h a r e l a t i v e s t a b i l i t y w a s A u g u s t u s '

a u g u r a l o ffic e a n d a c t s , c e n t r a l as w e h a v e a r g u e d t h a t t h e s e w e r e

t o t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t . I n d e e d , s u c h a c u l t w a s a s a c r a m e n t a l n e c e s

s i ty g iv en th e i n s t ab i l i t y p r o m is e d b y a cy c li c v i ew o f h i s to ry : sp i r

i t u a l p o w e r w a s e x e r c i s e d o v e r t h e c o u r s e o f h i s t o r y b y t h e Pontifex

Maximus w h o c o n t r o l l e d t h e c u l ti c m e a n s o f s e c u r i n g a n d p r o t r a c t

i n g t h e pax deorum. C e r t a i n l y V e r g i l i n t h e F o u r t h Eclogue h a s t r a n

s c e n d e d s u c h a c y c li c v i e w w h i c h it o t h e r w i s e p r e s u p p o s e s . W e a r e

f a r c l o s e r i n t h e s e l i n e s , a s N i s b e t h a s p o i n t e d o u t , t o t h e J u d a e o

C h r i s t i a n i d e a t h a t : " w h e n a n e w c r e a t i o n is c o m p l e t e t h e r e is n o

s e c o n d d e t e r i o r a t i o n . " 7 1

B u t V e r g i l h e r e a s s o c i a t e s t h e aetas aurea, w h o s e t u r n i n t h e c y c l e

o f Fortuna h a s c o m e r o u n d , u n i q u e l y w i t h t h e b i r t h o f a b o y - c h i l d

(nascenti puero; I. 8 ) . T h a t b i r t h is a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e r e t u r n o f t h e

V i r g i n A s t r e a (Virgo) a n d t h e k i n g d o m o f S a t u r n , a n d t h e " d e s c e n t

o f a n e w o ff s p r in g f r o m h i g h e s t h e a v e n (nova progenies caelo demittitur

alto; I. 5 - 6 ) . " T h e c h i ld :

will receive the gift of the life of the gods and will see gods,

ilk deum vitam accipiet divosque videbit,

mixed with heroes and himself by them will be seen,

permixtos heroas et ipse videbitur Mis,

and will rule the globe that he sets at peace by his paternal virtues

pacatumque reget patriis virtutibus orbem.

I 1 5 - 1 7

T h e r e fo ll ow s a n a t u r a l o r d e r t h a t a r i s e s d e v o i d o f s e r p e n t s a n d t h e i r

p o i s o n , w h e r e g o a t s p r o d u c e m i lk i n a b u n d a n c e a n d t h e r e n e e d b e

n o f e a r o f l i o n s . T h e e a r t h u n t i l l e d a b o u n d s w i t h fr ui t (/. 1 8 - 2 5 ) .

B u t th e p a s t r e p e a t s it se lf i n t h e f u t u r e , a n d t h e r e is a s e c o n d T i p h y s ,

a s e c o n d v o y a g e o f A r g o , a n d a s e c o n d A c h i l l e s s e n t t o T r o y

( / . 2 6 - 3 6 ) . B u t w h e n t h e c h i l d b e c o m e s a n a d u l t , t r a d e b y s e a w i l l

c e a s e b e c a u s e e v e r y l a n d w il l b e s el f- su ff ic ie n t i n a b u n d a n c e . Y o k e

a n d o x e n , a n d p r u n i n g h o o k , s h a l l b e c a s t a s i d e . L a m b s w i l l p r o

d u ce w o o l o f d i f f e ren t c o lo u r s (/. 3 7 -4 5 ) . Su ch i s t h e p i c t u r e o f t h e

aetas aurea u s h e r e d i n w i t h t h e b i r t h o f t h e c h i l d . T h e pax deorum

a c c o m p l i s h e d b y t h e c h il d h a s n o w e x t e n d e d t o a ll t h e g l o b e , a n d

e x t e n d s b e y o n d t h e r e s t o r e d m o r a l o r d e r o f h u m a n s o ci e ty t o t h e

n a t u r a l o r d e r i t s e l f (pacatum que reget patriis virtutibus orbem ).

N i s b e t ( 1 9 7 8 ) , p . 6 1 .



T H E F O U N D A T I O N S O F T H E I M P E RI A L C U L T 5 7

I t is i n t e r e s t i n g t o i n q u i r e w h o m V e r g i l i n t e n d e d t h e c h i l d t o b e .

A s i n i u s P o l l i o , t h e c o n s u l w h o i n 4 0 B . C . n e g o t i a t e d t h e t r e a t y o f

B r u n d i s i u m u n i t i n g A n t h o n y a n d O c t a v i a n , . is m e n t i o n e d i n t h e t e x t

(/ . 12). 7 2 B u t c l e a r l y t h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w i t h h i s n e w - b o r n c h i l d w o u l d

h a v e b e e n h i g h l y e m b a r r a s s i n g if n o t a c t u a l l y d a n g e r o u s fo r P o l li o

i n v i e w o f t h e m a s t e r s w h o m h e c l e a rl y s e r v e d . E i t h e r , a s h a s m o s t

p l a u s i b l y b e e n s u g g e s t e d , V e r g i l r e f e r s t o t h e e x p e c t e d c h i l d o f O c t a

v i a n a n d S c r i b o n i a , o r t h e c h i l d is s i m p l y a n id e a l b u c o l i c i m a g e .7 3

B u t a c c o r d i n g to w h a t h a s b e e n d e s c r i b e d b y N i s b e t a s t h e ' e a s t e r n '

i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e E c l o g u e , V e r g i l d o e s n o t n e c e s s a r i ly n e e d t o

h a v e a n y p a r t i c u l a r b i r t h in m i n d . T h e r e w e r e a w h o l e v a r i e t y o f

e a s t e r n re l ig i o us e x p e c t a t i o n s a n d c o n n o t a t i o n s , f r om t h e A l e x a n d r i a n

f es ti va l o f H e l i o s w h e r e t h e i n i t i a t e d p r o c l a i m e d t h e i n c r e a s e o f l i g h t

f o l lo w i n g a V i r g i n b i r t h , t h r o u g h H o r u s b o r n o f I si s, t o J e w i s h

M e s s i a n i s m (Is. 7 , 1 4) . T h e i m a g e o f t h e d i v i n e c h i l d is p a r t a n d p a r

c e l o f t h e d e s c r i p t i o n o f a m i l l e n n i a l f u t u r e .7 4

T h e i d e n t i t y of t h e puer is h o w e v e r fo r o u r p u r p o s e s i r r e l e v a n t . B y

t h e t i m e t h a t V e r g i l h a d w r i t t e n t h e Georgics ( 29 B . C . ) , h e h a d b e c o m e

f ri en d o f M a e c e n a s a n d m e m b e r of h is c ir c le a r o u n d O c t a v i a n .7 5

I n

Georgics 1, 2 4 - 4 2 , h e c l e a r l y r e f le c t s, t w o y e a r s a ft e r A c t i u m , t h e

a m b i g u i t y i n t e n t i o n a l l y c u l t i v a t e d b y t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t r e g a r d i n g

C a e s a r ' s d iv i n it y . N o t y e t d i v i n e , V e r g i l n e v e r t h e l e s s p o n d e r s o n :

tuque adeo, quern mox quae sint habitura deorum

concilia, incertum est, urbisne invisere, Caesar,terrarumque velis curam te maximus orbis

auctorem Jrugum tempestatumque potentem

accipiet, cingens matema tempora myrto,

7 2

C . B a i l e y , Religion in Virgil, ( O x f o r d : C l a r e n d o n 1 9 3 5 ) , p . 1 9 2 , s a w it p u r e l y in

t e r m s o f t h e e x p e c t e d h e i r o f O c t a v i a n . B o y l e ( 1 9 7 6 ) , p . 1 1 3 l i s t s o t h e r p o s s i b i l i t i e sa s ( i ) t h e h o p e d - f o r c h i l d o f A n t h o n y a n d O c t a v i a ( s i s t e r o f O c t a v i a n ) , ( i i ) A s i n i u s

G a l l u s , P o l l i o ' s b a b y , ( iii) A i o n H e l l e n i s t i c g o d o f t i m e a n d r e n e w a l , ( iv ) M a r c e l l u s ,

O c t a v i a ' s s o n b y a p r e v i o u s m a r r i a g e .7 3

W . B e r g , Early Virgil, ( L o n d o n : A t h l o n e P re s s 1 9 7 4 ) , p p . 1 6 7 - 1 7 2 p r e s e n t s t h e

s o l u t i o n t h a t puer i s a n i d e a l i m a g e t h r o u g h o u t t h e Eclogues f o r h i s b u c h o l i c h e r o e s ,

h i s s h e p h e r d p o e t s w h o m u s t h a v e c h i l d - l i k e s o u l s . D a p h n i s h a s t h i s t i t l e i n Eclogues

5 , 5 4 , cf. 4 , 1 1 w h e r e h e i s " a d o r n m e n t o f t h e w o r l d a n d a d o r n m e n t o f t h e a g e . " T h e

iuvenis in Eclogue 1 a n d t h e puer iuvenis a n d D a p h n i s a r e d e i f i e d h e r o e s . V e r g i l ' s r e l a

t i o n t o P o l l i o w a s l i t e r a r y a n d n o t p o l i t i c a l , a n d h e w a s h o n o u r i n g h i m w i t h a l l u

s i o n s t o h i s p o e t r y ( p p . 1 5 8 - 1 6 2 ) .7 4

N i s b e t ( 1 9 7 8 ) , p . 6 2 .7 5

B a i l e y ( 1 9 3 5 ) , p p . 1 8 7 1 9 6 .




an deus immensi venias maris ac tua nautae

numina sola colant, tibi serviat ultima T huk. . .

/ . 2 4 - 3 07 6

C l e a r l y h e r e t h e puer w h o s e b i r t h w a s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e pax deorum

s h o w n i n t h e n a t u r a l o r d e r i n w h i c h e a r t h y i e ld e d its b o u n t y a n d

w h o w o u l d r u l e t h e g l o b e i n Eclogue 4 , 1 7 (reget patriis virtutibus orbem )

h a s b e c o m e O c t a v i a n . I n Georgics 1,27 i t is O c t a v i a n w h o , w h e n

a c c e p t e d b y t h e g o d s i n t o t h e i r n u m b e r , w ill p r o v e t o b e b o t h t h e

" i n c r e a s e r o f t h e c r o p s (auctorem frugum)" a n d " t h e m a s t e r o f t h e s e a

s o n s (tempestatum que po tmtern)", a n d w e l c o m e d a s s u c h b y t h e " g r e a t

w o r l d (maxim us orbis)" (I. 2 6 ) B u t a p p a r e n t l y t h e g o d s h a v e n o t y e t

d e c i d e d t o a d m i t O c t a v i a n t o t h e i r r a n k s . L a t e r V e r g i l c h a s t i s e s t h e

g o d s o n O c t a v i a n ' s b e h a l f f or th e i r e n v y o f h i m (/. 5 0 2 - 5 0 3 ) , a n d

e n t r e a t s t h e m : " P r e v e n t n o t t hi s y o u n g m a n (iuvenem) f r o m a i d i n g a n

a g e u p t u r n e d (everso . . . succurrere saeculo)" (I. 5 0 0 - 5 0 1 ) T h e puer h a s

b e c o m e a iuvenis, l ik e D a p h n i s i n t h e E c l o g u e s .7 7

W h e n V e r g i l w r i t e s t h e Aeneid ( 2 9 - 1 9 B . C . ) , A u g u s t u s d u l y e m e r g e s

a s b r i n g e r o f t h e g o l d e n a g e a n d a t l e a s t d e s t i n e d f or d i v i n i ty . T r o j a n

C a e s a r s ha l l d e s c e n d f r o m J u l i u s " w h o s h a l l l i m i t h is e m p i r e w i t h

t h e o c e a n , a n d h is f a m e w i t h t h e s t a r s . " ( 1 ,2 8 7 ) W h e n V e n u s h i s

m o t h e r w e l c o m e s h i m t o h e a v e n , t h e n " t h e h a r s h a g e s s h a ll s o ft en

w h e n w a r s h a v e c e a s e d (aspera turn positis mitescent saecula bellis)" (1 ,291)

T h u s i n t h e f a m o u s li n e s V e r g i l c a n s i n g t h e p r o p h e c y o f t h e S i b y l

h e a r d i n t h e u n d e r w o r l d :

Hie vir, hie est, tibi quern promitti saepius audis,

Augustus Caesar, divi genus, aurea condet

saecula qui rursus Latio regnata per arva

Saturno quondam. . . .

6 , 7 9 1 - 7 9 47 8

7 6

" A n d Y o u O C a e s a r , w h a t t h e c o u n c i l s o f t h e g o d s w il l d e c i d e f or y o u e r e

l o n g , o n l y i n t h i s i s u n c e r t a i n , w h e t h e r y o u c h o o s e t o l o o k t o t h e c a r e o f t h e c i t y

a n d o f [ a l l ] l a n d s , a n d t h e m i g h t y w o r l d w e l c o m e y o u a s t h e a u g m e n t o r o f t h e i r

c r o p s a n d t h e p o t e n t a t e o f t h e s e a s o n s , w r e a t h i n g y o u r b r o w w i t h y o u r d i v i n e

m o t h e r ' s m y r d e , o r w h e t h e r y o u c o m e a s g o d o f t h e v a s t s e a a n d s a i lo r s w o r s h i p

y o u r d i v i n i t y a l o n e , t o y o u f a r t h e st T h u l e w i l l s u b m i t . . ."7 7

S e e n o t e 4 9 a b o v e . S e e a l s o Georg. 3 , 1 3 - 4 4 ; 4 , 5 6 0 . S e e a l so H o r a c e Epode 1 6 ;

O v i d , Metamorph., 1 5 , 8 6 7 - 8 7 0 . C f. R o s s T a y l o r ( 1 9 3 1 ) , p p . 1 7 5 - 1 8 0 .

7 8 « T h i s j s t h e m a r i 5 m i s i s n e w h o m y o u h a v e o ft e n h e a r e d p r o m i s e d , A u g u s t u s

C a e s a r , s o n o f G o d , w h o s ha l l f o u n d t h e g o l d e n a g e o n c e m o r e o v e r t h e field s

w h e r e S a t u r n o n c e r e i g n e d . . . "



THE F O UNDAT I O NS O F T H E I M P E RI AL CUL T 5 9

T h e g o l d e n a g e h a s c o m e r o u n d a g a i n i n t h e c y c l e o f fortuna o r

e iu o cpu iv r i, a n d a sp ec if ic p e r s o n is t o b r i n g i t— A u g u s tu s t h e vir a n d

n e i t h e r t h e puer n o r t h e iuvenis. T h e g o ld e n ag e a s a t t h e first, a n d

t h e k i n g d o m w h i c h S a t u r n ru l e s , h a v e r e t u r n e d i n t h e u n e n d i n g

c y c l e. W e h e r e se e t h e m i r a c u l o u s a c h i e v e n t o f t h e pax deorum t h r o u g h

t h e i m p e r i a l , a u g u r i a l r i te s . T h e pax t h a t h e h a s t h u s e x e c u t e d s u b

d u e s n a t u r e a s w e l l a s s o c i e t ie s , a n d h a s s t a b i l is e d a n d m a d e r e l a

t iv e ly p e r m a n e n t t h e r e t u r n o f t h e g o l d e n a g e .

I t w a s n e c e s s a r y fo r A u g u s t u s t o c o n t r o l t h e a p p a r a t u s o f p r o p h e c y

a l o n g w i t h augurium a n d haruspicium. I n Res Gestae 7 , 3 A u g u s t u s h a d

l is te d h i s m e m b e r s h i p o f t h e quindecim virum sacris faciundis w h o s e

r e s p o n s i b i l i t y i t w a s t o c o n s u l t t h e S i b y l l in e b o o k s . H i s m e m b e r s h i p

a m o u n t e d t o c o n t r o l o f t h a t b o d y . A s S u e t o n i u s p o i n t s o u t (Augustus

3 1 , 1 - 2 ) , o n t h e d e a t h o f L e p i d u s h e a s s u m e d t h i s o ff ic e , a n d c o l

l e c t e d a n o n y m o u s o r a c l e s i n c l u d i n g s o m e p a r t s o f t h e S i b y ll in e o r a c l e s

o f w h i c h h e c l e a r l y i n t e n d e d t o p r o v i d e hi s o w n a p p r o v e d v e r s i o n .

H e b u r n e d m o r e t h a n t w o t h o u s a n d b o o k s o f o r a c le s i n g e n e r a l c i r

c u l a t i o n , b u t a l s o r e m o v e d s o m e o f t h e b o o k s o f t h e S i b y l l in e o r a

c le s t h e m s e l v e s . T h e d e f i n i t i o n o f t h e saecula aurea, a n d t h e c o n d i t i o n s

f or its e x i s t e n c e a n d c o n t i n u a n c e w e r e s e c u r e ly u n d e r h i s c o n t r o l .

V e r g i l h a d l i v e d t o s e e n e i t h e r t h e d e i f i c a t i o n n o r t h e i n a u g u r a

t i o n o f t h e saecula aurea, w h i c h t o o k p l a c e i n 1 7 B . C . o n e y e a r a f te r

h i s d ea th , a s we sh a l l n o w b r i e f ly d i s cu s s .

P A R T B . T H E I N A U G U R A TI O N A N D R E C E P T I O N OF

THE I M P E R I A L C U L T

A S ib y ll in e o r a c l e w a s p r o d u c e d w h i c h p r o p h e s i e d t h e c e l e b r a t i o n

o f t h e ludi saeculares i n o r d e r t o i n a u g u r a t e t h e n e w a g e ( 1 7 B . C . ) .

T h i s w a s o n e p o s i ti v e f ru it fr o m A u g u s t u s ' m e m b e r s h i p o f t h e quin-

decimviri sacris faciundis b e f o r e h i s a s s u m p t i o n o f t h e p o s i t i o n o f PontifexMaximus o n L e p i d u s ' d e a t h ( 1 3 B . C . ) . H o r a c e c o m p o s e d t h e Carmen

Saeculare f o r t h i s o c c a s i o n , i n w h i c h s p e c i a l h o n o u r w a s g i v e n t o

A p o l l o a n d D i a n a , t h e p a t r o n g o d s o f A u g u s t u s o n t h e P a l a t i n e h i ll .

T h e r e w as a l o ca l t e m p le o f A p o l lo i n t h e v i c in i t y o f t h e field o f

A c t i u m o n w h i c h O c t a v i a n w o n t h e c r i t i c a l b a t t l e i n 3 1 B . C . A s o n e

o f t h e a ct s o f c o m m e m o r a t i o n , t hi s t e m p l e w a s e x t e n d e d , a n d c o i n s

w e r e s t ru c k i n A s i a M i n o r s h o w i n g O c t a v i a n w e a r i n g a l a u r e l c r o w nf a s h i o n e d lik e t h a t o f A p o l l o . B u t i n R o m e i ts e lf t h e t e m p l e o f A p o l l o




w a s d e d i c a t e d n e x t t o O c t a v i a n ' s h o m e o n t h e P a l a t i n e ( 9 th O c t o b e r ,

2 8 B . C . ) , o n t h e d o o r s o f w h i c h d i s p l a y e d t h e f o r m of Apollo Vindex.

I n t h e l i b r a r y a d j o i n i n g t h e t e m p l e w e r e t o b e f o u n d a s t a t u e o f

O c t a v i a n , habitu ac statu Apollonis ( S u e t o n i u s , Aug. 2 9 , 3 ) . 7 9 A s w e h a v e

s e e n , t h is w a s t h e f o r m o f d r e s s w h i c h a M a r c u s F u r i u s C a m i l l u s

c o u l d o n ly h a v e w o r n w i t h i r r e v e r e n c e ( Liv y 5 , 2 3 , 4 - 1 1 ) , b u t w h i c h

t h e A u g u s t u s , o f s u p e r h u m a n p r o p o r t i o n s (visa species viri maioris quam

pro hum ano habitu au gustiorisque), c o u l d n o w w e a r a s b e f i t t i n g h i s status

n e a r i n g d i v i n i t y ( 8 , 6 , 1 2 ) .

T h u s t h e first p o i n t o f a l o n g l i n e o f d e v e l o p m e n t w a s e s t a b l i s h e d

t h a t w a s t o l e a d t o t h e E m p e r o r b e i n g r e g a r d e d a s A p o l l o , Sol Invictus,

o f a u n i v e r s a l i m p e r i a l a n d p a g a n r e l ig i o n . A p o l l o w a s t h e g o d w h o ,

a c c o r d i n g to P r o p e r t i u s , h a d e st a b li s he d b y h is c o m m a n d t o O c t a v i a n

a n e w w o r l d o r d e r a s mundi servator.80 I t w a s A p o l l o w h o h a d p r e s i d e d

a t A c t i u m .8 1

W e s h o u l d h o w e v e r n o t e t h a t d e d i c a t i o n o f t h e Forum

Iulium a n d t h e t e m p l e o f Divus Julius i n 2 9 B . C . e m p h a s i s e d t h e c o n

n e c t i o n w i t h V e r g i l ' s filius dei, genus deorum a n d t h u s b o u n d e s c h a t o -

l o g y a n d c u l t s e c u r e l y t o g e t h e r . T h e carmen saeculare i n v o k e d A p o l l o

a n d n o t J u p i t e r C a p i t o l i n u s .8 2

L e t u s s e e h o w t h e Ara Pacis p r o v e d

t o b e a n i c o n o f t h is d e v e l o p m e n t .

2B 1 . The A r a P a c i s and the p a x d e o r u m

T h e Ara Pacis, d e d i c a t e d i n 9 B . C . , g a v e p r o m i n e n c e t o A u g u s t u s

a n d A g r i p p a a s v e i le d sacerdotes a b o u t t o p r e s id e o v e r t h e sac r i fi ce a sp a r t o f t h e augurium pacis t h a t p r o v i d e d t h e pax deorum. T h i s w a s t h e

e v e n t t h a t w e h a v e a r g u e d w a s a n t i c i p a t e d b y b o t h L i v y ( 1 , 1 9 , 1 - 3 ;

2 8 , 1 2 , 1 2 ) a n d b y L u c a n a s t h e o u t c o m e t o t h e l a t t e r 's u n f i n i s h e d

e p i c o f t h e C i v i l W a r ( 2 A 4 . 2 . 1 a n d 4 . 3 . 1 ) . T h e i c o n o g r a p h y o f t h e

Ara a s s o c i a t e d t h e s e c u l ti c a c t s w i t h t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e saeculum

aureum. O n th e le ft p a n e l o f t h e ea s t e rn s id e w e f ind a d e p i c t i o n o f

T e l l u s (P l a t e 2 ), w h o s e l o in s a b o u n d w i t h t h e i n c r e a s e o f t h e e a r t hp r o m i s e d a s i n V e r g i l , Eclogues, 4 , 1 8 - 2 5 . I n t h e Carmen Saeculare,

c o m p o s e d f o r t h e Ludi Saeculares o f 17 B . C . , H o r a c e h a d t a k e n u p

t h is t h e m e a n d s u n g :

7 9

F i s h w i c k (1 9 8 7 ) , 1 , 1 p p . 8 1 - 8 2 .8 0

P r o p e r t i u s 4 , 6 , 3 7 .8 1

S e e a l s o V e r g i l , Aen. 8 , 7 0 4 - 7 0 5 : " A c t iu s h a e c c e r n e n s a r c u m i n t e d e b a t A p o l l od e s u p e r . . ."

8 2

F i s h w i c k (1 9 8 7 ) 1 ,1 p . 8 8 .



T H E F O U N D A T I O N S O F T H E I M P E R I A L C U L T 6 1

Fertilis Jrugum pecorisque Tellus

spicea donet Cererem corona

nutriant fetus et aquae salubres,

et Iovis Aurae. . . Carmen Saeculare, 2 9 - 3 3 .8 3

O x e n a n d s h e e p a c c o m p a n y Tellus i n t h e p a n e l w h i l e t w o n y m p h s ,

o n e w i t h a s w a n a n d t h e o t h e r a d r a g o n , t h e Aurae Velificantes, s y m

b o l i s e a i r a n d w a t e r r e s p e c t i v e l y ( P la t e s 3 a n d 4) . M o r e o v e r , t h e

i n t e r n a l d e c o r a t i o n s o f t h e e n c l o s i n g w a l l c o n t i n u e t h is t h e m e o f t h e

saeculum aureum. T h e u p p e r s tr i p o f t h is d e c o r a t i o n " is p u n c t u a t e d b y

t w e l v e l u x u r i a n t g a r l a n d s , m a d e u p o f d i f fe r e n t k i n d s o f f r u i t — g r a p e s ,

figs, a p p l e s , p e a r s , o li ve s , p l u m s , p i n e c o n e s , p o m e g r a n a t e s — a n d e v e n

s p o n t a n e o u s v e g e t a t i o n — o a k , iv y l a u re l , a n d p o p p i e s . "8 4

T h u s t h e

saeculum aureum is t h e u n m i s t a k a b l e a n d i n t e n t i o n a l p o i n t o f t h e i c o n o

g r a p h y o f t h e augurium pa cis. A r o u n d t h e h e a d o f T e l l u s ' c h i l d c l u s

t e r t h e p r o d u c e o f s u b e r a b u n d a n t n a t u r e ( P la te 5 ).

I n 1 3 B . C . , o n L e p i d u s ' d e a t h A u g u s t u s b e c a m e Ponttfex Maximus.

I t w as a t t h i s p o in t t h a t h e h a n d e d o v e r t h e o ff ic ia l r e s id e n c e o f t h e

Pontfex Maximus i n t h e f o r u m t o t h e V e s t a l V i r g i n s , a n d t u r n e d h i s

o w n h o u s e i n t o t h e T e m p l e o f V e s t a . H e r e , i l l u m i n a t e d b y a fire

t h a t w a s e v e r b u r n i n g , w o r s h i p w a s o f f e r e d t o V e s t a a n d t h e Penates

o f A u g u s t u s .8 5

I t is i m p o r t a n t t o n o t e h o w , w i t h t h e r e m o v a l o f h i s

o w n h o u s e a n d its h o u s e h o l d g o d s f r o m t h e p r i v a t e t o t h e p u b l i c

d o m a i n , A u g u s t u s h a d g i v e n t h e c o m m o n p r a c t i c e o f a n c e s t o r w o r

s h i p a n e w a n d p u b l i c f o c u s . O a t h s w e r e n o w t o b e s w o r n b y h i s

d i v i n e Genius. I t w a s t h e s w e a r i n g b y t h e Genius o f t h e e m p e r o r t h a t

w a s t h e e s s e n t ia l f e a t u r e o f t h a t c u l t u s o p p o s e d b y e a r l y C h r i s t i a n i t y .

2 B 2 . L a r e s and P e n a t e s : From M a n e s to G e n i u s

I n 3 0 B . C . t h e s e n a t e h a d p a s s e d a d e c r e e t h a t a l i b a t i o n b e p o u r e d

t o O c t a v i a n ' s Genius a t e v e r y b a n q u e t , b o t h p u b l i c a n d p r i v a t e ( D i o5 1 , 1 9 , 7 ) . T h u s t h e c u l t o f t h e Genius o f O c t a v i a n f o u n d i ts w a y i n t o

8:* F e r t i l e i n c r o p s a n d c a t t l e s h a l l M o t h e r E a r t h ,

c r o w n C e r e s w i t h h e r g a r l a n d o f w o v e n c o r n ,

m a y t h e y i n c r e a s e t h e p r o d u c e t h o s e h e a l t h y r a i n s ,

a n d J o v e ' s g e n t l e w i n d s .8 4 G . S a u r o n , L e M e s s a g e s y m b o l i q u e d e s r i n c e a u x d e l 'A r a P a c i s A u g u s t a e , in

CRAI 1 2 6 ( 1 9 8 2 ) , p p . 8 1 - 1 0 1 ; Z a n k e r ( 1 9 9 0 ) , p p . 1 7 2 - 1 8 3 ; G a l i n s k y ( 1 9 9 2 ) , p p .

4 5 8 - 4 6 8 ; B i a n ch i ( 19 9 4 ) , p . 2 5 .B f' R o s s T a y l o r ( 1 9 3 1 ) , p p . 1 7 7 - 1 7 9 .




p r i v a t e h o u s e s , s i n c e l i b a t i o n s h a d b e c o m e a r e g u l a r f e a t u r e o f t h e

R o m a n d i n n e r .8 6

N o w i n 12 B . C . , w h e n h e h a d b e c o m e Pontifex

Maximus, t h e e m p e r o r ' s Genius w as m a d e p a r t o f t h e o ff ic ia l o a th o f

t h e s t a t e . 8 7 A l t a r s w e r e d e d i c a t e d t o t h e Lares Augusti (Plate 10) .

O n e c ri ti c al f e a t u r e o f R e p u b l i c a n , R o m a n r e l ig i o n , w h i c h s h o u l d

n o t b e o v e r l o o k e d , w a s t h e h o u s e h o l d c u l t s t o a n c e s t r a l genii, a n d t o

t h e Lares a n d Penates, t h e s o - c a ll e d g o d s o f h e a r t h a n d h o m e . T h e

h e a r t h o f t h e h o u s e w a s s a c r e d , f e s t o o n e d w i t h flow ers a t e a c h p h a s e

o f t h e l u n a r m o n t h , a t Kalendae, Nonae a n d Idus. T h e r e b u r n e d th e

f i r e t h a t w a s c o n s i d e r e d s a c r e d . H e r e e a c h d a y t h e paterfamilias offered

a p o r t io n o f foo d , ass i gn ed to th e sacr i f ic ia l flames , fo r th e Genii o f

t h e d e p a r t e d o f t h e f am i l y, w h o w e r e t h e s e m i - d i v i n e Lares et Penates 88

T h o u g h d o u b t s h a v e b e e n e x p r e s s e d a b o u t t h e p r e c i se h i s t o ri c a l

o r i g i n o f t h e c u l t , O v i d (Fasti 3 , 5 5 ,5 7 ) p o r t r a y s t h e d e v e l o p e d f o r m

o f t h e cu l t o f t h e g o d d es s Larentia as a f e s t i v a l o f t h e d ead .8 9

T h e

p r i v a t e c e r e m o n i e s f o r t h e Lares t h a t O v i d d e s c r i b e s s e e m t o b e

a n c i e n t . I t m u s t b e r e m e m b e r e d t h a t o r ig i n al ly th e Di Manes w e r e

s h a d o w y a n d o n l y v a g u e l y p e r s o n a l b e i n g s , m a d e fu lly p e r s o n a l o n l y

b y t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f a c o n c e p t o f p e r s o n a l i m m o r t a l i t y i n t h e first

c e n t u r y B . C . C l e a r l y t h e d e p a r t e d c a n n o t b e v e n e r a t e d a s i n d i v i d

u a l p e r s o n a l i t ie s b e f o r e t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e id e a o f p e r s o n a l

i m m o r t a l i t y h a s t a k e n p l a c e . A l t h o u g h t h e r e f o r e i t m i g h t b e t r u e

t h a t : " G e n e r a l l y h o w e v e r , w h e r e t h e s o u ls a r e t h o u g h t t o b e p r e s e n t

o n e m a d e a s a c ri fi c e t o t h e m , " t h is c o u l d o n l y b e p o s s i b l e w h e n

s u c h s o ul s w e r e c o n c e i v e d a s d i s ti n c t a n d d i s t i n g u i s h a b l e p e r s o n a l

e n t i ti e s , t h a t is t o s a y w h e n t h e c o n c e p t o f p e r s o n a l i m m o r t a l i t y h a d

a c h i e v e d a c l e a r a r t i c u l a t i o n .9 0

8 6 Ibid. p p . 1 5 1 - 1 5 2 .8 7

F . B o m e r , D e r E i d b e i m G e n i u s d e s K a i s e r s , i n Athen. 4 4 ( 1 9 6 6 ) , p p . 7 7 - 1 3 3 .8 8

B a y e t ( 1 9 5 7 ) , p . 6 5 : " L a g r a n d e f et e d u G e n i u s e s t a l 'a n n i v e r s a i r e d e n a i s -

s a n c e d u p a t e r f a m i l i a s . M a i s o r i g i n a l l e m e n t l e G e n i u s e st b i e n a u t r e : p r i n c i p e d ef e c o n i t e g e n e t i q u e , c o m m e l ' i n d i q u e s o n n o m , e t a s s u r a n t p a r l ' i n d i v id u a u q u e l il

e s t a t t a c h e l a p e r p e t u i t e d e s g e n e r a t i o n s . "8 9

E . S a m t e r , Familienfeste der Griechen und Romer, ( B er li n: R e i m e r 1 9 0 1 ) , p p . 1 1 5 - 1 1 7

w h e r e h e c o n c l u d e s : " D a n u n d a s F e s t L a r e n t a , d i e L a r e n t a l i e n , e i n T o t e n f e s t i s t ,

s o i s t a u s s e i n e r B e d e u tu n g e i n S c h l u s s a u f d e n g l e i c h a r t i g e n C h a r a k te r d e s L a r e n k u l t e s

e r l a u b t . " W i s s o w a ( 1 8 9 0 ) h a d a r g u e d a g a i n s t t h e d e r i v a t i o n o f t h e c u l t f r o m t h e

w o r s h i p o f t h e s o u l s o f t h e d e p a r t e d , p . 1 1 9 .9 0 Ibid. p . 1 2 1 : " U b e r a l l a b e r , w o d i e S e e l e n a n w e s e n d g e d a c h t w e r d e n , o p f e r t

m a n i h n e n . D a r u m w e r d e n d i e S e e l e n d er A h n e n v o n d e n R o m e r a u s se r a m G r a b

u n d i m H a u s e a u c h a m K r e u z w e g v e r e hr t ." S e e a l s o E . J o b b e - D u v a l , Les Morts mal-faisants: "Larvae, Lem ures" d'apres le droit et les croyances populaires des Romains, (Paris :

R e c u e i l S i r e y 1 9 2 4 ) , p p . 2 - 6 .




T h e c h a n g e f r o m t h e Di Manes as a g en e ra l i s ed co l l ec t i v i t y o f t h e

d e p a r t e d t o a d e s i g n a t i o n o f a p e r s o n a l s u r v i v i n g s o u l is m a r k e d w e l l

i n e x a m p l e s t a k e n f ro m t h e e x c a v a t i o n s u n d e r S t. P e t e r ' s o f t h e

p a g a n t o m b s t h a t s t o o d o r ig i n a l l y o n t h e V a t i c a n h i l ls i d e. A n i n d i v i d

u a l n a m e f o ll o w in g th i s g e n e r a l d e s i g n a t i o n s h o w s t h e c o n s e r v a t i s m

o f fu n e ra ry ep i t ap h s in ev o k in g a w o r ld v i ew th a t h as b e en t r an sce n d ed .

C i c e r o ' s d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e d r e a m o f S c i p i o A f r i c a n u s (De Republica

6 ,1 0 ) i n w h i c h h e is a l iv e a n d w i t h t h e i m m o r t a l s i n t h e m i l k y w a y ,

o r t h e i n d i v i d u a l s o u l s d e s c r i b e d i n A e n e a s ' v i s i t t o t h e u n d e r w o r l d

i n V e r g i l , Aeneid, 6 , is a w h o l e c o n c e p t u a l w o r l d a w a y f r o m e p i t a p h s

su ch a s sit sibi terra levis ( " m a y t h e e a r t h r e s t l ig h t u p o n y o u " ) a n d

t h e a m o r p h o u s u n i o n w i t h t h e e a r t h g o d d e s s e x p r e s s e d i n s u c h l i n e s

as : cinis sum cinis terra est terra dea est ergo ego mortua n on sum ( " I am ash ,

a s h is e a r t h , e a r t h i s d i v i n e , t h e r e f o r e I a m n o t d e a d " ) .9 1

T h e r e p

r e s e n t a t i o n s o f s u c h i n h a b i t a n t s of t h e V a t i c a n m a u s o l e a a s M a r c i u s

H e r m e s o r M a r c i a T h r a s o n i s , o r t h e i m a g e r y o f t h e is le s o f th e

b l e s s e d o r t h e B a c c h i c m e n a g e r i e w h e r e t h e i n d i v i d u a l w o u l d r e p o s e

i n e t e r n a l b l e s s e d n e s s , a l l r e v e a l e d a c u l t u r e w h i c h , f r o m t h e l a t e

first c e n t u r y B . C . , h a d b e c o m e o b s e ss e d w i t h p e r s o n a l i m m o r t a l i t y .9 2

T h i s c h a n g e to a c o n v i c t i o n o f p e r s o n a l i m m o r t a l i t y u n d o u b t e d l y

se rv ed to g iv e sh a rp e r d e f in i t i o n t o t h e genii o f h e a r t h a n d h o m e , t h e

Lares a n d Penates, w h o w e r e n o l o n g e r t h e g e n e r a l i s e d s p i r i t s o f t h e

d e a d b u t c o u l d b e r e g a r d e d a s d i s t i n c d y s u r v iv i n g i n d i v i d u a l s . I t w a s

t hi s i n d i v i d u a l i s m t h a t A u g u s t u s c o u l d n o w d e p l o y in m a k i n g t h e

e m p e r o r w o r s h i p o f t h e e a s t e r n c ul ts c o n s i s t e n t w i t h R o m a n r e l ig i o u s

t r a d i t i o n . I n 7 B . C . h e s et u p t h e Lares Compitiales, t h e "Lares a t t h e

c r o s s r o a d s " w h e r e h e se t t h e i m a g e o f h is o w n Genius a m o n g s t t h e

s t a t u e s .9 3

W e h a v e p r e s e r v e d a n a l t a r o n w h i c h ministri o f a compi-

tu m a r e d e p i c t e d h o l d i n g s ta t u e t t e s o f t h e Lares a n d Genius Augusti

(Plate 11) .

W e m a y n o w s e e h o w , i n t h e u n f o l d i n g lo g ic o f t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t ,

d e if ie d i n d i v i d u a l q u a li t ie s c o u l d n o w f o r m a c o h e r e n t c o n n e c t i o n

b e t w e e n t h e n e w p u b l i c c u l t o f t h e A u g u s t a n Lares a n d t h e saeculum

aureum.

91 CIL 6 , 4 , 2 9 6 0 9 a n d 9 , 3 1 8 4 d i sc u s s e d i n J . T o y n b e e a n d J . W a r d P e r k in s , The

Shrine of St. Peter and the Vatican Excavations, ( L o n d o n : L o n g m a n s G r e e n 1 9 5 6 ) , p p .

1 0 9 - 1 1 6 .9 2 Ibid., p p . 7 3 - 9 3 .m

R o s s T a y l o r ( 1 9 3 1 ) , p p . 1 8 4 - 1 8 6 ; F i s h w i ck ( 1 9 8 7 ) 1 ,1 p p . 8 4 - 8 5 .




2 B 3 . The cultic deification of virtues

T h e s h a r p e n i n g o f i n d i v i d u a l i t y o f t h e Lares, t h e i r t r a n s f o r m a t i o n

f r o m t h e Di Manes ( t h e " G h o s t G o d s " ) i n t o d i s t i n c t , p e r s o n a l i s e d genii,e n a b l e d a n e w p u b l i c c ul t o f t h e e m p e r o r ' s i n d i v i d u a l q u a l i ti e s t o

b e f o r m e d . S u c h q u a l i t i e s a s Concordia, Pax, Fortuna, o r Salus i n t u r n

c o n n e c t e d w e l l w i t h t h e m e s s i a n i c q u a l i t i e s o f t h e s e v i r t u e s a s c h a r

a c t e r i s i n g t h e saeculum aureum. L et u s sk e t ch b r i e f ly o u r j u s t i f i ca t i o n

f o r s u c h a n a s s e r t i o n .

C u l t s o f v i r t u e s w e r e e s t a b l i s h e d in R e p u b l i c a n t i m e s . W e find f o r

e x a m p l e t h e t e m p l e o f Concordia, b u i l t i n 2 1 6 B . C . , v o w e d b y t h ep r a e t o r L . M a n l i u s f or d e l i v e r a n c e fr o m s e d i t i o n , o f Salus a n d Victoria

a f t e r t h e S a m n i t e W a r s , a n d o f Fors Fortuna b u i l t b y S p . C a r v i l i u s

a ft er h is c a m p a i g n a t C o m i n i u m a n d i n E t r u r i a .9 4

As such the de i f i

c a t i o n o f s u c h v i r t u e s i n e a r l y R o m a n r e l i g i o n w a s o f a p i e c e w i t h

s im i l a r p rac t i ce s i n t h e He l l en i s t i c E as t . He re we f i n d cu l t s o f N{KT|,

Eipr|vr| , n i a x i q , E u a e p e u a , E u v o u i a , O i X a v 6 p c o 7 u a , OiAoaTopyia , a n d

A i Kai oau vr ] .

9 5

T h e c u l t o f Genius Pub licus m o r e o v e r w a s t o f o r m a b r i d g e b e t w e e n

t h e p r i v a t e a n d h o m e - b a s e d l i b a t i o n s a n d t h e genii o f d e p a r t e d a n c e s

t o r s , a n d p u b l i c p e r s o n i f i c a t i o n s o f Af^iioq i n t h e G r e e k c i t y s t a t e s .9 6

N o w t h e d i v i n e e s s e n c e w o r s h i p p e d w a s n o t t h a t o f s h a d o w y , i n d i

v i d u a l sp i r it s i n p r o c e s s o f d e v e l o p m e n t i n t o full p e r s o n a l i t i e s b y t h e

l a t e R e p u b l i c . R a t h e r it w a s t h e c o l l e c ti v e p e r s o n a l i t y o f t h e s o c ia l

g r o u p . F u r t h e r m o r e t h e c ul t o f t h e g o d d e s s R o m a a s a p e r s o n i fi c a ti o no f R o m e i ts e lf w as c l ea r ly l i n k ed wi th su c h an o b j e c t i f i ca t i o n o f t h e

c o l l e c t i v e p e r s o n a l i t y .

At f i r s t su ch d e i f i ed v i r t u es were s een a s t h e g o d o r g o d d es s t h a t

a c c o m p a n i e d t h e r e p u b l i c a n g e n e r a l . B u t f r o m t h e t i m e o f S u l l a

o n w a r d s t h e H e l l e n i s t i c t e n d e n c y w a s n o t s imply to see the de i f ied

v i r t u e s a s a c c o m p a n y i n g , b u t i n d e e d as b e i n g i n c a r n a t e in , t h e r u l e r

himself. S u l l a a d o p t e d t h e t i d e o f Felix fo r h imsel f a f te r h i s v ic to r iesi n 8 2 B . C . . F r o m t h a t t i m e h e w r o t e h i s n a m e a s L . C o r n e l i u s S u l l a

F e l i x . L i k e w i s e h is a s s o c i a t e , Q . C a e c i l i u s M e t e l l u s P i u s , u s e d t h e

t i tl e o f P iu s i n h is n a m e .9 7

C i c e r o , i n Pro Lege Manilia (6 B.C. ) , d i s -

9 4

L i v y 2 2 , 3 7 , 5 ; 2 2 , 3 3 , 7 ; 1 0 , 4 6 , 1 4 . S e e a l so F e a r s ( 1 9 8 1 ) , p p . 8 3 4 - 8 3 5 .9 5

X e n o p h o n , Cyrop., 1 ,1 ,3 ; 8 , 1 , 2 1 - 2 , 2 8 ; 8 , 6 , 2 3 ; 8 , 4 , 6 - 8 ; 8 , 5 , 1 - 1 6 . C f. F e a r s ( 1 9 8 1 ) ,

p p . 8 4 9 - 8 5 0 .% Ibid. p p . 8 5 1 - 8 5 2 .97 Ibid. p . 8 7 7 .




t i n g u i s h e d b e t w e e n virtutes populi Rom ani a n d virtutes imperatoris w h e n

h e c l a im ed th a t t h e g i f t o f Fortuna a l o n g w i t h P o m p e y ' s o t h e r s u p e r

h u m a n a t t r i b u t e s (haec divina atque incredibilis virtus imperatoris)98 c o u l d

o n l y b e t h e i r s b y a c c e p t i n g P o m p e y h i m s e l f a s t h e i r i n c a r n a t i o n . A s

h e s ay s :

. . . s ince you are able to put in cha rge of the w ar a c om m an de r (impe

ratorem) in whom is a remarkable knowledge (in qu o sit eximia scientia) of

war, except ional v i r tue (singularis virtus), bril l iant authority (clarissima auc-

toritas), except ional for tune (egregia fortuna), why are you hes i ta t ing , O

R o m an s, from using this grea t benefit w hich is offered an d gr an ted

you by the immorta l gods , in o rder to p reserve and increase theRepubl ic?

Pro Lege Manilia, 1 6 . "

T h u s Virtus a n d Auctoritas co u ld a l so b e s a id n o t s im p ly t o b e cum eo

b u t r a t h e r in quo sit. Salus w a s a l s o t o a p p e a r o n c o i n s i n p r a y e r f or

P o m p e y ' s p e r s o n a l r e c o v e r y i n 5 0 B . C .1 0 0

Res Gestae 1 2 r e c o r d s t h e e r e c t i o n o f a n a l t a r n o t s i m p l y t o Pax

b u t t o Pax Augusta. T h e i c o n o g r a p h y o f t h e a l ta r ' s r e li e f s h o w s " t h e

e p i p h a n y o f Pax, Felicitas, Concordia a n d Pietas i n t h e p e r s o n o f A u g u s t u s

a n d hi s r e s t o r a t i o n o f t h e R o m a n a n d u n i v e r s a l o r d e r . "1 0 1

H i s a c h i e v e

m e n t o f t h e e x t r a o r d i n a r y pax deorum, r e q u i r e d b y t h e e x t r a o r d i n a r y

c o n v u l s i o n o f n a t u r e a s w e l l o f s o c i e t y t h a t w a s t h e c iv il w a r , w a s

t h e r e f o r e t h r o u g h t h e e x i s t e n c e o f t h e s e d i v i n e e n t it i e s e x c l u s iv e l y i n

h i m s e l f a l o n e . T i b e r i u s w a s t o p r o v i d e t h e f in a l c o n s u m m a t i o n o f

t hi s d e v e l o p m e n t i n 1 0 A . D . w h e n h e r e d e d i c a t e d t h e t e m p l e o f

Concordia sp ec i f i ca l l y a s t h a t o f Concordia Augusta. S u c h a d j e c t i v a l

q u a l i f i ca t i o n s su ch a s Juno Sospita o r Janus Quirinus d e f i n e d " t h e s p h e r e ,

f u n c t i o n a l o r t e m p o r a l , i n w h i c h t h e d e i t y h a s m a n i f e s t e d h e r c h a r

a c t e r i s t i c p o w e r . "1 0 2

F r o m T i b e r i u s o n w a r d s w e f i n d e x a m p l e s o f t h e

c o n t i n u e d q u a l i f i c a t i o n o f e a c h i n d i v i d u a l d e i t y i n t h e c u l t o f v i r t u e s

t h a t s h o w s t h e i r g r a d u a l a s s i m i l a t i o n b y t h e g o d h e a d o f t h e I m p e r i a l

9 8

C i c e r o , Pro Leg. ManiL, 1 3 .9 9 Ibid. p . 8 8 2 : " . . . t h e V i r t u e s w o r k t h e i r b e n e f i c e n t i n f l u e n c e u p o n t h e R o m a n

P e o p l e t h r o u g h t h e p e r s o n o f t h e c h a r i s m a t i c s a v io u r ; t h e s e V i r t u e s a r e e m b o d i e d

i n h i s p e r s o n , a n d t h u s u p o n h i s s a fe t y d e p e n d s th e w e l f a r e o f t h e c o m m o n w e a l t h . "

F o r a fu ll d is c u s s i o n , s e e J . R . F e a r s , T h e T h e o l o g y o f V i c t o r y a t R o m e , i n ANRW

2 , 1 7 , 2 ( 1 9 8 1 ) , p p . 7 9 7 - 8 0 0 .100 Ibid. p p . 8 8 2 - 8 8 3 .101 Ibid. p . 8 8 5 .102 Ibid. p . 8 8 6 .




s i d e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s o f Victoria, Oikumene, a n d Tellus. A l o n g s i d e Roma

sits A u g u s t u s w i t h t h e c o r n u c o p i c s i g n o f C a p r i c o r n o v e r h is h e a d , a n d

in h i s r i g h t h a n d i s t h e lituus. Fortuna is d e p i c t e d c r o w n i n g h i m . T h e

d i v i n e augur h a s i s s u e d i n t h e g o l d e n a g e a s h e sits a l r e a d y a m o n g s t

t h e g o d s a n d l o o k s d o w n o n l e s s e r m o r t a l s .1 0 7

N o w h e r e is m o r e c l e a rl y

to b e s een th e s ac r am en ta l ch a ra c t e r o f t h e Im p er i a l Cu l t w h ich th ro u g h

its r i t u a l m a i n t a i n s th e e x t r a o r d i n a r y pax deorum. O n t h e a l t a r o f t h e

Lares A u g u s t u s is d e p i c t e d a s augur w i t h lituus (P la te 7 ) .

L e t u s n o w s e e h o w t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t w a s r e c e i v e d i n A s i a M i n o r

a s w e l l a s P a l e s t i n e a n d S y r i a . H e r e w e c a n e x a m i n e t h e m a t e r i a l

f a b ri c o f t h e c u l t w h o s e i c o n o g r a p h y a n d t h e r el ig i o u s m e s s a g e t h a t

i t b o r e w a s t o s e t t h e s c e n e in w h i c h e a r l y C h r i s t i a n i t y d e v e l o p e d .

I t w a s i n t h e c o n t e x t o f A s i a M i n o r t h a t , i n p a r t i c u l a r , Luke-Acts,

C l e m e n t Corinthians, t h e Apocalypse, a n d t h e I g n a t i a n L e t t e r s w e r e all

t o b e w r i t t e n .

2 B 4 . The reception of the Imp erial Cult in the E ast

T h e r e c e p t i o n o f t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t i n A s i a M i n o r c o n f ir m s a n e m b r y

o n i c s y s t e m a t i c th e o l o g y o f t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t t h a t w e h a v e o u t l i n e d

in w h ic h t h e S to i c taSyo q d e t e rm in es a l l t h in g s b y n p o v o io c , o r b y

Fatum o r Fortuna.108 S u c h w a s t h e u l t i m a t e p h i l o s o p h i c a l o r m e t a

p h y s i c a l j u s t i fi c a t i o n w h i c h w a s le ft w h e n al l d e m y t h o l o g i s i n g i m a g e r y

o f a n y p e r s o n a l d e it y h a d b e e n e x c i s e d , a s L u c a n h a d w i s h e d t o

e x c i s e i t . B u t w e h a v e s e e n h o w t h a t m e t a p h y s i c s e r v i c e d a n e s c h a -t o l o g y , c y c li c i n c h a r a c t e r , in w h i c h t h e a g e o f i r o n a n d b r o n z e c o u l d

r e t u r n t o g o l d o n c e m o r e . W e h a v e a ls o s e e n al so h o w t h e i d e o

l og y o f t h e d i v i n e e m p e r o r m a d e t h a t g o l d e n a g e d e p e n d e n t b o t h

o n t h e e m p e r o r ' s p e r s o n , i n t h a t h e i n c a r n a t e d i ts q u a l i t ie s o f salus,

fortuna, pax, e t c . , a n d o n th e cu l t i c r it e s o f t h e auspicium. T h r o u g h a n

1 0 7

F e a r s ( 1 9 8 1 ) , p . 8 1 0 : " T h e i c o n o n o g r a p h y o f t h e G e m m a i ts el f b o l d l y p r o c l a i m s

t h is i n t i m a t e c o n n e c t i o n o f C a p r i c o r n a n d t r i u m p h , m a r k i n g t h e f e c li c it a s a n d v ir

t u s o f A u g u s t u s , w h i c h h a v e b r o u g h t a b o u t t h e r e s t o r a t i o n o f t h e g o l d e n a g e f o r

m a n k i n d . . . . F l a n k e d b y R o m a a n d c r o w n e d b y F o r t u n a , th e e m p e r o r h o l d s i n h is

r i g h t h a n d t h e l it u u s , t h e m e d i u m t h r o u g h w h i c h t h e w i l l o f t h e g o d s i s m a n i f e s t

i n h i s p e r s o n a n d t h e e m b l e m o f t h o s e a u s p i c e s b y w h i c h T i b e r i u s h a s t r i u m p h e d . "1 0 8

I s a y " a s y s t e m a t i c t h e o l o g y " r a t h e r t h a n " t h e " b e c a u s e I t a k e E i sn e r ' s p o i n t

( (1 9 9 1 ) , p . 5 2 ) t h a t r e a c t i o n s t o i m p e r i a l w o r s h i p i n g e n e r a l w e r e n e v e r c o m p l e t e

" a n d y e t a l w a y s t e m p o r a r i l y fu lf il le d b y t h e v i e w e r s o w n p a r t i c i p a t i o n " i n n o t o n l y

t h e s a c r i f i c i a l r i t e b u t a l s o i n t h e g e n e r a l d e v e l o p i n g a n d i n c o m p l e t e t h e o l o g i c a l dis

c o u r s e t h a t g a v e m e a n i n g t o t h a t r it e. W e h a v e h e r e t h e p h e n o m e n o n o f p o l y s e m y

t o w h i c h G a l i n s k y ( 1 9 9 2 ) p o i n t e d .



68 CHAPTER TWO

ex trao rd inary act of augury he ha d thus been able to restore a golden

age of or de r to bo th na tu re and political society that ha d previously

collapsed into evil and irrational chaos.

The celebration of this Pax Augusta on the Ara that thus bore his

divine n am e was associated not simply with a limited, Re pu bl ic an

augurium salutis but with Augustus' return from Spain and Gaul (pro

reditu meo/bnep xr\q E[ir\q ercavoSou; Res Gest. 11) bear in g a universal

peac e tha t was no w (1 6- 13 B.C.) inse para ble from his own per son

as the Pax Augustea. First the Ara Fortunae Reducis/$(&\ibqTv%r[ql(>y^pio"o)

was ere cte d at the Por ta Ca p e n a (19 B.C.), after successful ca m

paigns in Sicily, Gr ee ce , Asia, and Syria, with an nu al sacrifices. T h e n

followed in 13 B. C. the consecra tio n of the Ara Pacis itself in the

Campus Mar t ius (Res Gest. 12), followed by its dedica ti on in 9 B .C .

at the conclusion of a lustrum and a suovetaurilia, the implications of

which we discuss in our next chapter (3B 1).

T h e resp onse of the pro vin ce of Asia expr essed in the dec ree s and

letter of its proconsul in 9 B.C. mirrors a systematic theology, justified

in terms of Stoic metaphysics. Here we find the ancient augural

quest for the pax deorum united with dreams of a golden age of plenty

and peace, and with a single bringer of that age. The date itself

shows the in au gu ra ti on of the Imp er ial Cul t the re was c o-t erm inu s

with the consecr ati on of the Ara Pacis in the Campus Martius itself.

T h e saeculum aureum th at no w begins for the cities of Asia Minor

needs a new Calendar that begins with the birthday of Augustus.

T h e doc um en t, copies of whic h we hav e from Priene, Ap am ea ,

Eumenia, and Dorylaeum, reads as follows:

. . . from previous gods we have received favour (rcapd xcov rcpoxepov

7tapeiA,f|<panev . . . xcov 0ecov £\)|iev£<; mi) . . . whether the birthday of the

most divine Caesar is more pleasant or more beneficial (rcoxepov f|8e(cov

fj dxpeA.ip.coxepa eaxiv f| xov Getoxdxov Kaiaapoq yeveGXioq f| U£pa) which we

would jusdy consider to be a day equal to the beginning of all things

(r\v xr\ xcov rcdvxcov dpxfi ionv SiKcdcoq dv elvai imcAdpoijiEv) . . .1 0 9

Lines 1-6.

At this point there is note of hesitancy in the text about the real

character of this new dpxn. T h e proc onsu l of Asia seems to hesi tate

1 0 9

V. E h r e n b e r g and A.M. J o n e s , Documents Illustrating the Reigns of Augustus and

Tiberius, ( O x f o r d : C l a r e n d o n 1 9 5 5 ) , no. 98, cf. a l s o OGIS 458; SEC 4 , 4 9 0 . R.K.S h e r k (Ed. and T r a n s . ) , R o m e and the G r e e k E a s t to the D e a t h of A u g u s t u s , in

Translated Documents of Greece and Rome, 4, E. B a d i a n and R. Sherk (Eds . ) ( C a m b r i d g e :

U . P . 1 9 8 4 ) , no. 101 pp. 124 127.



T H E F O U N D A T I O N S OF THE I M P E R I A L C U L T 69

lest he be overwhelmed by the force of his own rhetoric. Is the dpxr|

one in which the natural world is set right from its previous meta

physical collapse, or is it merely a question of the beginning of a

new political order? H e thus continues:

If not [the beginning of all things] in nature, at least in the order of

the useful, (ei jnf| xr\ cptxjei, xcp ye xpr|0"{|icp) for even if there is nothing in

a fallen condition (ei ye oi)8ev oiyyi Siarceucxov) and changed into an

unfortunate condition (mi eiq dx\)xe<; |iexapePr|K6<; OXTIILICX) that he has

not set right (dvcopGcoaev), he has given to the whole world a different

appearance (exepcxv xe e8coKev navel xcp KOGJICO 6\|/tv), which would [as a

world] have gladly welcomed its destruction (r |8taxa dv 8e£a|ievcp cp0opdv)had not for the common good fortune Caesar been born (ei \ir\ xo

K O I V O V rcdvxcov ei)x{>XTI|LICX erceyevvriOri Kociacxp).

Lines 6-9.

Despite therefore a certain reluctance about full commitment to the

metaphysics of the saeculum aureum, the themes of the deified quali

ties of T\)%r| (eiq aTu%e<; TO KOIVOV 7 i d v x c o v e\)Ti>xr ||ia) are still found asso

ciated with the beginning of a new political order in which matters

have been "set right (dvcopGcoaev)."

If we turn from the letter of the proconsul to the 1st Decree of

the Koinon of Asia, also in 9 B .C ., we also find evidence that Stoic

metaphysics gives intellectual justification to the connections between

Fortuna, augury and the saeculum aureum. T h e reason Augustus' birth

day begins the new Calendar is that:

The Providence that has divinely ordered our life (f| 9e(coq Siaxd^ccacx

xov piov f||j.cov Ttpovoia), has brought us regard and honour (o7ccru8f|v

eiaeveyKa^ievri mi quAaTUiiav) and arranged our life with perfect good

ness (TO xeXr|6xaxov xcp pico 8IEKOA|LIR |aev dyaGov) when it brought to us

Augustus (eveyicauevri xov lepaaxov), whom Providence has filled with

virtue for the benefit of mankind (ov e iq etiepyecriav dvGpamcov ejcXripcoaev

dpexfjq) and granted both to us and to those after us as our saviour

(cooTtep f||ieiv KCXI xoiq ^leO' f|uo:<; acoxfjpex xaptaa|ievr|) who has made war

to cease and ordered the world with peace (xov navoavxa uev K 6 X E \ I O V ,

KOAUR|Govxa 8e eipr|vr|v).

Lines 32-37.

Thus we have Stoic npovoioc combined both with the reign of peace

and the personal mediator of that peace ( l e p a a x o v . . . KoaurjaovTa

8e E I P R J V N V ) .1 1 1 T h e D P E T C U are no longer individual deities b u t divine

1 1 1

T h i s t h e m e is a l s o f o u n d in an i n s c r i p t i o n f r o m A t h e n s in 1 A.D., see ibid.

n o . 128 p. 95 (IGRR 4 , 1 8 0 ; CIG 3 6 4 2 ) w h e r e I l p o v o i a is i d e n t if i e d w i th J u l i a A u g u s ta .




c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s w i t h w h i c h n p o v o i a has f i l led Augustus (ov. . . ercWipcooev

dpexfiq). T h e d iv in i ty Salus or Icoxr|p{a d o e s not s i m p l y a c c o m p a n y

A u g u s t u s , but is i de n t i f i e d w i th the p e r s o n of him who is ocoxf|p, as

h e is a lso in o t h e r s i m i l a r i n s c r i p t i o n s . 1 1 2 As the p a s s a g e c o n t i n u e s ,

C a e s a r is a s s o c i a t e d w i t h an ercupaveta (ercicpaveic;), ekniq a n d euayyeXia

w h i c h s u r p a s s all o t h e r h o p e s a n d p r o m i s e s m a d e . T h u s we f ind con

c e p t s h e l d b o t h by the I m p e r i a l C u l t and by the w r i t e r s of the Ne w

T e s t a m e n t (/. 37-40).113

A s i m i l a r i n s c r i p t i o n f r o m H a l i c a r n a s s u s at t h i s t im e substitutes

fo r the i d e a of n p o v o i a the e v e n s t r o n g e r S t o i c c o n c e p t of "the e t e r

n a l a n d u n d y i n g n a t u r e of the u n i v e r s e (n aicovioq Kal dGdva xoq xou

rcavioq cpuaiq)."1 1 4

In the w o r d s t h a t f o l l o w , the E m p e r o r is linked as

pater patriae w i t h the h o m e l a n d of the G o d d e s s R o m a (rcax ep a u£v xfiq

eauxou rcaxplSoq Beaq Tcburiq), as we l l as i de n t i f i e d w i th "the F a t h e r

Z e u s (Aia 8e rcaxpcoov) a n d s a v i o u r of o u r c o m m o n h u m a n r a c e ( m i

acoxfjpa xou K O I V O U xcov dv0pco7ccov yevouc;)." (/. 6-7) F u r t h e r m o r e , the

v i r t u e s are o n c e a g a i n a s s o c i a t e d w i t h the d i v i n e m e d i a t i o n of the

saeculum aureum t h r o u g h A u g u s t u s w h e n it is c l a i m e d t h a t " . . . ci t ies

( K O X E K ; ) . . . flourish (dvBouaiv) w i t h G o o d G o v e r n m e n t (Evvouia),

Concord ('Ouovoia), a n d P r o s p e r i t y ( m i Euexrjpia), and the flower

a n d h a r v e s t of all g o o d (dicuT| xe m i cpopd rcavxoq eaxiv d y a G o u ) . " D i o

C a s s i u s m i g h t w e l l inform us t h a t , " w h e n the s e n a t e a n d p e o p l e o n c e

m o r e c o n t r i b u t e d m o n e y for s t a t u e s of A u g u s t u s , he w o u l d set up

n o s t a t u e of himse l f , bu t i n s t e a d set up s t a t u e s (eiKovaq) of Salus

Publica ( T y i e i a q A r u i o a i a q ) , Concordia f O u o v o i a q ) , a n d Pax (Eipf|vr|<;)."

(54,33) T h e s e d i v i n e q u a l i t i e s a c c o r d i n g to t h i s in sc r ip t ion we re a l r e a dy

in a s t a t e of n e a r i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w i t h his d i v i n e , a u g u r a l p o w e r s in

b r i n g i n g in the saeculum aureum.

F r o m the W e s t , f r o m N a r b o in G a u l , A . D . 12-13, we h a v e c o r r o

b o r a t i o n of the a u g u r a l t h e m e t h a t we h a v e e m p h a s i s e d in c o n n e c

t i o n w i t h the I m p e r i a l C u l t . A votum perpetuum is m a d e to the Numen

of Augustus. A n a l t a r was e r e c t e d in the f o r u m of the c i ty at w h i c h

sacr if ice was to be m a d e for the n u m b e r of ye a r s a f t e r the 9th Kal.

O c t o b e r , (23rd S e p t e m b e r ) , on w h i c h da y, his b i r t h d a y : " T h e b l e s s e d

1 1 2

Cf. the d e c r e e s M y r a in L y c i a IGRR 3,721 (= E h r e n b e r g and J o n e s ( 1 9 5 5 )

n o . 88): T i (3 e pi ov K o u o a p a G eov l e p a a x o v 0ecov l e p a o x c o v mov a\)XOKpdxopa y n q m i

G a X d a c m q , xov evepyexrjv m i acoxfjpa xov avvrcavxoc; K o a u o i ) , Mvpecov 6 8fjuo<;.1 , 3

E h r e n b e r g and J o n e s ( 1 9 5 5 ) no. 98 l i n e s 3 5 - 4 1 .1 1 4 E h r e n b e r g and J o n e s ( 1 9 5 5 ) no. 98a /. 3; IBM 4,1, no. 894, l i n e 1.



T H E F O U N D A T I O N S O F T H E I M P E R I A L C U L T 71

F o r t u n e o f t h e a g e m a d e h i m r u l e r o f t h e w o r l d (saeculi Felicitas eum

orbi terrarum rectorem edidit)" N o t o n l y t h e n , b u t o n Idus Januar. (7 th

J a n u a r y ) , t h e d a y o n w h i c h h e f i r s t a s s u m e d t h e fasces, i n c e n s e a n d

w i n e a r e t o b e of fe r e d b e c a u s e : " o n t h a t d a y firs t h e e n t e r e d u p o n

(auspicatus est) t h e e m p i r e o f t h e w o r l d (imperium orbis terrarum):'115

I f w e r e t u r n o n c e a g a i n t o t h e E a s t , w e f in d a t G y t h e i o n in L a c a o -

n i a a n i n s c r i p t i o n a n d a l e t t e r r e g a r d i n g t h e e x t e n s i o n o f t h e c u l t t o

i n c l u d e T i b e r i u s . A u g u s t u s is c a l l e d h e r e " g o d t h e s o n o f t h e g o d

C a e sa r (Oeou K ai oa po q Geou u iou ) , S av io ur w h o b r in gs l ibe r ty (Icorf ipoq

' E X e u G e p i o u ) . "1 1 6

J u l i a A u g u s t a is e q u a t e d w i t h Tu% r|, a n d G e r m a n i c u s

w i t h N dcr). T h e s e e x a m p l e s c o u l d b e e x t e n d e d . W e h a v e p r o d u c e d

t h e r e f o r e s u f fi ci en t e x a m p l e s f or t h e m o m e n t t o e s t a b l i s h o u r c a s e

f o r v a r i o u s , d i f f e r e n t s t r a n d s i n t h e c o n c e p t u a l d i s c o u r s e s t h a t w e r e

c o a l e s c i n g to f o r m t h e o l o g i e s o f i m p e r i a l w o r s h i p . T h e d i s c o u r s e o f

a u g u r y a n d p r i e s t h o o d w e r e b e i n g j u x t a p o s e d w i t h m e s s i a n i c t h e m e s .

M o r e o v e r th e S t o i c t h e o l o g y o f d i v i n a t i o n a n d Fortuna w a s a l so m a k

i n g i ts o w n c o n t r i b u t i o n t o p a r t o f t h e i c o n o g r a p h y o f t h e c u l t o f

e m p e r o r w o r s h i p in c it i es b o t h o f t h e E a s t e r n a n d W e s t e r n E m p i r e .

L e t u s d r a w s o m e p r e l i m i n a r y o b s e r v a t i o n s f o r t h e r i s e o f e a r l y

C h r i s t i a n i t y f r o m w h a t h a s p r e c e d e d .

2 B 5 . Imp lications of the Imperial Cult for early Christianity

W e s a w i n t h e d e c r e e o f t h e K o i n o n o f A s i a a n e x a m p l e o f t h e i d e

o l o g y o f t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t i n A s i a M i n o r t h a t w a s t o p r e f i g u r e i nt h e Apocalypse, a n d w h i c h w a s p a r t o f t h e s c e n e i n w h i c h b o t h Luke-

Acts a n d t h e l e t te r s o f I g n a t i u s o f A n t i o c h m a d e t h e i r a p p e a r a n c e .

T h e K o i n o n t h a t s p e a k s f o r a ll A s i a M i n o r re f le c ts t h e t h e o l o g y o f

t h e c u l t t h a t I h a v e d e s c r i b e d in t h i s c h a p t e r . W e find a pax deorum

a c h i e v e d b y a n e x t r a o r d i n a r y a c t o f a u g u r y t h a t is s u e d i n n o t e m

p o r a r y e i pr |v r | b u t t h e p e a c e o f t h e g o l d e n a g e . W e find S t o i c c o n

cep t s o f n p o v o i a a n d o f (p ua iq in t e l l ec tu a l ly j u s t i fy in g b o th t h e auguriuma n d t h e c o m i n g o f t h a t a g e . W e find c o n c e p t s o f a co xr ip ia t h r o u g h

a acorn ,p expressed in tha t cu l t . La te r (3D 3 .2 ) we sha l l d i scuss fu r

t h e r i n s c r i p t i o n s s u c h a s o n e f r o m S a r d i s i n w h i c h a n e w a d d i t i o n

1 , 3 E h r e n b e r g a n d J o n e s ( 19 5 5 ) n o . 1 0 0 A , li n es 2 0 - 2 7 = IL S 112 = IGRR 4 , 1 7 5 6 ,

I ; F i s h w i c k ( 1 9 9 1 ) 2 , 1 p . 4 8 2 .1 , 6 S e e a l s o a p a p y r u s f r a g m e n t o n a n a s s o c i a t i o n f o r a n i m p e r i a l c u l t ibid. n o .

1 1 8 p . 9 3 a n d a n i n s c r ip t i o n ( A . D . 1) f r o m T e n t y r a e , E g y p t (OGIS 6 5 9 ) w h e r e

'EA,e\)6epio<; is also found, ibid. n o . 1 1 6 , p . 9 3 .



7 2 CHAPTER T W O

t o t h e c u l t is a c c o m p a n i e d b y t h e " g o o d n e w s " o f its p r o c l a m a t i o n .

" T h e c i t y i s e v a n g e l i s e d (euayye^iaOri fi noXiq)" a n d " p r a y e r s f o r s a l v a

t i o n (KOCTEDXCXC; . . . uicep xfjc; acorn, pioc<;)" a r e o f fe r e d " b y s a c r e d h e r a l d s

(8 id iepoKTipuKcov)."117

A t o t h e r p l a c e s i n A s i a M i n o r s u c h a s H a l i c a r n a s s u s , a n d G y t h e u m ,

w e f o u n d t o o s u c h t it le s p r o c l a i m e d i n t h e in s c r i p t i o n s a n d in t h e

p r a y e r s o f t h e c u l t a s acorn,p, eipr |vri, eXevQepioq, viicr), vibq xov Geou,

eXniq, uyteia , ouovoux, rcpovoia , £ 7u<pdveia , euayye Aia e t c . T h e cu l

t u r a l a n d r e l i g i o u s t e r r a i n i n w h i c h e a r l y C h r i s t i a n i t y d e v e l o p e d w a s

t h u s s a t u r a t e d b y s u c h c o n c e p t s d e e p l y e m b e d d e d i n t h e m a t e r i a l

a n d i c o n o g r a p h i c f a b ri c o f G r a e c o - R o m a n c i v il is a ti on . N o r d i d th i s

s i m p l y a p p l y t o C h r i s t i a n w r i t i n g s e m a n a t i n g f r o m A s i a M i n o r itself.

H e r o d th e G r e a t h a d e r e c t e d i n C a e s a r e a it se lf ( 2 0 - 1 9 B . C . ) a t e m

p l e i n w h i c h s t o o d a c o l o s sa l s t a t u e o f A u g u s t u s c o n s t r u c t e d o n t h e

m o d e l o f t h e O l y m p i a n Z e u s a n d a f u r t h e r s t a tu e t o R o m a , o n t h a t

o f H e r a a t A r g o s .1 1 8

C a e s a r e a P h i l i p p i w a s t o b e t h e s c e n e o f t h e

c o n f e s s i o n o f P e t e r r e g a r d i n g J e s u s n o t o n l y a s t h e C h r i s t , b u t as t h e

S o n o f t h e L i v i n g G o d (M L 8 , 2 7 - 3 0 ) .

I t w i ll b e o u r o b j ec t i v e n o w to a t t e m p t t o a s s e s s , b y l o o k in g a t

l a t e f i r s t an d s eco n d cen tu ry Ch r i s t i an wr i t i n g s , t h e e f fec t o f t h i s

I m p e r i a l C u l t i n t e r m s o f h o w e a r ly C h r i s t i a n s s h a p e d t h e i r c o m

m u n i t y a n d it s s t r u c t u r e s i n r e a c t i o n ( w h e t h e r c o n s c i o u s o r n o t ) t o

t h e b a c k g r o u n d of t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t .

1 . 7

Ehrenberg a n d Jones n o . 9 9 = / . Sardis 7,1,8, / . 1 2 - 1 4 ; Price (1984), p . 6 6

a n d p . 2 5 9 c a t . n o . 5 6 .1 . 8

Josephus, Bell.Jud. 1, 414 cf . Antiqu. 15,339; Fishwick (1987) 1,1 p. 129 and

1 4 7 .



C H A P T E R T H R E E

I M P E R I A L I D E O L O G Y A N D T H E O R I G I N S O F

C H U R C H O R D E R

Reformed Judaism in L u k e - A c t s and the Christian p a x d e i

I n th i s c h a p t e r a n d t h e n e x t t w o , w e s h a ll d e a l w i t h t h e d e v e l o p m e n t s i n t h e life o f t h e e a r l y C h u r c h w h i c h m i r r o r e d t h e t h e I m p e r i a l

C u l t a s i t d e v e l o p e d i n t h e s o c i a l a n d p o l i t i c a l c o n t e x t o f p a g a n

R o m e . W e s h a ll d e a l i n t h i s c h a p t e r e x c lu s i v e ly w i t h Luke-Acts, for

w h i c h w e a c c e p t a d a t e a f t e r N e r o , b u t b e f o r e D o m i t i a n , o f a b o u t

8 5 A . D .1

W e sh a ll , i n C h a p t e r 4 , c o n s i d e r t h e c o m m u n i t y o f C l e m e n t

a t R o m e a n d t h e i r r e l a t i o n s w i t h t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t b o t h i n t e ll e c t u

a ll y a n d p r a c t i c a l l y , i n c o m p a r i s o n w i t h t h e c i r c l e o f i n A s i a M i n o ri n D o m i t i a n ' s t i m e , t o w h i c h Luke-Acts w a s a d d r e s s e d . I n C l e m e n t ' s

Corinthians t h e d e m a n d s f o r o r d e r a r e s e l f - c o n s c i o u s l y c o n s t r u c t e d a f t e r

R o m a n m o d e l s a n d e x p r e s s t h e v e r y c o n c e r n s w i t h n a t u r a l a n d s o c i a l

c h a o s t h a t t h e S t o ic m e t a p h y s i c o f t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t h a d s o u g h t t o

a d d r e s s . W e s h a ll t h e n ( C h a p t e r 5 ) c o n s i d e r w h a t w e w i ll a r g u e t o

b e t h e D o m i t i a n i c t e x t o f t h e Apocalypse, a n d it s q u i t e d i f f e ren t a p

p r o a c h t o t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t . T h e Apocalypse m i r r o r s D o m i t i a n ' s c h a n g e si n t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t , a n d , i n a m a n n e r d i f f e r e n t f r o m Luke-Acts, for

m u l a t e s a d i s t i n c t i v e c o n t r a c u l t u r e t h a t r e v e r s e s t h e i m a g e s a n d v a l

u e s t h a t d e f in e t h e c o n c e p t o f p o w e r i n t h e h o s t c u l t u r e .

I n C h a p t e r 6 w e s h a ll f in d r e f le c t e d i n I g n a t i u s o f A n t i o c h , p a r

t i cu la r ly in h i s Romans a n d Ephesians, t h e m a r t y r o l o g i c a l a s p e c t o f a

c o n t r a c u l t u r e . I g n a t i u s d e s c r i b e d t h e m i n i s t e r i a l r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s w h o

j o i n e d h i m fr o m v a r i o u s C h u r c h e s a s a c u l ti c p r o c e s s i o n . T h e p r o c e s s i o n h a s t h e f e a t u r e s o f a C h r i s t i a n E u c h a r i s t , a s it s m e m b e r s l e a d

I g n a t i u s a c r o s s A s i a M i n o r t o t h e a r e n a a t R o m e . T h u s w e s h a l l b e

a b l e t o c o m p l e t e o u r a r g u m e n t t h a t t h e O r d e r of t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t

f in d s a f o r m a n d a n i c o n o g r a p h y r e f l e c t e d i n t h e O r d e r o f t h e

1 F o r a d e f e n c e o f t h is d a t i n g , s e e P .F . E s le r , C o m m u n i t y a n d G o s p e l in L u k e -A c t s : T h e s o c i a l a n d p o l it i ca l m o t i v a t i o n s o f L u c a n t h e o l o g y , in SNTMS 5 7 ( 1 9 8 7 ) ,

p p . 2 7 - 3 0 .



7 4 C H A P T E R T H R E E

C h r i s t i a n C u l t a s it e m e r g e s i n t h e e a r l y s e c o n d c e n t u r y . T h a t

r e f le c t i o n w a s d e s t i n e d t o c o n t i n u e a n d t o d e v e l o p i n t o a n e w f o r m

i n t h e c o n f r o n t a t i o n b e t w e e n C y p r i a n a n d h is f e l lo w - b i s h o p s , a n d

t h e R o m a n E m p i r e o f D e c i u s T r a j a n .

B u t l e t u s t u rn f ir st o f a l l i n t h i s c h a p te r t o t h e r e f o r m u l a t i o n o f

e a r l y C h r i s t i a n e s c h a t o l o g y i n Luke-Acts. W e s ha l l a r g u e t h a t t h e p u r

p o s e o f t h a t r e f o r m u l a t i o n w a s t o e n a b l e t h e a u t h o r t o d e f in e t h e

O r d e r a n d w o r s h i p o f t h e C h r i s t i a n c u l t u s a n a l o g o u s l y w i t h t h a t o f

t h e I m p e r i a l .

W e s h al l e n d e v o u r t o a n s w e r t w o c r i ti c a l q u e s t i o n s :

1. Why did Luke reshape Chris t ian eschatology so that he could defer

the exp ecta tion of the day of ju dg e m en t to an indefinite future? (Lk.

21 ,24d ; Acts 1,7)

2. Why, furthermore, d id Luke, c lear ly a deutero-Paul in is t in the gen

erat ion af ter the death of h is community ' s founding aposde, s t ress that

Ch rist ianity wa s the fulfilment of Ju da is m in a w ay that was even m or e

sympathetic to the lat ter than even Paul 's final posit ion (in contrast to

Galatians) in Romans 9—12?

T h e t r a d i t i o n a l a n s w e r to 2 . h a s b e e n t h a t L u k e ' s t w o - v o l u m e w o r k

w a s i n t e n d e d t o b e a n e c u m e n i c a l d o c u m e n t , r e c o n c i l in g d if fe r en c es

b e t w e e n P a u l ' s c h u r c h e s a n d t h e o r ig i n al J e r u s a l e m c o m m u n i t y . W e

c o u l d r e s p o n d b y p o i n t i n g o u t t h a t P a u l n e v e r r e a l l y a t t a c k e d J u d a i s m

i n t h e w a y t h i s v i e w p r e s u p p o s e s , b u t in f a ct s t r e s se d it s c o n t i n u i t y

i n t e r m s o f f u lf il m e n t. B u t t h e n w e m u s t as k w h y L u k e s h o u l d s t re s st h a t c o n t i n u i t y w h e n w r i t i n g fo r a g e n t il e a u d i e n c e . T h e t r a d i t i o n a l

a n s w e r h a s a lw a y s b e e n s u s p e c t i n t e r m s o f h i s t o ri c a l m e t h o d s i n ce

i t i m p l i e s t h a t l a t e first c e n t u r y c o m m u n i t i e s d e v e l o p e d a c c o r d i n g t o

t h e l o gi c o f h is C h r i s t i a n c o m m u n i t y ' s o w n i n t e r n a l d i s c o u r s e t h a t

w a s o n l y m i n i m a l l y r e l a t e d h i s t o r i c a l l y a n d c u l t u r a l l y t o t h e d e v e l

o p i n g w i d e r , p a g a n c u l t u r e .2

Luke is s u p p o s e d t o b e so le ly c o n c e r n e d

w i t h h e a l i n g i n t e r n a l d i v is i o n s w i t h i n t h e c o m m u n i t y i n o r d e r t om a k e t h e c o m m u n i t y s t ro n g e r a n d m o r e s el f- se c ur e .

M o r e r e c e n t l i t e r a t u r e h a s , m o r e o v e r , a c k n o w l e d g e d t h e p r o b l e m

2 T h e m o s t r e c e n t s t a t e m e n t o f t h is c a s e , w i t h b i b l i o g r a p h y , is J . J e r v e l l , Luke and

the People of God: A new Look at Luke-Acts, ( M i n n e a p o l i s : A u g s b u r g 1 9 7 2) , p p . 1 5 3 - 1 8 3 ,

c r i ti c i se d i n R . M a d d o x , T h e P u r p o s e o f L u k e - A c t s , i n FRANT 1 2 6 ( 1 9 8 2 ) , c h a p

t e r 3 . F o r a n e a r l i e r a n d p r o v i s i o n a l t r e a t m e n t o f t h e t h e m e s o f t h i s c h a p t e r , s e eA . B r e n t , L u k e - A c t s a n d t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t i n A s i a M i n o r , i n JThS 4 8 , 2 ( 1 9 9 7 ) , p p .

I l l 1 3 8 .



I M P E R IA L I D E O L O G Y A N D T H E O R I G I N S O F C H U R C H O R D E R 7 5

3 V . F u s c o , L u k e - A c t s a n d t h e F u t u r e o f I s r a e l , i n NT 3 8 , 1 ( 1 9 9 6 ) , p p . 1 - 1 7 .

J . L . H o u l d e n , T h e P u r p o s e o f L u k e , i n JSNT 2 1 ( 1 98 4 ) , p p . 5 3 - 6 5 c r it ic is e d M a d d o x

( 1 9 8 2 ) f o r h i s a t t e m p t s t o m o d i f y w h a t h e s a w a s t h e e x t r e m e v i e w o f t h e c e n t r a l i t y

o f j u d a e i s m r e p r e s e n t e d b y s u c h w r i te r s a s j e r v e l l ( 1 9 7 2 ) a n d G . D . K il p a tr i ck , T h e

G e n t i l e s a n d t h e S t r a t a o f L u k e , i n Verborum Veritas, ( E d.) O . B o c h e r a n d K . H a a k e r( W u p p e r t a l : 1 9 7 0 ) .

4 H o u l d e n ( 1 9 8 4 ) , p . 6 2 . S e e a l s o J . J e r v e l l , R e t r o s p e c t a n d P r o s p e c t in L u k e -

A c t s I n t e r p r e t a t i o n , i n SBL.SPS 3 0 ( 1 9 9 1 ) , p . 3 8 4 . F o r f u r t h e r b i b l i o g r a p h y , s e e

F . B o v o n , E t u d e s l u c a n i e n n e s . R e t r o s p e c t i v e e t p r o s p e c t i v e , i n RThPh 1 2 5 ( 1 9 9 3 ) , p p .

1 2 5 - 1 2 9 , w h o p o s e s t w o q u e s t i o n s : " L e p r e m i e r . . . . L a L o i m o s a i q u e e s t- e ll e e n c o r e

v a l i d e p o u r L u c ? . . . . L e s e c o n d d i r i g e l e r e g a r d v e r s l a p o s i t i o n s o c i a l e d e L u c . "3 H . C o n z e l m a n n , The Theology of St. Luke, t r a n s l a t e d b y G . B u s w e l l ( L o n d o n :

F a b e r 19 6 1 ) , p p . 2 0 2 - 2 0 6 .fa T h e e x i s t e n c e o f a f o r m a l l e g a l s t a t u s o f a religio licita w a s o r i g i n a l l y p r o p o s e d

b y H a r n a c k a n d W e n d t . F o r r e f e r e n c e s a n d f u r t h er s u p p o r t f or t h i s p o i n t o f v i e w

s e e C o n z e l m a n n ( 1 9 6 1 ) , p p . 1 3 7 - 1 4 4 . T h i s v i e w h a s b e e n q u e s t i o n e d r e c en t l y b y

M a d d o x ( 1 98 2 ) , p p . 9 1 - 9 3 a n d E s le r ( 1 9 8 7 ), p p . 2 1 1 - 2 1 4 .

t h a t I s r ae l is r ec o g n i s ed in Luke-Acts i n a w a y t h a t s u r p a s s e s e v e n

P a u l a s t h e n e c e s s a r y p r e c u r s o r t o C h r i s t i a n i t y .3 Lk. 1 -2 lo ca t e s t h e

o r i g i n s o f C h r i s t i a n i t y i n t h e c i r c le o f s u c h p r i e s t s a n d p r o p h e t s o f

t h e J e r u s a l e m T e m p l e as Z a c h a r i a h a n d A n n a . W o u l d e v e n t h e P a u l

o f Romans 9 - 1 1 h a v e b e g u n a G o s p e l a d d r e s s e d to g e n t i l e C h r i s t i a n s

i n t h e w o r d s o f Lk. 1,5 (eyevexo . . . iepeuq xiq ovo j iaxi Za ^ ap ia q )? C e r

t a in ly , i n o rd e r t o ex p la in su ch fea tu re s i n Luke a s a d e u t e r o - P a u l i n i s t ,

H o u l d e n p o s t u l a t e d th e e x i s te n c e o f " p r e - M a r c i o n i t e M a r c i o n i t e s " a s

i n f l u e n c i n g t h e q u i t e u n - P a u l i n e s i g n if ic a n c e o f t h e T e m p l e i n Luke-

Acts} I r e je c t a s p u r e h y p o t h e s i s s u c h a n u n d o c u m e n t e d m o v e m e n t

w i t h i n t h e e a r ly C h u r c h . I p r o p o s e i n s t e a d t o p r o d u c e d o c u m e n t e d

e v i d e n c e fr o m t h e l i t e r a tu r e a n d b a c k g r o u n d o f t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t

t o s u p p o r t m y c l a i m t h a t t h e f u lf il m e n t o f t h e o b j e c t o f r e p u b l i c a n

r e l i g i o n b y A u g u s t u s w a s t h e r e a l c o u n t e r f o i l t o Luke's p i c t u r e o f

C h r i s t i a n i t y a s t h e f u lf il m e n t o f t h e c u l t o f t h e T e m p l e o f J u d a i s m .

T h e t r a d i t i o n a l a n s w e r t o 1 is t h a t t h e d e l a y o f t h e P a r o u s i a c a u s e d

Luke t o r e s h a p e p r i m i t i v e e s c h a t o l o g y s o a s t o p r o v i d e a s p a c e f or

t h e C h u r c h i n n o r m a l h i s t o r y . 5 B u t a p h e n o m e n o n s u c h a s M o n t a n i s m

o r m i l l e n a r i a n i s t g r o u p s d e m o n s t r a t e t h a t t h e d e l a y o f t h e P a r o u s i a

d i d n o t o f i ts e lf n e c e s s a r i l y p r o d u c e s u c h a p e r c e i v e d n e e d fo r a

s p a c e f o r t h e c h u r c h i n n o r m a l h i s t o r y .

E s l e r ' s r e c e n t s t u d y o f t h e i m m e d i a t e h i s t o r i c a l a n d s o ci a l b a c k

g r o u n d t o Luke-Acts h a s f o c u s e d o n t h e n e e d t o r e p l a c e t h e t h e s i s o f

Luke-Acts as apologia, f o u n d e d o n t h e d u b i o u s le g a l n o t i o n o f t h e q u e s t

for s ta tus as a religio licita, w i t h a t h e s i s a b o u t l e g i t i m a t i o n .6

F o c u s i n g




o n Luke's g o s p e l i n t h e p r e s e n t c h a p t e r , I w i s h t o a r g u e t h a t t h e le g i

t i m a t i o n t h e s i s is o n l y p a r t i a l l y t r u e a n d p o s s i b l y m i s l e a d i n g . L e g i t i

m a t i o n i n s o c i o l o g i c a l d i s c o u r s e n o r m a l l y r e f e r s t o t h e w a y i n w h i c h

o n e g r o u p , i n i ts o w n se l f - i n t e re s ts , j u s t if i e s it s p r iv i l eg ed p o s i t i o n i n

p o w e r r e l a t io n s t o a n o t h e r . I w i s h t o e m p h a s i s e h e r e t h a t t h e p a r t i c u l a r

t h e o l o g y o f Luke is a p o l i ti c a l t h e o l o g y in t e r m s o f w h i c h T h e o p h i l u s

a n d h i s g r o u p d i d n o t s i m p l y j u s ti f y t h e i r p o s i t i o n t o o t h e r s b u t t o

t h e m s e l v e s .

T h e i m m e d i a t e h i s to r ic a l a n d s oc ia l c o n t e x t i n w h i c h T h e o p h i l u s

a n d h is c i r c l e f o u n d t h e m s e l v e s w a s o n e i n w h i c h t h e v a l u e s o f

I m p e r i a l O r d e r w e r e r e f le c t ed in t h e d e v e l o p i n g I m p e r i a l C u l t i n

A s i a M i n o r , w h o s e o r i g in s a n d d e v e l o p m e n t w e h a v e t r a c e d i n

C h a p t e r 2. T h a t c o n t i n u i n g d e v e l o p m e n t r e in f o rc e d , u n d e r D o m i t i a n

in t h e l a s t q u a r t e r o f t h e f irst ce n t u r y , t h e i d e o lo g y o f a r e l i g io u s

r e f o r m a t i o n t h a t h a d a c c o m p a n i e d a p o li ti ca l r e v o l u ti o n u n d e r A u g u s t u s

f ro m 3 1 B . C . o n w a r d s .7

T h a t r e li g io u s r e f o r m a t i o n e m p h a s i s e d t h e

r e l i g io u s r o l e o f t h e e m p e r o r a s t h e f u lf il m e n t o f t h e R e p u b l i c a n c u l t

(a s o p p o s e d t o its a b r o g a t i o n ) , o r i g in a l l y c o n d u c t e d b y e l e c t e d m a g

i s tr a t e s w h o a ls o h e l d its p r i e s t h o o d s . C h r i s t i a n i t y , a s c o m m e n d e d b y

Luke t o T h e o p h i l u s ' c i r c l e , w a s J u d a i s m f ulf ill ed .8

B u t Luke e n v i s a g e d

t h a t f u l f i l m e n t , t o u s e B o v o n ' s p h r a s e , a s ' u n e c o n t r e p a r t i e r e l i g i e u s e '

s p ec i fi ca ll y t o t h e r e li g i o u s c l a i m s i m p l i e d b y A u g u s t u s ' c o n s t i t u t i o n a l

r e f o r m s : it w a s n o t s i m p l y a g e n e r a l p a r a l l e l w i t h I m p e r i a l u n i v e r -

s a li s m , a s B o v o n o r i g i n a l ly t h o u g h t .9

I w i ll a r g u e t h a t T h e o p h i l u s ' c ir c le i n h e r i t e d t h e v a l u e s o f a n i m p e

r i a l o r d e r a n d p e a c e t h a t b o r e t h e f o r m o f S t o i c m e t a p h y s i c s i n

w h i c h n a t u r e a n d s o c ie t y w e r e o n e . I ts m e m b e r s a c c e p t e d t h e i m

p e r i a l v a l u e s , d e i f i e d a s V i r t u e s , o f Victoria, Pax , Con cordia, Salus e t c . ,

7

F o r d e v e l o p m e n t s o f t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t i n A s i a M i n o r s p e c if i ca l ly i n t h e e i g h t i e ss u c h a s c u l ts t o D o m i t i a n a t E p h e s u s a n d L a o d i c a e a , se e S . R . F . P r i c e , Rituals and

Power: The Rom an Imperial Cu lt in Asia M inor ( C a m b r i d g e : U . P . 1 9 8 4 ) , p p . 1 4 0 , 1 8 3 - 1 8 5 ,

1 9 7 - 1 9 8 , 2 5 5 .8

F . B o v o n , I s r a e l , d i e K i r c h e u n d d i e V o l k e r i m l u k a n i s c h e n D o p p e l w e r k , ThLiZ

1 0 8 ( 1 9 8 3 ) , c o l . 4 0 4 : " D i e E n t w i c k l u n g d e s K a i s e r k u l t e s w a r e e i n e w e i t e r e , w i r -

k u n g s v o l l e r e L o s u n g , d e r b u n t e n V i e l f a l t d e r u n t e r w o r f e n e n V o l k e r e i n e i d e o l o g i -

s c h e E i n h e i t z u v e r l e i h e n . . . W i e v e r h a l t s i c h d i e c h r i s d i c h e v o c a t i o g e n t i u m z u

d i e s e r E i n g l i e d e r u n g d e r V o l k e r i n d i e r o m i s c h e n S t r u k t u r e n ? "9 B o v o n ( 1 9 9 3 ) , p . 1 2 8 : " L a d e f e n s e e t l ' il l u s t r a ti o n d e 1' u n i v e r sa l i sm e a u l o n g

d e t o u t e c eu v r e d e L u c r e p r e s e n t , a m e s y e u x , u n e c o n t r e p a r t i e r e l ig i e u s e d e s a m b i t i o n s i m p e r i a l e s r o m a i n e s . "



IMPERIAL IDEOLOGY AND THE ORIGINS OF CHURCH ORDER 77

1 0

See e.g. M.C. de Boer, Narrative Criticism, Historical Criticism, and the Gospel

o f J o h n , in JSNT 47 ( 1 9 9 2 ) , pp. 35-48 and the criticisms of S. Motyer, A Method

in Fourth Gospel Studies: A Way out of the Impasse, in JSNT 66 ( 1 9 9 7 ) , pp. 2 7 - 4 4 .

since they had been conditioned socially to take seriously the claim

that an originally imperfect republican religious cultus had been

reformed and perfected by the Augustus as princeps. The use of the

met hod ology of nar rati ve criticism in Ne w Te st am en t studies will

help us here since we will seek to reconstruct the ideal reader for

the text that Luke has reshaped in terms of the images of the impe

rial ideology.1 0

We shall argue that Luke has refo rmul ated early

Christian eschatology, initially in chapters 1-3, in a way that reflects

the impress of the ideology of the saeculum aureum in the Imperial

Cult. Fur th er mo re , we shall witness th ro ugho ut his wor k concep tua l

reflections of pax, concordia and providentia that bear witness to a con

cern with the theological implicat ions of Augustan settlement. In c on

sequence of such social cond iti oning, Theophi lu s and his circle sh rank

with horror at the prospect of a return to civil chaos marked by the

events that lead to Actium (31 B.C.), and which they saw as the

culmination of a century of increasingly devastating civil wars. Under

the influence of such a his tor iog raphy of decli ne, they exper ien ced

their metaphysical terror associated with the ira as opposed to the

pax deorum.

Luke's solution was to encourage them to see Christianity, as the

fulfilment of Juda i sm (2) whic h parall eled Augus tus' fulfilment of that

to which the religious practices of Republican magistrates had aspired,

namely the divine pax in both nature and society. The Order of the

Christian community, constituted by an apostolate whose Koivcovioc

conti nued the teac hin g an d heali ng ministry of Jes us alon g with the

breaking of bread (Acts 2,42), was the true me an s of pr od uc in g the

pax dei, in contrast to Augustus' pax deorum (the enx yf^/ev oupavS

eipr|VT i ; Lk. 2,24; 19,38). Here we find, in the context of imperial

order, a refashioned Christian version of the Augustan saeculum aureum.

Consequently Lk. 1-3 reshaped primitive Christian eschatology by

removing themes of tribulation, chaos, and of the future role of the

Son of M a n in ju dg me nt , so as to pr od uc e, for Th eo ph il us ' circle,

a Christian, present counterpart to the imperial peace, and the cul

tic means for securing this (1).




P A R T A . LUKE-ACTS: T R A D I T I O N A L ES C H A T O L O G Y T R A N S F O R M E D

T h e u n i q u e n e s s o f t h e e s c h a t o l o g y of Luke-Acts c a n n o t b e o v e r e s t i

m a t e d . I w i ll a r g u e t h a t t h is u n i q u e n e s s is h i g h l y i n f l u e n c e d b y

A u g u s t u s ' saeculum aureum s e c u r e d t h r o u g h t h e r e f o r m e d I m p e r i a l C u l t

t h a t w a s p e r c e i v e d , f o ll o w i n g o u r d i s c u s s io n in C h a p t e r 2 , t o b e

a l o n e a b l e t o s e c u r e t h e pax deorum (2B). But f i rs t le t us es tabl ish that

u n i q u e n e s s in its o w n ri g h t b y c o m p a r i n g L u k a n e s c h a t o l o g y w i t h

t h a t o f Matthew a n d Mark, b e f o r e w e o f f e r a n y p a r t i c u l a r a c c o u n t o f

t h e i n f lu e n c e s t h a t p r o d u c e d i t.

3A 1 . M ark and the primitive k e r y g m a

T h e r e is v e r y l it tl e a t t e m p t o n t h e p a r t o f e i t h e r Matthew o r Mark

t o r e l a t e t h e i r s t o r y t o s e c u l a r h i s t o r y . M a r k n o t o r i o u s l y b e g i n s h i s

g o s p e l w i t h t h e m i n i s t r y o f J o h n t h e B a p t i s t , l ik e t h o s e p r i m i t i v e

C h r i s t i a n s e r m o n s e x e m p l i fi e d i n t h e m o u t h s o f s o m e o f t h e t w e l v e

a p o s d e s , t h e d e a c o n S t e p h e n , a n d P a u l i n Acts. T h e r e is n o b i r t hs t o r y a n d t h e g o s p e l b e g i n s a s it w e r e f r o m n o w h e r e . B u t Mark's

p u r p o s e is t o d o m o r e t h a n r e p r o d u c e t h e p r i m i t i v e kerugma in ex

p a n d e d f o r m .1 1

I n c o m p a r i s o n w i t h its t o t a l l e n g t h , a l a r g e s e c t i o n o f Mark i s t ak en

u p wi th t h e Apocalypse o f M L 1 3 . E a r l i e r , b e fo re t h e s cen e o f t h e T ra n s

f i g u r a t io n , J e s u s h a d d e c l a r e d t h a t t h e r e w e r e s o m e s t a n d i n g t h e r e

w h o w o u l d n o t t a s te o f d e a t h u n t i l t h e y h a d s e e n t h e k i n g d o m o f G o dc o m e i n p o w e r (ML 9 ,1 ) . O r i g i n a l l y t h e T r a n s f i g u r a t i o n m i g h t h a v e

c o u n t e d a s t h e re a l i s a t io n o f t h a t d e c l a r a t i o n . B u t f or M a r k t h e c o m

i n g o f t h a t k i n g d o m i s t o b e w h e n t h e e v e n t s o f h i s Apocalypse are fu l

f ille d, n a m e l y w h e n t h e a r m i e s o f T i t u s s u r r o u n d J e r u s a l e m i n A . D . 6 5

a t t h e t i m e w h e n h e w r i t e s f r o m R o m e . J e r u s a l e m w a s n o t y e t

d e s t r o y e d b u t t h e n e w s r e a c h e d t h e R o m a n c o m m u n i t y t h a t i t w a s

a b o u t t o b e , a n d t h e n t h e " a b o m i n a t i o n o f t h e d e s o l a t i o n " w o u l db e s e t u p i n t h e T e m p l e a s t h e d a y o f t h e L o r d s e t i n b l o o d a n d

fire. A f te r d e s c r i b i n g t h e sh a k i n g of t h e p o w e r s o f n a t u r e in e a r t h q u a k e

a n d f a m i n e , t h e e x p a n s i o n o f e r r o r , a n d p e r s e c u t i o n a n d b e t r a y a l ,

M L 1 3 , 1 4 c o n t i n u e s :

1 1

J . S c h n i e w i n d , Z u r S y n o p t i k e r E x e g e s e , i n ThR 2 ( 1 9 3 0 ) , p p . 1 2 9 - 1 8 9 a n d

C . H . D o d d , The Apostolic Preaching and its Developments, ( L o n d o n : M a c M i l l a n 1 9 5 6 ) ,p p . 16 32 f f . , c f . H . Koes ter , Ancient Christian Gospels, Their History and Development,

( L o n d o n : S C M 1 9 9 0 ) , p p . 2 6 2 9 ff.



I M PE R I A L IDEOLOGY AND THE ORIGINS OF CHURCH ORDER 79

But when you shall see the Abomination of the desolation ( T O (35e^\)yua

Tfjq epT)ucoaeco(;) [Dan. 9,27; 12,4; 10] standing where it ought not

(£OTT|K6T(X onox> ov 8ei), let the reader grasp the meaning, then let those

in Judaea flee to the hills . . . For in those days shall be the tribulation (8A.i\jnq) such as not come about from the beginning which God

created until now [Joel 2,2].

Thus the Roman community, having experienced Nero's persecu

tion in R o m e (1 3,9- 13) , he ar ed the news from Je ru sa le m of the gra d

ual crushing of the revolt by Titus. The author informs them that

Nero is about to fulfil the mysterious sacrilege prophesied by Daniel,

the TO p8eta)Y|ia zf\q epriuxbaecog. It is the immediate consequence ofthis imminent and strange act that the last events of the world's his

tory are to occur (13,20-28).1 2

Far from Mark's gospel therefore, as the theory of the interpreter

of St. Peter suggests, being written for a generation to come who would

otherwise lack Peter's teaching now that he had been martyred, the

author expected no future history for which to write.1 3

His commu

nity was the community of the End time, with no need for a continu

ing authority structure with a continuing tradition handed down. For

hi m the re was to be no future his tory of this wor ld, an d ther efo re

there was little need to write the events of J e s u s ' ministry, death and

resurrection as dated events in a history that would continue. His

written account was a reassurance to the Roman community that

they had little longer to wait, and the eschatological events justify

ing their faith would soon take place.

We shall now see that Matthew deals with the problem of the delay

of the parousia, which had not immediately followed the destruction

of Je ru sa le m, quit e differently from the wa y that Luke-Acts was to

propose.

1 2 S.G.F. Brandon, Jesus and the ^ealots: A Study of the Political Factor in Primitive

Christianity, (Manchester: U.P . 1961), pp. 38 7 -3 91 dates Mark post 71 A.D. on the

g r o u n d s that account of the rending of the veil in ML 15, 38 reflects the writer's

e x p e r i e n c e of the triumphal procession of Vespasian at Rome in which the purple

t e m p l e - c u r t a i n s were included in the spoils and were afterwards deposited with

c o p i e s of the Tor ah in the imperial pala ce, see Jo se phu s, Bell. Jud. 6, 387-391 and

7 , 1 6 2 . But even if this were the case, the historical closeness of the Roman com

m u n i t y to the events of which they as yet had no certain account could still result

in what had happened nourishing the imminent apocalyptic expectations to which

Mark bears witness.1 3 Papias apud Eusebius H.E. 111,39,15 is clearly legendary and based upon the

prior i ty of Matthew as an apostolic authority.




3 A 2 . M a t t h e w ' s heightened apoca lypticism: a hope frustrated

Matthew w a s w r i t t e n a t a s i m i l a r t i m e t o t h a t o f Luke-Acts, b u t w i t h a

c o n s i d e r a b l y d if fe r en t p u r p o s e . R e d a c t i o n c r it ic i sm h a s s h o w n r e fl e ct e d

i n t h e v a r i o u s p e r i c o p e s c o n f l i c t i n g t r a d i t i o n s b e a r i n g t h e m a r k s o f

t r a n s m i s s i o n t h r o u g h r iv a l g r o u p s i n a d i v i d e d C h r i s t i a n c o m m u n i t y .

E g a l i t a r i a n , cl e ri c al is t, a n d c h a r i s m a t i c g r o u p s v i e w i t h o n e a n o t h e r ,

a n d Matthew's s o l u t i o n is p r e s e n t e d i n t h e p e r s o n o f a b r i d g e - b u i l d e r

a n d r e c o n c i l e r , w h e t h e r a c t u a l o r i d e a l , w h o w ill b r i n g t h e g r o u p s

t o g e t h e r .1 4

B u t t h e s h a d o w o f t h e E n d T i m e still h o v e r s o v e r t h e

a u t h o r ' s p e r s p e c t i v e . T h e T w e l v e A p o s t l e s a r e s e n t f o r th , a n d J e s u sa s s u r e s t h e m t h a t , t h o u g h t h e y w ill e x p e r i e n c e p e r s e c u t i o n , t h e y w ill

b e b e a t e n i n s y n a g o g u e s a n d l e a d b e f o r e s y n a g o g u e c o u r t s a n d h a n d e d

o v e r t o g e n t i le m a g i s t r a t e s f or p u n i s h m e n t , n e v e r t h e l e s s :

Go not into the way of the pagans, and do not enter a ci ty of the

Sa m ari tan s ; bu t go rath er to the lost sheep of the hou se of Is ra el . . .

You shall not have completed the cit ies of Israel unti l the Son of Man

shal l come.1 0

B u t t h e a u t h o r o f Matthew k n ew a t t h e t im e o f h i s w r i t i n g , in t h e

l a t e e i g h ti e s i n A n t i o c h i n S y r i a , t h a t J e r u s a l e m h a d b e e n d e s t r o y e d .

T h e u s e o f t h a t g o s p e l b y e a r l y w r i t e r s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h S y r i a a n d

A n t i o c h c l e a r l y d e t e r m i n e s t h i s a s h i s p l a c e o f o r i g i n . T h e c i t a t i o n s

o f t h i s g o s p e l b y I g n a t i u s o f A n t i o c h (circa 1 0 7 A . D . ) ,1 6

a n d p a r t i c

u l a r l y t h e a p p e a r a n c e o f s in g l e b i s h o p s in h i s w r i t i n g w h e r e Matthew's

c l e r ic a l is t f a c t i o n h a s o n l y p r e s b y t e r s a n d t e a c h e r s , r e v e a l t h e m i d -

e ig h t i e s a s t h e m o s t l i k e ly d a t e . Ig n a t iu s ' s i n g l e b i sh o p s h av e a t t h e

l a t e r t i m e s e e m i n g l y a b s o r b e d t h e c h a r i s m a t i c f u n c ti o n s o f o n e o f

t h e o p p o s i n g g r o u p s .1 7

B u t t h o u g h J e r u s a l e m h a s b e e n d e s t r o y e d , th i s d o e s n o t l e a d h i m

t o t o n e d o w n o r l im i t t h e s c o p e o f t h e M a r k a n a p o c a l y p s e . M L 1 3 ,

w i t h i t s 3 7 v e r s e s h a s b e e n e x p a n d e d i n t o t w o c h a p t e r s , Mat. 2 4 - 2 5 ,

1 4

R . E . B r o w n a n d J . - P . M e i e r , Antioch and Rom e: New Testament Cradles of Catholic

Christianity, ( N e w Y o r k : P a u l i st P r e ss 1 9 8 3 ) , p p . 5 7 - 7 2 cf. A . B r e n t , P s e u d o n y m i t y

a n d C h a r i s m a i n t h e M i n i s t r y o f t h e E a r l y C h u r c h , in Aug. 2 7 , 3 ( 1 98 7 ), p p . 3 6 9 - 3 7 4 .15

Mat. 1 0 , 1 - 2 3 .

I g n a t i u s , Ephes. 1 4 , 2 (Mat. 12 ,33 ) ; Smyrn. 1,1 (Mat. 3 ,15 ) ; 6 ,1 (Mat. 1 9 , 1 2 ) ; Polycarp

2 , 2 (Mat. 1 0 , 1 6 ) .

C . T r e v e t t , P r o p h e c y a n d A n t i - E p i s c o p a l A c ti v it y : A T h i r d E r ro r C o m b a t t e dby Ignat ius? in JE H 3 4 ( 1 9 8 3 ) , p p . 1 6 5 1 7 1 , f o r q u a l i f i c a t i o n s o f w h i c h s e e , B r e n t

( 1 9 8 7 ) , p p . 3 4 7 3 7 6 .



I M P E R I A L I D E O L O G Y AND THE OR I GI N S OF C H U R C H O R D E R 81

1 8

D.E. N i n e h a m , The Gospel of St. Mark, ( L o n d o n : A. and C. B l a ck 1 9 6 8 ) , p. 354

f o o t n o t e : "St. L u k e ' s v er s i o n is not a v e r b a t i m r e p r o d u c t i o n of the o r i g i n a l but an

a t t em p t , a l t ern a t i v e to St. M a r k ' s , to d ea l w i t h a w e l l - k n o w n p r o p h e c y of p r o f a n a t i o n w h i c h had not been fu l f i l l ed wi th reference to the t e m p l e . " Cf. G.B. C a i r d ,

St. Luke, ( H a r m o n d s w o r t h : P e n g u i n 1 9 6 3 ) , pp. 2 3 1 - 2 3 2 .

with 51 and 46 verses respectively. The chapters owe their expan

sion to par ab les of the Last Judgeme nt , such as the Days of No ah

(24,37-42), the Lazy Servant (24,43-51), Wise and Foolish Virgins

(25,1-13), the Talents (25,14-30), and the Sheep and the Goats

(25,31-46). But where ML 13,14, in its reference to the T O pSe^uyua

xf|<; epTjuxooecoc; £<JTT|K6TGC OKOV O U 8ei, refers to what stands in its tem

ple before the im mi ne nt de struc tion of Je ru sa le m, Mat, 24,15 simply

transfers the prophecy to what will stand "in an holy place (ev TOTCCO

ayico)" unspecified. The Markan apocalypse is still to be fulfilled imm i

nently even though , since the Je ru sa le m tem ple alrea dy now be en

dest royed, the pa rt icular place wh er e its fulfilment is to begin can

no longer be specified.

But for the author of Luke-Acts, this conce pt ion of the End time

found in one of his early Christian sources, Mark, cannot and will

not be any longer sustained.1 8

3A 3. L u k e ' 5 transformation of the apocalyptic tradition

Whilst not abroga ting the original apoca lypt ic description of the com

ing of the End, Luke dissociates this descr ipt ion from the dest ruc tion

of Je rusa lem . All references t o th e shadowy and myst er ious p8eta)Y|i(x

Tfjq epr||itt>G£co(; are omitted. In Lk. 21,20-24 we read:

When you shall see Jerusalem encircled by armed camps, then know

that its desolation (f| epr|ucflGi<; ai)Trj<;) has drawn nigh . . . and Jerusalem

shall be trodden down by the pagans until the times of the pagans

( K a i p o i eOvcov) are fulfilled.

Only after the unspecified and protracted K a i p o i eOvcov will the heav

enly powers be shaken and the signs seen (21,25-27). The epf|(icooi(;

of Je ru sa le m is taken ou t of salvation hi story an d placed securely in

secular history in which the ch ur ch is to have a mission an d or ga n

isation that endures in secular time.

T h e parti cularly Luca n accou nt an d doc tri ne of the Ascension also

impl ies this. Je su s is lifted up int o he av en from wh e nc e in t he

unspecifiable future he will one day return. (Acts 1,9.) For forty days




b e f o r e , on e q u e s t i o n t h a t is h i g h l i g h t e d is the q u e s t i o n a b o u t the

o c c u r r e n c e of the a p o c a l y p t i c e v e n t s , b u t Je su s wi l l g iv e n o a n s w e r ,

l e t a lo n e an y a s s u r a n c e of t h e i r i m m e d i a c y , b u t r a t h e r p o i n t s to a

c o n t i n u i n g t e m p o r a l m i s s i o n in w h i c h the c h u r c h can e x p a n d f r o m

J e r u s a l e m to S a m a r i a a n d i n d e e d to the u t t e r m o s t p a r t s of the e a r t h

( 1 , 6 - 8 ) . P r e s e n t a n d f u t u r e t i m e n o l o n g e r c o a l e s ce i m p e r c e p t i b l y

i n t o one as the End remorse less ly f loods in to the p r e s e n t , as in e a r l y

C h r i s t i a n e s c h a t o l o g y . T h e a p o s t l e s are not to s t a n d g a z i n g i n t o

h e a v e n ( 1 , 9 - 1 1 ) , as if for the i m m i n e n t r e t u r n of J e s u s , but are to

r e p a i r the o r g a n i s a t i o n of an i n d e f i n e t l y c o n t i n u i n g c o m m u n i t y by

r e p l a c i n g J u d a s w i t h M a t t h i a s in o r d e r to b r i n g the n u m b e r of the

a p o s t l e s b a c k up to t w e l v e ( 1 , 1 5 - 2 6 ) .

T h u s , a c c o r d i n g to C o n z e l m a n n ' s o r i g i n a l t h e s i s , the a u t h o r of

Luke-Acts has r e m o v e d the p r e s e n t f r o m any i m m e d i a t e c o n t a c t w i t h

t h e e s c h a t o n . He has t h u s c r e a t e d a s p a c e for the e x i s t e n c e of a c o m

m u n i t y w h i c h w i l l f u n c t i o n in s e c u l a r h i s t o r y w i t h an ecc l e s i a s t i ca l

O r d e r t h a t w ill p r e s e r v e its i d e n t i t y a n d c o n t i n u i t y . But let us now

e x a m i n e how the C h u r c h O r d e r for w h i c h the a u t h o r n ow m a k e s

p r o v i s i o n was s h a p e d a g a i n s t the b a c k g r o u n d of the i m p e r i a l r e c o n

s t r u c t i o n of s e c u l a r h i s t o r y by his p a g a n c o n t e m p o r a r i e s , a n d w h i c h

it in c o n s e q u e n c e r e f l e c t e d .

P A R T B. LUKE-ACTS IN THE C O N T E X T OF I M P E R I A L H I S T O R Y

Luke i n t r o d u c e s his b i r t h n a r r a t i v e w i t h a c h r o n o l o g i c a l n o t e l i n k i n g

C h r i s t ' s b i r t h w i t h A u g u s t a n h i s t o r y in his s t o r y of th e c e n s u s ( 2 , 1 - 3 ) .

I n 3,1 the m i n i s t r y o f J e s u s is r e c o r d e d as b e g i n n i n g "in the fifteenth

y e a r of T i b e r i u s C a e s a r , " h e n c e 30 A.D. , w i t h P o n t i u s P i la t e n a m e d

a s the " g o v e r n o r " (Tiyeuoveuovio*;) of J u d a e a , H e r o d as t e t r a r c h of

G a l i l e e , P h i l i p of I t u r a e a , a n d L y s a n i a s of A b i l e n e . T h e a c t i o n of

C l a u d i u s in e x p e l l i n g the J e w s f ro m R o m e is r e c o r d e d , in e x p l a n a t i o n of the p r e s e n c e of A q u i l a a n d Prisc i l l a (Acts 1 8 ,2 ) . Ga l l i o is m e n

t i o n e d as " p r o - c o n s u l (avBuTcdiou) of A c h a e a " ( 1 8, 12 ), w i t h w h o m

w e h a v e a l r e a d y met as L u c a n ' s u n c l e w h o c o m m i t t e d s u i c i d e w i t h

h i m on the fa i lu re of t h e i r c o n s p i r a c y to t ak e Nero ' s l i f e (2A 4). W e

a l s o m e e t w i t h P o r c i u s F e s t u s , s u c c e e d i n g F e l i x as g o v e r n o r (Tiyejicov).

(Acts 2 3 , 2 5 - 2 7 ; 2 4 , 2 7 )1 9

W e k n o w fu r th e r w h a t t r a n s p i r e d r e g a r d i n g F e s tu s and his s u c c e s s i o n by C e s t i u s

F l o r u s f r om J o s e p h u s , Antiqu. 20, 197 203; B.ell. Jud. 2 , 1 6 6 .



I M P E R I A L I D E O L O G Y A N D T H E O R I G I N S O F C H U R C H O R D E R 8 3

2 0

P . A . B r u n t , Roman Imperial Themes, ( O x f o r d : C l a r e n d o n 1 9 9 0 ) , p p . 3 2 9 - 3 3 1 .2 1

J o s e p h u s Antiqu. 2 0 , 1 0 2 . F o r a d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n t hi s c e n s u s

a n d Lk. 2 , 1 - 3 s e e E . S c h u r e r , G . V e r m e s , a n d F . M i l l a r , The History of the JewishPeople in the Age of Jesus Christ (175 B.C.-A.D. 135), ( E d i n b u r g h : T . & T . C l a r k 1 9 7 3 ) ,

p. 3 8 1 a n d p p . 4 1 6 - 4 2 7 . S e e a l so J . M . C r e e d , The Gospel According to St. Luke,

( L o n d o n : M a c M i l l a n 1 9 3 0 ) , p p . 2 8 3 1 .

B u t w e d o w e l l t o a s k w h e t h e r t h i s i n t e r a c t i o n w i t h s e c u l a r h i s

t o r y is p u r e l y c h r o n o g r a p h i c , o r w h e t h e r t h e r e is s o m e f u r t h e r p u r

po se re f lec ted in th e ch o i ce o f a t l eas t so m e of the se da te s a n d figures.

S u c h a p u r p o s e , m o r e o v e r , m a y r e f l e c t i n s o m e w a y t h e c o n c e r n s

r e f l e c te d i n t h e i m a g e r y o f t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t a s w e h a v e o u t l i n e d

i n o u r s e c o n d c h a p t e r .

3B 1 . The Augustan census ofhk. 2,1-2

I t is ea sy t o d i sm i s s t h i s p a s sa g e fo r h i s to r i ca l r e a s o n s fo r w h i ch n o

d o u b t i t o u g h t t o b e d i s m i s s e d . F o r t h i s a u t h o r , u n l i k e Matthew, M a r yd i d n o t o r i g i n a l l y li ve w i t h J o s e p h i n B e t h l e h e m , o n l y t o m o v e t o

N a z a r e t h f r o m t h e h o u s e in w h i c h J e s u s w a s b o r n d u e to t h e m a l i g

n a n c y of H e r o d a n d A r c h e l a u s (Mat. 2 , 1 ; 1 1 ; 1 3 ; 2 2 - 2 3 ) . I n s t e a d

t h e a u t h o r o f Luke-Acts e n v is a g es J o s e p h a n d M a r y li vi ng i n N a z a r e t h ,

a n d , i n o r d e r t o e x p l a i n t h e f u l f i l m e n t o f Micah 5 , 2 , i n v o k e s t h e

A u g u s t a n c e n s u s . I t is q u i t e i m p o s s i b l e t h a t t h e r e w a s a n y c e n s u s

i n v o l v i n g e a c h p e r s o n w i t h i n t h e E m p i r e r e t u r n i n g t o t h e i r b i r t h p l a c e . T h e r e w e r e h o w e v e r p r o v i n c i a l c e n s u s e s . 2 0

T h a t e a c h R o m a n c it iz e n t h r o u g h o u t t h e w o r l d h a d t o e n r o l f or

s a c ri fi c e a t t h e a l t a r o f t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t w a s t o a w a i t t h e l a t e r g e n

e r a l c i t iz e n s h i p l a w of C a r a c a l l a in 2 1 2 A . D . , w h i c h m a d e t h e D e c i a n

p e r s ec u t io n (2 5 1 A .D . ) p o s s ib l e a s w e sh a l l s ee . B u t t h a t a t t h i s t im e

" the whole wor ld shou ld be enro l led (d rcoYpacpeaGai rcaaav TT^V OIKOU-

u i v r | v ) " i n c o n s e q u e n c e o f a " d e c r e e ( 8 6 y | i a )" o f A u g u s t u s is p r o b l e m a t i c a p a r t f r o m t h e a d d i t i o n a l p r o b l e m o f m i g r a t i o n t o o n e ' s p l a c e

o f b i r t h . A m o r e l o c a l census u n d e r C y r e n i u s a s g o v e r n o r o f S y r i a

w o u l d s e e m m o r e c r e d i b l e . C e r t a i n l y w e h a v e r e c o r d e d in J o s e p h u s

a c e n s u s c o n d u c t e d w i t h g r e a t o p p o s i t i o n b y t h is g o v e r n o r in A . D .

6 o r 7 .2 1

B u t w h y s h o u l d t h i s l o c a l c e n s u s (avxr] f| arcoypOMpri) b e a s s o

c i a t e d w i t h s o m e g e n e r a l w o r l d - w i d e e d i c t o f A u g u s t u s b y t h e a u t h o r

o f Luke-Acts? A c a r e f u l e x a m i n a t i o n o f t h e m o t i v a t i o n fo r h i s e x a g g e r a t i o n w ill e x p o s e h is d i s c r e t e p u r p o s e .

T h e a u t h o r o f Luke-Acts c l e a r l y w i s h e d t o a s s o c i a t e t h e b i r t h o f

J e s u s w i t h A u g u s t u s , t h e m e n t i o n o f w h o s e n a m e in c o n n e c t i o n w i t h




t h e t h i s p a r t i c u l a r ac co u n t o f t h e b i r t h o f t h e t ru e M e ss i a h is ev o ca t iv e

o f m a n y o f t h e t h e m e s o f t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t t o w h i c h w e d r e w a t t e n

t i o n i n o u r s e c o n d c h a p t e r .2 2

W e h a v e s e e n h o w , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t h e

A s i a M i n o r o f t h e P r o c o n s u l a r d e c r e e o f 9 B . C . , A u g u s t u s ' b i r t h d a y

w a s c e l e b r a t e d a s t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e saeculum aureum (r\ xou Geioxd-

xou Kouaapoq yeveGA.ioq fijiepa iiv xr\ xcov rcdvxcov ap%r\ ior |v . . .). (2B 4)

A s i a M i n o r w a s o f c o u r s e t h e s c e n e o f m u c h o f t h e s e c o n d h a l f o f

Luke-Acts.

R e g a r d i n g t h e r o l e o f c e n s u s t a k i n g , A u g u s t u s s t a t e s:

In my sixth consulate [28 B.C.] I conducted a census [censum populi]of the people with my col league Marcus Agrippa. I held a lustrum after

an interval of forty-two years. At this lustrum, 4 ,063 ,000 Roman c i t i zens

were regis tered (censa sunt capita). I performed a second lustrum in the

consulship of G aiu s Ce nso rinu s an d G aius Asinius [8 B.C.] act ing

alone, by virtue of consular imperium. At this lustrum 4 ,2 3 3 ,0 0 0 0 Ro m an

cit izens were registered. I held a third lustrum, by virtue of a consular

imperium, with my son, Tiberius Caesar , as my col league, in the con

sulship of Sextus Po m pe ius an d Sex tus A ppu leius [A.D . 14]. At this

lustrum 4,937,00 0 Ro m an ci t izens we re regis tered .

Res Gestae '8,2

I t is i m p o r t a n t , h o w e v e r , to e m p h a s i s e t h a t , a s t h e w o r d lustrum s u g

ge s t s , t h e r e w a s a r e l i g i o u s d i m e n s i o n t o s u c h a c t s . T h e lustrum w a s

p r o p e r l y t h e c o m p l e t i o n o f t h e c e n s u s , a s is s e e n i n L i v y ' s a c c o u n t

o f S e r v i u s , o n e o f t h e l e g e n d a r y f o u n d e r s o f t h e R o m a n c o n s t i t u t i o n

( 5 3 4 B . C . ) . T h e lustrum h e r e r e fe r s t o t h e " p u r i f i c a t i o n " o f t h e c i t i z e nb o d y a fte r its n u m b e r s h a d b e e n d e t e r m i n e d [censu perfecto), a n d t h e

c a p a c i t y o f e a c h p e r s o n in t h e r a n k n o w a l l o tt e d t h e m t o c o n t r i b u t e

t o t h e co s t o f t h e w a r a g a i n s t t h e V e i . T h e c e r e m o n y (suovetaurilia)

w a s p e r f o r m e d i n t h e C a m p u s M a r t i u s w h e r e a p i g , s h e e p , a n d b u l l

were s ac r i f i ced (L iv y 1,44,2). I t w a s t h is c e r e m o n y t h a t w a s d e p i c t e d

in re l ie f on the Ara Pacis (2 A 4 .2 .1 a n d 2 B 1 a n d P l a t e 6) .

W e h a v e a r g u e d i n o u r s e c o n d c h a p t e r t h a t , i n h is r e c o n s t r u c t i o no f t h e c u l t w i t h i n t h e r e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n , A u g u s t u s

2 2

F o r L u k e ' s u s e o f s e c u l a r c h r o n o g r a p h y t o s u c h a p a r a l l el b e t w e e n J e s u s ' k i n g

d o m a n d t h a t o f A u g u s t u s , se e C . T a l b e r t , L i te r a ry P a t te r n s , T h e o l o g i c a l T h e m e s ,

a n d t h e G e n r e o f L u k e - A c t s , i n SBLMS 2 0 (1 9 7 4 ) , p p . 4 4 - 4 5 ; R . E . B r o w n , The

Birth of the Messiah, ( G a r d e n C i t y N Y , D o u b l e d a y 1 9 7 7 ) , p p . 2 4 1 - 2 4 3 . T h e s e r e fl ec t io n s

a r e a l s o t a k e n u p i n h i s a c c o u n t o f Luke-Acts a s apologia pro imperio t o a C h r i s t i a n

g r o u p b y P . W . W a l a s k y , " A n d s o W e C a m e to R o m e " : T h e P o li t ic a l P e r s p e c t i v eo f S t . Luke , in SMTSMS 4 9 ( 1 9 8 3 ) , p p . 2 5 - 2 8 . S e e a l s o K . W e n g s t , Pax Romana and

the Peace of Jesus Christ, t r an s . J . B o w d e n , ( L o n d o n : S C M 1 9 8 7 ) , ' p p . 8 9 1 0 5 .




n L i v y 3 9 , 2 2 , 4 - 5 ; 4 2 , 2 0 ; Julius Obsequ. 1 3 ; 4 4 ; 4 6 ; 4 9 ; 5 2 ; 6 3 .2 4 T h i s p o i n t is w e l l m a d e b y B e r v e , L u s t r u m , i n PWK 1 3 , 1 - 2 c o ls . 2 0 4 0 - 2 0 5 9 ,

s e e e . g . 2 0 4 1 : " M a n w i r d d u r c h a u s a n e i n e ' s a k r a l - p r o fa n e ' E i n h e i t a ls W u r z e l z u

d e n k e n h a b e n , d i e a u c h d e r r e a l i s t i s c h e C h a r a k t e r d e r r o m i s c h e n R e l i g i o n u n d d i eH e i l i g k e i t d e s S t a a t s r e c h t e s g e r a d e z u f o r d e r t . . ."

25

^Ibid. c o l s. 2 0 4 3 2 0 4 6 .

p r e s u p p o s e d a k i n d o f s y s t e m a d c t h e o l o g y i n w h i c h t h e d i f fe r e n t c u l

t ic f u n c t i o n s o f t h e s t a t e w e r e b r o u g h t u n d e r h is c o n t r o l a s Pontifex

Maximus a n d t h u s h e a d o f t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t . W e a r g u e d t h a t t h e

saeculum aureum c o u l d o n l y r e t u r n a n d b e g u a r a n t e e d lo n g e n d u r a n c e

b y a p a r t i c u l a r a c t o f augurium, w h i c h h e u n i q u e l y p e r f o r m e d a n d

w h i c h D i o m e n t i o n e d as t h e augurium pacis ( 2 A 5 ) . T h e pax deorum

p r o v e d c o n s t a n t l y e l u s i v e t o t h e R e p u b l i c a n c u l t , e v e n t h o u g h , f o l

l o w i n g v a r i o u s o u t b r e a k s o f t h e s t r a n g e s t p r o d i g i e s , r i t u a l a t t e m p t s

h a d b e e n m a d e t o o b t a i n it ( 2A 4 .1).

W e m a y n o w a d d t h a t a lustrum o f t h e c i ty w a s p e r f o r m e d fo l

l o w i n g m a n y o f t h e s e o u t b r e a k s i n o r d e r to s e t t h e m e t a p h y s i c a l

o r d e r r ig h t a g a i n a n d to p r o d u c e t h e r e q u i r e d pax t h a t w a s t o b e

t h e a c h i e v e m e n t o f A u g u s t u s a l o n e . W e h a v e c o u n tl e s s e x a m p l e s o f

th i s i n L iv y .2 3

W e h a v e a r g u e d t h a t i m p l i c i t i n L i v y is t h e n o t i o n

t h a t s u c h e x a m p l e s b e c a m e i n c r e a s i n g l y m o r e f r e q u e n t a s t h e p o l i t

i c al b r e a k d o w n o f t h e R e p u b l i c w a s r e f le c t e d in t h e i n c r e a s i n g l y

c h a o t i c s u p e r n a t u r a l o r d e r . A r r u n s m o r e o v e r r e q u i r e d t h e p u r i f ic a t i o n

o f t h e c i t y l i m i t s , i ts s a c r e d b o u n d a r y t h e pomerium, b u t t o n o av a i l

w h e n h e sa w w h a t t h e haruspicia i n d i c a t e d ( L u c a n Pharsalia 1, 5 9 3 - 5 9 5 ) .

(2A 4 .2 )

I t w o u l d b e e a s y o f c o u r s e t o s e c u l a r i s e t h e p r o c e s s o f t h e c e n s u s

and cu t i t o f f f rom i t s re l ig ious roo ts so as to make a lustrum af te r

p o r t e n t q u i t e d i f fe r e n t f r o m a lustrum a f t e r a c e n s u s .2 4

T h e r o o t s o f

b o t h i s i n t h e a p o t r o p a e i c f u n c t i o n o f t h e c u l t , a s t h e suovetaurilia

c l e a r l y i n d i c a t e d .2 5

T h e r e f o r m e d c u l t i n w h i c h A u g u s t u s a s Pontifex

Maximus a c h i e v e d t h e pax deorum, n o w a l m o s t e q u i v a l e n t t o t h e saecu

lum aureum, r e q u i r e s a c e n s u s .

T h o u g h t h e lustrum i s r e l a t ed o r ig in a l ly t o t h e imperium proconsulare

and no t to the o f f ice o f Pontifex o r augur, t h ey a re i n p ro ces s o f a s so

c i a t i o n t h r o u g h t h e a p p r o p r i a t i o n o f t h e s e o ff ic es , o n c e h e l d b y

d i ff e re n t r e p u b l i c a n m a g i s t r a t e s , b y t h e s a m e e m p e r o r . T h e e v i d e n c e

f o r t h i s p r o c e s s o f a s s o c i a t i o n i s t h e i c o n o g r a p h y o f t h e Ara Pacis

itself. T h e suovetaurilia i n t h e C a m p u s M a r t i u s ( L i v y 1,44,2) p r o v i d e d

t h e s c e n e a r o u n d S e r v i l i u s , o n e o f t h e t r a d i t i o n a l f o u n d e r s o f t h e




c o n s t i t u ti o n o f o l d R e p u b l i c a n R o m e . W i t h i n th e e n c l o s u r e a r o u n d

the a l ta r , we f ind the Dedicatio o f 9 B . C . t h e i c o n o g r a p h y o f w h i c h ,

a s R a d l e g h R a d f o r d a r g u e d , t o o k t h e f o r m o f a suovetaurilia.2^ C l e a r l y

t h i s c e r e m o n y f o l l o w s t h e s e c o n d lustrum r e c o r d e d i n Res Gestae 8 ,2

i n t h e c o n s u l s h i p o f G a i u s C e n s o r i n u s a n d G a i u s A s i n i u s (8 B . C . ) .

T h u s t h e Ara Pacis, i n A u g u s t u s ' respublicae restitutae, h as d ep ic t ed o n i t s

f r e sco es t h e n ew suovetaurilia o f t h e n e w S e r v i u s c e l e b r a t e d o n c e m o r e

i n t h e C a m p u s M a r t i u s w h e r e t h e Ara o r ig in a l ly s to o d (P l a t e 6 ) .

B u t n e w c o n n e c t i o n s a r e m a d e w i t h t h e Ara's i c o n o g r a p h y , w h i c h

c l ea r ly r e l a t e s t h e saeculum aureum t o t h e pax o f n a tu re a s we l l a s o f

s o c i e t y , a n d t h a t d e i f i e d p e a c e w a s m e d i a t e d t h r o u g h A u g u s t u s a s

t h e Pax Augustea. T h u s p r e v i o u s d i s p a r a t e i m a g e s a r e b e i n g c o m b i n e d

i n t h e d e v e l o p i n g a n d l e g i t i m a t i n g d i s c o u r s e o f t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t .

U s i n g th e i c o n o g r a p h y o f t h e Ara Pacis a s a c o m m e n t a r y o n t h e Res

Gestae a t t h is p o i n t , w e c a n t h e r e f o r e d e m o n s t r a t e t h a t A u g u s t u s ' s

s e c o n d lustrum was fo l lo wed b y a suovetaurilia c e l e b r a t e d a s a c r i t ic a l

t u r n i n g p o i n t i n R o m e ' s h i s t o r y w i t h a t r u l y L i v i a n s i g n if i c a n c e .

I n d e e d , a s B u c h n e r h a s s h o w n , w e c a n n o t d i v o r c e t h e p u r p o s e o f

t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e Ara f r o m t h e Horologium n o r i n d e e d f r o m t h e

w h o l e c o m p l e s i n t h e C a m p u s M a r t i u s w h i c h i n c l u d e d t h e M a u s o l e u m

a n d t h e Ustrinum o f A u g u s t u s .2 7

E i s n e r m a k e s n o r e f e r e n c e t o R a l e g h R a d f o r d ' s i d e n t if i c a ti o n o f

t h e suovetaurilia o n t h e Ara Pacis.28 B u t i n a n y c a s e , I w o u l d a c c e p t

h i s g e n e ra l t h es i s t h a t t h e s ig n i f i can ce o f su c h a n a r t e fa c t d o e s n o t

r e s t o n t h e r e c e i v e d " n a t u r a l i s m " i n a r t - h i s t o r i c a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n w h i c h

e n t a i l s t h a t , b e c a u s e a r t i m i t a t e s n a t u r e , t h e n e a c h figure m u s t r e f e r

to a sp ec i f i c h i s to r i ca l s i t u a t i o n . I h av e r e fe r red t o t h e o r ig in s o f t h e

2 6 C . A . R a l e g h R a d f o r d , S o m e r e c e n t d i s c o v e r i e s i n R o m e a n d I t a ly , i n JRomS

2 9 ( 1 9 3 9 ) , p . 4 9 : " T h e r e c o n s t r u c t e d u p p e r f r i e z e o n t h e t w o s i d e s o f t h e e n c l o s u r e

is a h is t o ri c a l r e c o r d o f t h e p r o c e s s i o n o n t h e o c c a s i o n o f t h e s o l e m n C o n s e c r a t i oi n 1 3 B . C . , a c e r e m o n y in w h i c h t h e F l a m i n e s , m a g i s t r a t e s , s e n a t o r s , a n d m e m b e r s

o f t h e i m p e r i a l f a m i l y t o o k p a r t . W i t h i n , t h e f r ie z e a r o u n d t h e a lt a r r e c o r d s t h e

D e d i c a t i o i n 9 B . C . a n d t h e r i t u a l l a i d d o w n f o r p e r i o d i c s a c r i f i c e s . O n l y a s m a l l

par t o f th i s f r i e ze surv ive s , but suf f i c i ent to sh ow th at the sc en e rep res en ted i s the

S u o v e t a u r i l i a . " S e e a l s o P . Z a n k e r , The Power of Images in the Age of Augustus, ( t rans .

A . S h a p i r o ) , ( A n n A r b o r : U . o f M i c h i g a n 1 9 9 0 ) , p p . 7 2 - 7 3 a n d fig . 5 7 ; p . 1 4 4

fig. 116.2 7 E . B u c h n e r , Die Sonnenuhr des Augustus: Nachdruck aus RM 1976 und 1980 und

Nachtrag iiber die Ausgrabung 1980/1981, ( M a i n z a m R h e i n : P h il ip v o n Z a b e r n 1 9 8 2 ) ,

p p . 3 4 5 - 3 4 8 .2 8 J . E i s n e r , C u l t a n d S c u l p t u r e : S a c r i f i c e i n t h e A r a P a c i s A u g u s t a e , i n JRomS

8 1 ( 1 9 9 1 ) , p p . 5 0 - 6 1 .




Ibid. p . 5 2 .

i c o n o g r a p h y , a c c e p t i n g t h a t s u c h a n a p p r o a c h is n o t s o m u c h w r o n g

a s l i m i t e d . T h e L i v i a n t h e m e s o f lustrum a n d suovetaurilia w e r e t o

b e c o m e p a r t o f t h e g e n e r a l a n d o p e n - e n d e d c o n c e p t u a l o r g a n i s a t i o n

o f i m a g e s , o n l y l o os e ly r e l a t e d t o a n y o n e i n d i v i d u a l . T h e y e n t e r e d

a n d f o r m e d p a r t o f a c o l l e c ti v e a n d o n g o i n g s o c i al r e s p o n s e in w h i c h

t h e p e r c e p t i o n o f a n y o n e i n d i v i d u a l c o n t r i b u t e d t o b u t w a s n o t

ex h a u s t iv e o f t h e wh o le . " A Jew i sh v i ew, for i n s t an ce , o r a P y th ag o r ea n

o n e m i g h t h a v e b e e n v e r y d i ff e re n t f r o m t h a t o f a R o m a n p r i e s t . . .

T h e s a cr if ic i al p r o c e s s . . . o f w h i c h t h e A r a P a c i s w a s t h e s e t t i n g ,

w a s p e r m a n e n t l y i n c o m p l e t e a n d y e t a l w a y s t e m p o r a r i l y fu lfille d b y

t h e v i e w e r ' s o w n p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n t h e s a c r i f i c i a l r i t e . " 2 9 I p r o p o s e s e e

i n g t h e d i s c o u r s e i n w h i c h Luke-Acts o p e r a t e s a s e m b o d y i n g a s u b s et

o f g e n e r a l a n d o p e n - e n d e d i m p e r i a l i m a g e s , n o t e v e ry o n e of w h i c h

w i ll b e c o n s i s t e n t w i t h e v e r y m e m b e r o f t h e g e n e r a l se t . W e c a n a d d

t h e n a m e of t h e C h r i s t i a n T h e o p h i l u s a n d t h e t h i r d E v a n g e l i s t t o

d i f fe r e n t k i n d s o f p e r s o n s , l ik e E i s n e r ' s J e w i s h s a g e o r P y t h a g o r e a n

p h i l o s o p h e r , w h o s e r e a c t i o n s t o t h e d e v e l o p i n g i c o n o g r a p h y o f t h e

I m p e r i a l C u l t i n A s i a M i n o r , i n p a r a l l e l w i t h t h a t o f R o m e , w e r e

s i m i l i a r l y o p e n - e n d e d .

W e c a n n o w b e g i n t o s e e w h y t h e a u t h o r o f Luke-Acts w i s h e d t o

g i ve a l o c a l c e n s u s o f Q u i r i n u s s u c h a u n i v e r s a l , w o r l d - w i d e p e r

s p e c t i v e , q u i t e a p a r t f r o m t h e a d d e d , m i g r a t o r y f e a t u r e w h i c h c o u l d

b r i n g o r d i n a r y r e si d e n ts o f N a z a r e t h t o B e t h l e h e m . H e h a s t a k e n a

m e m o r y o r r e c o r d o f t h e c e n s u s o f Q u i r i n u s i n 6 - 7 A . D . a n d a p p l i e d

t h is t o t h e b i r t h o f C h r i s t , e v e n t h o u g h t h e r e w a s c l e a r l y n o c h r o n o

l o gi c al c o n n e x i o n b e t w e e n th i s e v e n t a n d t h e r e i g n o f H e r o d t h e

G r e a t , n o r i n d e e d w i t h t h e suovetaurilia a t R o m e i n 9 B . C . t h a t h a d

fo l lo wed th e lustrum o f 8 B . C . T a k i n g a n a r r a t iv e - c r i t i c a l a p p r o a c h ,

w e m a y s ay t h a t h e n e e d e d t o p a r a l l e l f or h i s r e a d e r s i n T h e o p h i l u s '

c i r c le t h e b i r t h o f J e s u s w i t h t h e f o u n d e r o f t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t , a n d

t h u s t o c o m p a r e t h e r e l i g i o u s c l a i m s m a d e b y t h e f o r m e r w i t h h i s

c l a im s fo r t h e l a t t e r .

L u k e n e e d e d a c e n s u s i n J u d a e a — e v e n t h o u g h th is o n l y o c c u r r e d

i n 6 - 7 A . D . — i n o r d e r t o p a r a l l e l t h e lustrum a t R o m e i n 8 - 9 B . C .

H i s d e s i r e t o l e a d h i s r e a d e r s t o a s s o c i a t e t h e i m a g e r y e v o k e d b y

c h r o n o l o g i c a l l y u n r e l a t e d e v e n t s h a s l e a d h i m t o c o n f u se h i s c h r o n

o l o g y . I n t h is p a r a l l e l , L u k e w a s s t r a n g e l y p r o p h e t i c , a n d s h o w e d a

s e n s it iv i ty t o w h a t t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t i m p l i e d a n d i n t o w h a t it w a s



88 C H A P T E R T H R E E

to deve lop finally, un de r Decius Tr aj an (A.D. 251). Ac co rd in g to

this later conception, the Imperial Cult required a census of all those

Caracalla had made citizens (A.D. 212) in order that their partici

pation in the Imperial Cult could thus be secured with the object

of securing once again the pax deorum. A 86YUOC was therefore req uir ed

that drcoypdipeaGou rcaoav T T I V oiKou |Li8vr|v, even though in Caracalla's

or in De ci us ' case the place of res idence and not a jou rne y to the

pla ce of bi rt h to be enro lled was to pr ov e sufficient.

Let us now pursue this possibility further, and see how the author

of Luke-Acts pre sup pos es, in cont ras t to his earlier an d trad itio nal

apocalyptic archetypes, an eschatology closer to the pre-occupations

of the vision of Vergil' s Fou rt h Ec logue an d the role th at it ca me

to play in the Imperial Cult (2A 6).

3B 2. Cultic background of the altar of incense in Lk. 1,5-2,52

The scene that surrounds Christ's birth, according to the author, is

a cultic one. The narrative opens with an angelic visitation by anal tar of inc ense . In fact the ver b Guuiacjou occurs onc e an d the noun

Ouuiociia twice wi thi n two sente nces wh ic h read :

It happened while [Zachariah] was exercising his priesthood ( E V xcp

iepaxeveiv) in the daily order (xf\ xd^ei xfjq ecpriuepiac;) before the Lord,

he was chosen by lot to offer incense (ekaxe xov 0\)(iidaai) according

to the custom of priestly officiants, when he entered the temple of the

Lord, while all the multitude of the people were praying outside atthe hour of incense (e^co xfj copra xov 6v |Liid|iaxo<;). And the angel of the

Lord appeared standing on the right hand side of the altar of incense

(xov 8i)aiaaxr|pio\)xov 6\)uidu.axoc;).

Luke 1 , 8 - 1 1

As we shall see when we discuss the Apocalypse, incense was a char

acteristic feature of the Imper ia l Cul t an d is clearly reflected in the

imagery there. Here we should note that the practice of offeringincense was pa rt of the Ol d Te st am en t cultus, an d tha t the au th or

refers primarily to one particular practice from that cultus which he

has selected for a particular purpose. Aaron burns incense on the

alta r before the Ta be rn ac le veil every mor ni ng an d there is no cultic

arrangement by hours (Exodus 30 ,1 , and 7). In 1 Chronicles 1 3 , 1 0 - 1 1 ,

however, we read of the priests and levites who, in their daily divi

sions (£(pr|U£p{ai<;), burn incense to the Lord early in the day.

3 0

For the i r 24 d i v i s i o n s see 1 Chron. 2 3 , 1 6 ; 28,13 and J o s e p h u s Antiqu. 12, 265.




3 1

S.R.F. Price, Rituals and Power. The Roman Imperial Cult in Asia Minor, (Cambridge:

U.P . 1984), p. 208.3 2 D. Fishwick, The Imperial Cult in the Latin West: Studies in the Ruler Cult

of the West ern P rovince o f the Ro m an Empire , in EPRO 108 (1991) 1,1, p. 133

footnote 24 6 and Plate 19, an d 2,1 p. 5 0 4 and pp. 5 6 5 - 5 6 6 .3 3 Price (19 84) , p. 185 an d Plate 1 b.34

SEG 11,92 2 93 3 (Gytheum); Ehr enber g and Jo ne s (1955) no. 102 (a); IGRR 4,

35 3 b 20 attests the use of inc ens e on Trajan' s altar at Pe rg amon .3 5 Fishwick (1991) 2,1 p. 513.

But it is interesting also to no te t ha t the Je wi sh cultic act of offering

of incense with which Luke-Acts chooses to begin the announce

ment of the forerunner of the Messiah was also characteristic of the

Imperial Cult. The inscription from Gytheum regarding the decree

of Tiberius refers to three images (eiKovaq) of divine Augustus Caesar

(9eou lePcccTou), Ju li a, a nd T ib er iu s Augustus, displayed on th re e suc

cessive days. It then continues:

. . . let a table (xpane^a) be set up by him in middle of the theatre

and let an incense charger (or altar) (Gvuiaxfipiov) be placed upon it

(E 7UK£{C 0C D) and let the councillors and all ranks together offer sacrifice

(£7ci0\)excoaav) before the players (aKpoduaxa) enter for the safety (xfjq

xcov f|ye|i6vcov acoxripicc*;) of the rulers.3 1

We have, moreover, a bronze statuette from Lugdunum depicting a

priest of the Imperial Cult holding an incense box in his left hand

and with his right depositing a few grains on an altar (Plate 15). A

statuette conveys the image of a characteristic pose of the office of

the person depicted.

3 2

The image of an act of censing for a priestof the Imperial Cult is as characteristic as that of the depiction of

a medieval priest performing manual acts at Mass with the Host in

his hands.

Augustus is depicted on one cult statue wearing a Roman toga

but veiled as a priest with a patera (y\akx\) in his right hand, which

was used to hold incense as well as wine or other cereal offerings.3 3

Ho we ve r , ther e are clear associat ions be tw ee n the (pidXr) and incensein early Christian images as Apoc. 5,8 makes clear. There are clear

references to incense associated with the Imperial Cult at Gytheum

in A.D. 15 and at Pergamon circa A.D. 1 3 8 .3 4 The burning of incense

and libations was already common in the Hellenistic ruler cult in

Ptolemaic Egypt before its adaptation to emperor worship. 3 5 T h e r e

is arg uab ly, therefor e, a clear association be twee n the Imp eri al Cul t,

the practice of general ruler-worship from which it was derived, and




t h e o f fe r in g o f i n c e n s e a n d w i n e in t h e p a g a n r e l i g i o u s c u l t u r a l h e r

i t a g e o f T h e o p h i l u s a n d h is c i r c l e ( P l a t e 1 4 ) .3 6

T h e a u t h o r o f Luke-Acts t h e r e f o r e h a s s e l e c t e d f r o m t h e J e w i s h c u l t

a p a r t i c u l a r a c t t h a t e v o k e s p a r t i c u l a r c o m p a r i s o n b y g e n t i l e r e a d

e r s i n A s i a M i n o r a n d in S y r i a , a n d e v e n b y J e w i s h r e a d e r s i n

C a e s a r e a P h i l ip p i w h e r e th e H e r o d i a n t e m p l e of S e b a s t e s t o o d , w i t h

t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t . I t is a r g u a b l e t h a t t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t r e p r e s e n t s

t h e r e a l , p a g a n b a c k c l o t h f o r h i s s e e m i n g l y J e w i s h b a c k c l o t h , if Luke

is w r i t t e n a ft e r A . D . 7 0 w h e n t h e J e w i s h T e m p l e rites h a v e b e e n

a b o l i s h e d . I n d e e d , t h e J e w i s h b a c k c l o t h w o u l d h a v e h a d n o v a l u e

f or L u k e as a d e u t e r o - P a u l i n i s t u n l e s s J e w i s h i m a g e r y c o u l d b e r e -

s e rv i ced a s a co n t ra -c u l tu ra l r e sp o n se t o p a g a n ritua l. I t is w i th t h e

H e l l e n i s t ic , p a g a n i n c e n s e - r i t u a l w i t h w h i c h h i s r e a d e r s w o u l d b e

f a m i l i a r . Y e t i n t h e o p e n - e n d e d , d e v e l o p i n g c o n c e p t u a l d i s c o u r s e o f

p a r t i c i p a n t s i n t h e c u l t , n e w J u d a e o C h r i s t i a n c o n c e p t s a r e n o w

d e v i s e d a n d a s s i m i l a t e d w i t h p a g a n o n e s . E i s n e r ' s f o r m u l a t i o n o f a r t -

h i s to r i c a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n h a s c l e a r ly g e n e r a l r e l e v a n c e . W e h a v e s e e n

h o w e v e r t h a t t h e Ara Pacis o f A u g u s t u s ( 2B 1) h a d e x p r e s s e d i c o n o -

g r a p h i c a l l y t h e m e s s a g e o f a M e s s i a n i c g o l d e n a g e w e ll r e f l e c te d i n

th e l i t e ra ry w o r k s o f h i s co u r t p o e t s (2 A 6 ) . W e sh a l l n o w see h o w

t h a t g o l d e n a g e is n o w r e f l e c te d b y t h e a u t h o r o f Luke-Acts a n d t h e

r e f o r m e d J e w i s h c u l t t h a t h e se ts i n c o n t r a s t w i t h t h e r e f o r m e d

R o m a n c u lt o f a d i v i n e a n d a u g u r a l e m p e r o r .

3 B 3 . Eschatological promise and the reformed Jewish Cult

W e h a v e a l r e a d y o u t l in e d t h e w a y i n w h i c h t h e a u t h o r h a s b r o k e n

w i t h t r a d i t i o n a l a p o c a l y p t i c d e s c r i p t i o n s , n o t s o m u c h d e n y i n g t h e m

b u t s i m p l y i n s u l a t i n g t h e p r e s e n t f r o m t h e i r e ff ec t b y p l a c i n g t h e m

i n a f ar a n d i n d e f i n it e f u t u r e . T h e k i n d o f g o l d e n a g e e s c h a t o l o g y

w i t h w h i c h h e r e p l a c e s t h is a p o c a l y p t i c i m a g e r y is b e i n g fu lfille d i n

t h e p r e s e n t b y t h e b i r t h a n d m i n i s t r y o f J e s u s t h e M e s s i a h . B u t its h o u l d b e n o t e d t h a t th e a n n o u n c e m e n t o f t h a t g o l d e n a g e is m a d e ,

n o t t h r o u g h J o h n t h e B a p t i s t a l o n e e v e n w i t h o u t hi s a p o c a l y p s e o f

b l o o d a n d fire. T h e f o r e r u n n e r is g i v e n a s u p e r n a t u r a l b i r t h e v e n

t h o u g h o f a d if f e r e nt k i n d t o t h a t o f J e s u s .

S u c h a l s o w a s t h e p o s i t i o n a r g u e d i n M . N i l s s o n , GGR? 2 , p . 3 3 7 .




B o t h a r e a n n o u n c e d i n t h e c o n t e x t o f t h e t e m p l e c u l t a n d its p r i e s t

( Z a c h a r i a h ) a n d f e m a l e p r o p h e t e s s . F e m a l e p r o p h e t e s s e s w e r e n o t

u s u a ll y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e J e w i s h C u l t , u n li k e t h e S i b y l i n t h e R o m a n

c u lt . T h e a n n o u n c e m e n t of t h e g o l d e n a g e is t h r o u g h t h e m e d i u m

o f c u l t i c h y m n s (Mag nificat, Nunc Dimittis, etc . ) , l ike the Carmen Saeculare

o f H o r a c e . T h e a n n o u n c e m e n t o f J o h n ' s b i r t h t h a t m a k e s Z a c h a r i a h

d u m b t o o k p l a c e in t h e t e m p l e a t t h e a l t a r o f i n c e n s e (Lk. 1,5-25).

H i s a g e d w i f e E l i z a b e t h , m i r a c u l o u s l y w i t h c h i l d g i v e n h e r a g e , m a y

l e a v e t h e t e m p l e p r e c i n c t t o v is it M a r y in N a z a r e t h i n G a l i l e e , a n d

t h e r e s h e m a y h e a r f r o m M a r y ' s l ip s t h e Magnificat ( 1 , 2 6 - 5 6 ) . H e

m a y r e c o v e r h i s v o i c e a t t h e b i r t h o f J o h n a n d s i n g h i s h y m n o f

t h a n k s g i v i n g ( 1 , 5 7 - 8 0 ) .

B u t t h e s c e n e w i ll r e t u r n , a ft e r t h e A n g e l s ' S o n g , t o t h e S h e p h e r d

a n d t h e b i r t h of C h r i s t ( 2 , 1 - 2 1 ) o n c e m o r e t o t h e T e m p l e , w h e r e M a r y

a n d J o s e p h t ak e t h e C h r i s t ch i ld i n o rd e r t o o ffer t h e s ac r if i ce s fo r

p u r i f i c a t i o n a n d t h e r e S y m e o n w i ll s i n g t h e Nunc Dimittis ( 2 , 2 2 - 3 5 ) .

A n n a p u r s u e s h e r w i d o w h o o d i n t h e t e m p l e f r o m w h i c h s h e n e v e r

d e p a r t s , a n d w h e r e s h e f as ts a n d p r a y s , l ik e t h e S i b y l , t e l li n g w h a t

h a s o c c u r r e d t o all w h o a w a i t r e d e m p t i o n i n J e r u s a l e m (naciv xoiq

7ipoo8exoii£vot<; Xmpqoivf

I ep o u o aA, f | | n ; 2 ,3 6 -3 9 ) . F in a l ly t h e sp ec i a l

m a t e r i a l o f Luke-Acts e n d s a t t h is p o i n t w i t h t h e y o u n g C h r i s t i n t h e

T e m p l e a s t o u n d i n g t h e t e a c h e r s i n t h e T e m p l e ( 1 , 4 1 - 5 2 ) .

B u t g i v e n t h a t i t is a r e f o r m e d c u l t o f J u d a i s m f r o m w h i c h a r i s e s

t h e h o p e o f t h e g o l d e n a g e , i n w h a t t e r m s is s u c h a n a g e e x p r e s s e d ,

w h i c h , l i k e A u g u s t u s ' augurium pacis, t h e c u l t w i l l t h r o u g h i t s c e n t r a l

f i g u r e u s h e r in ( 2 B 1)? W e s h a l l n o w s e e t h e c l o s e c o n n e c t i o n s

b e t w e e n t h e i m a g e r y o f t h e v a r i o u s cu l ti c h y m n s a n d t h a t o f th e

I m p e r i a l C u l t .

3 B 3 . 1 . eipf |vr | , ocoxrip and the p a x d e o r u m in L u k e - A c t s

W e h a v e a l r e a d y d r a w n a t t e n t i o n t o t h e w a y i n w h i c h s u c h v i r tu e sas Eipr|vr]-/fex, 'Ouovoiot— Concordia a r e n o t m e r e l y i n d e p e n d e n t d e i t i e s

b u t a r e a s s o c i a t e d , a s t h e y h a d b e e n f r o m S u l l a ' s t i m e , w i t h t h e p e r

so n a l i t y o f t h e imperator ( 2 B 3 ). I t w a s n e c e s s a r y t h e r e f o r e n o w t o

h a v e t h e A u g u s t a n p r e s e n c e i n o r d e r t o s e c u r e t h e saeculum aureum

i n w h i c h t h e s e v i r t u e s w o u l d b e re a l i se d . S i m i l a r t h e m e s a r e n o w

re f l ec t ed i n t h e sp ec i a l t im e th a t h as co m e ro u n d , t h e ev i au x o v Ku p io u

S E K T O V w h i c h , i n t h e a u t h o r ' s o w n s p e c i a l a d d i t i o n s t o Mark a n d Q,is w h a t J e s u s b e g i n s h i s m i n i s t r y b y " h e r a l d i n g ( ic r |p u £ ai ). " (Lk. 4 ,1 8 )




Thi s passage by itself parallels the Imper ial Cul t wit hou t the re

ap pe ar in g at first sight to exist an y necessar y connec ti on be tw ee n

such a cont ing en t an d paral lel th em e. T h e reference is to the free

ing (A,\>xpcoci<;) of the land eve ry 50th year, t he year of Jub i lee (Lev.

25,10). T h e para llel in the Imper ia l Cu lt is wit h a Stoic re tu rn of

the golden age after the disintegration into iron, after which the

cycle of history makes its full turn to the saeculum aureumwith Fortuna

Redux. W e have exa mi ne d how the met aphys ics of such a not ion was

inc orpo rat ed into the funda ment al assump tions of the Impe rial Cult

(2A 6). But like Augu stus , and unlike Ol d Test am en t forshadowings,

the evuxuTov Kupiou 8eicx6v and the c on sequ ent Xmpwoiq is made

de pe nd en t for its fulfilment on a un iq ue per son , Je su s. T h u s the

ap pe ar an ce of con ting enc y in the parallel ism is mist aken . T he r e is

a direct conne ction be twee n the use of Ol d Te st am en t promis e an d

the mat rix of the ideology of the Impe ria l Cul t whi ch shap es the

envi saged fulfilment of that pr omise.

IcoTTipia was an ot he r of these virtuous condi tions associated with

the extraordinary pax deorumwhich Augustus as augur was to achieve.

Za ch ar ia h prop hesies on the birth of J o h n his son the fulfilment of

pr om is ed Auxpcoaiq in th at Go d has "ra ised up th e horn of salvat ion

for us (acoxripiaq TIJIIV; Lk. 1,69)." Here again acoxripia has an O ld

Testament background where such phrases as "salvation from our

enemies (acoxripiav e£ e^GpSv; 1,71)" are derived from 2 Sam. 22,3,

and Ps 17,18-19 in the process of his construction of a hymn (Lk.

1,71-72). I n pr epa ri ng the way for the Lo rd J o h n is "to give know

ledge of salvat ion (xou Souvcu yvcooiv ocoxripiaq) to his people (xcp Xa&

auxou) in the forgiveness of their sins (ev dcpeaei 6c|iapxicov; 1,77)."

Here also the Old Testament background reveals a fulfilled Judaism

which parallels the imperial ideology but shows no necessary con

nection with it.

But when we turn to Luke's association of the divine plan (rcpoyvcooK;,

pou^T|) with themes of acoxr |p{a and ocoxrip, we find more than a

merely contingent parallelism but rather a more positive connection.

Squires has emphasised the at least partial roots of Luke's concept

of pr ov iden ce in the linguistic usage of K p o v o i a in Hellenistic uni

versal histories such as Diodorus Siculus and Dionysius of Halicar-

nassus.3 7

But ther e is a mor e direct connect ion in the association of

1 7

J.T. S q u i r e s , The P l a n of God in L u k e - A c t s , in SINTS m o n o g r a p h s e r i e s 76

( C a m b r i d g e : 1 9 9 3 ) , pp. 15 17; 3 8 - 4 6 ; 103 108.



I M P E R I A L I D E O L O G Y AND THE O R I G I N S OF C H U R C H O R D E R 93

npovoia with ocoxrip in the ideology of the Impe ri al Cult . It is this

association in the temp lat e of imper ial ideology tha t arguab ly deter

mines Luke's association of such Old Te st am en t th eme s as he c on

structs these a round Je su s as acoxf|p.

W e have alr eady note d from the Ko in on of Asia's dec ree in 9 B.C .

the descr iption of Augustu s as the one "Prov idenc e (npovoia) gr an te d

to us as our saviour (coarcep Tijieiv mixoiq ixeO'fuxaqocoxfipaxapiaaiievri)

who has made war to cease and ordered the world with peace (xov

rcauaavxa jiev 7i6A,euov, Koouriaovxa 8e e ip r | v T w ) ."3 8

We have examples

too from Sardis between 5-2 B.C., and Gytheion in Laconia in

Ti be ri us ' reign (2B 4). W e ma y note further examples in the case

of Antio chus IV an d Juli us Ca es ar .3 9

The passage continues:

through the compassion of our God,

in which the dawn (&vaxoA,t|) from on high has visited us,

to appear to those seated in darkness and in the shadow of death,

to guide (Kax£\)0\)vai) our feet into the way of peace (eiq 686v eipf|vt|<;).

Luke 1,78-79

T h e feeling of gloom and des pon den cy, of darkness an d the s had ow

of death, is not to be attributed to an expression of the feeling of

Israel under enemy occupation. Were that the focus of these sentiments,

they would not have been included in this highly crafted literary text

addresse d to The op hi lu s, a R o m a n of some rank , as is shown by

his be in g addressed as "Y ou r Excellency (icpdxiaxe Geotpita),"4 0

aboutwhom we shall hav e some mo re to say late r (3C 2). T h e t hem e is

not of revolutionary chaos or natural convulsion but of a golden age

3 8

E h r e n b e r g and J o n e s ( 1 9 5 5 ) , pp. 8 2 - 8 3 no. 98 (b) l i n e s 3 4 - 3 6 and IB 4.3 9

See a l s o M.P. N i l s s o n , G e s c h i c h t e der g r i e c h i s c h e n R e l i g i o n in HA 5,2,2 ( 1 9 7 4 ) ,

p p . 3 7 1 - 3 7 2 for e x a m p l e s in the c a s e of C a e s a r and A n t i o c h u s IV. Cf. F i s h w i c k

( 1 9 8 7 ) 1,1 pp. 1 1 - 1 2 , 27, 48, 50.40

Lk. 1,3. L. A l e x a n d e r , The P r e f a c e to L u k e ' s G o s p e l . L i t e r a r y c o n v e n t i o n and

s o c i a l c o n t e x t in L u k e 1.1-4 and A c t s 1.1, in SINTS m o n o g r a p h s e r i e s 78 ( 1 9 9 3 ) ,

p . 133: ". . . Kpdxiaxoq was a p p l i e d p r o p e r l y to p e o p l e of e q u e s t r i a n r a n k . But it is

n o w a c c e p t e d tht it is f o u n d w i t h w i d e r a p p l i c a t i o n . . . and so its use d o e s not

p r o v e t h a t T h e o p h i l u s was a R o m a n o f fi ci a l. " But L u k e u s e s th i s w o r d o n l y in one

o t h e r p l a c e , Acts 2 3 , 2 5 , w h e r e C l a u d i a s L y s i a s a d d r e s s e s his l e t ter : xcp KpaxCaxcp

f i y e u o v i 0T|A,iia. C l e a r l y L u k e u n d e r s ta n d s th i s t e r m as th a t of a high rank ing of f i c ia l ,

a n d th e r e fo r e in a s e n s e c o n s i s ta n t w i th OGIS 614, 4-5 ( g o v e r n o r of A r a b i a ) ; 6 2 9 , 1 6 8

( C o r b u l o ) ; 6 6 7 , 4 ( p r e f e c t of E g y p t) ; J o s e p h u s , Antiqu. 20,12 ( g o v e r n o r of S y r i a ) . See

a l s o R.L. Fox, Pagans and Christians, ( H a r m o n d s w o r t h : P e n g u i n 1 9 8 6 ) , pp. 4 3 0 - 4 3 1 .

O n T h e o p h i l u s as a r e a l p e r s o n and not a p s e u d o n y m for a " ty p i c a l " C h r i s t i a n ,

s e e A l e x a n d e r ( 1 9 9 5 ) , pp. 1 8 8 - 1 9 0 ff.




Furthermore those "seated in darkness and in the shadow of death"

in Lk. 1,79 are members of the world described in the proconsul of

Asia's letter as one that "would have gladly welcomed its destruc

tion (TI8IOTCX av 8ef;auevcp cpGopav)."44 T h e birt h of August us ha d b ee n

the "beginning of the good life of nature and of society (dpxfiv TOU

(iiou Koci ifjq ^cofiq), which is the end and limit of feeling regret (xou

jiexapi^eaGou)."4 5

Likewise in the angels' song to the shepherds, peace

(eipr|vr|) is an no un ce d "u po n ea rth am ong st me n with w h o m G o d is

well p leased (ev ravGpcbrcoiq eu8oK{a( ; ; Lk. 2,14) ."4 6

Finally Symeon in

the Nunc Dimittis links his de pa r tur e "in pe ac e (ev eiprivp)" wi th "thy

salvation (TO acoTripiov aou; 2 ,29-30) ."

But the presence of salvation, peace, and the saeculum aureum was

associated, according to Vergil's Fourth Eclogue, with the birth of a

chi ld wh o (/. 15), possessed the "life of th e gods (deum vitam)." By the

time he wrote Aeneid 6, 791-794, Vergil associated the divine person

age with Augustus Caesar, genus divorum, qui condet saecula aurea (2A 6).

Augustus moreover was quite literally fdius dei since he was not only

Caesar' son but also of the gens Julia whose divine ancestor had been

Venus. It would be quite wrong to underrate the strong religious

impression made by such expressions and attributes on the way in

which the Emperor was regarded in Asia Minor in the late first cen

tury.4 7

Let us now examine the Lukan parallels with such imperial

titles. O n c e ag ain we shall not e tha t it is the imper ial ideology that

controls his selection of Old Testament themes and provides the pat

tern into which he fits them.

3B 3.2. Virgin Birth and Jesus as Son of God (Lk. 2,26-35)

The author of Luke-Acts did not invent the story of the Virgin Birth.

A variant of that same tradition is found in Mat. 1,18- 25. O n the

generally accepted, four document hypothesis, Luke did not know

44

Ibid, l ine 8.45

Ibid, l i n e 1 0 - 1 1 .4 6

See a l s o N i l s s o n ( 1 9 7 4 ) , p. 371.4 7

T h u s I f ind quite faci le B.W. J o n e s , The Emperor Domitian, ( L o n d o n : R o u t l e d g e

1 9 9 2 ) , pp. 1 0 8 - 1 0 9 w h e r e he r e g a r d s D o m i t i a n ' s d i v i n e a p p e l l a t i o n as: "all but

i n c r e d i b l e . . . t e r m s u s e d by flatterers such as M a r t i a l , S t a t i u s, J u v e n t i u s C e l s u s (or

Pliny) to s e c u r e a fa v o u r f r o m an a u to c r a t h a r d l y c o n s t i tu te p r o o f th a t th e y w e r e

i n s t r u c te d or r e q u i r e d to use t h e m . . ." I h a v e f o l l o w e d h e r e the g e n e r a l th e s i s of

P r i c e (1 9 8 4 ) and F i s h w i c k (1 9 8 7 ) th a t it is w r o n g to s e c u l a r i z e R o m a n p o l i t i c s and

t o m a r g i n a l i z e the r e l i g i o u s d i m e n s i o n in th i s way. See a l s o K. S c o t t , The Imperial

Cult under the Flavians (New Y o r k : A r n o 1 9 7 5 ) , pp. 102 103 and f o o t n o t e 7 a b o v e .




M a t t h e w ' s s p e c i a l m a t e r i a l , o r vice versa. B u t t h e r e a r e s i g n i f ic a n t

d i f f e ren ces .

F i r sd y , i n Lk. 1 ,3 2 , w h a t M a r y is t o co n c e iv e is t o b e ca l l ed " S o n

o f t h e H i g h e s t (vibq u O i o x ou ) ," a n d t h e r e f o r e S o n o f G o d a l r e a d y b y

c o n c e p t i o n . M o r e o v e r t h is t i d e is l i n k e d w i t h n o t o n l y t h e " t h r o n e

o f D a v i d h is F a t h e r " a n d r u l e " o v e r t h e h o u s e o f J a c o b f o r e v e r , "

b u t a lso w i th a n ev e r l a s t i n g k i n g d o m , s in ce : " o f h i s k in g d o m (xfiq

p ao i t a io cq au x o u ) t h e re sh a l l b e n o en d ( O U K eoxoci xeXoq; 1 ,3 2 -3 3 ). "

Bu t i n Mat. 1,18-25 t h is c o n n e c t i o n is n o t m a d e .

J e s u s is r e f e r r e d t o s i m p l y a s " k i n g o f t h e J e w s " i n t h e q u e s t i o n

o f t h e M a g i ( 2 , 1 - 2 ) . T h e a d o r a t i o n o f t h e M a g i f o r e s h a d o w s t h e

h o m a g e o f t h e G e n t i l e s t o b e g i v e n t o I s r a e l ' s M e s s i a h . M a r y is t o

h a v e a ch i ld a n d " w h a t is b e g o t t e n (yevvrjGev) i s o f th e H o ly Sp i r i t

( E K 7CV£U|XCXTO<; eax iv ay io u ; 1,20)." H i s n a m e J e s u s i m p l i e s t h a t " h e

sha l l save (ocbae i ) h i s peop le f rom the i r s ins . " (1 ,21) Matthew h e r e

u ses t h e v e rb o co oe i r a th e r t h a n th e A u g u s t a n t i tl e ocoxrip w h i ch , a s

w e h a v e s e e n , is u s e d b y t h e a u t h o r o f Luke-Acts (3 B 3 .1 ) . T h e ch i ld

is b o r n i n B e t h l e h e m ( t he c i ty o f D a v i d ) ( 2 , 5 - 6 ) . I n Matthew w h a t i s

yevvr|0ev eic rcveujiotToq . . . a y t o u is n o t c o n n e c t e d t h e r e f o r e w i t h t h e

t i d e mbq x ou G eou . T h e c h i l d " b e g o t t e n o f t h e H o l y S p i r i t " is a m i r

a c l e t h a t i n d i c a t e s M a r y ' s p u r i t y , so t h a t J o s e p h s h a l l n o t " p u t h e r

a w a y , " ( 1 , 2 0 ) a n d s i m p l y f u l f i l s a M e s s i a n i c p r o p h e c y (Is. 7 , 1 4 ) a b o u t

a v i r g i n a n d a c h i l d c a l l e d E m m a n u e l ( 1 , 2 2 - 2 3 ) . Y io q x ou G eou is n o t

t h e r e f o r e c o n n e c t e d i n Matthew w i t h t h e m o d e o f C h r i s t ' s v i r g i n a l

b i r t h n o r t h e r e f o r e w i t h th e g o l d e n a g e a s b o t h i n A u g u s t a n l i te r a

t u r e a n d i n Luke-Acts. J e s u s is c a l l e d " S o n o f G o d " i n Mat. 2 , 1 5 , b u t ,

as wi th the d iv ine vo ice a t h i s bap t i sm f i r s t in Mat. 3,17 as in M k.

1 , 1 1, t h e t i d e h a s t h e s e n s e o f a d o p t i o n r a t h e r . t h a n b i r t h , i n a l l u

s io n to t h e ad o p t io n o f I s r ae l i n Hos. 11 ,1 o r the k ing as I s rae l ' s

r e p r e s e n t a t i v e i n Ps. 2 , 7 . T h u s in Matthew n o c o n c l u s i o n i s d r a w n

f r o m t h e V i r g i n B i r t h t o J e s u s ' d i v i n e s t a t u s o t h e r t h a n t h a t o f

M es s i a h i n fu l fi lm en t o f Is. 7 , 1 4 .4 8

T h e a d o p t i o n o f t h e A u g u s t a n e q u a t i o n genus divorum (= Jilius dei -

saeculum aureum) i s, t h e r e f o r e , b y t h e a u t h o r o f Luke-Acts a l o n e . M a r y

a s k s h o w t h is c a n b e s i n c e s h e h a s n o t c a r n a l k n o w l e d g e o f a m a n

4 8 F o r a f u r th e r d i s c u s si o n a n d fu ll b i b l i o g r a p h y , s e e J . N o l l a n d , N o S o n - o f - G o d

C h r i s t o l o g y i n M a t t h e w 1.18-25, in JSMT 6 2 ( 1 9 9 6 ) , p p . 3 - 1 2 .



IMPERIAL IDEOLOGY AND THE ORIGINS OF C H U R C H O R D E R 97

(Lk. 1,34) and therefore invites Gabriel's rather clinical a n d techni

cal explanation. H e replies:

The Holy Spirit (rcveuua ayiov) shall come upon you (ikevoETca ini ae),and the power of the Highest (mi 5\>va|ii<; \)\j/iaTO\)) shall overshadow

you (enioKiaoEi A O I ) ; therefore that holy thing which is born ( 8 1 6 m i

XO yevvcouevov ayiov) shall be called a son of God (ICA .r|9T|a£Tai vxbq 0 e o v ) .

Luke 1,35

Clearly the author of Luke-Acts, just like the Augustan poets, wishes

to show how the figure at the centre of his Christian cult is quite

literally divine by procreation, and in no analogical or allegoricalsense. In Eel. 4,6, the mother of the child to be born was a Virgo, and

her seed the "dear offspring of the gods (cara deum suboles)" (I. 49) so

that T O yEvvcouEvov clearly parallels suboles.

Our comparison of Mathaean a n d Lukan accounts of the Virgin

Birth show that not every selection a nd development of Old Testament

proof texts will yield the sense in which Luke uses his divine titles.

Luke affirms the use of Old Testament concepts of acorn p ia in supportof his tide of acoTr|p because he can thereby construct a parallelism

with the imperial ideology, just as he does when he interprets O ld

Testament prophecies of the Virgin Birth as a divine procreation.

But it is not the case that the author will take on the categories

of the Imperial Cult without radical reinterpretation. It is not a pagan

cultus with which we are presented but a reformed Jewish one in

which Jes us' Messiahship stands realised. Con tra -cul tur es to someextent produce mirror images of their host culture: they reverse the

categories and values of what they reflect. A n d this is what is clearly

happening here. Luke is holding up to Theophi lus and his circle

inverse mirror images of their pagan culture that reverse the cate

gories a n d values of what those images reflect.

It has often been pointed out that the language of Lk. 1,35 almost

self-consciously rules out any humanly conceived activity of God onMary's womb, such as when Anchises fathered by the seduction of

Venus Aeneas a n d thereby the gens Julia (Vergil Aenid 1, 617-620).

The divine activity in the miraculous birth is described in highly

abstract terms. T h e an thropomorphism of "shall come upon you

( E X E U O E T C U £7ci ae)" is all but obliterated by making the subject of this

verb "holy spirit (7W£uuoc a y i o v ) . " T h e equivalent expression in different

terms, in the second stanza of a Hebrew poem, likewise makes it

clear that JWEUUXX otyiov is the depersonalised "power of the Highest



98 CHAPTER THREE

(8t>vaui<; i)\|nGTorj)" and its action is d e v o i d of directly physical con

tact ("shall overshadow you (eTuoKidoei GOI)") .4 9

It is strictly therefore thr ou gh this depers ona lis ed process that the

"holy t h i n g which is born (816 KGU TO yevvcojaevov ayiov) shall be called

a son of God (K A ,r)6r|a£Tai vibq GEOU; Lk. 1,35)." Yet as we have

pointed out, there was no such connection b e t w e e n the title son of

God and d i v i n e progeny in the tradition which preceded Luke, and

no justification from his Ol d Tes ta me nt mate rial . His theology of

the Virgin Birth is the result of the impress of the template of impe

rial ideology upon that material. Mk. 15,39 places that title in the

m o u t h of the centurion where the author uses it as a double-entendre:

his readers knew what the title really meant, without any concession

such as Luke makes to a pagan theology of d i v i n e procreation. The

author of Luke-Acts is therefore creating a metaphysical sense in which

Jesus can be seen as a d i v i n e progeny in self-conscious reflection on

the position of Augustus in the Impe rial Cul t. He refashions the con

cepts of that cult and t he co mm un it y at the cent re of whi ch it stood

in order to present his own contra-cultural image that identifies his

own counter group.

But we shall now examine a t h i r d strand in the cultic h y m n s , and

aetiological stories associa ted with it, in te rms of the con tra-c ult ura l

response of the community of Luke-Acts to Augustan concept of Victoria,

its messian ic associations, and its divinisation from an abstr act te rm

into a personal one.

3B 3.3. Victoria and the Magnificat (Lk. 1,46-55)

We saw how in the republican cult Victoria was turned into one of

the d i v i n e personalities of the e m p e r o r . We observed m o r e o v e r the

ic onogra ph ic expression of this process in the inscr iptions on the

gemma Augustea where Roma appears alongside representations of

Victoria, Oikumene, and Tellus. Alongside Roma sits Augustus with t he

cor nuc opi c sign of Ca pr ic or n over his he ad, a nd in his right han d

is the lituus. Fortuna is depicted crow ni ng him (2B 3 and Plate 13).

T hus Victoria and Salus were qualities achieved through the sacerdo

tal qualit ies of the figure of Augustus , genus divorum, standing as pre

siding priest of a cult which sacramentally c o u l d secure the saeculum

aureum.

4 9

V. Taylor, The Historical Evidence for the Virgin Birth, (Oxford: Clarendon 1 9 2 0 ) ;

Brown (1977), pp. 314 316.




T h e r e is n o n e c e s s a r y c o n n e c t i o n , in a l o g ic a l s e n s e , b e t w e e n t h e

c o n c e p t s o f Victoria a n d Salus i n b a t t l e , a g o ld e n ag e , a h u m a n figu re

o f d i v i n e a n d s u p e r n a t u r a l p a r e n t a g e , a n d a s e ri es o f s a c r e d a c t s

c e n t r e d u p o n a c u l t. I n t e r m s o f t r a d i t i o n a l C h r i s t i a n t h e o l o g y p o s t

C h a l c e d o n , M a r y ' s v i rg i ni ty a n d t h e m a n n e r o f h e r c o n c e p t i o n h a s

s i g n i fi c a n c e f o r t h e t h e o l o g y o f i n c a r n a t i o n . B u t t h e r e is a s a b a c k

g r o u n d t o t h e o r i g i n a l a c c o u n t i n Luke n o n e o f t h e l a t t e r t h e o l o g i

c a l a n d p h i l o s o p h i c a l c o n c e r n s o f C h a l c e d o n . W i t h o u t su c h a c o n t e x t ,

t h e r e is n o n e c e s sa r y c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n t h e A n n u n c i a t i o n a n d t h e

c o n t e n t s o f t h e Magnificat. T h a t h y m n , fr o m t h e c e n t r e of t h e C h r i s t i a n

c u l tu s , c o n s i d e r e d a s J u d a i s m r e f o r m e d , d o e s n o t h a v e M a r y m e d i

t a t i n g o n a n d g l o r y i n g i n t h e tw o n a t u r e s m a d e o n e i n w h a t s h e

c o n c e i v e s .

R a t h e r s h e i n t e r p r e t s t h e s i g n if i c a n c e o f t h e genus dei, t h e u io q T O U

G eou w h i c h s h e b e a r s , i n t e r m s o f a m i l i t a r y v i c t o r y . T h o u g h f or

m a l l y s p e a k i n g t h e a c t u a l t e r m Victoria (Ndcrj) is not explicity used,

o t h e r t e r m s i n d i c a t i v e o f s u c h a d i v i n e a b s t r a c t i o n a r e . M a r y ' s

TarcelvcoGK; h a s b e e n e n d e d b y G o d w h o is 6 S u va x oq , a n d w h o h a s

" s h o w n (ercornaev) t h e m i g h t (Kpdioq) o f h i s a rm (ev p p a x i o v i a u x o u ) "

a n d " s c a t t e r e d t h e p r o u d ( 8 i e o K 0 p 7 u o e v urcepcpdvouq; Lk. 1,48-51)."

" H e h a s c a s t d o w n ( ic aO e ita v) t h e m i g h t y ( S u v d a x a q ) f r o m t h e i r

t h r o n e s (anb 0 p6 vco v; 5 2 ) . " P r e v i o u s l y t h e p r o m i s e d b i r t h o f M a r y ' s

c h i l d h a s b e e n a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e G povoq a n d fiaoiXeia o f D a v i d

wh ich , l i k e t h e i d ea l imperium Rom anum, wi l l h av e n o en d (Lk. 1,32-33).

F u r t h e r m o r e , Z a c h a r i a h ' s t h a n k s g i v i n g fo r t h e b i r t h o f J o h n t h e

B a p t i s t s e t s t h e t h e m e s o f acoxripia, XuTpcoaiq, a n d acpeaic; in t h e m il

i t a r i s t i c c o n t e x t o f t h e Kepctq acorn, piocq w h i c h g iv e s d e l i v e r a n c e e £

exGpcov ( 1 , 6 9 - 7 0 ; 7 3 ). T h o u g h n o t sp e c if ic a ll y n a m e d , t h e k i n d o f

e m o t i o n a l i n v e s t m e n t i n t h e d e i f i e d Victoria w a s n o t a b s e n t f r o m t h e

w o r s h i p o f M a r y ' s c h i l d b y T h e o p h i l u s a n d h is c i r cl e .

W e c a n , f o ll o w i n g p a r t i a l l y a n a r r a t i v e - c r i t i c a l a p p r o a c h , c o n s t r u c t

t h e i d e a l r e a d e r f r o m s u c h p a s s a g e s a n d f i n d t h a t o u r c o n s t r u c

t i o n is i n f o r m e d b y t h e c u l t u r a l a n d h i st o r i c a l t e m p l a t e w h i c h o r d e r s

t h e t h e m e o f Victoria (Niicn,) i n t h e Im p e r i a l Cu l t . Su c h a t e m p l a t e

m a k e s i n te l li g ib l e h o w T h e o p h i l u s a n d h is c i rc l e w o u l d r e g a r d t h e

r e c o r d o f t h e e v e n t s o f a s u p e r n a t u r a l b i r t h a n d a d i v i n e C h i l d w h i c h

u sh e r s i n a r e ig n o f Pax o r eip rivn. as a l te rn a t iv e im ag es to tho se o f

t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t ( P la te 5) . T h a t c u l t, f r om 9 B . C . o n w a r d s , t r a n s

fig ured th e l a n d sc ap e o f r e l i g io u s a r ch i t e c t u r e a n d cu l tu re i n t h e As i a

M i n o r o f t h e p r o v e n a n c e o f t h e L u k a n w r i t i n g s , a s w e ll a s a t C a e s a r e a



IMPERIAL I D E O L O G Y A N D T H E O R I G I N S O F C H U R C H O R D E R 101

s o c i e ty w i t h w h i c h t o r e p l a c e t h e p r e s e n t . T h i s is a c h a r g e t h a t w e

m i g h t l a y r a t h e r a t t h e a u t h o r o f t h e Apocalypse, as we sha l l see . A

c o n t r a - c u l t u r e is n o t a n a l t e r n a t iv e c u l t u r e , a s w e m u s t n o w — a n d

in a L u k a n c o n t e x t — e x p l a i n .

P A R T C . L U K A N I M A G E S O F C O N T R A -C U L T U R E

A c r e a t i o n o f a c o n t r a - c u l t u r e i s a s y m b i o t i c s t r a t e g y l e a d i n g t o s o c ia l

i n t e g r a t i o n r a t h e r t h a n anomie. A c o n t r a - c u l t u r e is n o t a m i r r o r i m a g e

o f t h e cu l tu re t h a t it r e f l ec ts , w i th d i ff e ren t p e r s o n s r ep l ac in g t h ea u t h o r i t y figures w i t h t h e a u t h o r i t y s t r u c t u r e s t h a t t h e y i n h a b i t a n d

t h e i r w e b o f r e l a t i o n s h i p s le ft u n a l t e r e d . I n t h a t r e s p e c t a c o n t r a -

c u l t u r e is n o t a r e v o l u t i o n a r y a l t e r n a t i v e ( C h a p t e r 1, p p . 1 1 - 1 4 ff.).

C o h e n ' s j u v e n i l e g a n g s , f or e x a m p l e , w e r e n o t c h a l l e n g i n g t h e status

quo b u t c r e a t i n g a s o l u t i o n w h i c h e n a b l e d t h e m t o l iv e s y m b i o t i c a l l y

w i t h i n i t. T h e i r r e v e r s a l o f s o c i e t y 's v a l u e s w a s p a r t o f t h e c r e a t i o n

o f a s o c i a l r e a l i ty w h i c h g a v e t h e m s t a t u s t h a t b r o a d e r s o c ie t y d e n i e dt h e m , a n d t h u s i n o n e w a y p r o t e c t e d t h a t s o c i e t y f r o m r e v o l u t i o n

a r y d e s t r u c t i o n . T h e c o n s e q u e n c e o f t h e d e l i n q u e n t s o l u t i o n a s s u c h

w a s n o t a r e v o l u t i o n a r y s o l u t i o n .

S i m i l a r l y Luke-Acts r e p r e s e n t s a c o n t r a - c u l t u r a l s o l u t i o n w h i c h i s

s o c i a l i n t e g r a t i v e , o v e r c o m i n g a s i t d o e s t h e p s y c h o l o g i c a l s t a t e o f

anomie i n t h e i n h a b i t a n t s o f t h a t c o n t r a - c u l t u r e a n d t h u s r e d u c i n g

p r e s s u r e s t o w a r d s a c t u a l a n d d i s r u p t i v e anomia w i t h i n t h e h o s t c u l t u r ei n w h i c h i t is f o u n d . T h a t t h e t h e m e s o f Victoria a n d Pax a r e n o t t o

b e i n t e r p r e t e d i n a p o l i ti c a l ly r e v o l u t i o n a r y w a y is m a d e q u i t e c l e a r

b y Luke's r a d i c a l a d j u s t m e n t , u n i q u e a m o n g s t t h e s y n o p t i c e v a n g e

l ists, o f t h e a p o c a l y p t i c m e s s a g e o f J o h n t h e B a p t i st w h e n t h e l a t t e r

is r e c o r d e d a s e x h o r t i n g t h e g i v i n g o f f o o d a n d c l o t h i n g t o t h o s e i n

n e e d . T a x - c o l l e c t o r s a r e n o t t o e x a c t m o r e t h a n t h e i r a l l o t t e d a m o u n t .

R o m a n s o l d ie r s a r e t o b e c o n t e n t w i t h t h e i r w a g e s (Lk. 3 , 1 0 - 1 4 ) .B u t l et u s n o w e x a m i n e h o w t h e t h e o r e t i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e o f c o n t r a -

c u l t u r e i n f o r m s b o t h p a r t s o f Luke-Acts. W e b e g i n b ri e fl y w i t h t h e

L u k a n e s c h a t o l o g y (3 C 1) a n d f o ll o w w i t h a m o r e e x t e n d e d t r e a t

m e n t i n Acts (3C 2) .

3C 1 . The imperial banquet (Lk. 1,52-53; 3,1)

Pax a n d Victoria i n t h e c o n t e x t o f t h e r e f o r m e d J u d a i s t i c c u l t , a n d i ts

p r o m i s e d g o l d e n a g e u s h e r e d i n b y a S o n o f G o d b o r n o f a V i r g i n ,

w e r e n o t e x a c t m i r r o r i m a g e s o f t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t w h i c h t h e y t h u s



1 0 2 C H A P T E R T H R E E

r e f l e c te d i n t h e f o r m o f t h e i r p r e f e r r e d d i s t o r t i o n s . T h e r e f o r m e d ,

J u d a e o - C h r i s t i a n c u l t p r o v i d e d a s o l u ti o n fo r t h e h u n g r y a n d m e e k

w h o w e r e s a t i s f i e d w i t h g o o d t h i n g s w i t h t h e r i c h s e n t a w a y e m p t y

(Lk. 1,52-53). T h e V i r g i n ' s c h i l d , w h o is t h e s i g n o f t h e saeculum

aureum o f AuTpcoaiq, eiprivr) a n d acoxripia, is b o r n i n a m a n g e r (Lk.

1,11), l i k e t h e h u n g r y a n d t h e o p p r e s s e d . Luke's scene i s thus h i s

c o n t r a - c u l t u r a l c r e a t i o n o f a s c h e m e o f s i g n if i c a n c e i n w h i c h t h e d i s

p o s s e s s e d a n d m a r g i n a l i s e d a r e g i v e n t h e i r o w n , n e w c o n s t r u c t i o n o f

r e a l it y t h a t a s si g ns t h e m d i g n i t y a n d s t a t u s w i t h h e l d b y " n o r m a l "

s o c i e t y . A s s u c h L u k e w a s i n v i t i n g T h e o p h i l u s a n d h i s c i r c l e t o a c c e p t

a l so t h e e g a l i t a r i a n d e m a n d s o f t h e J e s u s M o v e m e n t , po s s ib l y o v e r

l o o k e d b y P a u l . 5 1

T h e " j u d g e m e n t " w h i c h m i g h t b e s e e n i n Lk. 1 , 5 2 - 5 3 , w h e r e t h e

m i g h t y a r e t h r o w n d o w n a n d t h e h u m b l e a n d m e e k e x a l t e d , f i t s f a r

m o r e c lo s el y w i t h p a r a l l e l s i n t h e A u g u s t a n r e v o l u t i o n t h a n w i t h O l d

T e s t a m e n t t h e m e s of j u d g e m e n t . B u t t h e b e n e fi c ia r ie s in M a r y ' s s o n g

o f l ay c r ip m an d Au xp co aiq h a v e n o c o u n te rp a r t i n t h e so c i a l r ev o lu

t i o n m a r k e d b y t h e a d v e n t o f t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t a n d its c e l e b r a t i o n

o f N u cr|. I n t h e l a t t e r i t w a s n o t t h e h u m b l e a n d m e e k , b u t l e a d i n g

f r e e d m e n a n d m e m b e r s o f t h e Ordo Equester w h o b e n e f i t e d f r o m t h e

A u g u s t a n r e v o l u t i o n .

A s Z a n k e r p o i n t s o u t , t h e s e g r o u p s p r e v i o u s l y w i t h o u t s o c i a l s t a

t u s c o u l d n o w a c h i e v e s o ci a l r e c o g n i t i o n t h r o u g h t h e r e l ig i o u s r e s p o n

s ib il it ie s o f p r i e s t h o o d s . T h e s a c ri fi ci a l p r o c e s s i o n d e p i c t e d o n t h e Ara

Pacis d i s p l a y s t h e n e w l y c o n s t i t u t e d , l e a d i n g a r i s t o c r a c y .5 2

F o r e x a m p l e ,

the eques t r ians were made p r ies t s o f the cu l t o f the Lupercalia. M o r e o v e r ,

l e a d i n g f r e e d m e n (liberti) g a i n e d r e li g io u s f u n c t i o n s a n d c o r r e s p o n d

i n g so c i a l s t a t u s t h r o u g h t h e c u l ti c s h r i n e s o f t h e i r v a r i o u s g u i l d s

a n d a s magistri in the cu l t s o f the Compitalia w h i c h w e r e t h e 2 6 5 vici

o r c it y - d is t r ic t s c r e a t e d b y A u g u s t u s i n 7 B . C . , a n d fo r w h i c h w e

h a v e c o m m e m o r a t i v e a l t a r s ( P l at e 8 ). E v e n w o r t h y s la v es c o u l d p a r

t i c i p a t e a s ministri a t t h e s e s h r i n e s w h o t h e r e b y a c h i e v e d t h e s t a t u s

o f p u b l i c of fic e a n d c o u l d r e c o r d t h e i r n e w s t a t u s b y t h e i r p a r t i c i

p a t i o n i n p r o c e s s i o n s o n i m p e r i a l fe as t d a y s . T h e A l t a r o f t h e L a r e s

s h o w s p r o b a b l y A u g u s t u s h a n d i n g o v e r t w o s ta t u e t t e s o f t h e Lares

5 1 G . T h e i s s e n , Sociology of Early Palestinian Christianity, t r an s . J . B o w d e n , ( P h i l a d e lp h i a :F o r t r es s 1 9 8 2 ) , p p . 7 - 3 0 .

5 2 Z a n k e r ( 1 9 9 0 ) , p . 1 2 3 .



I M P E R I A L I D E O L O G Y A N D T H E O R I G I N S O F C H U R C H O R D E R 1 0 3

5 3 Z a n k e r ( 1 9 9 0 ) , p . 1 3 1 a n d p . 1 3 3 f ig . 1 0 9 .5 4 F i s h w i c k ( 1 9 9 1 ) 2 , 1 p p . 4 8 2 - 5 0 1 .55

Ibid. p . 5 8 6 , c i t i n g IGRR 4 , 1 6 0 8 c . S e e a l s o 3 C 3 . 2 .06 Ibid. p. 575 c f . F . Mi l lar , The Emperor in the Roma n World, ( L o n d o n : D u c k w o r t h

1 9 7 7 ) , p . 3 6 a n d p . 3 6 5 ; J . G a g e , Apollon Romain, in BEFAR 1 8 2 , ( 1 9 5 5 ) , p p . 2 5 7 - 2 9 6 ;

M a r t i a l Ep. 3 .

t o t h e ministri o f a compitum ( P l a te 9 ) . T h e l a t t e r w e a r s l a v e s ' d r e s s .5 3

T h e r e fe r e n c e to b a n q u e t i n g i n Lk. 1 , 5 2 ~ 5 3 is s ign i f ican t in v ie w

o f o u r l o c a t i o n o f t h e L u c a n e s c h a t o l o g y a n d it s m y t h o l o g y i n t h e

i m a g e r y o f t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t . C i v i c b a n q u e t s , li ke c iv ic g a m e s , w e r e

l i n k e d t o c u l t ic c e l e b r a t i o n s o f i m p e r i a l b i r t h d a y s in t h e l e c t i o n a r y

t h a t F i s h w i c k p o s i t s a n d a t t e m p t s t o r e c o n s t r u c t .5 4

P a r t o f t h e l a rg es se

r e q u i r e d o f t h e p r e s t i g i o u s p r i e s t s o f t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t w a s t h e p r o

v i s io n o f l a v is h c i v ic b a n q u e t s . T h e s e t o o , l ik e t h o s e w h o h e l d t h e

p r i e s t h o o d s a t R o m e , w e r e u s i n g s u c h o f f i c e s a s a m e a n s o f u p w a r d

s o ci al m o b i l i t y f r o m t h e i n c r e a s i n g l y w e a l t h y g r o u p s o f f r e e d m e n a n d

t r a d e s m e n . Luke h a s a v i s i o n o f a n e v e n m o r e r a d i c a l r e v o l u t i o n a s

a c o u n t e r p a r t t o t h a t o f A u g u s t u s . I n t h e c a s e o f t h e l a t t e r , t h e p r e

v i o u s ly m i g h t y a r e t h r o w n f r o m t h e i r s e a t s b y a n i n c r e a s i n g l y p o w

e rf ul , m e r c a n t i l e a n d t r a d i n g cla ss n e w l y a d m i t t e d t o p o w e r . A u g u s t u s

is d e p i c t e d o n o n e a l t a r a s p r e s e n t i n g a s t a t u e o f M i n e r v a t o t h e

magistri o f a g u i ld o f w o o d w o r k e r s (P l a t e 1 2) . F o r t h e fo rm er i t is t h e

p o o r a n d h u m b l e t h a t b e n e f i tt e d fr o m t h e c h a n g e d s t a tu s b r o u g h t

a b o u t b y t h e r e v e r s a l o f p o w e r .

A d e c r e e o f t h e p r o v i n c i a l c o u n c i l o f A s i a , a c o p y o f w h i c h is p r e

s e r v e d i n a n i n s c r i p t io n f r o m H y p a e p a , r e c o r d s t h e c h o i r o f A s i a

h o l d i n g a b a n q u e t a f t e r h y m n s a n d s a c r i f i c e s i n h o n o u r o f T i b e r i u s '

b i r t h d a y .5 5

I n t h e g a m e s w h i c h p r e c e d e d s u c h b a n q u e t s , w i t h t h e

p r o c e s s i o n o f i m p e r i a l i m a g e s f r o m a Sebasteion t o t h e g a m e s t h e m

s el ve s , t h e r ic h w o u l d h a v e p l a c e s o f h o n o u r a r o u n d t h e p r e s i d i n g

g o v e r n o r , w i t h t h e e m p e r o r ' s c h a i r o c c u p i e d b y h is i m a g e if h e w a s

n o t t h e r e i n p e r s o n .5 6

T h e n e w l y e m e r g i n g r a n k s a n d d e g r e e s o f

p o l i ti c a l a u t h o r i t y r e p r e s e n t e d a n d r e i n f o r c e d s oc i a l i n t e g r a t i o n w i t h i n

t h e n e w i m p e r i a l o r d e r . B u t t h e o r d e r t h a t w a s c e l e b r a t e d h e r e w a s

a n e w s o c i a l o r d e r . T h e p a y m e n t f o r t h e c u l t a n d a s s o c i a t e d g a m e s ,

a n d t h e p r i e s t h o o d a w a r d e d fo r s u c h a b e n e f a c t i o n , f o r m e d p a r t o f

a s oc ia l p h e n o m e n o n o f u p w a r d m o b i l it y . A u g u s t u s ' r e v o l u t i o n , u n l ik e

Luke's, h a d n o t p r o p o s e d t o " e x a l t t h e h u m b l e a n d m e e k . " B u t , a s

m y r e f e r e n c e s t o Z a n k e r h a v e s h o w n , t h a t r e v o l u t i o n h a d c e r t a i n l y

r a i s e d s e a t s o f h o n o u r f or a s o c i al c la s s t h a t h a d n o t p o s s e s s e d t h e m




b e f o r e , b u t w h i c h c o u l d ri se s o c ia l ly t h r o u g h i ts b e n e f a c t i o n s t o a

n e w c u l t c e l e b r a t i n g a p o l i ti c a l r e v o l u t i o n . T o t h a t e x t e n t Luke's e s c h a

t o l o g y r e f le c t ed t h e A u g u s t a n s e t t l e m e n t .

B e f o r e D e c i u s T r a j a n ( A . D . 2 5 1 ) p a r t i c i p a t i o n w a s v o l u n t a r y a n d

w i t h o u t a n y l eg a l c o m p u l s i o n t o p a r t i c i p a t e . B u t s o ci al p r e s s u r e , a s

T e r t u l l i a n ' s l a t e r De Corona w a s t o i n d i c a t e , c o u l d h a v e t h e s a m e

p r a c t i c a l c o n c l u s i o n s o f d r a w i n g h o s ti le a t t e n t i o n to n o n - p a r t i c i p a n t s

a n d t h e d r a w i n g u p o f c h a r g e s o f scelera or o f contumacia a g a i n s t t h e m .5 7

F u r t h e r m o r e , P l i n y 's r e m a r k s s h o w t h a t , as a s o c ia l e v e n t , t h e c u l t

w o u l d n o t s i m p l y h a v e m a d e T h e o p h i l u s a s a p r o v i n c i a l a r i s t o c r a t

a n d h i s a s s o c ia t e s fe el c o n s t r a i n e d , b u t a ls o m e m b e r s o f t h e g e n e r a l

p o p u l a c e w h o d i d n o t p a r t i c i p a t e in t h e w e a r i n g o f f es ta l g a r l a n d s

o r th e g e n e r a l a d u l a t i o n s a n d h o r s e p l a y o f a p u b l i c h o l i d a y .

T h u s C h r i s t i a n i t y a s t h e r e f o r m e d c u l t o f J u d a i s m c h a n g e s t h e

o r d e r o f p r e s t i g e a s t h e d i v i n e C h i l d b o r n o f t h e V i r g i n i ss u e s i n

t h e n e w a g e . T h e e s c h a t o l o g i c a l b a n q u e t is t o e x u l t t o i ts p o s i t i o n s

o f h o n o u r t h e T o c r c e i v o i a n d t h e T c e i v c o v x e q . T h e s e t h e m e s m o r e o v e r

c a n b e f o u n d o u t s i d e t h e b i r t h s t o r i e s i n t h e s p e c i f i c a l l y L u k a n m a t e

r i a l t h a t i n t e r l e a v e s t h e G o s p e l t r a d i t i o n a s h e t a k e s i t o v e r . T h e

b e g i n n i n g o f t h e e ua yy eX i ov w i t h J o h n t h e B a p t i s t , a s i n Mark a n d

t h e e a r ly C h r i s t i a n h o m i l e t i c p r e s e r v e d i n t h e s p e e c h e s o f P e t e r e t c .

in Acts, is m a r k e d b y t h e C h r o n o l o g y o f i m p e r i a l h is t o r y . I n Lk. 3,1

th a t be g i n n i ng is g ive n " in th e fifteen th y e ar ( ev exei 8e 7cevTeKai8eKdicp)

of the consulship (xfj<; T i y e u o v i a q ) o f T i b e r i u s C a e s a r , " b u t t h e r e a r e

m e n t i o n e d a l s o t h e offic es o f b o t h P i l a t e ( p r o c o n s u l o f J u d a e a ) , H e r o d

( t e t r a r c h o f G a l i l e e , I t u r e a a n d T r a c h o n t i s ) , L y s a n i a s ( t e t r a r c h o f

A b i l e n e ) .

T h e n , i n t h e sp ec if ic all y L u c a n a c c o u n t o f t h e R e j e c t i o n a t N a z a r e t h

(Lk. 4 , 1 6 - 3 0 ) , w e s e e t h e d i v i n e C h i l d n o w g r o w n , w h o h a s a l r e a d y

a p p e a r e d a t t h e c e n t r e o f t h e o l d T e m p l e c u lt . T h e r e h e a s t o n i s h e d

t h e t e a c h e r s o f t h a t c u l t w i t h h i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e L a w (Lk.

> 7 A . N . S h e r w i n - W h i t e , T h e e a rl y p e r s e c u t i o n s a n d R o m a n L a w a g a i n , i n JThS

3 , 2 ( 1 9 5 2 ) , p . 2 1 0 w i t h w h i c h a t l e a s t i n t h i s r e s p e c t a g r e e s G . E . M . D e S t e . C r o i x ,

W h y w e r e t h e ea r l y C h r i s t i a n s p e r s e c u t e d ? i n Past and Present, 2 6 ( 1 9 6 3 ) , p . 1 0 w h e r e

h e s a y s: " I n f a c t e m p e r o r w o r s h i p is a f a c to r o f n o i n d e p e n d e n t i m p o r t a n c e i n t h e

p e r s e c u t i o n o f C h r i s t i a n s . " S e e a ls o A . N . S h e r w i n - W h i t e , W h y w e r e t h e e a rl y

C h r is t ia n s p e r s e c u t e d ? — A n A m e n d m e n t , i n Past and Present, 2 7 ( 1 9 6 4 ) , p p . 2 3 - 2 7 ;

G . E . M . D e S t e . C r o i x , W h y w e r e th e e a rl y C h r i s t i a n s p e r s e c u t e d ? — A R e j o i n d e r ,

in Past and Present, 2 7 ( 1 9 6 4 ) , p p . 2 8 - 3 3 ; F . M i l l a r , T h e I m p e r i a l C u l t a n d t h e

P e r s e c u t i o n s , i n Culte des Souverains dans I'Empire Romain, in Entrentiens 1 9 ( 1 9 7 2 ) ,

p p . 1 4 3 1 7 5 .




S y r i a , w h o s e p o s i t i o n w a s b e i n g r e d e f i n e d b y t h e A u g u s t a n r e v o l u t i o n ,

b u t fo r t h e p o o r . P r i e s t h o o d s o f t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t i ts e lf h a d b e e n

a n i m p o r t a n t v e h i c l e f or i n d i v i d u a l s t o i n c r e a s e t h e i r p e r s o n a l s t a t u s

am o n g s t t h e f r e eb o r n u r b a n e li t e o f t h o se c i t ie s . A risin g i n d iv id u a l

c o u l d u s e s u c h p r i e s t h o o d s t o p u b l i c i z e t h e i r n e w r a n k m a r k e d b y

th e p o s s es s io n o f t h e rcp oeSplou a t t h e ev en t s t h a t w er e p a r t o f t h e

c e l e b r a t i o n s of t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t in t h e t h e a t r e s a n d a m p h i t h e a t r e s .6 1

B u t w e m u s t r e m e m b e r t h a t Luke-Acts is a t w o v o l u m e d w o r k , a n d

i ts s e p a r a t i o n b y t h e p o s i t i o n o f t h e F o u r t h G o s p e l i n t h e u s u a l o r d e r

o f New Testament c o n t e n t s h a s p e r h a p s s e r v e d t o o b s c u r e t h is f ac t. W e

m u s t n o w a d d r e s s t h e e s s e n ti a l c o n t i n u i t y o f t h e t h e m e s t h a t L u k e

i m p r e s s e d u p o n h is t r a d i t i o n a l m a t e r i a l a s t h e y a r e f o u n d i n Acts.

3 C 2 . Images of contra-culture in A c t s

T h e r e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f T h e o p h i l u s as t h e R o m a n o f r a n k to w h o m

t h e t w o v o l u m e d w o r k is a d d r e s s e d h a s b e e n t h e fo c us o f a t t e n t i o n

f o r h y p o t h e s e s r e g a r d i n g t h e a p o l o g e t i c c h a r a c t e r o f Luke-Acts. T h o u g ht h e first v o l u m e g i v es n o g r e a t i n d i c a t i o n o f t h e a p o l o g e t i c i n t e r e s t s

o f t h e a u t h o r , it m i g h t n e v e r t h e l e s s b e a r g u e d t h a t Acts m o r e t h a n

c o m p e n s a t e s .

T h e f o u n d a t i o n o f t h e a p o l o g e t i c th e s is is u n d o u b t e d l y t h e w a y i n

w h i c h w i se R o m a n m a g i s t r a te s a r e r e p r e s e n t e d as a l w a y s u n d e r

s t a n d i n g t h a t a n y ci vi l u n r e s t is n e v e r t h e fa u l t o f C h r i s t i a n m i s

s io n a r i e s b u t is d u e t o t h e f act it io u sn ess o f u n w an to n J e w i sh o p p o s i t i o n .W i t h o u t su c h a fo u n d a t io n , i t is d if fi cu l t t o l ay t o o m u c h s t r e ss o n

t h e r a n k o f T h e o p h i l u s , s i n c e t h e w o r d s of Lk. 1 ,3 -4 su g g es t s t h a t

t h i s p a r t i c u l a r K p a x i a i o q h a s a l r e a d y r e c e i v e d c a t e c h e t i c a l i n s t r u c t i o n

(ivoc emyv&q rcepi <bv Karnxr i^S AoycDV ™ \v ococpd^eiav). T h is wo ul d ha rd ly

t h e r e f o r e s u g g e s t a p a g a n m a g i s t r a t e n e e d i n g to b e c o n v i n c e d o f t h e

h a r m l e s s n e s s o f C h r i s t i a n i t y i n o r d e r t o g i v e it t h e p r o t e c t i o n o f b e i n g

d e c l a r e d a religio licita.62

L e t u s f or t h e m o m e n t c o n s i d e r s u c h a n a p o l o g e t i c i n t e r p r e t a t i o n .

3 C 2 . 1 . The interpretation of A c t s as a p o l o g i a

I n Acts 1 8 , 4 - 1 7 t h e f a m o u s e v e n t s t a k e p l a c e a t C o r i n t h w h e r e J e w i s h

o p p o s i t i o n a n d b l a s p h e m y e n d s P a u l ' s n o r m a l p r a c t i c e o f p e r s u a d i n g

Z a n k e r ( 1 9 9 0 ), p p . 1 2 9 - 1 3 1 ; p p . 3 1 9 3 2 8 .

S e e f o o t n o t e 6 .



I M P E R I A L I D E O L O G Y AND THE OR I GI N S OF C H U R C H O R D E R 107

by publ ic arg um en t Je ws an d Hellenists every Sa bb at h in the syna

gogue (v. 4). Paul transfers his preaching to the house of Titus Justus

which "bordered on the synagogue (ouvouopouaa xr\ ouvayoyfi;

v. 7)." Cr ispus the apxiauvdycoyoq is co nver te d with his househ old

and they are baptised (v. 8). But after six mon ths "th e Jew s cause

an u p roar ag ai ns t Paul (Kaxerceaxriaav 6uo6\)|Lia86v xcp Ilautap), and

bring h im to court (fiyocyov auxov eni xo P^axx)." T h e pres id ing pro

consul of Achaia is Gallio (TaXkmvoq 8e dv0U7tdxorj ovxoq xfj<; 'Axaioc<;;

v. 12).

Gallio, in the scene which follows, rejects the charges of illegal

ity, and claims that they are purely "disputes about a discussion

regarding names (^r|xf||Liaxd e a x w rcepi Xoyov icai ovojidxcov) a nd your

particular law (K<X! VOJIOU xou KCC6' uudq). " In co ns eq ue nc e, he refuses

to act as jud ge ( i c p r c r ^ eyo) xouxcov ou pouXoum eivai; v. 15). In final

exasperation he expels them from the immediate area where he

sits in ju dg em en t, while near by a nd within his view Sosthe nes the

d p x i G D v d y c o y o q is be at en , whilst Gal lio looks on wit h indifference

{v. 16-17).

The scene described here in detail exemplifies a theme now well

developed in summary throughout Acts. In 17, 5 - 9 th e Jews ar e held

responsible for "stirring up the rabble (6%Ao7ioif|oavx£<;) and causing

uproar in the city (eOopupouv xfjv 7i6A,iv)" of Th es sa lo ni ca , with th e

result that the city magistrates (rcotaxdpxou) fined Jason and others in

Paul' s abs ence, but nevertheless released the m. In 14,2 the Je ws of

Ic oni um ar e held responsible for "co rr upt in g the hea rts of the g en

tiles (eKaKcooav xdq xj/uxdq xSv eGvSv)." At Antioch (13,50) "t he J ews

incite ( r c a p c o x p u v a v ) pious women of noble rank (aePouivaq y u v a i K a q

xdq euaxriiiovaq) a nd the l ead ing ci tizens (xouq rcpcoxouq xfjq K O ^ e c o q )

an d arou sed a perse cut ion ( e 7 c r | y e ip a v 8icoyuov) against Paul and

Ba rn ab as . . ." At Lystra it is "Jews from Ic on iu m a nd An ti oc h" who

persuade the crowds, that had hitherto treated them as almost divine,

to stone them (14,19).

T h e seeming ly hi dd en , apol oget ic message is tha t an y civil unre st

att rib ute d to Chris tiani ty was in fact due to Jewi sh agi tation , an d

tha t Galli o ha d de mo ns tr at ed th e atti tude of the wise magist rate .

Such a message seemed reinforced by the closing chapters of Acts.

Here it is expressly cl aimed that Felix was favourab ly impr essed by

Paul (v. 24-25) in the face of accusations by Tertullus at the insti

gati on of An an ia s the high priest of dis tur bin g the pe ac e and insti

gat ing axdaeiq (24, 1-9 ). Felix ther efore could hav e given no cr ed en ce




t o t h e s e c h a r g e s a n d o n l y w i s h e d f o r a b r i b e i n o r d e r t o r e l e a s e h i m

(v . 26) .

P a u l m a k e s h i s f a m o u s a p p e a l t o C a e s a r b e f o r e P o r c i u s F e s t u s ,

F e l ix ' s s u c c e s s o r a n d t h u s p r e e m p t s a n y f u r t h e r j u d i c i a l p r o c e e d i n g s

a t h is h a n d s ( 2 5 , 1 - 1 1 ) . A g r i p p a t o o h e a r s h i m , a n d b o t h g e n t i le g o v

e r n o r a n d J e w i s h k i n g c o n c e d e d t h a t h a d h e n o t m a d e h is a p p e a l ,

h e c o u l d h a v e b e e n r e l e a s e d (2 6 , 30 ) . B u t t h e r e a r e a n u m b e r o f

p r o b l e m s w i t h r e g a r d i n g Acts a s a s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d a p o l o g y , h o w e v e r

m u c h t h e r e m a y b e e n c l ea r ly p e r i p h e r a l a p o l o g e t ic c o n c e r n s i m p l i e d

i n t h a t w o r k .6 3

3 C 2 . 2 . M odifications of the apologetic thesis

T h e p r o b a b l e d a t e o f Luke-Acts, d e m a n d e d b y m o s t s o u r c e c r it ic a l

a p p r o a c h e s r e g a r d i n g t h e c o m p i l a t i o n o f t h e G o s p e l s , is A . D . 7 5 - 8 5 .

T h e u se b y Luke o f Mark's g o s p e l , i ts elf d a t a b l e a r o u n d A . D . 6 5 ,

r e q u i r e s L u k e t o b e w r i t i n g a f te r t h e p e r s e c u t i o n o f N e r o in w h i c h

P a u l d i e d . W h y is t h e r e n o r e c o r d o f P a u l ' s t r ia l a n d e x e c u t i o n b e f o r e

N e r o ? T h e a p o l o g e t i c th e s i s i n s o m e o f i ts f o r m s h a s l e a d in c o n

s e q u e n c e t o t h e d e m a n d t h a t Acts m u s t h a v e b e e n w r i t t e n b e f o r e

t h a t e v e n t , a n d t h e r e f o r e b e f o r e A . D . 6 5 . I n o t h e r f o r m s i t h a s

r e q u i r e d t h e h y p o t h e s i s t h a t t h e tr ia l a n d e x e c u t i o n o f P a u l h a d t o

b e d e l i b e r a t e l y s u p p r e s s e d , o t h e r w i s e t h e a p o l o g e t i c f o rc e o f w h a t t h e

a u t h o r w r o t e w o u l d b e lo st . I f f u r t h e r m o r e , a s J a c k s o n a n d L a k e s u g

g es t ed , Pa u l w as acq u i t t ed s im p ly b e ca u se o f a t im e l ap se o f tw o y ea r s ,

t h e n s u c h a v e r d i c t o f n o t - p r o v e n r a t h e r t h a n of i n n o c e n c e w o u l d

n o t h a v e h e l p e d hi s c a s e . 6 4 B u t e it h e r o f t h e s e a r g u m e n t a t i v e m o v e s

c l ea r ly face i n s u p e r ab l e d i ff icu l ti e s, t h e f ir st b e ca u s e o f t h e im p o ss i

b i li ty o f t h e e a r l y d a t e i n t h e l i g h t o f c o g e n t , s o u r c e - c r i t i c a l , h y p o t h e

ses , a n d t h e s e c o n d b e c a u s e s i m p ly i g n o r i n g P a u l ' s m a r t y r d o m w o u l d

n o t d e p r i v e it o f i ts f o r c e a g a i n s t a p r i m a r y a p o l o g e t i c c a s e .

T h e o p h i l u s c o u l d n o t fa il t o h a v e k n o w n o f t h e fa te o f P a u l a t

6 3 F o r a f ul l d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e a p o l o g e t i c m o t i v e a n d it s l i m i t a t i o n s , t o g e t h e r w i t h

a s u m m a r y o f l i t e r a t u r e , s e e E s l e r ( 1 9 8 7 ) , c h . 8 , w i t h w h o s e c o n c l u s i o n I a m c l e a r l y

i n s u b s t a n t i a l a g r e e m e n t , n a m e l y t h a t Luke-Acts i s c o n c e r n e d w i t h c o n s t r u c t i n g a

l e g i t im a t i o n fo r a c o m m u n i t y .b 4 F .J . F o a k e s J a c k s o n a n d K . L a k e , The Beginnings of Christianity, Part 1: The Acts

of the Apostles, ( L o n d o n : M a c M i l l a n 1 9 3 3 ) 1, 4 p p . 3 4 8 - 3 5 0 . F o r b i b l i o g r a p h y a n d

a d i s cu s s i o n o f t h e v a r i o u s s o l u t i o n s t o t h is p r o b l e m s e e W a l a s k a y ( 1 9 8 3 ) , p p . 1 8 - 2 2 ,w h o c o n c l u d e s w i t h C u l l m a n n f r o m C l e m e n t , Cor. 5 t h a t t h e a u t h o r w a s e m b a r

r a s s e d b e c a u s e t h e c h a r g e s a g a i n s t P a u l a r o s e f r o m w i t h i n t h e C h u r c h .



I M P E R I A L I D E O L O G Y A N D T H E O R I G I N S O F C H U R C H O R D E R 109

6 3 A l t h o u g h t h e y w e r e o r i g i n a l ly s i m p l y h i g h p r i e s ts o f t h e c u l t o f t h e g o d d e s s

R o m a , t h e y b e c a m e h i g h p r ie s t s o f t h e i m p e r i a l c u l t w h e n h e r c u l t w a s a s s i m i l a t e d

t o t h a t o f th e e m p e r o r s , s e e L . R o s s T a y l o r , T h e A s i a r c h s , in F.J . F o a k e s J a c k s o n

a n d K . L a k e , The Beginnings of Christianity, Part 1: Th e Acts of the Apostles, ( L o n d o n :

M a c M i l l a n 1 9 3 3) , v o l . V , p p . 2 5 6 - 2 6 2 ; G . R . H . H o r s l e y, T h e N e w T e s t a m e n t a n d

t h e E p h e s i a n I n s c r i p t i o n s , i n A T 3 4 ( 1 9 9 2 ) , p p . 1 3 4 1 4 1 ; H o r s l e y , New Documents

I V , p p . 4 6 - 5 5 . S e e a l s o SEG 3 6 , 1 5 1 8 ; 4 2 , 1 0 2 9 ; 1 0 9 7 .

S t r a b o , X I V , 1 , 4 2 , cf. SEG 3 8 , 1 9 7 3 w h i c h c i t es t h is i n a c c u r a t e l y a s 2 , 4 2 , a n d

w h i c h s u m m a r i s e s R . A . K e a r s l e y , T h e A s i a r c h s , i n T h e B o o k o f A c t s in I ts G r a e c o -

R o m a n S e t t i n g , ( E d . W . J . G i l l a n d C . G e m p f ) , in The Book of Acs in Its First Century

Setting, V o l . 2 ( M i c h i g a n a n d C a rl is l e: E e r d m a n s / P a t e r n o s t e r 1 9 9 4 ) , p p . 2 6 3 3 7 6 .

t h e c o u r t of C a e s a r N e r o , a n d i n d e e d t h e s tr es s t h r o u g h o u t Acts o n

P a u l ' s R o m a n c i ti z e n s hi p w o u l d h a v e e m p h a s i s e d t h e n e e d t o m a k e

d u e i n q u i r i e s s h o u l d h e h a v e b e e n u n c e r t a i n o f w h a t h a d a c t u a l l y

t r a n s p i r e d . B u t T h e o p h i l u s , a n d t h e i n s t r u c t e d C h r i s t i a n c i rc l e t h a t

h e r e p r e s e n t e d , w o u l d h a v e b e e n f ully a w a r e o f t h e p o s si b i li t y o f

b e i n g b r o u g h t b e f o r e t h e m a g i s t r a t e th e m s e l v e s , s h o u l d t h e r e h a v e

b e e n a n y q u e s t i o n o f t h e i r s a c r if i c in g a s p a r t o f t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t ,

o r e v e n , a s w a s m o r e l ik e ly a t t h e i r t i m e , f r o m c h a r g e s r e s u l t i n g

f r o m s u s p i c i o n s a b o u t t h e t r u e m o t i v e s f or t h e i r n o n - p a r t i c i p a t i o n

( 3 C 1). T h e p u r p o s e o f Luke-Acts w a s t o s t r e n g t h e n a n d r e a s s u r e t h is

i n n e r - C h u r c h g r o u p of t h e i r a s s o c ia t io n w i t h t h e h u m b l e a n d m e e k ,

a n d to c o n v i n c e t h e m t h a t t h e y w e r e h o n o u r e d a n d v a l u e d i n t e r m s

o f t h e c o n t r a - c u l t u r e , a g a i n s t w h i c h t h e r e w a s n o j u s t i f i c a t io n f or

s u c h i m p e r i a l h o s t il it y . T h e y w e l l k n e w o f t h e c h a r g e s o n w h i c h P a u l

w a s c o n d e m n e d b u t o f w h i c h th e y w o u l d h a v e e x p e r i e n c e d u n e a s e

a t b e i n g r e m i n d e d . T h e y k n e w s u c h c h a r g e s b u t w i s h e d f o r q u i e t

n es s a b o u t t h e m in v i ew o f t h e i r o w n d if fi cu lt p o s i t i o n , j u s t a s L u k e

w e l l k n e w t h e id e o l o g y o f t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t , m i r r o r e d i n h i s e s c h a

t o l o g y w i t h i ts V i r g i n a n d d i v i n e C h i l d , b u t c h o s e to m a k e o n l y

o b l i q u e r e f e r e n c e s t o t h a t i d e o l o g y ( 3 B 3 . 2 ) .

3 C 2 . 3 . Acts and the existence of the Imp erial Cult

W e r e a d o f e v e n t s a t E p h e s u s , o n e o f t h e c e n t r e s o f t h e I m p e r i a l

C u l t a l o n g w i t h S m y r n a a n d T r a l l e s , w h e r e t h e o ff ic ia ls , t h e A s i a r c h s ,

h a v e b e e n r e g a r d e d a s b o t h l e a d e r s o f t h e K o i n o n o f G r e e k c it y

s t at e s t h r o u g h o u t A s i a a n d a ls o h i g h - p r i e s t s o f t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t .6 5

T h i s c o n c l u s i o n h a s b e e n c h a l l e n g e d r e c e n t l y o n t h e g r o u n d s t h a t

t h e r e is e p i g r a p h i c e v i d e n c e f or s e v e r a l A s i a r c h s i n E p h e s u s a n d

T r a l l e s a t o n e t i m e w h i c h w o u l d n o t b e c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h e e q u i v

a le n c e of th is off ice w ith th a t o f dpx iepe uq xfiq 'Aoiocc;.66

B u t n o t w i t h -




s t a n d i n g w h e t h e r o r n o t t h e s e o ffic es w e r e t h e s a m e , t h e r e w a s a t

t h e t i m e o f w r i t i n g a n d p x i e p e tx ; o f t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t . Luke a v o i d s

d i r e c t m e n t i o n o f s u c h a n of fic ia l o f t h e c u l t t h a t w o u l d h a v e b e e n

a p r e s e n t r e a li ty b y A . D . 7 5 - 8 5 to b o t h th e a u t h o r a n d T h e o p h i l u s

t o w h o m h is w o r k w a s a d d r e s s e d .6 7

B o t h w o u l d b e k e e n t o a v o i d o p e n

c o n f li c t w i t h t h a t c u l t , j u s t as t h e y w e r e a n x i o u s t o b e w o r s h i p p e r s

in t h e n e w , r e fo rm ed J e w i s h cu l t w h o se e sc h a to l o g y fu lf illed a l l i ts

asp i ra t ions regard ing acoxr |p{a , e ip f |v r | , rcpovo ia e tc .

T h e a v o i d a n c e o f s u c h a c l a s h w a s p o s s i b l e , a t l e a st b e f o r e t h e

D o m i t i a n i c d e v e l o p m e n t s o f t h a t c u l t, w h i c h , w e s h al l a r g u e l a t e r ,

c a n b e s o u n d l y d o c u m e n t e d f r o m t h e li t e r a r y e v i d e n c e . I n d e e d it is

a r g u a b l e t h a t t h e r e w a s a c e r t a i n n o v e l t y i n P l i n y ' s a c t o f i n v i t i n g

C h r i s t i a n s t o s a c r i f i c e , ture ac vino, b e f o r e t h e E m p e r o r ' s i m a g e (imag-

ini tuae) a s a t e st o f w h e t h e r t h e y w e r e t r u l y c r i m i n a l s ( P l in y , Ep. X ,

9 6 , 5 ) . T h e r i sk o f b e i n g c h a r g e d b y t h e s t a t e a t th i s t i m e w a s n o t

f r o m n o n - p a r t i c i p a t i o n in t h e c u l t w h i c h h a d n o o r g a n i s e d e n f o r c e

m e n t a t t h i s t im e a s a d e l i b e ra t e t e s t o f l o y a l ty t o t h e s t a t e , a s i t

w a s t o b e c o m e in t h e t i m e o f D e c i u s . R a t h e r t h e ris k c a m e f r o m

t h e c h a r g e o f O T C X O K ; . 6 8

I t s h o u l d b e r e m e m b e r e d t h a t T a c i t u s , i n h is a c c o u n t of N e r o ' s

p e r s e c u t i o n , s h o w s t h a t th i s w a s t h e m a i n c l a i m . P r i o r t o t h e i r c r u e l

d e a t h s i n N e r o ' s c i r c u s , t h e r e h a d b e e n a t r i a l i n w h i c h Christiani

a r e d e s c r i b e d a s m a d e d e f e n d a n t s (rei), a n d as b e i n g e x a m i n e d in a

j u d i c i a l c o n t e x t w h e r e " b y t h e i r e v i d e n c e (indicio) a l a r g e m u l t i t u d e

o f t h e m w e r e c o n v i c t e d (convicti) n o t s o m u c h f or t h e c h a r g e o f i n c e n

d i a r i s m (in crimine incendi) b u t o f h a t r e d o f t h e h u m a n r a c e (odio humani

generis)." 69 I n S u e t o n i u s Claudius 2 5 , 4 w e r e a d t h a t t h e J e w s w e r e

e x p e l l e d f r o m R o m e b e c a u s e " t h e y w e r e a l w a y s c a u s i n g u p r o a r a t

t h e i n s t i g a ti o n o f C h r e s t u s (impulsore Chresto assidue tumultuantis)." I n

S u e t o n i u s Nero 1 6 ,2 w e r e a d : " C h r i s t i a n s w e r e a ff li ct ed w i t h p u n

i s h m e n t (afflicti suppliciis Christiani), a c la s s o f m e n o f a n e w a n d m a l e v

o l e n t s u p e r s t i t i o n (genus hom inum superstitionis novae ac maleficae). I n e a c h

o f t h es e cases t h e r e is n o is su e o f b e in g u n w i l l i n g t o p a r t i c i p a t e i n

t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t . R a t h e r t h e c r i m e (flagitiurri) w a r r a n t i n g (supplicia)

i s one of a superstitio malefica. T h u s S u e t o n i u s r e p e a t s T a c i t u s ' c h a r g e

b7

SEG 4 3 , 74 6 . T h e t i t l e dp x ie pe ix ; xfjq 'Aciocq i s f ir st a t t e s t ed fro m M i le tu s

( A . D . 4 0 ) .( ) 8 S e e C h a p t e r 1 f o o t n o t e 1 4 .m T a c i t u s , Annul. X V , 4 4 , 3 a n d 5 , cf. W i l k e n ( 1 9 8 4 ) , p p . 4 8 5 0 .




( X V , 4 4 , 4 ) o f exitiabilis superstitio. I t h a s o f te n b e e n p o i n t e d o u t t h a t

superstitio, i n t e r m s o f a d e g e n e r a t e f o r m o f r e l i g i o n , e x e m p l i f i e d i n

D i o n y s i a c mania, w a s a t h r e a t t o p u b l i c o r d e r a s r e c o r d e d b y L i v y

i n t e r m s o f t h e B a c c h a n a l i a n r i o t. T h u s superstitio, axaciq, tumulare,

a n d flagitia w e r e c o n c e p t u a l l y l i n k e d .

P r i m a r i l y , t h e r e f o r e , t h e p o t e n t i a l c o n fl ic t b e t w e e n C h u r c h a n d

S t a t e w a s o v e r t h e p e r c e i v e d t h r e a t o f t h e f o r m e r a s a t h r e a t t o p u b

li c o r d e r b e c a u s e i t w a s a superstitio. B u t a g a i n i t m u s t b e s t r e s s e d

t h a t , a l t h o u g h t h e f o c u s m a y n o t y e t h a v e b e e n d i r e c t l y t h e s c e n e

b e f o r e t h e a l t a r o f i n c e n s e o f t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t , t h e s e t o f a s s u m p

t io n s b e h i n d t h a t cu l t w e r e n o t f a r f r o m t h e s c e n e . T h o u g h e s s e n

t ia ll y t h e j u d i c i a l f o c us m a y h a v e b e e n o n t h e cidciq c a u s e d b y a

superstitio, n e v e r t h e l e s s t h e r e w a s a l w a y s t h e f u r t h e r q u e s t i o n a s t o

w h a t i t w a s a b o u t a p a r t i c u l a r superstitio t h a t l e a d t o O T C X O K ; .7 0 T h e

la t t e r , a s we h av e s een , was c l ea r ly l i n k ed to t h e pax deorum t h a t i t

w a s t h e p u r p o s e o f t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t t o s e c u r e , f o ll o w i n g a c e n t u r y

o f R e p u b l i c a n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l d i s i n t e g r a t i o n ( 2A 4 . 1 - 2 ) .

De S t e Cro ix was t h e re fo re q u i t e m i s t ak en in d esc r ib in g th e Im p er i a l

C u l t a s h a v i n g " a l m o s t n o independent i m p o r t a n c e i n t h e p e r s e c u t i o n

o f t h e C h r i s t i a n s . "7 1

T h e pax deorum n o l o n g e r h a d a r e l a t i o n s h i p o f

c o n t i n g e n c y (if t h a t is w h a t is m e a n t b y " i n d e p e n d e n t " ) t o t h e I m p e r i a l

C u l t , a n y m o r e t h a n t h e c u l t o f d i v i n e v i r t u e s h a d a c o n t i n g e n t r e l a

t i o n s h i p w i t h t h e w o r s h i p o f t h e e m p e r o r ' s p e r s o n , fo r t h e r e a s o n s

e s t a b l i s h e d b y F e a r s ' a n a l y s is o f t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e f o r m e r c u l t

f r o m t h e a s c e n d a n c y o f S u l l a t h r o u g h J u l i u s C a e s a r t o A u g u s t u s

(2B 3) . P l iny ' s o rder (Ep. X , 9 6 , 5 ) t h a t a c c u s e d C h r i s t i a n s deos adpellerent

et ima gini tuae. . . ture et vino supp licarent n o l o n g e r r e f e r r e d u n a m

b i g u o u s l y to d if f er e n t e n ti t ie s t h a t c o u l d b e c o n t i n g e n d y s e p a r a t e d .7 2

7 0 L . F . J a n s s e n , " S u p e r s t i t i o " a n d t h e P e r s e c u t i o n o f th e C h r i s t i a n s , i n VCh 3 3 , 2

( 1 9 7 9 ) , p p . 1 3 1 - 1 5 9 , e x p l o r e s f ul ly t h e c o n c e p t u a l r e la t i o n s h ip b e t w e e n c o n c e p t s o fhumanitas a n d t h e nomen Romanum t h a t m u s t a l w a y s s u r v i v e (superstes), a n d w h a t w e r e

p e r c e i v e d t o b e D r u i d i c a l a n d G a l l i c d e n i a l s o f s u c h a R o m a n a n d im p e r i a l r e a l

i t y , w h i c h b e a r s t r i k i n g s i m i l a r i t e s w i t h c h a r g e s o f odium generis humanae, superstitio

prava, Jlagitium, e t c . a s s o c i a t e d w i t h b e a r i n g t h e nomen Christianum. S u c h r e l i g i o n s o r

r a t h e r superstitiones w e r e c l e a r d e n i a l s o f b o t h i m p e r i a l O r d e r a n d R o m a n c i t iz e n

s h i p . S e e a l s o R . L . W i l k e n , The Ch ristians as the Roma ns saw them, ( N e w H a v e n a n d

L o n d o n : Y a l e U . P . 1 9 8 4) , p p . 4 1 - 4 4 .7 1 D e S t e C r o i x ( 1 9 6 3 ) , p . 1 0 , m y i t a li c s .7 2 I n t h e l ig h t o f F e a r s ' d i s c u s s i o n , t h e i n a d e q u a c y i s e x p o s e d o f t h e s t a t e m e n t

i n D e S t e C r o i x ( 1 9 6 3 ) , p . 1 0 : " It i s t r u e t h a t a m o n g o u r r e c o r d s o f m a r t y r d o m s

e m p e r o r - w o r s h i p d o e s c r o p u p o c c a s i o n a l l y ; b u t fa r m o r e o f t en i t is a m a t t e r o f

sacr i f i c ing to the gods . . . A n d w h e n t h e c u l t a c t i n v o l v e d d o e s c o n c e r n t h e e m p e r o r ,



114 CHAPTER THREE

(7ipCDT0GT(XTr|v T£ Ttjq xcov Noc^copoticov aipeaeox;) ." "H e has t ried to defile

the sanctuary of the Temple ( T O iepov erceipocaev (kPr|A,G)aai; v. 5-6)"

according to the false allegation that he had taken the gentile

Trophimus of Ephesus there (21, 28-29).

For Luke it is not therefore only the Imperial Cult that the Gospel

surpasses while satisfying its basic human aspirations for peace and

order. Lk. 1 also po rt ra ye d an olde r Ju da i sm be ing rep lac ed by a

refor med an d ren ewe d cult, beg inn ing with Gabr iel 's ap pe ar an ce at

an a lt ar of incense (z;. 9). Let us pu rsu e tha t th eme now as it evolves

in oppositio n to Je wi sh cha rges .

3C 2.3.2. Felix, Agrippa and the pax dei (Acts 22-23)

T h e aut hor has already established that an unrefo rmed Ju da is m could

not secure the pax dei, and Tertullus' charges are to support this the

sis. The proceedings against Paul begin before the Sanhedrin (Acts

22,30-23,10) .7 3

Here the pax dei of the Divine Child and the promised

new age re mai ned un secu red by Ju da is m. Wh e n Pau l claims the sup

port of Pharisaism for the doctrine of the resurrection of the bodythe result is division (eaxioOri T O 7iXf|9o<;) and cxaoiq (eyevzTO oxaoiq/

KoXXr\q 8e yivojievriq czacetoq; v. 7 a nd 10). H e r e , co nt ra ry to the

apologetic thesis, the author admits O T C X O K ; as a result of Paul's words.

But the axaoiq is a conse quence of an un re fo rm ed religion such as

the Ju da is m that Pa ul oppos ed, just as GXOLOK; was the product of

the unreformed Republic before Augustus.

Such a theme moreover has been constantly reiterated through

out Luke-Acts. Judaism unreformed cannot secure the pax dei, a nd

cannot achieve the eschatological order in nature and in society and

so fulfil the aspiration of those who sought the pax deorum through

the Imperial Cult. Eipr|vr| is characteristically used by Luke, often in

reformulation of his traditional material, in connection with the sta

bility of the political as well as the natural world. In addition to Lk.

1,79; 2,14,29 already discussed, we have some parallels with the few

references in other gospels,7 4

but some significant additions of the

author's own.

7 i

Whether this was because that body had the authority to impose the death

penalty without the consent of the civil power, or whether it met as a council of

advice for Claudius Lysias remains unclear, see H J. Cadbury, Roman Law and the

Trial of Paul, in FJ . Foakes Jackson, The Beginnings of Christianity, Part 1: The Acts of

the Apostles, (London: MacMillan 1933), vol. V, pp. 297-338, especially pp. 302-305.7 4

eipr|vr| occurs once only in ML 5,34 (= Lk. 7,50; 8,48), and four times in Jn.

14,27, 16,33, and 20,19,21,26 (= Lk. 24,36). In all of these instances, the reference



1 1 6 CHAPTER THREE

T h e g o a l of the T r i u m p h a l E n t r y was i n d e e d the L a s t S u p p e r ,

f o r w h i c h its e v e n t s h a v e p r e p a r e d the way. T h e a u t h o r n o w c h o o s e s

t o i n t r o d u c e h e r e the t h e m e of th e a u t h o r i t y s t r u c t u r e of the r e f o r m e d

J e w i s h c u l t t h a t J e s u s is c r e a t i n g t h r o u g h his d e a t h .

3 C 2 . 3 . 2 . 1 . T h e L a s t S u p p e r and the r e f o r m e d J e w i s h c u l tu s

T h e T w e l v e are e n t r u s t e d w i t h the k i n g d o m in the f o l l o w i n g w o r d s :

A n d I en t rus t to you (K&Y<» 8iax{6e|xai \)|iTv) even as my Fa th e r has

en t rus ted to me (mGox; 8ie9ex6 not) a kingdom (PaaiXe(av) in order tha t

you may eat and drink with me in my k in g d o m (ev xf[ pocoiAeia uo\))

a n d sit u p o n th ro n es j u d g in g the twelve tribes of Israel (ml m 8 r |o ea0 e£7il 0p6vcov Taq ScoSeica (p-uA.aq Kplvovxeq TO V 'Iopar|A,).

Luke 2 2 , 2 8 - 3 0

T h e f i n a l w o r d s are t r a d i t i o n a l (QJ a n d f o u n d in Mat. 19,28 in a

d i f f e r e n t c o n t e x t . H e r e the p r o m i s e to sit on t w e l v e t h r o n e s j u d g i n g

th e twe lv e t r i b es is not a s s o c i a t e d w i t h the fiaoxkeia but the naXiy-

yeveala, a n d t h e r e is no r e f e r e n c e to the M e s s ia n i c b a n q u e t . T h u s

Luke w i s h e s to a s s o c i a t e t h e s e w o r d s w i t h the O r d e r a n d o r g a n i s a t i o n of the r e f o r m e d c o m m u n i t y , a n d w i t h the c e n t r a l c u l t i c m e a l

t h a t r e p l a c e s o r ig i n a l J u d a i s m . But t h i s g o sp e l su g g es t s in t u r n a c o n

t r a - c u l t u r a l c o u n t e r p a r t to the s a c r i f i c i a l g a t h e r i n g at the I m p e r i a l

C u l t , w i t h its c e l e b r a t i o n of the s o c i a l h i e r a r c h y of the i m p e r i a l c i t y

s t a t e , and the C h r i s t i a n saeculum aureum f o r e s h a d o w e d in c h a p t e r s

1-2, in w h i c h the h u n g r y w o u l d be fed and the r i ch s en t away

e m p t y . W h e t h e r one a c c e p t s the t e x t u a l t r a d i t i o n w h i c h o m i t s Lk.

2 2 , 1 9 b ~ 2 0 or t h a t w h i c h r e t a i n s it , t h e r e r e m a i n s n e v e r t h e l e s s a fo re

t a s t e of the e s c h a t o l o g i c a l b a n q u e t . T h e b r e a k i n g of b r e a d by the

c o m m u n i t y of the T w e l v e (Acts 2,46) p a r t i a l l y fu lfils t h a t e s ch a to lo g y .

T h e d i s p u t e a b o u t g r e a t n e s s o c c u r s i m m e d i a t e l y b e f o r e the p r o m i s e

o f the t w e l v e t h r o n e s to the T w e l v e (Lk. 2 2 , 2 4 - 2 7 ) . H e r e o n c e a g a i n

t h e r e is a s i g n i f i c a n t r e c a s t i n g of the t r a d i t i o n by the a u t h o r in p u r

s u a n c e of his s p e c i a l t h e m e . T h e p a r a l l e l p a s s a g e s , b o t h Mat. 2 0 , 2 0 - 2 8

a n d ML 1 0 , 3 5 - 4 5 , are a d d r e s s e d in the f o r m e r c a s e to the specif ic

c l a i m of the m o t h e r of the s o n s of Z e b e d e e , and in the l a t t e r to

J a m e s a n d J o h n t h e m s e l v e s . In Lk. 2 2 , 2 4 the d i s p u t e is a g e n e r a l

o n e a b o u t " w h i c h of t h e m s h o u l d be g r e a t e s t . " T h u s Matthew a n d

Mark's spec i f ic ques t ion of a p o s i t i o n for two i n d i v i d u a l s in an a s s u m e d

h i e r a r c h i c a l a u t h o r i t y s t r u c t u r e (Mat. 2 0 , 2 3 ; ML 10,40 = oiq T I T O I U O C G -

Tcti) is t r a n s f o r m e d by Luke i n t o the q u i t e g e n e r a l q u e s t i o n of the

k i n d of s t r u c t u r e of a u t h o r i t y i t s e l f in the c o m m u n i t y and its cu l t .



I M P E R I A L I D E O L O G Y AND THE OR I GI N S OF C H U R C H O R D E R 1 17

7 ( i

W a l a s k a y ( 1 9 8 3 ) , p. 36 r e g a r d s the r e m o v a l of mx a f ro m the M a r c a n Kocxa-

i cu p i ev a i v and m x e ^ o v G i d ^ o v o i v as a m o d i f i ca t i o n of the sever i ty of t h es e e x p r e s s i o n s .

T h e apxovxeq xcov eOvcov and the neydtan are descr ibed in Mat. 20,25

and Mk. 10,42 in identical terms. But in Lk. 22,25 Luke readapts

these words diplomatically for Theophilus. He does not refer to a

single PaoiXeuq and thus does not single out the Emperor too bla-

tandy. Rather the expression oi pa oi tai q xcov eBvcbv cush ions the blaten-

ness of such a direct reference by the obliqueness of a general plural.

The readaptation of K o c x e ^ o u o i d ^ o u o i v to e^ouoid^ovxeq enables Luke

th en to ad d euepyexou ica tan)vxai.7 6

Euepyexriq was the characteristic

te rm for the benefa cto r of a Gr ee k city-state in Asia Mi no r , an d the

ter m was partic ularly used of some one wh o en do we d a temple an d

cult to the Emperor. Once again we see the contra-cultural images

in the reformed cult of Juda i sm wi th its reverse reflections of social

structure and order. That order was represented and celebrated in

the assigned seating places for the banquet ensuing from cultic sacri

fice. It is in such a context that Luke chooses to locate the reversal

of role-va lues , in wh ic h the grea te r in age (6 uei^cov) mu st becom e

as the younger (6 vecoxepoq) and t he (consular) ruler (6 Tiyoujxevoq) as

the one who serves at table (6 8IOCKOVCOV; Lk. 22,26-27). Unlike in

Mat. 20,26-27 and Mk. 10,43-44, there is no hint that you can be

come great and a leader in the community by first becoming humble.

Jesus asserts rat her that to be great at the Mes sia nic /Impe ria l ba nque t

would be to recline (dvociceiuevog), yet he is not great because he

himself does not recline but is amongst them as one who serves (eyo)

8e ev uiocp ujicov eijii ox; 6 SIOCKOVCOV; Lk. 22,27).

That reformed cult can now be shown to exhibit the pax dei as a

counterpart to the pax deorum.

3C 2.3.2.2. T h e pax dei and the early community in Acts

T h e Twelve , as the foundati on of the reforme d cult, are at te nded

by those who "continued with one accord ( r c p o o K o c p x e p o u v x e q ouoGu-

|xcc86v) in the temple (ev xcp iepcp), breaking b read at home . . ." (Acts

2,46). This takes place in the community of equals promised by Mary

(Acts 2,44-45; 4,32-37 cf. Lk. 1,52-53) in contrast to the dynasts of

the city states of Asia Mi nor whose impe rial sacrificial ba nq ue ts cel

eb ra te d rank an d power. It is in the Porti co of So lo mo n tha t t he

"signs and wonders (ar||ieia Kai xepaxa)" take place "through the

hands of t he apos tles (8id xcov xeipcov xcov drcooxotaov)" where "they




were all of one accord (6uo0\) |Lia86v; Acts 5,12)." The reformed cult

thus continu es its pre sen ce, as with A n na a nd Ze ch ar ia h, in the shell

of the old: it demo ns tr at es its unit y and lack o f a x d a i q i n its 6uo0\)-

ua86v , a wo rd t ha t is he re re pe at ed a second time in the cont ex t of

the old Temple.

T h e promis e "to set right ou r feet in the way of peac e ( K a i e \ ) 0 \ ) v a i

xovq noSaq eiq 686v Tfjq eipr |vr |q)" is thus continued. But so also is the

theme that the pax dei, as the counterpart to the pax deorum, is marked

by absence of strife and unity (6uo0i) |Lia86v) in the reformed cult that

eme rges out of Ju da is m. August us' cult ha d similary em er ge d out of

Re pu bl ican religion that possessed cults of individual Virt ues , b ut

which were now collectively associated with the corporate personal

ity of the em pe ro r. T h e cult of Vir tue s, like Chr ist ian ity as re for med

Judaism, was marked by Concordia ('Ouovoioc), Disciplina, Simplicitas

(d(peA,6ir|<; cf. Acts 2,46 see also 2,42, etc).

It is as the represen tat ive of the ref ormed cul tus tha t be ga n with

Anna and Zechariah that Paul appears before both Festus and Herod

Agrippa at the conclusion of Acts. Before the former he rebuts the

ch ar ge of Tert ull us tha t the re for med cultus ca nn ot satisfy the con

tra-cultural re qui re me nt s of achie ving wh at the Imp eri al Cult set out

to achieve in terms of the pax dei (2A 2.1). But the main people

addressed in his speech in the presence of Porcius Festus who has

by this time replaced Felix (Acts 24,27) are the latter. Agrippa and

Bernice ap pe ar here as the representatives of unre form ed J ud ai sm

(25,13-26-32) .

As Campenhausen has pointed out, Paul stands here as the sur

viving apostolic witness, the original Twelve now having vanished

from the scene. Indeed, the Twelve always were shadowy figures in

Acts: they function as literary constructs that support the distinctive

Lucan theology that overlays earlier material.7 7

The Paul that now

stands alone insists to Agrippa that he represents the reformed cul

tus of An na a nd Zec har iah :

7 /

An ear l ier trad i t ion of the c h u r c h o f J e r u s a l e m and t h e i r e s c h a t o l o g i c a l e x p e c

ta t i o n s s i g n i f i c a n c e may n e v e r t h e l e s s h a v e b e e n p r e s e n t in the m a te r i a l th a t the

a u t h o r u s e s . See H. von C a m p e n h a u s e n , Der U r c h r i s t l i c h e A p o s te l b e g r i f f , in StTh

V o l . 1 Fasc. I—II (1947), pp. 9 6 - 1 3 0 ; 1 3 3 - 1 4 4 . Idem. K i r c h l i c h e s Amt und g e i s t l i c h e

V o l l m a c h t , in BeitrHistTh 14 ( 1 9 6 3 ) , c h a p t e r 2; W. S c h m i t h a l s , Das K i r c h l i c h eA p o s t e l a m t . E i n e H i s t o r i s c h e U n t e r s u c h u n g , in FRIAMT 61, ( 1 9 6 1 ) . Acts is real ly

n o t the a c t s of the T w e l v e A p o s t l e s , but of P e t e r , J a m e s , J o h n , and P a u l .




p r e s e n t t h r o u g h o u t A s ia M i n o r , as it w o u l d h a v e b e e n o b l i q u e l y in

t h e t r i a l an d m a r t y r d o m of P a u l at R o m e b e fo re N e r o .

B u t an i m p o r t a n t q u e s t i o n for our a c c o u n t n ow e m e r g e s . If b o t h

b e f o r e the S a n h e d r i n , b e f o r e F e l i x , a n d b e f o r e A g r i p p a a n d F e s t u s

t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t was the b a c k c l o t h to w h a t Luke-Acts p r o c l a i m s b o t h

a b o u t p a g a n i s m and the J u d a i s m w h i c h C h r i s t i a n i t y r e f o r m e d , why

i s t h e re su ch a s i l e n c e a b o u t the I m p e r i a l C u l t i t s e l f in the ci t ies of

A s i a M i n o r t h a t P a u l v i s i t s , and in p a r t i c u l a r at E p h e s u s ?

3 C 2 . 3 . 2 . 3 . P a u l in E p h e s u s (Acts 1 9 , 2 1 - 4 0 )

N o w h e r e was the s i l e n c e m o r e d e a f e n i n g t h a n at E p h e s u s w h e r e , inActs 1 9 , 2 1 - 4 0 , t h e r e is r e c o r d e d a d i s t u r b a n c e (v. 23 : xdpotxoq) that

a l m o s t l e a d s an i n d i c t m e n t for GTOLOIC, (V. 40: K I V 8 \ ) V £ U O U £ V e y i c a t a i o G a i

ax d aeax ; ) . T h e r i o t of the s i l v e r s m i t h s o v e r the a t t a c k on t h e i r t r a d e

i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h the c u l t of A r t e m i s is d e s c r i b e d in h i g h relief.

T h o u g h the I m p e r i a l C u l t e x p e r i e n c e d u n d e r D o m i t i a n a c o n s i d e r

ab l e d ev e lo p m en t sp ec i f i ca l l y in E p h e s u s , as we sha l l see (5A 2), n e v e r

th e l e s s it was a l r e a d y e s t a b l i s h e d t h e r e in m o r e t h a n r u d i m e n t a r yf o r m in P a u l ' s t i m e . T h e r e was a Sebasteion or c u l t r o o m , a v d o q ,

w i t h i n the xejievoq of the Artemisium,79

a t e m p l e of A u g u s t u s w i t h i n

th e c i t y i t s e l f d a t i n g f ro m 27 B . C . ,8 0

and an e a r l i e r t e m p l e of R o m a

a n d J u l i u s C a e s a r .8 1

T h e Sebasteion was the w o r k of P. V e d i u s P o l l i o

u n d e r p r i v a t e i n s t r u c t i o n s f r o m A u g u s t u s to i n c o r p o r a t e his cu l t i n to

G r e e k t e m p l e s u n d e r g u i s e of financial a n d l e g a l r e o r g a n i s a t i o n .8 2

C l e a r l y E p h e s u s h a d b e e n at the v e r y c e n t r e of the d e v e l o p m e n t swh ich f i r s t a s so c i a t ed the E m p e r o r w i t h an e x i s t i n g c u l t w h e t h e r of

R o m a , the V i r t u e s , or of A r t e m i s , a n d t h e n by s l o w d e g r e e s syn-

t h e s i s e d the w o r s h i p of one w i t h the o t h e r .

C e r t a i n l y Acts 19,35 k n o w s of the d i s t i n g u i s h e d t i t l e of " t e m p l e -

k e e p e r (vecoKopoq)" h e l d by the c i t y , a l t h o u g h it focuses on b e i n g

vecoKopoq xfjq u£YaA,r|<; 'ApxeuiSoq. Yet w h e r e a s s im i l a ti o n w i t h e m p e r o r

79

IBM 5 2 2 = ILS 9 7 and CIL 3, 7 1 1 8 . For f u r t h e r b i b l i o g r a p h y see P r i c e ( 1 9 8 4 ) ,

p. 2 5 4 and 1 3 4 f oo tn o te 7.8 0

/. Eph. 1 1 1 , 9 0 2 = SEG 2 6 , 1 2 4 3 ; /. Eph. 4 0 4 = SEG 3 9 , 1 2 1 0 . See a l s o Pr i ce

( 1 9 8 4 ) , p. 254.

8 1

Dio C a s s i u s , 5 1 , 2 0 , 6 : K a i a a p 5e ev xovxcp xd xe aXXa ex p r | u a x { £ e i , m i xeuevrj

xfl xe 'Pcouri mi xcp rcaxpi xcp K a ia a p i , i ipcoa oruxov 'I OX JAA OV o v o u d a a q , ev xe 'Ecpeocp

m i ev N i m i a y e v e o B a i ecp fjK ev a i ) x a i yap x o x e ai K O X E I C , ev xr\ ' A a i a m i ev xe xf|

B i ( h ) v ( a 7cpoexexiur|vxo. mi xovxoix; | i ev xoiq ' P C O U O U O K ; xoiq n a p ' a u x o i q e r c o i K o v o i xiuav

upoaexa^e • xoiq 5e 8f| ^evoiq, "EXXr\va<; a tp a q eT c i m A i a a q , eaDxcpx w a , x oiq uev ' A a i a v o i q

ev nepydjico, xo iq 8e B i Gv v o i q ev N i K o u t | 8 e { a , xeueviaai e7iexpe\|/e.82

SEG 40, 1001.




w o r s h i p h a d p r o c e e d e d a s a t E p h e s u s , t h e r e w o u l d b e " a u n i o n o f

n e o c o r a t e s . "8 3

Al th o u g h ev id en ce fo r t h i s t i d e sp ec i f i ca l l y fo r a c i t y

w i t h a n i m p e r i a l t e m p l e is c l e a r e r i n t h e t i m e o f D o m i t i a n , H a d r i a n ,

a n d C a r a c a l l a , t h o s e d e v e l o p m e n t s w e r e f o u n d e d o n e a r l ie r a ss im i

l a t i o n . 8 4 T h e A s i a r c h s h a v e b e e n i d e n t i f i e d c o n t e n t i o u s l y w i t h p r i e s t s

o f t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t , a n d c e r t a i n o f t h e s e off ic ia ls a r e d e s c r i b e d i n

Acts 19 ,31 as P a u l ' s fr ien ds (xive<; 8e xcov 'Aa ia px & v, ovxeq auxcp (pitau).

A n d t h is w a s i n a p r i n c i p l e c i ty , a f t e r P e r g a m o n , o f t h e K o i n o n o f

A s i a w h i c h h a d is s u e d t h e d e c r e e o f 9 B . C . t o w h i c h w e h a v e m a d e

f r e q u e n t r e f e r e n c e ,8 5

a n d w h i c h p o s s e s s e d s h r i n e s o f t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t

t h e r e u n d e r C l a u d i u s a n d N e r o . 8 6

O n t h e a p o l o g e t i c t h e s i s , t h e o m i s s i o n o f s u c h r e f e r e n c e s w o u l d

b e t o d e f e n d C h r i s t i a n i t y b e f o r e t h e m a g i s t r a t e . T h e d e f e n c e , h o w

e v e r , w o u l d b e , a s i t is p r e s e n t e d i n Acts, t o s ay t h e l ea s t , p o o r ly

c o n s t r u c t e d . R a t h e r , w e h a v e a r g u e d , t h e a p o l o g e t i c m o t i f s h o u l d b e

s u b s u m e d u n d e r a n d m a d e s u b s i d i a r y t o Luke's g e n e r a l p u r p o s e i n

l e g i t i m a t i n g t h e s o c ia l c o n s t r u c t i o n o f r e a l it y o f T h e o p h i l u s a n d h is

C h r i s t i a n g r o u p . T h e r e n e e d n o t b e a n y final c la s h b e t w e e n t h e

R o m a n e m p i r e a n d t h e f a it h t h a t t h e y a v o w . I f n o t u n t i l u n d e r

D o m i t i a n , t h e n a t l e a s t u n t i l P l i n y ' s c o r r e s p o n d e n c e , s a c r i f i c i n g i n

t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t w a s n o l i t m u s t e s t f o r C h r i s t i a n l o y a l t y t o t h e

e m p i r e . T h e e a r l ie r q u e s t i o n w a s r a t h e r w h e t h e r a d h e r e n c e t o

C h r i s t i a n i t y l e a d t o t h e B a c c h a n a l i a n supersitio t h a t l e a d t o o x d a i q

a n d t h u s u p s e t t h e pax deorum. I t c o u l d t h e r e f o r e b e s u p p o s e d t h a t

C h r i s t i a n s w e r e a b s e n t f r o m i m p e r i a l f e s t i v a l s i n c o n s e q u e n c e o f s u c h

a m a l i g n i n t e n t i o n .

Luke-Acts h a s s h o w n t h a t , t o t h e c o n t r a r y , T h e o p h i l u s ' f a it h l e a d s

to the t rue e ip r iv r i , the pax dei, w it h ocoxripia, viicri a n d a saeculum

aureum p r o m i s e d t o t h e J e w i s h F a t h e r s a n d fu lf ille d i n a r e f o r m e d

c u l t i n w h i c h a n e w a g e h a s d a w n e d t h r o u g h a D i v i n e C h i l d b o r n o f

d i v in e p a r e n t a g e b y m e a n s o f a h u m a n V i r g i n . A t o n e p o i n t F e s t u s

m i g h t a c c u s e P a u l o f b e h a v i n g lik e a B a c c h i c m a e n a d , w h e n h e sa y s:

" Y o u a r e r a v i n g , P a u l ( u m v r ) , UavXz), y o u r m a n y w o r d s h a v e t u r n e d

y o u r m in d to a f r en zy (x d nokka a e y p d u ^ a x a eiq uxxviav 7cepixpe7cei)."

B u t P au l is r e c o r d ed a s r ep ly in g , i n t h e fu ll co n t ex t o f t h e d i s c o u rse

8 3 F o a k e s J a c k s o n a n d L a k e ( 1 9 3 3 ) 1 ,4 , p . 2 5 0 .84

Ibid. 1,5 p p . 2 4 4 - 2 5 6 ; P r ic e ( 1 9 8 4 ) , p p . 6 5 - 6 6 ; p p . 7 2 - 7 3 ; F i s h w i ck ( 1 9 8 7 ) ,

1 ,1 p . 22 .8 5 IB 4 and 2C 1 .8 ( > R o s s T a y l o r ( 1 9 3 3 ) , p . 2 5 7 .



122 CHAPTER THREE

of legit imati on cons tr uc te d by the au th or : "I a m not rav in g (o\>

umvouou) . . . bu t I speak the words of tr ut h a nd of self-discipline

(aXXa aXi)Qeia<; m l acocppoouvriq priuaxa a7co(p98yyo|iai; Acts 26,24)."

Theophilus and his contemporaries had been brought up in a

pa ga n bac kg round, ou di ne d in ou r first chap te r, of a civil wa r requir

ing an extraordinary act of augurium, in order to set right a disor

der ed na tu re as the metaphysi cal coun te rp ar t of a diso rder ed emp ir e

(2A 5). Th ese keenly felt, religious asp irat ions, we re witnessed by the

ideology of the Imp eri al Cult found in Vergil, Ho ra ce , Ovid , an d

Lucan, amongst others, and by the inscriptions such as that of the

Ko in on of Asia. Su ch religious aspi rati ons could no w find the ir sat

isfaction in the new, reformed Ju da eo -C hr is ti an cult, with its contr a-

cultural reversal of impe rial po we r an d privilege. Luke will therefore

not allow his purpose to be destroyed by suggesting a head on col

lision between Christ and Caesar in which the one must nihilate the

other. Rather than being nihilated, imperialist religious aspirations

must be better satisfied and fulfilled by the exxxyyeAaov xoiq rcxcoxoiq

(Lk. 4,18).

But alth ough the possibility of ult ima te conflict betw een the reli

gious needs of the empi re a nd those of Chr ist ian ity is pl ace d in the

background, the possibility of that clash is nevertheless still tactfully

represented, as we shall now see.

3C 2.3.3. Implied references to the Imperial Cult

W e shall no w examine a nu mbe r of passages in whic h the Imp eri al

Cult and its ramifications are implied, even though the author has,

for the reasons that we have given, suppressed any overt references.

3C 2 . 3 . 3 . 1 . Th e death of He ro d Agripp a (Acts 12,21-22)

In C aesarea the temple of Tt>%r| or Fortuna ha d be co me assimilated

with the genius of Caesar , by the process of gradual imperial deification

that we have described.8 7

The scene takes place "on a Calendar date

(xotKxfi fil^epa)." Here we have, arguably, the festival of the dies natalis

8 7

Eusebius, Mart. Pal. 1 1 , 3 0 ; Josephus, Antiqu. 1 6 , 1 3 6 , cf. K. Lake, The Chronology

o f A c t s , in Foakes Jackson and Lake (1933) 1,5 pp. 450-452 cf. L. Levine, Caesarea

u n d e r Roman R u l e , in SJLA 1 ( 1 9 7 5 ) , pp. 2 7 - 2 9 . See also A. Raban, The Harbours

o f Caesarea Maritima: Results of the Caesarea Ancient Harbour Excavation Project,

1 9 8 0 - 1 9 8 5 , in BAR International Series (1989) 491, pp. 5 1 - 5 3 ; Idem. Kouodpeia fj npbq

S e p a a x c p Xiuevi: two harbours for two entities? in Caesarea P a p e r s , Straton's Tower,

H e r o d ' s Harbour, and Roman and Byzantine Caesarea, (Michigan: Ann Arbor1 9 9 2 ) , in JRA Suppl. Ser. 5 ( 1 9 8 9 ) , pp. 6 8 - 7 4 ; E. Krentz, Caesarea and early

C h r i s t i a n i t y , in JRA, Suppl. 5 ( 1 9 8 9 ) , pp. 2 6 1 2 6 5 .




o f A u g u s t u s a t C a e s a r e a , o r if n o t h is Quinquennalia c o m m e m o r a t i n g

h is d e f e a t o f A n t h o n y i n t h e m o n t h o f A u g u s t t h a t b e a r s h is n a m e .

T h e s c e n e is t h e r e f o r e , f r o m t h e o u ts e t , s u r r o u n d e d b y r e p r e s s e d

i m a g e s o f t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t . H e r o d a p p e a r s lik e a d i v i n e m o n a r c h

o f t h e G r e e k c i ty s t a te s o f A s i a M i n o r a n d E g y p t " c l o t h e d in r o y a l

ra im e n t ( ev Su o d u ev o q eo & nx a p aa iA ,uc f|v ), a n d , h a v in g t ak en h i s j u d i

cia l sea t ( r aG ia aq erci xou pfiuaxoq), h e m a d e a sp ee ch (eSruir iyopei) to

t h e m . " T h e Sfjuoq r e t o r t s t h a t t h e y h e a r " t h e v o i c e o f G o d a n d n o t

o f a m a n , " a n d i n c o n s e q u e n c e H e r o d is e a t e n w i t h w o r m s b e c a u s e

" h e d i d n o t g i v e g l o r y t o G o d . "

A s E u s e b i u s (H.E. 1 1 ,1 0 ,3 ), f o l lo w i n g J o s e p h u s (Ant. 1 9 , 3 4 3 - 3 5 1 )

w e l l k n o w s , H e r o d ' s a c t i v i t y o n t h i s o c c a s i o n w a s h i s c e l e b r a t i o n o f

" sp ec t ac l e s i n h o n o u r o f C a e sa r (cu vexeA,e i 8' evxauGa Gecopiaq eiq XTVV

K a i o a p o q x iu f |v ) ." F u r t h e r m o r e , H e r o d " k n e w t h a t t h e fe sti va l w a s

for t h e l a tt e r 's saf ety (urcep xfjq e K e i v o u ocoxripiaq eopxr|v xiva xauxrjv

ercioxdnevoq) a n d a t i t w e r e a ss e m b le d (Kal n a p ' auxriv TiGpoioxo) a

m u l t i t u d e o f t h o se i n o ff ice a n d o f h ig h r a n k in t h e p ro v i n c e (xcov

K ax d xf v e rc ap xi av ev xeA,ei K al rcpoPeprjKo xcov eiq dc^iav TcArjGoq)." C le a r l y

th e g a m e s (Gecop iaq), as so c i a te d wi th th e e m p e r o r ' s sa fe ty (ocoxrjp iaq) ,

a t w h i c h t h e e v e n t s o f Acts 1 2 , 2 1 - 2 2 t o o k p l a c e , a r e h e l d a t C a e s a r e a

w h e r e a t e m p l e o f h is c u l t w a s t o b e f o u n d . T h o s e g a m e s t h e r e

f o r e i m p l y a c e l e b r a t i o n i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h a t c u l t . T h e r e i s t h u s

i m p l i c i t i n t h is e x a m p l e a w a r n i n g t o t h e c ir c le of T h e o p h i l u s t h a t

t h e w o r s h i p o f d i v i n e r u l e r s is q u i t e f o r e ig n t o t h e J u d a e o - C h r i s t i a n

t r a d i t i o n s . A s i m i l a r e x a m p l e a g a i n s t w h a t is r e g a r d e d a s a t y p i c a l

p a g a n ( as o p p o s e d t o a J e w i s h ) t e n d e n c y is g i v e n a t L y s t r a : P a u l a n d

B a r n a b a s a r e i d e n ti f ie d w i t h H e r m e s a n d Z e u s , a n d t h e p r i e s t o f

Z e u s e x p r e s s e s w i l l i n g n e s s t o o ff er t h e m s a c ri f ic e . T h e y v e h e m e n t l y

o b j e ct w i t h t h e t r a d i t i o n a l m o n o t h e i s t i c J e w i s h a r g u m e n t in r e b u t t a l

(Acts 1 4 , 1 1 - 1 8 ) .

T h u s T h e o p h i l u s a n d hi s c ir c le a r e t a c i d y w a r n e d t h a t t h o u g h

t h e r e n e e d b e n o c o n f l i c t b e t w e e n t h e i r r e l i g i o u s c o n v i c t i o n s a n d t h e

I m p e r i a l C u l t , s u c h a c o n fl ic t m i g h t a r i s e . I n t h e i r r e f o r m e d J e w i s h

c u l t t h e y h a d r e c e i v e d t h e t r u e m e a n s f o r o b t a i n i n g t h e pax dei b o t h

f o r t h e m s e l v e s a n d f o r t h e e m p i r e , a n d w i t h pax t h e t r u e saeculum

aureum i n i t i a t e d b y t h e D i v i n e C h i l d w h o w a s t h e o n l y t r u e filius dei.

W h e t h e r t h e o x d o i q w a s in s o c ie t y o r r e fl e c te d m e t a p h y s i c a l l y i n t h e

w o r l d o f n a t u r e , t h e t r u e e ip r| vr | a n d v i ia i w a s t h r o u g h B e t h l e h e m

a n d fi na ll y t h e T r i u m p h a l E n t r y a n d t h e b l o o d o f t h e c ro s s . B u t

t h o u g h t h e y m i g h t a v o i d t h e appellatio t h a t c a l l e d o n a ll m e m b e r s o f



124 CHAPTER THREE

a particular Asiatic city state to worship on one or several of the

ma ny bi rthdays celebrating the divination of Augustus and his hei rs—

and with full confidence (dacpdXeioc, Lk. 1,4) that they were obtain

ing the pax dei by better means—, nevertheless there was a danger

that the cult migh t develop further. Pliny, if not Dom it ia n, was to

show how it could become a f u l l - b l o w n loyalty test and lead inevitably

to a clash of allegiance.

That the author was aware of such a possibility is shown in the

next passage that we shall consider.

3C 2.3.3.2. Acts 17,7 and 18,13Ha vi ng char ge d the Je ws at Thes saloni ca with a BopuPoq, the author

reco unt s ho w Ja so n a nd othe rs are haul ed before the poli tarchs for

having given house-space to "those who have placed in a state of

agitation ( d v a a x a i c o a a v T e q ) the civilised world (TTJV oiKoi)|ievr]v)." (Acts

17,6) This was the self-same oiKouuivri or Roman Empire that receives

the 86yuxx reg ar ding the census in Lk. 2, 1, which we ar gu ed would

have been associated, in terms of a Gr a ec o -Ro ma n religious context, with the ritual lustrum of the city bo unda ri es over the reforms

of which Augustus took control (Res Gestae 8,2) in becoming Pontifex

Maximus (3A 1.1). Luke has assi mil ate d—a nd in so doi ng d ist ort ed—

an even t which , if historical, was a census that pertained to Syria,

with an event involving the oiKO\)|i8vr| in which Augustus himself was

immediately involved and with it by implication his cult.8 8

Furthermore,

this self-same oiKou u ivr i is recorded as worshipping along with allAsia, Artemis of Ephesus, but in a context in which the universal

character of that worship was becoming increasing guaranteed by the

association of the Emperor with the cult of this goddess (Acts 19,27).

In this con tex t therefore we can rea d the accusat ion of Jaso n , an d

Paul and his companions to whom the latter had given shelter:

All these are acting contrary to the decrees of Caesar (omoi navxeq

dTtevavTi TCOV SoyiidxcQv Kouoapoc; rcpdaaouai), saying that there is a

different emperor, Jesus (potoiAia exepov Aiyovxeq elvai 'Inaovv).

Acts 17,7

This passage clearly cannot be used to support the view that Luke-

Acts is addressed as an apology to a R o m a n magistra te. T h e polit archs

simply do not judg e the accur acy of the accusa tion at all, nor hear

S e e footnotes 20 and 21 above.




m

T h a t t h e cl a r it y a n d v a l i d i ty o f t h e m o d e r n d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n t h e s e c u l a ra n d t h e r e l i g i o u s a r e o n l y a p p a r e n t c a n b e s e e n i f o n e t r ie s t o a p p l y t h e d i s t i n c

t i o n i n t h e s p e c if ic a r e a s o f a b o r t i o n , d e n o m i n a t i o n a l e d u c a t i o n , e u t h a n a s i a e t c .

a n y f o r m a l r e p ly . T h e y s im p l y d is m is s J a s o n , a n d t h e b r o t h e r h o o d

t h e n s e n d s P a u l a n d S i l a s a w a y b y n i g h t t o B e r o e a (v . 8 - 9 ) .

W e s a w t h a t t h e a u t h o r h a s a l r e a d y m a d e c l e a r J e s u s ' c l a i m t o

k i n g s h i p , a n d t h a t c l a i m w o u l d h a v e b e e n r e a d i l y a c c e p t e d b y

T h e o p h i l u s a n d h is c i r cl e . I n t h a t r e s p e c t t h e y c l a s h e d w i t h t h e e n d s

o f t h e s t a t e . Bu t Luke c a n r e a s s u r e t h e m t h a t t h e c l a s h is w i t h t h e

p e r c e i v e d c u l t i c a n d r e l i g i o u s m e a n s t o a c h i e v i n g t h e s t a t e ' s r e l i g i o u s

e n d s , a n d n o t t h e e n d s t h e m s e l v e s . T h u s d i s c r e t e l y o p t i n g o u t o f t h e

Im p er i a l Cu l t d o es n o t co n f l i c t fu n d am en ta l l y wi th t h e so c i a l , r e l i g io u s ,

a n d p o l it i c a l e n d s o f s u c h a s o c i e ty . T h e o p h i l u s a n d h i s c i r cl e c o u l d

n o t o f c o u r s e a v o w a l l e g i a n c e t o i m p e r i a l a u t h o r i t y o n l y i n a n o n -

r e l i g i o u s , s e c u l a r s e n s e : t h e i r u n i v e r s e o f d i s c o u r s e d i d n o t m a k e t h e

d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n t h e s e c u l a r a n d t h e s a c r e d .8 9

T h e o b j e c t o f p a r

t i c i p a t i n g i n t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t a n d u s i n g t h e s p e c i a l a c t o f a u g u r y

w a s t o s e c u r e t h e pax deorum, t h e saeculum aureum a n d t h e d i v i n e C h i l d

l e ad in g to t h e fu l f ilm en t o f p r o m ise s o f a c o r n , pioc e t c . , a n d th es e w er e

p r o p e r r e l ig i o u s e n d s . B u t t h e t r u e f u lf il m e n t o f t h o s e e n d s w a s

t h r o u g h t h e t r u e c o u n t e r p a r t s t o t h e i r m e a n s f o u n d in t h e r e f o r m e d

J e w i s h c u l t .

D i s c r e t e l y , t h e r e f o r e , a n d in t h e l a n g u a g e o f t a n g e n t i a l r e f e r e n c e ,

t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t is p r e s e n t a s a p o t e n t i a l s o u r c e o f c l a s h w i t h

T h e o p h i l u s ' ci rc l e w h i c h m a y n e v e r t h e l e s s still b e a v o i d e d . C h r i s t i a n i t y

itself, a s e x p r e s s e d i n Luke, w i l l n e v e r u p s e t t h e pax deorum a n d n e v e r

t h e r e f o r e r e q u i r e i m p e r i a l i n t e r v e n t i o n a t t h e c u l ti c l e ve l i n o r d e r t o

s e t t h e w o r l d r i g h t . T h e y m i g h t s i m p l y a v o i d c o n f l i c t a s t h e p o l i t a r c h s

a t T h e s s a l o n i c a h a d d o n e .

B u t a l t h o u g h i n t h e s u n l i g h t o f h i s C h r i s t i a n - i m p e r i a l e s c h a t o l o g y

Luke m i g h t c o n v e y fe e li ng s o f g r e a t o p t i m i s m t o T h e o p h i l u s a n d h i s

c i r cl e , h e n e v e r t h e l e s s e n c a p s u l a t e s h is c o n c e r n a b o u t o t h e r a s p e c t s

o f t h e i r l e g a l p o s i t i o n i n t h e p a s s a g e s t h a t w e s h al l n o w e x a m i n e .

3 C 2 . 3 . 3 . 3 . L e g a l O b l i g a t i o n a n d C u s t o m : Acts 1 6 , 2 0 - 2 1H a v i n g a r g u e d t h a t Luke-Acts is a r e c o n s t r u c t i o n b o t h o f G r a e c o -

R o m a n a n d J e w i s h s o c ia l r e a l i t y s o a s t o l e g i t i m a t e C h r i s t i a n i t y i n

t h e R o m a n E m p i r e , w e a r e n o w i n a p o s i t i o n to r e a d t h e m e s s a g e

o f t h i s f u r t h e r t e x t t h r o u g h t h e e y e s o f T h e o p h i l u s a n d h i s c i r c l e , t o



126 CHAPTER THREE

whom the Imperial Cult, whether in Rome or Asia Minor, would

ha ve clearly be en of religious significance.

We need to consider what message Theophilus would have derived

from the incident at Philippi in which Paul and Silas are brought

before t he dpxovxeq/axpccxriYoi. T h e slave ow ne rs of the exorcised

maid charge that:

These men are causing dis turbance to our city (oi)xoi oi avGpcojcoi

eKxapdaoovciv f||icov xfjv noXiv), and as Jews ('Io\)8aioi imdpxovxeq mi)

are proclaiming customs (mxayyeM.o'uaiv e&n,) which it is unlawful for

us to accept or practice being Romans (d O X > K e^eaxiv f)(iiv rcapaSexeaOai

o\)8e rcoieiv Tcouaioiq ot>civ).

Acts 16,20-21

Pau l an d Silas, after a mi racu lous freeing from thei r pri son bond s,

are finally released by officials who are embarrassed that they have

publicly bea te n un co nd em ne d Ro m a n citizens. Thi s fact howe ver

does not of itself acquit them from the ma in cha rge. Wh ethe r they

wer e Je ws wh o were Ro m a n citizens or not, an d whet he r they ha d

caught the magistrates off-guard on another matter, the central charge

nevertheless remained.

T h a t central charge was tha t th ough Je ws might be ex em pt from

Graeco-Roman religious customs, Gentiles were not, particularly those

with Roman citizenship throughout the Greek city states of Asia

Mi no r. And this leads us directly to the me an s by whi ch Jews could

avoid the requirement, whether purely social or legal, to take partin the Imperial Cult, and thus to refrain from appearing in proces

sional white, following the supplicatio, with myrtle wreathes on their

hea ds an d myrtle br anches in their hands . T h e grounds of the social

acceptability of non-partic ipati on, later with Decius Traj an to b ec om e

the legal acceptability, was ancestral custom. In the specific words

of the char ge against Paul :

This man persistendy persuades people (dvarceiBei oi)xo<; zovq dvGpamouc;)

contrary to the law (rcapd xov VOJIOV) to worship God. (aepea9ai xov 0e6v).

Acts 18,13

Theophilus , Kp d xiaxoq , and his circle, living in Asia Minor in the

eighties of the first century, woul d have found this ar gu me nt of gre at

significance for their personal circumstances (3B 3.1). Standing at

the forefront of the successors to the Gree k city states in c ommuni

ties such as Ephesus, Pergamon, Antioch in Pisidia, etc., they well

knew that there was no legal compulsion on them to participate in




B r o w n a n d M e i e r ( 1 9 8 3 ) c h a p t . 2 .

t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t . Y e t t h e H e l l e n i s t i c c u l t u r e t h a t h a d f o r m e d t h e i r

p e r s p e c t i v e s o n t h e w o r l d w a s o n e t o w h i c h t h a t c u l t u s w a s c r i t i c a l .

T h e A u g u s t a n r e v o l u t i o n h a d p r o d u c e d t h e pax deorum, a n d r e

o r d e r e d t h e c o s m i c a n d m e t a p h y s i c a l d i s l o c a t i o n o f t h e n a t u r a l o r d e r

w i t n e s s e d i n a c e n t u r y o f c iv il w a r s w i t h w h i c h c o u n t l e s s p r o d i g i o u s

n a t u r a l d i s a s t e r s w e r e a s s o c i a t e d ( 2 A 4 ) . T h e r e w a s a s t r o n g l y fe lt

m o r a l a n d p a t r i o t i c c o m p u l s i o n to c o n t i n u e w h a t h a d b e e n c el e

b r a t e d i n t h e d e c r e e s o f t h e K o i n o n o f A s i a a n d e l s e w h e r e (2 B 4 ) .

B u t t h e y h a d b e e n c a t e c h e t i z e d a n d r e c e i v e d i n t o t h e p o s t - P a u l i n e

c o m m u n i t i e s i n A s i a M i n o r , a n d w e r e n o w C h r i s t i a n s .

H o w c o u l d t h e i r n e w f a i t h e n a b l e t h e i r r e i n t e g r a t i o n i n t o t h e c o m

m u n i t y f r o m w h i c h it h a d a l i e n a t e d t h e m ? H o w c o u l d t h is p e r c e i v e d ,

s o c i a l - p s y c h o l o g i c a l n e e d fo r t h e c e l e b r a t i o n o f s o c ia l o r d e r a f t er

b lo o d y so c i a l s t r i f e , fu l f i l l ed i n t h e Im p er i a l Cu l tu s t h a t h ad s ecu red

t h e pax deorum, n o w e x p e r i e n c e n e w f u lf il m e n t b y t h e n e w r e l i g i o n ?

O n e w a y w o u l d b e t o i d e n t i f y t h e i r r e l i g i o n a s a v a l i d f o r m o f

J u d a i s m , a n d t h u s t h e s o ci al a c c e p t a b i l i t y o f n o n - p a r t i c i p a t i o n b e

u n d e r s t o o d a n d a c k n o w l e d g e d b y t h e i r s o c i e t y . B u t h i s t o r i c a l l y P a u l

h a d s u g g e s t e d , a t l e a s t t o t h e G a l a t i a n s , a r a d i c a l d i s j u n c t i o n b e t w e e n

t h e L a w a n d C h r i s t o n w h o s e c ro ss t h e c o m m a n d m e n t s h a d b e e n

d e s t r o y e d (Gal. 3 , 1 0 - 1 4 ) . T h e r a d i c a l c h a r a c t e r o f t h is d i s j u n c t i o n

h a d b e e n c o n s i d e r a b l y s o f t e n e d i n Rom. 9 - 1 1 .9 0 B u t h e r e t h e G e n t i l e

m i s s i o n w a s still e m p h a s i s e d a s d i s t i n c t f r o m t h e J e w i s h , w i t h t h e l a t

t e r t o e x p e r i e n c e p u r e l y e s c h a t o l o g i c a l f u l f i l m e n t , d e s p i t e t h e m e t a p h o r

of the g raf t ing o f the wi ld o l ive on to the o r ig ina l s tem (Rom. 1 1 , 1 7 - 2 4 ) .

T h e d e u t e r o - P a u l i n i s t a u t h o r o f Luke-Acts o f f e r s a r e c o n s t r u c t i o n

o f t h e t h e o l o g y o f t h e h i s t o r i c a l P a u l . T h e C h r i s t i a n c u l t u s i n t o w h i c h

T h e o p h i l u s h a s b e e n c a t e c h e t i z e d is t h e J e w i s h c u l t u s , b u t a reformed

J e w i s h c u l t u s ( 3B 1 - 3) . I f t h e n o n - p a r t i c i p a t i o n o f u n r e f o r m e d I s r a e l

i s s o c i a l l y a c c e p t a b l e , a fortiori a r e f o r m e d I s r a e l s h o u l d b e , w h i c h is

t h e t r u e f ul fi lm e n t o f p a t r i a r c h a l p r o m i s e d f r o m t i m e i m m e m o r i a l .

B u t t h e r e f o r m e d c u l t h a s g o n e f a r b e y o n d t h e s o c i a l a c c e p t a b i l i t y

o f a m e r e l y p a s s iv e n o n - p a r t i c i p a t i o n . Luke-Acts offers a pos i t ive rea

s o n f or n o n - p a r t i c i p a t i o n , n a m e l y t h a t t h e p u r p o s e o f t h e I m p e r i a l

C u l t , n a m e l y t h e pax deorum a n d t h e s a c r a m e n t a l m e a n s f o r t h e c o n

t i n u a n c e o f t h e saeculum aureum is f ar b e t t e r a c h i e v e d t h r o u g h t h e

eiprivTi o f B e t h l e h e m ( 3B 3 . 1 - 3 ) a n d t h e T r i u m p h a l E n t r y ( 3 C 3 . 2. 1) ,



128 CHAPTER THREE

and the V ( K T | and acoxripia tha t follow from the bi rt h of Ch ild from

the Virgin , an d his de at h an d resur recti on.

Such an ideology thus opened the prospect for Theophilus and

his group to overcome their alienation and positively, through the

cre ati on of a con tra-cul tu re, to rei nte gra te themselves into the social

fabric of their societies by means of a new religion that would achieve

the perceived objective of those societies. As such, the ideology was

doomed to fail and the attempt prove to be in vain. But the Lucan

writing remain an enduring testimony to such a failed attempt.

According to Fox and others Theophilus may have witnessed the

trial and also perhaps the execution of St. Paul.9 1

They could have

comforted themselves in the light of the imagery of Luke-Acts that

even a less tyrannical emperor than Nero would not have been

justified in exe cut ing Paul for oxaoiq and for te achi ng non-ances tr al

religious customs. The pax that Sebastos had claimed through his

reforme d cult, Chri st ha d achi eved thr ou gh his. Th is comfo rting re

assur ance ha d an ch or ed the ques tio ned legitimacy of the reforme d

Chr ist ian in the un am bi gu ou s legitimacy of the Jew is h cult. But the

re-assurance was now to collapse with the final exclusion of any rep

resen tative of Chr ist iani ty on the roll of Jewish nam es that ha d pa id

the tax for the destroyed Temple at Aelia directly into the treasury

as required by law.

Vespasian had imposed the Jiscus Iudaicus on every J e w of at least

20 years of age. What they had previously paid to the Temple at

Jerusalem destroyed in the crushed revolt was now paid into the

imperial treasury.9 2

According to Suetonius, this tax applied to all

Jews observing their ancestral eGr|.93

Domitian now encouraged denun

ciations of those who lived as Je ws wit hout ma ki ng open professions

as well as thos e who conce ale d thei r Je wi sh origin. Kereszte s argues

convincingly that the former class indicated gentiles who were con

sidered to be converts to Ju dai sm to wh om the infamous physical

inspection for circumcision would not necessarily apply. The aep6 |Li£voi

often st opped far short of convers ion to full J uda i s m.9 4

It was the

9 1

R.L. Fox, Pagans and Christians in the Mediterranean World from the second century to

the conversion of Constantine, (Harmondsworth: Penguin 1 9 8 6 ) , pp. 430-432 ff.9 2

Josephus, Bell. Jud. 1,152.9 3

Dio Cassius 6 5 , 7 , 2 ; Suetonius, Domit. 12,2 cf. P. Keresztes, The J e w s , the

C h r i s t i a n s , and the Emperor Domitian, in VCh 27 ( 1 9 7 3 ) , pp. 1-28 to which I am

heavily indebted for my comments here.9 4

Keresztes ( 1 9 7 3 ) , p. 5 quoting G. La Piana, Foreign Groups in Rome during




th e F i r s t C e n tu r i e s of the E m p i r e , in HThR 20 ( 1 9 2 7 ) , pp. 2 7 5 - 3 9 0 and G.F. M o o r e ,

Judaism in the First Centuries of the Christian Era, ( H a r v a r d : U.P. 1 9 2 7 ) , p. 5. M o r e

r e c e n t l y see SEG 39, 1 8 4 0 - 1 8 4 1 ; 40,41, 918 ; 1840; 42, 726; 1226; 1 8 1 3 ; 43, 1298.

"5

K e r e s z t e s ( 1 9 7 3 ) , p. 6.

s c a n d a l of t h e s e d e n u n c i a t i o n s t h a t N e r v a e n d e d a n d w h i c h f o r m s

the s ign i f icance of the insc r ip t io n F I SC I I V D A I C I C A L V M N I A S V B L A T A

s . c .9 5 I t s h o u l d b e r e m e m b e r e d t ha t p r o s ec u t i o n s u n d e r R o m a n c r i m

i n a l l a w d e p e n d e d h e a v i l y o n s u c h i n f o r m e r s in the a b s e n c e of a

r e g u l a r p o l i c e - f o r c e .

D i o C a s s i u s 6 8 , 1,2 r e fe r s to the senatus consultum u n d e r N e r v a t h a t

p r o h i b i t e d a c c u s a t i o n s for f o l l o w i n g "a J e w i s h way of life ('IooSaiKoq

pioq)." But wi th t h i s was c l e a r l y b r a c k e t e d a l s o a c c u s a t i o n of daepeioc .

I m p i e t y t o w a r d s t h e E m p e r o r a n d t h e g o d s is not n o r m a l l y to b e

a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t a x e v a s i o n , b u t c l e a r l y i t had b e e n in s o m e c a s e s .

T h e s e , as K e r e s z t e s a r g u e s , c o u l d n o t h a v e b e e n J e w s b y r a c e w h o

w e r e e n t i d e d to p r a c t i c e t h e i r a n c e s t r a l r e l ig i o n w i t h o u t p a r t i c i p a

t i o n i n an y p a g a n c u l t i n c l u d i n g t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t . T h e y m u s t h a v e

t h e r e f o r e h a v e b e e n g e n t il e s l e a d i n g a 'IO U 8(X IK 6<; pioq.

D i o C a s s i u s 6 7 , 1 4 , 1 - 2 m e n t i o n s t h e f a m o u s D o m i t i a n i c c a s e of

F l a v i u s C l e m e n s a n d F l a v i a D o m i t i l l a w h o w e r e a c c u s e d of dGeoxrjq

b e c a u s e t h e y h a d s t r a y e d i n t o xd xcov 'IouSocicov r\Qr\: in c o n s e q u e n c e

F l a v i u s w a s e x e c u t e d a n d F l a v i a b a n i s h e d to P a n d a t e r i a . I n c l u d e d

w i t h t h e m as v i c t i m s of D o m i t i a n ' s t e r r o r w e r e m a n y o th e r s w h o

a r e d e s c r i b e d as " t u r n i n g a w a y to J e w i s h c u s t o m s ( e q xd xcov 'IcuSaicov

T]0r| e^oiceAAovxeq)." I t was c o n v e r s i o n t h a t D o m i t i a n w a s t h e r e f o r e

a t t a c k i n g .

W e n e e d n o t h e r e r e - o p e n the h o a r y d e b a t e o n the spec i f ic ques t ion

as to w h e t h e r F l a v i u s a n d F l a v ia w e r e C h r i s t i a n s r a t h e r t h a n J e w s .

T h e o p h i l u s a n d h i s g r o u p in A s i a M i n o r w e r e C h r i s t i a n s , b u t in a

so c i e ty in w h i c h t h e y w o u l d b e r e a d i l y i d e n ti f ie d p h e n o m e n o l o g i c a l l y

w i t h l e a d i n g a 'IouSocncoq ptoq. U n d e r D o m i t i a n G e n t i le s c o n v e r t i n g

to su ch a l i f e w e r e c l e a r l y c o n s i d e r e d s o c i a l l y d e v i a n t , w i t h t h e r e s u l t

t h a t i n i t i a l c l a i m s t h a t t h e y s h o u l d b e p u n i s h e d for n o n - p a y m e n t of

t h e fiscus Judaicus w a s t h e n f o l l o w e d b y c h a r g e s of d a e P e i a a n d o f

b e i n g d G eo i. I n d e e d it c o u l d w e l l b e a r g u e d t h a t , as g o o d d e u t e r o -

P a u l i n i s t s , s u c h u n c i r c u m c i s e d a e p o j ie v o i w e r e u n l i s t e d on the ro l l s

o f J e w i s h s y n a g o g u e s a n d u n r e c o g n i s e d b y t h o s e f o l l o w i n g t h e bira-

choth kaminim. T h u s t h e y c o u l d n o t h a v e p a i d t h e fiscus Juda icus e v e n

t h o u g h t h e y h a d w i s h e d to d o so. Ye t now , a c c u s e d u n d e r D o m i t i a n ' s




p o l i cy fo r n o t h av in g p a id t h e t ax wh i l s t t h ey fo l l o wed a ' I O \ ) 8 O C I K 6 < ;

p io q , t h e y w e re i n a c le ft st ick . T h e f ac t o f t h e i r co n v e r s i o n co u l d

b e h e l d a g a i n s t t h e m a n d t h e c h a r g e o f acefieia a c c o r d i n g l y f o l l o w .

T h u s t h e s c e n e a t E p h e s u s i n Acts 1 6 ,2 0 -2 1 f i n d s r e f l ec t i o n i n

t h e s e D o m i t i a n i c e v e n t s a s T h e o p h i l u s a n d h i s c i rc l e e x p e r i e n c e d

t h e m . T h e a e P o u e vo i o f A s ia M i n o r w e r e R o m a n c i ti ze n s w h o , d e s p it e

t h e i r c o n t r a - c u l t u r a l i d e o l o g y , w e r e r e g a r d e d a s h a v i n g n o le g a l r i g h t

t o t h e L u k a n r e f o r m e d J u d a i s m t h a t e n c a p s u l a t e d t h e i r i m p e r i a li s t

a s p i r a t i o n s t o b e g o o d c i t i z e n s a s w e l l a s g o o d C h r i s t i a n s . I n t h e l a s t

a n a l y s i s Luke w ill a d m i t t h a t h e le a v e s u n a n s w e r e d w h a t t h e l e g a c y

o f Pau l was t o d o fo r t h em in t h e i r o wn d ay a s i t h ad in t h e d ay s

o f t h e E p h e s i a n m a g i c i a n s . A s a J e w P a u l h a d p e r s u a d e d t h e m t o

b e c o m e ae |3 6 |x evo i, " c o n t r a ry t o t h e l aw to w o r sh ip G o d (rcccpa xo v

v o u o v a e ( 3 e a 6 a i xov 0 e 6 v ) , " a n d t h u s t o a c c e p t " e 9 r| u n p e r m i t t e d t o

R o m a n s ( a O U K e^ eax iv fij iiv rcapaSexeoGai. . . Tc ojialo iq o u a i v ) ." I n

D o m i t i a n ' s tim e it w a s t h u s a l so u n - p e r m i t t e d e 9 r| t h a t l e a d t o c h a r g e s

o f d a e p E i c c f o r a t e m p l e t a x w h i c h w a s n o t o n l y u n p a i d b u t f o r w h i c h

n a m e s h a d b e e n a b s e n t f r o m s y n a g o g a l r e g i s te r s t h a t w o u l d h a v e

o t h e r w i s e h a v e i m p l i e d o b li g a t io n to m a k e s u c h p a y m e n t .

L e t u s n o w s u m m a r i s e t h e p o i n t t o w h i c h th i s c h a p t e r h a s l e a d u s .

P A R T D . C H U R C H O R D E R A N D I M PE R IA L S O C I ET Y

W e h a v e t h u s a r g u e d t h a t Luke-Acts r e p r e s e n t s i d e o l o g y b u t n o t i nt h e s e n s e o f t h e a p o l o g y o f a n i n d i v i d u a l o r g r o u p t o a h o s ti le R o m a n

m a g i s t r a t e . W e a g r e e t h u s f ar w i t h E s l e r t h a t t h is w o r k r e p r e s e n t s

i n - h o u s e l e g i t i m a t i o n a n d n o t a p o l o g y .9 6

B u t t h e g e n e r a l c o n c e p t o f l e g i t i m a t i o n is t o b e s h a r p e n e d s p e ci fi c

a ll y i n t e r m s o f a s o c io l o g ic a l t h e o r y o f c o n t r a - c u l t u r e . T h e g r o u p

l e g i t i m a t e s i ts e lf b y c o n s t r u c t i n g a n a l t e r n a t i v e f r a m e o f r e f e r e n c e

w i th a r e l a t e d a l t e rn a t iv e s ca l e o f v a lu es t h a t j u s t i f i ed b o th i t s s ig n i f i c a n c e a n d i n d e e d it s v e r y e x i s t e n c e . B u t t h a t r e c o n s t r u c t i o n is

p a r a s i t i c n e v e r t h e l e s s o n t h e s o c i al c o n s t r u c t i o n o f r e a l i t y o f t h e h o s t

c u l t u r e , w h i c h p r o v i d e s th e r a w m a t e r i a l o u t o f w h i c h to c o n s t r u c t

t h e r e v e r s a l o f i m a g e s . T h o s e i m a g e s w e h a v e s e e n to b e t h e c o m

p l e x o f i d e a s o f a u g u r y , o f census a n d o f lustrum, o f pax deorum, o f

9 6 E s l e r ( 1 9 8 7 ) , p p . 2 2 0 - 2 2 3 .




saeculum aureum, o f victoria a n d concordia w h i c h c l u s t e r a r o u n d t h e d e v e l

o p i n g i d e o l o g y o f t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t .

T h e p a r t i c u l a r a l t e r n a t i v e C h r i s t i a n c o n s t r u c t i o n o f r e a l it y c o u l d

s u s t a in its p l a u s ib i li t y t o a m a x i m u m e x t e n t o n l y d u r i n g t h e p e r i o d

i m m e d i a t e l y p r e c e d i n g t h e a c c e ss i o n o f t h e e m p e r o r D o m i t i a n . T h e

p a r a l l e l t o t h e r e f o r m e d , p a g a n I m p e r i a l C u l t , a c h i e v i n g t h e pax deo

ru m w h e r e its r e p u b l i c a n p r e d e c e s s o r h a d f a il ed , w a s C h r i s t i a n i t y a s

r e f o r m e d J u d a i s m , fu lfillin g t h e p r o m i s e s o f t h e D i v i n e C h i l d a n d

t h e saeculum aureum p r o m i s e d t o t h e J e w i s h p a t r i a r c h s . D o m i t i a n w a s

t o e m p h a s i s e t h r o u g h t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t t h e r e s p o n s i b i li t y o f t h e J e w s

t o p a y t h e T e m p l e T a x a s t h e so c ia ll y a c c e p t a b l e p r o x y fo r p a r t i c i

p a t i o n i n t h e c u l t. B u t t h e J e w s t h e m s e l v e s a t t h i s t i m e t h r o u g h t h e

biracoth ham inim w e r e f inally t o e x c l u d e e v e n J e w i s h C h r i s t i a n i t y , p r a c

t i ce d b y t h e s u r v i v o rs o f t h e t r a d i t i o n o f J a m e s t h e L o r d ' s b r o t h e r ,

f r om c o n s t i t u t i n g a v a l i d f o r m o f J u d a i s m .

T h u s fr o m n o w o n a n y a d h e r e n t o f a n y o t h e r fo r m o f J u d a i s m

t h a n w h a t T h e o p h i l u s ' g r o u p w o u l d r e g a r d as u n r e f o r m e d J u d a i s m

w o u l d s t a n d e x p o s e d b y t h e i r n o n - p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t .

I t w o u l d n o t b e s o e a s y t o a v o i d i n v i t i n g t h e q u e s t i o n a s t o w h e t h e r

t h e i r r e fu s al t o p a r t i c i p a t e in t h e s a c r a m e n t a l m e a n s fo r o b t a i n i n g

t h e pax deorum i m p l i e d u p s e t t i n g t h a t pax t h r o u g h a x d a i q f o m e n t e d

b y o t h e r scelera s u c h as m a g i c a n d w i t c h c r a f t. ' A a e p e i a w a s t h e c h a r g e

t h a t f o l l o w e d f r o m t h e f a c t t h a t t h e y h a d f o l l o w e d , b y t h e i r o w n

c o n t r a - c u l t u r a l c l a i m , a r e f o r m e d ' I O \ ) 8 G U K 6 < ; p(o<; th a t w as th e re ve rse d

i m a g e o f A u g u s t u s ' r e f o r m o f t h e r e p u b l i c a n m a g i s t e r i a l auguria t o

p r o d u c e t h e pax deorum. T h e y h a d n o r i g h t t o d e p a r t f r o m a n c e s t r a l

e 0 T | , s o t h a t t h e y m u s t b e p u n i s h e d fo r t h is a s m u c h a s n o n - p a y m e n t

o f t h e fiscus Judaicus. T h e c o n t r a - c u l t u r a l i d e o l o g y h a d f a i l e d i n i t s

i n it ia l , L u c a n f o r m t o r e i n t e g r a t e t h e c o n t r a - c u l t u r e w i t h i n t h e h o s t

c u l t u r e .

I t is h o w e v e r i m p o r t a n t t o n o t e t h a t p a r t o f t h e c o n t r a - c u l t u r a l

c o n s t r u c t i o n t h a t r e v e a l s i ts e lf a s m o r e t h a n l e g i t i m a t i o n is t o b e s e e n

i n t h e f o r m a t i o n o f a n i d e o lo g y o f C h u r c h O r d e r . Luke f o u n d s t h e

c h u r c h o n t h e T w e l v e a p o s t l e s , w h o c o n t i n u e w i t h J e s u s in h i s t r i

a l s , t o w h o m h e e n t r u s t s t h e k i n g d o m d e l i v e r e d b y h i s F a t h e r , a n d

w h o a r e a p p o i n t e d t o e a t a t h i s t a b l e i n h i s k i n g d o m a n d t o s i t " o n

t h r o n e s j u d g i n g t h e t w e l v e t r i b e s o f I s r a e l . " (Lk. 2 2 , 3 0 ) A l t h o u g h t h is

say ing i s found a l so in Matthew ( 1 9 ,2 8 ) a n d c o m e s t h e r e f o r e f ro m Q ,

Luke m a k e s t h e p r o m i s e a p p l i c a b l e t o t h e T w e l v e a l o n e i n t h e s p e c i f i c




c o n t e x t o f t h e L a s t S u p p e r ( 3 C 2 . 3 . 2 . 1 ) .9 7

T h e r e a p p l i c a t i o n o f t h e

say ing to the k ingdom, no t g iven to a l l d i sc ip les , bu t "wi l led" o r "g iven

a s t h e r i g h t o f i n h e r i t a n c e t o (Kdyco 8 i a x { 0 e u m u u i v KCCGGX; 8ie9ex6 uo i

6 7caxf |p UOD p a a i ^ e i a v ) " t h e T w e l v e a l o n e is t h e r e f o r e i n d i c a t i v e o f

Luke's o w n c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e a u t h o r i t y s t r u c t u r e of t h e c o m m u n i t y .

L e t u s e x a m i n e b ri e fl y h i s r e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f a u t h o r i t y i n t h e C h r i s t i a n

c o m m u n i t y .

3 D 1 . The introduction of the apo stolic college

Luke's s o u r c e s a r e i n d i c a t i v e of a n a w a r e n e s s t h a t t h e T w e l v e d i dn o t c o n s t i t u t e a n e x c l u s i v e , a u t h o r i t y g r o u p i n t h e e a r l i e s t c o m m u

n i t i e s , n o r w e r e t h e y a l o n e a l l o w e d t h e t i d e o f " a p o s d e . " Acts 1 3 , 1 - 3

d e s c r i b e s t h e m i n i s t e r s a t A n t i o c h a s " p r o p h e t s a n d t e a c h e r s . . . w h o

l ay h a n d s o n B a r n a b a s a n d S a u l . " A p p a r e n d y i n c o n s e q u e n c e o f

t h e i r b e i n g t h u s " s e n t o u t " a s t r a v e l l i n g m i s s i o n a r i e s , t h e y a r e b o t h

cal led drcooxoAoi in Acts 1 4 , 4 a n d 1 4 . P e r h a p s , a l t e r n a t i v e l y t h e y a r e

c a l le d s u c h b e c a u s e i n 1 1 , 2 8 - 3 0 , w h e n t h e p r o p h e t A g a b u s p r o p h es i ed a f am in e , t h e b re th ren a t An t io ch s en d re l i e f (d rco ax e iXav x eq )

" fo r th e b r e t h r e n i n J u d a e a . . . t o t h e e l d e r s t h r o u g h t h e h a n d o f

B a r n a b a s a n d S a u l . " (v . 3 0 ) Su ch a co n cep t o f ap o s to l i c i t y i s su p

p o r t e d i n Didache 1 1 , 3 - 6 w h e r e t h e t r a v e l l i n g m i s s i o n a r y i s a s s o c i

a t e d c lo se ly w i t h t h e p r o p h e t i c offic e h e l d a d d i t i o n a l l y . F u r t h e r m o r e ,

in 1 Cor. 1 5 ,6 a n d 7 t h e r e s u r r e c t i o n a p p e a r a n c e " t o J a m e s a n d a ll

t h e ap o sd es " is q u i t e d i f f e ren t f ro m , an d s ev e ra l s t ag es l a t e r (P e t e r / t h eT w e l v e / f i v e h u n d r e d b r o t h e r s / J a m e s ) t h a n , t h e a p p e a r a n c e t o t h e

T w e l v e .9 8

T h u s Acts 1,15-26 i s c lear ly Luke's o w n r e c o n s t r u c t i o n , w h e n i t

m a k e s th e T w e l v e a n d t h e fa c t o f t h e i r b e i n g e y e w i t n e ss e s u n i q u e l y

97

Mat. 1 9 , 2 3 - 3 0 p l a c e s th is s t a t e m e n t i n t h e c o n t e x t o f t h e R i c h Y o u n g M a n( 1 6 - 2 1 ) a n d is a p r o m i s e n o t o n l y t o Pe t e r b u t t o a l l w h o f o l l o w J e s u s (o i dicoAx)\)9r|-

a a v x e q | i o i ) " i n t h e reb i r t h " (ev xr \ 7caA.iyyevea{a) .9 8 Cf. a lso Rom. 1 6, 7 w h e r e A n d r o n i c u s a n d j u n i a a r e d e s c r i b e d a s ejuoT|uoi xoi<;

arcoaxotanq, a n d i n 2 Cor. 8 ,2 3 (a8eta po i f |U iov drco oxotan e iacXrio icbv) an d 11 ,5 a n d

13 a n d 1 2 , 1 1 . In th e l a t ter cas e th e vrcepAiav drcooxoAxn ap pe ar s to refer n ot to

t h o s e w h o h a v e p a s s e d t h e t e st a s w i t n e s s e s t o t h e r e s u r r e c t i o n , b u t t o t h e c h a r i s

m a t i c a n d p r o p h e t i c t e st o f p e r f o m i n g x a a r | (x e ia i o i ) d r c o ox o ta n ). F u r t h e r m o r e i n

Mat. 1 0 , 2 ; M k. 3 , 1 4 ; 6 , 3 0 ; Lk. 6 , 1 3 ; 9 , 1 0 ; 1 1 , 4 9 t h e r e f e r e n c e i s t o t h o s e w h o t ra v

e l l ed e i t h e r w i t h J e s u s o r w h o w e r e s e n t o u t b y h i m a s m i s s i o n a r i e s , a n d n o t a s

w i t n e s s e s t o a r e s u r r e c t i o n t h a t h a d n o t a s y e t o c c u r r e d . S e e a l s o C a m p e n h a u s e n( 1 9 4 7 ) , p p . 9 6 - 1 3 0 ; K . L a k e , T h e T w e l v e a n d t h e A p o s t l e s , i n F o a k e s J a c k s o n a n d

L a k e ( 1 9 3 3 ) 1 ,5 p p . 3 7 - 5 9 .




9 9

A. Brent, Diogenes Laertius and the Apostolic Succession, in JEH 44,3 (1993),

p p . 375-386; Idem. Hippolytus and the R oman Church in the Third Century:

Communities in Tension before the Emergence of a Monarch-Bishop, in SupplVCh

31 (Leiden: E.J. Brill 1995), pp. 476-501.100

Acts 6,6 ovq eaxrjaav evamiov xcov arcoaxoXtov, m l 7cpoae\)^d|xevoi £7ie6T|Kav

avxoiq xd<; xzipaq. The subject of eaxrjaav is clearly the Hellenists themselves who

lay hands on the seven like the prophets and teachers of Antioch on Barnabas and

Saul (Acts 13,3). Foakes Jackson and Lake (1933) 1,4 p. 65, and 1,5 note 11 p. 137.101

Acts 15, 2,4,6,22-23; 16,4.

central to the authority structure of the communi ty , (v. 22) conjoin

ing incidentally with them the "Lord's Brothers" (v. 14). The addi

tion of Matthias in replacement of Ju da s is also clearly the author ' s

own construction. In Acts 12,2 J a m e s the apostle is martyred by

Herod Agrippa, but the apostolic body does no t meet again in order

to replace the deceased office-bearer.

However , the author 's purpose in constructing a putat ive Order

for the primit ive Church is clearly not that of later Hegessipus or

Irenaeus, or of the Clement ine Homilies." T h e aposdes do not ini

tiate an episcopal succession list. They do however ordain the seven

deacons bu t only according to the Western text of Acts 6,1-6 . T h e

ms. tradition otherwise implies that the co mm un it y itself ordai ns with

apostolic approval.1 0 0

Both Paul a n d Barnabas (Acts 14,21), whilst

travelling through Lystra, Iconium, a n d Antioch in Pisidia, "ordain

presbyters in every church (xeipoxovrioxcvxeq 8e amoiq m x ' e K K ^ n a i a v

rcpeop'uxepoix;)," by vi rt ue presumably of the apostolicity of the trav

elling missionary and not the apostolicity of the eyewitness to the

resurrection.

Yet there is no clearly articulated theory of ministerial Order sys

tematically imposed upon the text since there are mentioned elders

(Acts 11,30), but not apostles (nor deacons), over t he c hu rc h in

Je rusa lem w ho receive the relief-gift as a result of Agabus ' proph

esying, but of whose ordination, unlike that of the deacons, we have

no mention. Furthermore, presbyters are regularly associated with

the aposdes throughout Acts, but no account of the origin of their

office, unlike that of aposdes a n d deacons, is ever given.1 0 1

Yet the

supposed ordinations of presbyters by Paul a n d Barnabas , and the

summoning of the Ephesian presbyters by Paul himself in Acts 20,17,

was clearly important to the a u tho r as an apostolic function. In

v. 28 Paul addresses these same presbyters as £ 7 U G K O 7CO I , though, as

in Clement Romans 44,1-5 , there is a plurality of such ministers a n d

the terms are evidentiy interchangeable.




T h e r e is n o p r i m a r y h i s t o r i c a l e v i d e n c e fo r t h e e x i s t e n c e o f a p r e s -

b y t e r a t e i n t h e o r i g i n a l P a u l i n e c o m m u n i t i e s . T h u s t h e e x i s t e n c e o f

t h e i n s t it u t i o n h e r e is a c l e a r c o n t r i v a n c e o f t h e d e u t e r o - P a u l i n i s t

a u t h o r w h i c h h e n e v e r t h e le s s s h a r e s w i t h t h e p s e u d o n y m o u s P a s t o r a l

E p i sd e s w r i t t e n c o n t e m p o r a n e o u s l y w i t h h i m . 1 0 2 T h e c o n n e c t i o n of

t h e P a u l i n e c o n g r e g a t i o n t h r o u g h o r d i n a t i o n o f o f f ic e - b e a re r s is i n

t e n d e d t o e m p h a s i s e t h e u n i t y o f t h e r e f o r m e d c u l t o f J u d a i s m , w h i c h

b e g in s i n J e r u s a l e m a n d p r o c e e d s t o S a m a r i a a n d t h e n t o R o m e

w i t h e a c h m o v e m e n t l e a d i n g b a c k t o J e r u s a l e m itself.

P a u l o r d a i n s p r e s b y t e r s j u s t a s P e t e r a n d t h e o r i g i n a l a p o s t l e s h a d

o r d a i n e d t h e d e a c o n s (Acts 6 , 1 - 6 ) e v e n t h o u g h t h e r e t h e a c c o u n t i s

a l s o c o n s t r u c t e d , a n d t h e d e a c o n s w e r e o r i g in a l l y t h e s e l f -s t a n d in g

o ffic e b e a r e r s of a c u l t u r a l l y s e p a r a t e c o n g r e g a t i o n .1 0 3

T h e m i n i s t r i e s

o f P e t e r a n d P a u l m u s t b e s e e n t o b e n o t o n l y s y m m e t r i c a l w i t h

e a c h o t h e r b u t o r g a n i s a t i o n a l l y r e l a t e d t h r o u g h t h e C o u n c i l o f

J e r u s a l e m i n Acts 1 5 , 1 - 3 5 . T h e l a t t e r e v e n t h a s b e e n n o t o r i o u s l y

i m p o s s i b l e t o r e c o n c i l e s a t i s f a c t o r i l y w i t h t h e p r i m a r y s o u r c e o f Gal.

1 -2 . F u r t h e r m o r e , e v e n t h e p r o p h e t s a n d t e a c h e r s o f A n t i o c h c a n

n o t b e a l l o w e d to c o m e in t o e x i s te n c e i n d e p e n d e n d y , b u t m u s t b e

s h o w n t o h a v e m i g r a t e d t h e r e o r i g i n a l l y , w i t h A g a b u s , f r o m J e r u s a l e m

(Acts 1 1 ,2 7 ). P e t e r m u s t r e p o r t b a c k t o t h e a p o s d e s in J e r u s a l e m a ll

t h a t h a s h a p p e n e d i n h is m i s s i o n a r y a c t iv i ty (Acts 11 ,1 ) .

I f t h e a u t h o r ' s p u r p o s e is c l e a r l y n o t t o l e g i t i m a t e l a t e r , c a t h o l i c

102

Philip. 1 , 2 m e n t i o n s ejuoKorcoi a n d 8K X K O V O I a s o f f i c e - h o l d e r s . T h e d e u t e r o -

Pa u l i n e 1 7 7m . 5 ,1 7 d i s t i n g u i s h es rcpeap'uxepoi f r o m e l d e r m e n b y t h e f a c t t h a t t h e y

a re rcp oeax cb xeq a n d t h e re f o re u n a m b i g u o u s l y o f f i c er - h o l d ers , a n d Tit. 1 , 5 c o n t a i n s

a n i n j u n c t i o n t o o rd a i n t h em i n a p h ra s e rem i n i s cen t o f Acts 14,2 1 (w ot . . . raxaaxr|crr |<;

(xeipoxovf iaavxeq 8e oruxoiq) raxa 7c6A.iv (rax ' eKKAjja iav) Ttpeop'oxepo'ix;). A K X K O V O I a r e

o t h e r w i s e m e n t i o n e d i n 1 Tim. 3 , 8 a n d 1 2 , a l t h o u g h a c e r t a i n a m b i v a l e n c e is m a i n

t a i n e d b y t h e f a c t t h a t " T i m o t h y " h i m s e l f i s c a l l e d a 8KXKOVO<; in 4 , 6 . eTUGKOTtoi

a r e m e n t i o n e d in t h e g e n e r i c s i n g u l a r i n 1 Tim. 3 , 2 a n d Tit. 1 , 7 b u t n o - w h e r e a su n a m b i g u o u s l y d i s t i n c t f ro m t h e rcpeap'oxepoi. I n t h e Pa s t o ra l s , a s i n Luke-Acts, w e

w o u l d s e e m t h e r e f o r e t o b e in a t i m e c o n t e m p o r a r y w i t h C l e m e n t o f R o m e a n d

t h e r e f o r e a r o u n d 9 5 A . D . T o t h a t e x t e n t I w o u l d b e p r e p a r e d t o a c c e p t t h e a s s e ss

m e n t o f S . N e w , T h e N a m e , B a p t i s m , a n d t h e L a y i n g o n o f H a n d s , i n F o a k e s

J a c k s o n a n d L a k e ( 1 9 3 3 ) 1, 5 N o t e 11 p p . 1 3 7 - 1 3 8 t h a t h e r e w e r e l a i d t h e f o u n

d a t i o n s o f l a t e r c a t h o l i c p r a c t i c e . I c a n n o t t h e r e f o r e a c c e p t e i t h e r C a m p e n h a u s e n

( 1 9 6 9 ) , p p . 1 5 6 - 1 6 5 ff. t h a t w o u l d d a t e t h e P a s t o r a l s l a t e r o n t h e g r o u n d s t h a t t h e y

p r e s u p p o s e s i n g l e - b i s h o p s , n o r R . B r o w n , Priest and Bishop: Biblical Reflections, ( N e w

Y o r k : P a u l i s t P r e s s 1 9 7 0 ) , p p . 6 7 - 7 0 ff. w h o w a s p r e p a r e d t o d e f e n d t h e e x i s t e n c e

o f a p r e s b y t e r a t e i n t h e o r i g in a l P a u l i n e c o m m u n i t i e s .1 0 3 H . J . C a d b u r y , T h e H e l l e n i s t s , i n F o a k e s J a c k s o n a n d L a k e ( 1 9 3 3 ) 1 ,5 N o t e 7

p p . 5 9 - 7 4 .

http://7c6a.iv/

http://7c6a.iv/




C h u r c h o r d e r t h r o u g h h i s n o t a l w a y s n e a d y c o n s t r u c t e d e d if ic e , w h a t

r o l e d o e s t h a t c o n s t r u c t i o n p l a y ? W e a r e n o w , i n t h e l ig h t o f o u r

acco u n t so f a r , i n a p o s i t i o n t o g iv e a f r e sh an swer t o an o ld p ro b lem .

3 D 2 . The centrality of the Temple to reformed Judaism

I t is n e ce s sa ry firsd y, a n d p e r h a p s l ea s t co n t ro v e r s i a l l y , t o p o r t r a y

C h r i s t i a n i t y a s a r e f o r m e d J e w i s h c u l t . T h e w o r l d - w i d e c u l t o f J u d a i s m

w a s u n i t e d a r o u n d t h e T e m p l e , a n d a p r a c t i c a l e x p r e s s i o n o f t h a t

u n i t y w a s i n t h e fiscus Judaicus. L i k e w i s e Luke's r e f o r m e d c u l t u s m u s t

b e l o c a t e d a n d c e n t r e d o n t h e J e r u s a l e m T e m p l e , w h e r e t h e d is c ip le sg a t h e r w i t h t h e a p o s t l e s f o r w o r s h i p w h i l s t c o n t i n u i n g a t h o m e i n

t h e a p o s t l e s ' d o c t r i n e , i n s y n a g o g a l p r a y e r , a n d i n t h e b r e a k i n g o f

b r e a d t h a t c o n t i n u e s t h e L a s t S u p p e r . H e r e m i s s i o n a r i e s r e t u r n f o r

d i r e c t i o n a n d r e - a s s u r a n c e , a n d t h e e x p a n s i o n o f t h e C h u r c h t a k e s

p l a c e a r o u n d t h i s h u b , a s I h a v e d e s c r i b e d . H e r e is s e n t a c o l le c

t ion for poor-relief. T h e a u t h o r ' s r e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f e a r l y C h r i s t i a n , h i s

t o r y i n t h i s r e g a r d w a s n o d o u b t c o n s i d e r a b l y a s s i s t e d b y a h i s t o r i c a lc o l l e c t io n , r e s o n a n t o f s u b m i s s i o n t o a n a u t h o r i t y a m b i v a l e n d y i n t e r

p r e t e d o n b o t h s id e s , d e s c r i b e d in 2 Cor. 8 - 1 0 . I n Gal. 2 ,6 a n d 1 0

P a u l a g r e e d t o r e m e m b e r t h e p o o r , w h i c h h e p r o f e s s e s e a g e r n e s s

a l w a y s t o d o . T h u s P a u l m a y h a v e r e g a r d e d t h e c o l l e c ti o n p u r e l y

a s p o o r - r e l i e f a n d C h r i s t i a n c h a r i t y , b u t J a m e s t h e L o r d ' s b r o t h e r ,

a n d P e t e r a n d J o h n , p r e s i d i n g o v e r t h e J e r u s a l e m C h u r c h , m a y

h a v e i n t e r p r e t e d i t a s a g r u d g i n g a c k n o w l e d g m e n t o f t h e a u t h o r i t yo f t h e o r i g i n a l c o m m u n i t y . I n t h e i r e y e s t h e " p i l l a r s " o f t h e C h u r c h a s

t h e N e w I s r a e l h a d t h e s a m e ri g h t t o s u p p o r t a s h a d t h e T e m p l e o f

t h e O l d I s r a e l.

B u t w e a r e n o w a b l e , i n t h e li g h t o f o u r a r g u m e n t , t o g o f u r t h e r

i n o u r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f C h u r c h O r d e r in Luke-

Acts. W e h a v e f u r t h e r a r g u e d t h a t t h e p o r t r a y a l o f C h r i s t i a n i t y a s a

r e f o r m e d J u d a i s m i s a c o n s c i o u s r e fl e ct io n o f A u g u s t u s ' r e f o r m a t i o no f t h e o l d , p a g a n c u l t u s i n t h e d i r e c t i o n o f a c o n s t r u c t i o n o f i m p e

r i a l u n i t y o n t h e f o u n d a t i o n s o f t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t ( 3B 1 - 3 ). W e c a n

n o w n o t e A u g u s t u s ' r e f o r m a t i o n o f t h e c o ll e g e o f t h e Fratres Arvales,

a n d s i m i l a r i t i e s w i t h Acts 1,12—26.

3 D 3 . F r a t r e s A r v a l e s : apostolic college as contra culture

T h e r e f o r m e d c u l t o f J u d a i s m h a d b e e n f o u n d e d o n t h e T w e l v e a p o s

d es w h o se j u d g e m e n t o f t h e twe lv e t r i b es o f I s r ae l w as s e l f- co n sc io u s ly



IMPERIAL IDEOLOGY A N D T H E O R I G IN S O F C H U R C H O R D E R 137

Carmen Arvale, 2 I F o n e m i e l e F o r m e , c o n u n e x c u r s u s e d i n d i c i , ( R o m e : B a r d i

1 9 3 4 ) .1 0 6 S h e r w i n W h i t e ( 1 9 5 2 ) , p p . 2 1 0 - 2 1 1 cf. D e S t e C r o i x ( 1 9 6 3 ) , p p . 1 8 - 2 1 a n d

S h e r w i n W h i t e ( 1 9 6 4 ) , p p . 2 4 2 6 .

T h e Fratres Arvales b e c a m e c lo s el y c o n n e c t e d w i t h t h e I m p e r i a l

Cu l t , o f fe r in g vota f or t h e i m p e r i a l h o u s e h o l d : t h e y m a d e s a cr if ic e s

o n i m p e r i a l b i r t h d a y s , a n d o n t h e o c c a s i o n o f a c c e s s i o n s t o t h e

t h r o n e . A n y v a c a n c y i n t h e n u m b e r o f t w e l v e w a s filled b y t h e c o l

l eg e itself, j u s t l i k e t h e twe lv e ap o s t l e s , t h o u g h in t h e l a t t e r ca se we

h a v e a l r e a d y n o t e d th e i n c o n g r u i t y of t h e r e p l a c e m e n t o f M a t t h i a s

w i t h t h e f a i lu r e t o r e p l a c e J a m e s (Acts 1,24-26 cf. 1 2 , 1 - 5 ) . In CIL

6 , 2 0 8 0 l in e 2 2 ff. w e h a v e r e c o r d e d t h e e l e c t i o n o f P u b l i u s M a n l i u s

C a r b o " i n t h e p l a c e o f Q . B it ti u s P r o c u l u s " i n c o n s e q u e n c e o f t h e

e m p e r o r H a d r i a n ' s l e tt e r c a s t i n g h i s v o t e fo r h i s collega. T h u s w e find

p a ra l l e l e d M a t t h i a s , ch o s en Xocpeiv x ov XOTCOV xfjc; 8KXKOV{(X<; xocuxriq iced

&7toaxoAfjq (Acts 1,25). T h e p a r a l l e l i s, I s u b m i t , n o t a c c i d e n t a l in t h e

l i g h t o f w h a t I h a v e e s t a b l i s h e d t o b e t h e c o n t e x t o f t h e t h e o l o g y o f

Luke-Acts i n i m p e r i a l i d e o l o g y .

PART E . I N C O N C L U S I O N : THEOPHILUS A N D H I S C I R C L E

T h e o p h i l u s a n d h is c i r c le w e r e n o t i n a r e l a t i o n s h i p o f o p e n c o n f li c t

w i t h t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t , a s w a s t h e w r i t e r o f t h e Apocalypse. S t a n d i n g

a t t h e fo re f ro n t o f t h e su cc es so r s t o t h e G re e k c it y s t a t e s i n c o m

m u n i t i e s s u c h a s E p h e s u s , P e r g a m o n , A n t i o c h i n P i s i d i a , e t c . , t h e y

w e l l k n e w t h a t t h e r e w a s a s y e t n o l e g a l c o m p u l s i o n o n t h e m t o

p a r t i c i p a t e in t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t . B e f o r e D e c i u s T r a j a n ( A . D . 2 5 1 )

s u c h p a r t i c i p a t i o n w a s v o l u n t a r y i n t h e s e n s e t h a t t h e r e l a c k e d a n yl e ga l c o m p u l s i o n t o p a r t i c i p a t e . B u t s oc i al p r e s s u r e , a s T e r t u l l i a n ' s

l a t e r De Corona w a s t o i n d i c a t e , c o u l d h a v e t h e s a m e p r a c t i c a l c o n

c l u s io n s o f d r a w i n g h o st il e a t t e n t i o n t o n o n - p a r t i c i p a n t s a n d t h e d r a w

i n g u p o f c h a r g e s o f scelera o r o f contumacia a g a i n s t t h e m .1 0 6

Y e t t h e G r a e c o - R o m a n r e l ig i ou s c u l t u r e t h a t h a d f o r m e d t h e i r

p e r s p e c t i v e s o n t h e w o r l d w a s o n e to w h i c h t h a t c u lt u s w a s b e c o m

i n g i n c r e a s i n g l y c r i ti c a l. T h e A u g u s t a n r e v o l u t i o n h a d p r o d u c e d t h epax deorum, a n d r e o r d e r e d t h e c o s m i c a n d m e t a p h y s i c a l d i s lo c a t io n

o f t h e n a t u r a l o r d e r w i t n e s s e d in a c e n t u r y o f c iv il w a r s w i t h w h i c h

c o u n t l e s s p r o d i g i o u s n a t u r a l d is a s t e rs w e r e a s s o c i a t e d . T h e r e w a s a

s t r o n g l y fe lt m o r a l a n d p a t r i o t i c c o m p u l s i o n t o c o n t i n u e w h a t h a d



138 CHAPTER THREE

be en celebr ate d in the decrees of the Koi non of Asia an d elsewhere.

But they had been catechetized and received into the post-Pauline

communities in Asia Minor, and were now Christians.

How could their new faith enable their reintegration into the impe

rial order from which they now felt alienated? How could this per

ceived, social-psychological ne ed for the celebrati on of social or de r

after bloody social strife, fulfilled in the Imperial Cultus that had

secured the pax deorum, now experience new fulfilment by the new

religion? The way the writer chose was to deconstruct early Christian

eschatology to re move all ju dg em en t a nd tribul ation, so as to assim

ilate Chri stia n eschatology to that of Augustus' saeculum aureum. T hus

we have answered the first question with which we began and ex

plained the reason for Luke's recasting of early Chr isti an eschatology.

In answer to the second question concerning Luke's modification

of Paulinism, we have seen that the saeculum aureum was initiated

through an act of augury, Augustus' special augurium pads which had

succeeded in achieving the pax deorumwhere republican religion had

failed. The answer to the second question was to be found in the

Chri stia n co un te rp ar t to Augu stus ' Cul t, whic h could alone achie ve

the refashioned Christian saeculum aureum. The author now had to

identify the religion into which Theophilus has been catechetized as

a refo rmed Jew is h cult. He was thus pr ep ar ed to deconst ruct Paul' s

radical disjunction between the Law and Christ (Gal. 3,10-14), even

in the softened form in Rom. 9 - 1 1 . 1 0 7

Luke now offered a positive

reason for non- part icipat ion , namely, the pu rpos e of the Imp eri al

Cult: the pax deorum and the sacramental means for the continuance

of the saeculum aureum is far be tt er achieved th rou gh the eiprivn of

Bet hle hem, the Tr iu mp hal Entr y, and t he vucr| a nd acoinpia tha t fol

low from the birth of Child from the Virgin, and his death and res

urrection. Thus Theophilus can know "the security (TTJV dacpd^eiav)

reg ar di ng the discourses of his cateches is (rcepi (bv Kaxrixri&nq taSycov)."

(Lk. 1,4)

Such an ideology thus opened the prospect for Theophilus and

his group to overcome their alienation and to reintegrate themselves

into the social fabric of their societies by means of a new religion

that would achieve the perce ive d objective of thos e societies. But as

an ideology for integrating Christianity into the imperial ideal it was

1 0 7

Brown and Meier (1983) chapt. 2.




t o p r o v e a b o r t i v e a t th i s p o i n t i n t i m e , t h o u g h l a t e r to b e p a r t i a l l y

r e a l i z e d i n t h e t i m e o f E u s e b i u s a n d P r u d e n t i u s .1 0 8

T h e r e is t h e r e f o r e a c l e a r c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n h o w Luke-Acts c o n

s t r u c ts C h u r c h O r d e r a n d t h e c r e a t i o n of a c o n t r a - c u l t u r e r e f le c t in g

t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t . W e sh a ll e s t a b li s h t h e c o n t i n u e d c o n n e c t i o n o f

e c c le s ia s ti c al a n d i m p e r i a l o r d e r a s i n p r o g r e s s o f t i m e d e v e l o p m e n t s

i n t h e l a t t e r find d e v e l o p m e n t a l c o u n t e r p a r t s i n t h e f o r m e r . W e w il l

find i n C l e m e n t o f R o m e a p a r a l l e l w i t h Luke-Acts i n t h e t r a n s fo r

m a t i o n o f t r a d i t i o n a l a p o c a l y p t i c u n d e r s i m i l a r i m p e r i a l - i d e o l o g i c a l

i n f l u e n c e s . S u c h a p a r a l l e l w i ll p r o v e a ll t h e m o r e r e m a r k a b l e in t h a t

t h e r e is n o e v i d e n c e o f d i r e c t i n f l u e n c e o f t h e o n e w o r k o n t h e o t h e r .

W e s ha l l s ee t h a t t h e D o m i t i a n i c c h a n g e s i n t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t a r e

r e f l e c te d i n h o w I g n a t i u s o f A n t i o c h , f o l lo w i n g c e r t a i n t h e m e s f r o m

t h e Apocalypse, c o n s t r u c t s h is t h e o l o g y o f t h e th r e e f o l d O r d e r . W e

s h a l l s e e l a t e r i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h C y p r i a n c h a n g e s i n t h e i d e o l o g y

o f C h u r c h O r d e r t h a t r e fl ec t t h e e a r l i e r c h a n g e s b y t h e S e v e r a n s t o

t h e i d e o l o g y o f i m p e r i a l p o w e r .

T h u s w e a r e b r o u g h t t o t h e s u b je c t m a t t e r of o u r n e x t C h a p t e r ,

a n d t h e i m m e d i a t e s oc ia l a n d p ol it ic a l c o n t e x t o f C l e m e n t ' s , Corinthians,

t h e Apocalypse, a n d t h e le t t e r s o f I g n a t i u s o f A n t i o c h .

1 0 8 B o v o n ( 1 9 8 3 ) c o l . 4 0 4 : " F i ir L u k a s w a r e d i e W e l t d i m e n s i o n d e r M i s s i o n u n d

d a d u r c h d e r K i r c h e e i n r e l i g i o s e s G e g e n s t i i c k z u m p o l i t i s c h e n U n i v e r s a l i s m u s R o m s .

L u k a s w a r e d a n n e in V o r l a u f e r v o n E u s e b u n d P r u d e n z . "



C H A P T E R F O U R

C L E M E N T O F R O M E A N D D O M I T I A N ' S E M P I R E

The fulfilment of the imperial peace in Clement's comm unity

C l e m e n t ' s Corinthians h a s b e e n c o n v i n c i n g l y d a t e d a s c o n t e m p o r a r y

w i t h D o m i t i a n ' s r e i g n ( A . D . 8 1 - 9 6 ) , a n d m o r e sp e ci fi ca ll y b e t w e e n

A . D . 9 4 a n d 9 7 d u r i n g w h i c h t h e " s u d d e n a n d r e p e a t e d m i s f o r t u n e s

(xaq ai(pvi8{orj<; KOCI znaXXr\Xox><; yevouivaq f |(xtv c r uuxpopdq) a n d c a l a m i

t ies ( K a l T c e p i T t T c o a e i q ) " o c c u r r e d t h a t h a d d e l a y e d t h e s e n d i n g o f t h e

l e t t e r (Cor. I,I).1

C h r i s t i a n w r i t e r s f r o m H e g e s i p p u s a n d M e l i t o o f

S a r d i s o n w a r d s c l a i m e d t h a t D o m i t i a n p e r s e c u t e d C h r i s t i a n i t y , s o

t h a t it w o u l d b e r e a s o n a b l e t o c o n c l u d e t h a t C l e m e n t ' s w o r d s h e r e

r e f e r t o t h a t r e i g n a n d s u c h a p e r s e c u t i o n . 2 F u r t h e r m o r e , a s I r e n a e u s

(Adv. Haer. V , 3 0 , 3 ) c o n n e c t s t h e Apocalypse w i t h t h e r e i g n o f D o m i t i a n ,

i t w o u l d f o ll o w t h a t th i s w o r k is a r e a c t i o n t o t h a t p e r s e c u t i o n . A s

t h a t p e r s e c u t i o n c a n a l s o b e s e e n a s p a r t o f t h e p l a n o f D o m i t i a n , a s

t h e n e w A u g u s t u s , t o r e c o n s t r u c t t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t , t h e d e v e l o p i n g

t h e o l o g y o f t h e s e t w o c h r o n o l o g ic a l l y c o n t e m p o r a r y w o r k s c a n b e

r e l a t e d t o t h e d e v e l o p i n g t h e o l o g y o f t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t .

S i n c e h o w e v e r it h a s b e e n d e n i e d t h a t D o m i t i a n p e r s e c u t e d C h r i s

t i a n i t y a n d p a r t i c u l a r l y i n f l u e n c e d t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t itself, we wi l l

b e g i n b y d i s c u s s in g t h e q u e s t i o n o f D o m i t i a n ' s p e r s e c u t i o n ( s ec ti o n

A ) a s a b a c k g r o u n d t o a n a n a l y s i s o f t h e c o n t r a - c u l t u r a l i d e o l o g y o f

O r d e r as it a p p e a r s i n C l e m e n t ' s Corinthians ( s ec t i o n B). W e sh a l l

r e s e r v e f or C h a p t e r 5 o u r f u r t h e r d i s c u s si o n o f D o m i t i a n ' s r e f o r m

o f t h e cu l t a n d th e r e f l ec t i o n o f t h a t r e fo rm in t h e Apocalypse. I n C h a p -

1

L . W . B a r n a r d , C l e m e n t o f R o m e a n d t h e P e r s e c u t io n o f D o m i t i a n , i n NTS 1 0

( 1 9 6 3 - 6 4 ) , p p . 2 5 1 - 2 6 0 ; Idem. S t. C l e m e n t o f R o m e a n d t h e P e r s e c u t io n o f D o m i t i a n ,

in Studies in the Apostolic Fathers and their Backg round, ( O x f o r d : B l a c k w e l l 1 9 6 6 ) , p p .

5 - 1 8 . S e e a l s o P . K e r e s z t e s , T h e J e w s , t h e C h r i s t i a n s , a n d t h e E m p e r o r D o m i t i a n ,

in VChr 2 7 ( 1 9 7 3 ) , p p . 1 - 2 8 .2

H e g e s i p p u s ( E u s e b i u s H.E. 1 1 1, 20 ); M e l i t o o f S a r d i s , Apology ( E u s e b i u s H.E.

I V , 2 6 ) ; T e r t u l l i a n , Apol. 5 ; De Pall. 2 ; L a c t a n t i u s , De Mort. Pers. 3 ; E u s e b i u s , Chronicon.II, p . 1 6 0 ; J e r o m e , Ep. 1 0 8 , 7 ; Chronicon A n n . A b r . 2 1 1 2 , D o m i t . 1 6 ; T h e o d o r e t , Graec.

Affect. Cur. 9 ; J o a n n e s M a l a l a s , Chronograph. 1 0 e t c .



CLEMENT OF RO ME AND DOMITIAN'S EMPIRE 141

ter 6 we shall arg ue tha t the subs eque nt dev elopmen t of Ch ur ch

Ord e r a genera ti on later in Igna tius of Ant ioch was historically in

fluenced by both Domitian's cultic reforms and by the Apocalypse itself.

P A R T A. D O M I T I A N AND THE W R I T I N G OF C L E M E N T ' S CORINTHIANS

Attempts to deny Domitian's persecution—that would break the links

between both Clement 's Corinthians and the Apocalypse, and the cul

tic reforms upo n which my ar gu me nt relies—rest up on thre e pre

misses, namely:

1. The absence of any mention in pagan sources that Domitian per

secuted the Christians,

2. The ambiguity of archaeological evidence for Eusebius' indentification

of Flavius Clemens, Flavia Domitilla, and Acilius Glabrio as Christian

and not Jewish martyrs, and

3. The absence of pagan evidence for persecution under Domitian and

thus for martyrdom of Christians with these names.

Let us now, in our first section, examine each of these assumptions

in turn.

4A 1. Pagan evidence: Dio Cassius 67, 14,1-3

Suetonius (Domitian. 15,17) and Quintillian (Inst. Orat. 4, proem.) ha d

me nt io ne d the na me s of Flavia Domiti lla, Flavius Cl em en s, an d

Acilius Glabrio, but not the charges against them. However, Dio Cassius

(LXVII,14, 1-2) claims that Flavius Clemens the consul (imaxeuovxoc),

and his wife the emperor's kinswoman (auyyevfi ) Flavia Domitilla were

ch ar ge d bot h with dcBeoxriq and with "t urn ing awa y to Je wi sh cus

toms (iq xd xcov ' Io\)8a{ cov rfir) e^oiceMovxeq)." In consequence Flavius

was executed and Domitilla was exiled to Pandateria. Acilius Glabrio,

who had held consular office along with the young Trajan (xov j i exd

xou Tpai'ctvou dp^avxa) , was also c ondemned. But Dio also mentions

(14,3) that this was mor e th an a trial of the indiv idual s me nt io ne d

an d that on the sa me charge s " m a n y . . . othe rs (aXkoi... noXXoi)

were condemned (KaxeSiKdaOnaav) , some who died (mi oi p.ev drceGavov)

an d others who were deprived of thei r pr oper ty (oi 8e xcov yofiv o ua ico v

eaxep r i&n oav) ." There was therefore a quite general movement against

id xcov 'Ioi)8oc(cov TlGt|.



1 4 2 C H A P T E R F O U R

W e a p p e a r prima facie t o h a v e a c o n f li c t t h e r e f o r e b e t w e e n D i o o n

t h e o n e h a n d a n d E u s e b i u s o n t h e o t h e r , w h o c l a i m s o n t h e a u t h o r

i ty o f B r e t t i u s t h a t F l a v i u s a n d D o m i t i l l a w e r e C h r i s t i a n s (Chronicon

I I a n n . A b r . 2 1 1 0 D o m t . 14 a n d H.E. 111 ,18) . T h a t D io fa il s to d e

s c r i b e t h e m a s C h r i s t i a n s is a r g u a b l y u n r e m a r k a b l e s in c e h e n e v e r

m e n t i o n s C h r i s t i a n i t y t h r o u g h o u t h is w o r k e v e n t h o u g h h e m u s t h a v e

k n o w n o f i ts e x i s t e n c e . T a c i t u s a n d P l i n y b e f o r e h i m h a d c l e a r l y

k n o w n o f t h e e x i s t e n c e of C h r i s t i a n i t y . D i o ' s s e c o n d c o n s u l s h i p w a s

i n A . D . 2 2 9 , i n t h e r e i g n o f S e v e r u s A l e x a n d e r , w h o s e m o t h e r J u l i a

M a m a e a h a d s o u g h t f r om O r i g e n a n a c c o u n t o f t h e C h r i s t i a n f ai th

( E u s e b i u s H.E. V I , 2 1 , 3 - 4 ) . M o r e o v e r , i f S H A , Sev. Alex. 2 9 , 2 - 3 i s

t o b e r e l i e d o n , A l e x a n d e r ' s lararium p o s s e s s e d a s t a t u e o f C h r i s t . A s

w e h a v e a l r e a d y a r g u e d , T h e o p h i l u s a n d hi s c i rc l e i n A s i a M i n o r

c o n c e i v e d C h r i s t i a n i t y i ts elf t o b e a r e f o r m e d J u d a i s m , w i t h t h e r e s u lt

t h a t , v i e w e d e x t e r n a l l y , C h r i s t i a n i t y m a y h a v e a p p e a r e d t o D i o a s a

f o r m o f J u d a i s m s o t h a t n o d is t in c t io n n e e d e d t o b e m a d e b e t w e e n

t h e m ( 3 C 2 . 3 . 3 . 3 ) .

4 A 2 . C i m i t e r i u m D o m i t i l l a e and Eusebius' claim

T h e d i s c o v e r y o f c e r t a i n a r t e fa c t s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e n a m e s o f F la v i u s

C l e m e n s a n d A c i l i u s G l a b r i o , t h a t i n i t i a l l y a p p e a r e d t o c o r r o b o r a t e

t h e i r C h r i s t i a n i t y , h a s b e d e v i l l e d t h i s d i s c u s s i o n . I t m a y b e t h a t D e

R o s s i w a s o r i g in a l l y m i s t a k e n b e c a u s e t h e C h r i s t i a n p a r t o f t h e cimi

terium Domitillae a n d o f A c i li us G l a b r i o m a y b e l a t e s e c o n d - c e n t u r ya n d t h e p r o d u c t o f t h e i r d e s c e n d a n t s ' c o n v e r s i o n t o a C h r i s t i a n i t y i n

w h i c h t h e i r a n c e s t o r s h a d n o t b e l i e v e d .3

B u t , h a v i n g f a i l e d t o p r o v e

t o o m u c h , i t is a c o n t r a r y e r r o r t o h o l d t h a t t o o l it tl e is p r o v e d .

E v e n if D i o h a s r e c o r d e d a c c u r a t e l y t h e J e w i s h c h a r a c t e r o f t h e i r

b e l ie f a n d h a s b e e n a b l e t o d i s t in g u i s h t h a t f r o m C h r i s t i a n i t y p r o p e r ,

t h e c a s e d o e s n o t h i n g e o n th e s e i n d i v i d u a l s a l o n e . W e h a v e s e e n t h a t

" m a n y o t h e r s " w e r e a l s o d e p r i v e d , a n d it w o u l d b e r ec k le s s t o a l l o wt o o m u c h t o re s t o n D i o ' s a b il it y t o d i s t in g u i s h J u d a i s m f r o m C h r i s

t i a n i t y w h e n w r i t i n g d u r i n g a p e r i o d fr ee f r o m a g e n e r a l p o l i c y o f

p e r s e c u t i o n s u c h a s i n S e v e r u s A l e x a n d e r ' s r e i g n . B o t h T e r t u l l i a n

(Apol. 5 ) a n d M e l i t o ( E u s e b i u s H.E. 4 , 2 6 ) m e n t i o n D o m i t i a n a s a

' J . B . L i g h t f o o t , The Apostolic Fathers, ( L o n d o n : M a c M i l l a n 1 8 8 5 ) , 1,1 p p . 3 5 - 3 9

a n d 8 2 c f . B . W . J o n e s , The Emperor Domitian, ( L o n d o n : R o u t l e d g e 1 9 9 2 ), p . 1 1 5 . S e e

a l s o B a r n a r d ( 1 9 6 4 - 5 ) , p . 2 6 0 a n d ( 1 9 6 6 ) , p . 1 5 a n d W . C . H . F r e n d , Martyrdom and

Persecution in the Early Church, ( O x f o r d : B l a c k w e l ls 1 9 6 5 ) , p p . 2 1 2 - 2 1 7 .



CLEMENT OF ROME AND DOMITIAN'S EMPIRE 143

second Nero, without any reference to Flavius Clemens and Flavia

Domitilla.

It is furthe r quit e false to claim tha t ther e is no pagan evidenc e

for a persec ution of Christianity un de r Dom iti an.

4A 3. Evidence from Pliny Ep . X, 96,1

Pliny states in his letter to Trajan: "I have never been present at

judicial exam inat ions of Christ ians (cognitionibus de Christianis interfui

numquam)" (Ep. X , 96,1) whi ch coul d indicate tha t such exa min at ion s

had been held though not in recent memory. Furthermore he recordsof those ex am in ed tha t (a) "the y ha d ceased to be Chri st ian s two or

more years previously, and some of them twenty years ago (non nemo

ante viginti)" and (b) aposta tes we re pr ep ar ed to ma ke "offerings of

wine and incense (ture ac vino)" to Tra jan 's imperial s tatue.

The significance of non nemo ante viginti (a) poin ts, in A. D. 11 2- 11 3,

to Domitian's reign in A.D. 93 and to a persecution under pressure

of wh ic h such apostasies took pla ce . Pliny ma y himself have devisedthe loyalty test men ti on ed in (b). But if it we re an al ready established

practic e, it wou ld poi nt to form er times wh en Chr ist ians ha d been

persecuted, and in which they had been subject to cognitio* Clement 's

letter itself, it must be emphasised, though a Christian source, is itself

good evidence for a Domitianic persecution. His account does not

rest upon any particular characterisation of the religious beliefs of a

Flavius, a Domiti lla , or an Acilius, sanctified by lat er hagiog ra ph ic

fable, whom he never mentions. But he does compare Peter and Paul,

and those who suffer martyrdom with them, as "those who contended

in the days nearest to us (zobq eyyioToc yevouivoix; aQXy\xaq), the noble

ex am pl es of ou r ow n ge ne ra ti on (xf\q y e v e a q r\\i(bv i d y e v v a i a i)7co8e{y-

UOCTCX)" (Cor. 5,1) with his contemporary situation in which he claims

that "we are in the same arena (aicd|Li|LiaTi) and the same contest (dycov)

weighs upon us." (Cor. 7,1) Clearly the expressions eyyiaxa and TTI<;

yeveaq r\\i&v imply a time recent and yet distinct. With no martyrological

axe to grind, Clement therefore bears witness to the contention of

both Melito and Tertullian that Domitian was the second Nero.

But the requirement of our argument to place the oci<pvi8io'u<; rai

inaXk^kovq... avuxpopdu; (Cor. 1,1) in the co nt ex t of pe rs ecut ion by

Do mi ti an is nevertheless not a requi re ment to reg ard tha t pe rsecu tion

4

Keresztes ( 1 9 7 3 ) , pp. 20-21 cf. Jones ( 1 9 9 3 ) , pp. 1 1 4 - 1 1 5 .




a s f o l lo w i n g f r o m a g e n e r a l d e c r e e . T h a t E u s e b i u s in s i s te d i n s e e i n g

s u c h a p e r s e c u t i o n a s g e n e r a l w a s a p r o d u c t o f h is h i s t o r i o g r a p h y

t h a t h a d n o c o n c e p t o f d e v e l o p m e n t so t h a t t h e C h u r c h o f t h e f irst

c e n t u r y h a d t o b e i d e n t i c a l w i t h t h a t o f t h e f o u r t h . I n c o n s e q u e n c e ,

s i n c e p e r s e c u t i o n s s i n c e D e c i u s T r a j a n ( 25 1 ) w e r e s e e n b y E u s e b i u s

t o h a v e b e e n g e n e r a l , s o m u s t p e r s e c u t i o n s h a v e b e e n s o b e f o r e .

W e h a v e a r g u e d t h a t p e r s e c u t i o n r e s u l te d n o t f r o m g e n e r a l i m p e

r i a l d ec rees b u t f ro m th e so c i a l i so l a t i o n t h a t r e su l t ed i n i t i a l l y f ro m

n o n - p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t , a n d f r o m s u s p i c io n l e a d i n g

t o a c c u s a t i o n o f superstitio ( 3 C 2 . 3 ). T h i s w a s t h e r e a l c o n t e x t i n w h i c h

t h e ocicpviSunx; icai knaXkx\kox)q . . . ouuxpopa*; w e r e e x p e r i e n c e d , a s w a s

t h e s i t u a t i o n i n A s i a M i n o r f a c e d b y T h e o p h i l u s a n d h i s c i r c l e .

D o m i t i a n i n s t i g a t e d c e r t a i n c h a n g e s i n t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t i t s e l f s o

t h a t h e e m e r g e s i n t h e l i te r a t u r e a s a n e w A u g u s t u s w o r s h i p p e d a s

a dominus et deus praesens. T h e Apocalypse t o o we sh a l l a rg u e i s o n e

g r o u p ' s h i g h l y i l l u m i n a t i n g r e a c t i o n t o t h o s e c h a n g e s , b u t a r e a c t i o n

q u i t e d i f f e r e n t e i t h e r t o T h e o p h i l u s ' g r o u p i n Luke-Acts o r t o C l e m e n t ' s

ref lected in Corinthians. J o n e s a n d S c h o w a l t e r h a v e d e n i e d m o s t r e c e n d y

a D o m i d a n i c d a t e .5

A di s cu s s io n o f t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t u n d e r D o m i t i a n ,

a n d t h e Apocalypse a s e v i d e n c e fo r a D o m i t i a n i c p e r s e c u t i o n , m u s t ,

h o w e v e r , a w a i t o u r t r e a t m e n t o f t h e Apocalypse i n C h a p t e r 5 .

L e t u s n o w t u r n t o C l e m e n t ' s Corinthians. W e s h a ll t r a c e h e r e e v i

d e n c e fo r t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of a C h u r c h O r d e r t h a t p a r a l le l s t h e

d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t w i t h w h i c h i t c o n t a i n s s e v e r a l

a n a l o g i e s .

P A R T B . C L E M E N T : C H U R C H O R D E R A N D IM P ER IA L P E A C E

T h e T w e l v e , a s f o u n d e r s o f t h e a p o s t o l i c c o l le g e t h a t o r d e r s t h e

r e f o r m e d J e w i s h c u l t u s a c h i e v i n g t h e t r u e pax dei, d id n o t i n Luke-

Acts p r o v i d e a n y m e a n s o f a p p o i n t i n g b i s h o p s as t h e i r c o l le g i al s u c c e ss o rs . H o w e v e r , C l e m e n t i n Corinthians, w r i t i n g s o m e t e n y e a r s l a t e r

i n t h e r e i g n o f D o m i t i a n , w a s t o s u p p l y t h i s l a c k . L i k e Luke-Acts,

C l e m e n t ' s Corinthians is c o n c e r n e d , n o t s i m p l y w i t h r e s t o r a t i o n o f

p r o p e r c h u r c h O r d e r a t C o r i n t h , b u t w i t h t h e g e n e r a l c o n c e r n o f t h e

l e g i t i m a t i o n o f t h e C h r i s t i a n c u l t u s . H i s s tr e ss o n t h e O r d e r o f t h e

' S e e f o o t n o t e 3 a b o v e .




Christian community reflects the imperial, metaphysical background

of the fear of axdoiq as reflecting an upsetting of the pax deorum.

Ixdaiq is dvooioq. T h e Corinthi an community, previous to such oxdoiq,

ha d cond uc te d themselves, not with the doepeioc tha t Clement' s pag an

fellow-citizens would have associated with failure to conform socially

if no t legally wi th the festivities of the Im pe ri al Cul t, but with a

euaePeia that was both ococppcov and eTtieucfiq (Clement, Cor. 1,1-2).

Let us now analyse in detail how the theme of imperi al pe ac e finds

expression in Cl em en t' s social construct ion of ecclesial reality tha t

will reveal some interesting parallels with what we have observed in

our treatment of Luke-Acts.

4B 1. Metaphysics of ecclesial peace: society reflects nature

We hav e seen wh at shud der ing ho rr or the pro spec t of upsett ing the

pax deorum caused in Rome's collective memory, shaped and fostered

by historians and poets such as Livy, Vergil, and Lucan after a cen

tury of social up he av al and civil strife, wh ic h was the founda tion ofAugustus ' augurium salutis inaugurating the Imperial Cult (2A 5-6).

So too for Cl ement "all insurr ec ti on (rc&oa oxdai<;) and all division

( m l nav oxiouxx) is to be a bominated by you (p8eta)Kxov uu iv). " (2,6)

B8eA,uKx6<; is an expression evocat ive of sacri legious def il ement that

destroys the efficacious operation of cultic ritual, as in the p8eta)yua

epnpxbaecoq (Mk. 13, 14). T h e o rd er of the co mm un i ty is to reflect

the order of creation that is characterised by the pax dei. In 20,1-3we read:

The heavens (oi ovpavoi) though agitated by his governance (xji Sioucncei

a\)Toi) aaA,e\)6 ievoi) are subject to him in peace (ev eipr|vr| imoxdoaov-

xai auxq)). . . Sun and moon (iiAioq xe m i aeAr|vr|) and choirs of stars

(daxepcov xe xopoi) according to his decree (mxd xr|v Siaxaynv auxov)

encircle in harmony free from all deviation (ev o iovoiot 8(xa Tcdariq rcapeK-

pdaeco<; EÊXXGOOVGI) their appointed bounds (xoix; eTcixexayjievotx; rxuxoic;bpiG\iovq).

T h e metap hys ica l pe ace (eipfivn) of the na tu ra l or de r is represe nted

therefore by a 8iaxayr| th at is specifically reflected in imperial soci

ety. As Clement says later:

Let us march (axpaxe\)acbê9a) therefore, men and brothers, with all

eagerness (îexd ndar\q eKxeveiaq) in his (God's) blameless orders (ev xoi<;

d^(b|ioi(; rcpoaxaYliaaiv): let us take cognisance (Kaxavof|aco|iev) of those

who enlist as soldiers (xoix; oxpccxe\)ouivo\)<;) under our [temporal] rulers



146 CHAPTER FOUR

(xoiq f|yo\)|i£voi<;), how orderly (euxdicxax;), how yieldingly (eiKxuccoq), how

submissively (urcoxexayiAEvax;) they execute (e7ciT£ôt>aiv) what they have

been commanded (xdSiaxotaaoêva). All are not eparchs (ercapxoi) or

chiliarchs (xi^cxpxoi) or centurions (eicaxovxapxoi) or pentacontarchs(TcevxrjKovxapxoi) or people like that: but each in his own rank (ev xcp

i8{cp xdyjicm) perform what is ordered by the Emperor and his rulers

(xd eTTixaaaojieva imo xov paaiêax; Kai xcov f |yo\ ) | ievcov). . . Let us take as

an example our body: the head without the feet is nothing, so neither

the feet without the head: the least members of our body are neces

sary and useful for the whole body: but all members conspire (aXka

rcdvxa ovvnvei) and employ one subjection (KCXI urcoxayfl (iia xpfjxou) for

the preservation of the whole body (eiq xo O"co£eo0ai oA,ov xo acojia).

Corinthians 37

W e have alr eady indic ate d ho w a Stoic hy lo morp hi sm justified this

parallelism between nature and society, and how, through a justification

of divinat ion, it was to give a rational justi ficat ion for the religion

of the Imperial Cult that secured the pax deorum. We see therefore

in Cl em en t a clear reflection of such theme s in his examin at ion of

the Or der of the Chri stia n co mm un it y an d the dis turbanc e of tha t

Or d e r in the events that ha d lead to the depos ition of the EKIOKOKOI-

7 c p e a p \ ) x e p o i (2A 4-5).

A general philos ophy of imper ial Or d e r ha d lead th ro ugh the cul

tus to a definite under st an di ng of the sacr ame nta l role of em pe ro r

as high-pries t of the Impe rial Cul t and the deity vene ra te d by tha t

cult sometimes in his lifetime but usually post mortem. Clement derives

from this gener al, pa ga n philosophical ba ck gr ou nd a parallel theo ry

of Ch ur ch Or de r. In conse que nce he was to pr od uc e a theo ry of

the Chr ist ian cult and its minis ters themselves. Let us no w tu rn to

this dimens ion of his claims for a valid and efficacious C hurch Order .

4B 1.1. Order is secured through cultic authority

Clement understands the Old Testament cultus as type, and Church

O r de r as an ti ty pe , in such te rm s as xdîq, xdyuoc, imoxayn, euxa^{a

and Ttpooxdyuxx etc. which are concepts derived from the order of

the imperial army and Roman society. But nature reflects society,

and vice-versa. The descriptions eTtixexotyuivoi opiouoi, Sioncriaiq, and

ouovouc bixa rcdariq rcapeicPdaeGx; of the natural order find thei r reflec

tions in such te rms of pol itical re la tions as 8iccxocyr| and ev eipf|vn

i)7coxdaaea0ai. As Clement now continues:

. . . We ought to do all things in order (rcdvxa xdêi rcoieiv 6(pe(A,ojiev)

that the master has commanded to celebrate (oaa 6 SeaTtoxrn; ejiixeXeiv



148 C HA PT E R FOU R

fi

E u s eb i u s H.E. V,6; I V , 2 2 , 1-3; I ren a eu s Adv. Haer. 111,3, 3.

2,4) made it quite clear to Cotta that consuls had been deposed

from their office, their Xeixoupym, for not performing the auspicia

correcdy. Natural and political disorders and their axaciq formed a

conceptual continuum with cultic disorder and the shuddering horror

of sacrilege. And we have ar gu ed tha t the political trans for mat ion

from republic to empire involved the Imperial Cult as the sacra

mental expression of this nexus of ideas.

It is in such a culdc context that we shou ld now interpret Clemen t' s

famous account of the apostolic appo in tment of £7c{aK07ioi and Sidicovoi.

4B 1.2. The apostolic succession as the foundation of the cult

Indeed, although Clement seems not to know Luke-Acts, such an inter

pretation will not seem strange in view of the clearly cultic founda

tions that we claimed for the latter in the author's construction of

Christia nity as reforme d Ju da is m. T h e twelve tribal aposdes, as reg

ulators of the cult (doctrine, break ing of br ea d, prayers), mi rr or ed

the Twelve Arval Brethren and their role in the Imperial Cult (3D).

Yet both Clement and the author of Luke-Acts are reflecting the gen

eral social constr uct ion of imperi al reality of which they are p ro

ducing thei r distinctive reversed, con tra-c ul tur al reflections.

Clement gives us no succession list such as Hegesippus was later

to compose and Irenaeus to follow.6

His emphasis once again is on

order reflected in O.T typology. The apostles came from Christ, and

Christ from God so that each were euxdicxcoc; EK QeXr\iiaxoq Geoft. T h e

£ 7i{aK07coi and 8KXKOVOI were appointed by the aposdes as their first

fruits (drcocpxdq) after they had examined th em through th e Spiri t

(8oKi|idaavT£<; xa> T w e u u x m ) . T hus Is. 60,17, on a loose reading, was

fulfilled (42, 4 -5 ) . Cl em en t later con tin ues this them e:

Our apostles knew through our Lord Jesus Christ that there would be

strife over the name of the bishop's office (ejci xov 6vo\iaxoq xfi<; eTnaKOTcfj ).

For this reason, having obtained perfect foreknowledge, they ordained(Kaieornaav) the previously mentioned, and meanwhile made them per

manent in order that, if they should fall asleep, other duly examined

men (exspoi 5e5oKi|iao|ievoi dvSpeq) should succeed to their liturgy

(8ia8e£covxai... xf|v A,eixoi)pyiav avx&v). Those therefore ordained by

them (xovq ovv mxaaxaGevxac; im' EKEWC OV) or afterwards by other ap

proved men (r\ \iexa£,v (xp d exepcov eXXoy(|io)v dvSpcbv), with the consent

of the whole Church, and who have performed their liturgy blame-




In consequence Bammel will claim for Clement the apologetic sta

tus that others have claimed for Luke-Acts, and which we have argued

to the contrary requires some modification. Let us now examine the

critical passage for such an apologeti c int erp ret ati on.

4B 1.2.2. Clement Cor . 60,4-61,3: the prayer for imperial pax

The strife within the Christian community at Corinth regarding the

deposition of the blameless presbyter-bishops was not, in the light of

such a policy of certif ication of ne w cults, of pu re ly int er na l con

cern. The situation would have unwelcome external repercussions if

it be ca me too public and exposed the co mm un it y to pro sec utio n asa kind of Bacchanal ian cult. Th is passage has therefore b ee n seen

as rea ssu ring the autho rit ies of Chr is ti an loyalty to the emp ir e by

sugg est ing the par all el of priv ileged Je wi sh st atus to th at of the

Chr ist ian cult. Chri stia ns, like Je ws , could, so the enc od ed messa ge

runs, show their loyalty by praying for the emperor without partic

ipating in the Imperial Cult.

But, unlike later apologies or even Luke-Acts, the re is he re not eventhe initial, prima facie, ap pe ar an ce of an address to the pa ga n, R o m a n

authorities. The epistle addresses the Christian community at Corinth

itself (xrj eKicA,r|oia x o u Oeou xr\ T c a p o i K o u o n KopivGov). Fur the rmore an

even partial address to such an audience seems in this instance

counter-productive to the making of an apologetic case since it draws

to the att en tion of the author iti es beh av io ur that wo ul d falsify claims

tha t the cult is inn ocu ous . Co ns eq ue nd y the following passage , wh ich

prays for the emperor, sounds to modern ears quite inconsistent with

an address for calm within the Christian community itself:

Grant (86q) concord and peace to us (o^iovoiav Kai eiprjvrjv f||iiv) and

to all who dwell upon the earth (Kai 7tdaiv xoiq KaxoiKovaiv xf|v yfjv). . . .

becoming submissive (imriKooix; yivouevoix;) to your omnipotent and gra

cious name (xcp rcavxoKpdxopi Kai rcavapexco ovojiaxi GOV) , as well as to

our rulers and leaders (xoiq xe dp%o\>aiv Kai f|yo\)nivoi<; fjpxbv) upon earth(en\xr\qyr\q). You, O Lord, (GV, Searcoxa) have given to them the author

ity of the empire (e'8coKa<; xf|v e^coaCav xf)<; PaaiXeia^ avxoiq) through

your glorious and unfathomable might (8id xov |Lieyata)7tpe7coi)<; Kai

dveK8iriyr|xo\) Kpdxouq), to the end that (eiq xo) we, knowing (yivcocKovxaq

fniaq) the glory and honour given to them by you (xf|v vnb G O V avxoiq

8e8o |xevr|v 8 6 £ av Kai xi|if|v), may be subject to them (urcoxdoaeaBai

avxoiq), making no opposition to your will (|ir|8ev evavxtou^ievoix; xcp

9eX ,r|jiaxi G O V ) ; grant to them O Lord (oi<; boq) health (i)y(eiav), peace

(eipr|vr|v), concord (ojiovotav), and stability (ei)axd6eiav), to the end that

they may administer (eiq xo Sierceiv ai)xo\x;) the government given them



152 CHAPTER FOUR

by you (xf|v vnb G O V 8e8ouevr|v avxoiq f|y£|nov[av) untiringly (drcpooKOTtax;).

For you (G V yap), O heavenly Master (Searcoxa eTroupdvie), king of the

ages (Paaitav xcov aicbvcov), grant to the sons of men (8{8co<; xolq violq

xcov dvGpamcov) glory (86âv) and honour (mi xiufjv) and authority (mlzZpvGiav) over the things that exist on earth (xcov eVi xr\q yfjq imapxovxtov);

direct thou O Lord ( G V , Kupie, bievQvvov) their counsel (xf|v poaAf|V auxcov)

according to what is good and pleasing in your sight (mxd xo K O L X O V

K al eudpeoxov evamiov G O V ) , that administering (OTCCOC; 8i£7iovxe<;) in peace

and civility piously (ev eipt|vr| K a l Tipavxrixi evaepcbc;) the authority given

them by you (xf)v vnb G O V avxoic, SeSoueviw e£o\)cuav), they may obtain

your mercy (Yêcb G O V x^yxdvcoow).

Corinthians 60,4-61,2

The apologetic thesis would require us to interpret these words as

a su dde n cha ng e of tack in or de r to ap peal to a qui te different audi

ence. But it is important to observe the absolute coherence of the

passage with Clement's theme so far, that leaves us without warrant

for interpreting his words as such a change. This prayer for the

R o m a n E mp ir e is only pa rt of a longe r pr ay er with whi ch, from

59,3 onwards, the author seeks to conclude and summarise his hope

for an end to the axdoic; within the C hu r ch at Corinth . Th at prayer

begins with an exhortation to the worshipper who, amongst other

things, is called to hope on (eAjuêiv eni) Go d ". . . who scrutinised

human works (... xov 8K67cxr|v dv0pco7uvcov epycov)." In IGRR 4,309 we

have the description: "Emperor Caesar ([A \>xoKpdx ]op[a Kjouaapa),

the son of God ( [0 ] e ou uiov 0e6v), Sebastos (IePaax6[v]), who scruti

nises land and sea ([rcdariq] yrj[q K ] C C ! 0[oc]A,door|(; [ £ ]7c[o7c]x[r |v]) ." 1 3

T h e civil and imperial dimension is bu t par t of the cosmic dimension.

T h e G od wh o is invoked has made manifest, n ot the oxdciq but the

ovoxaoiq th rou gh the cr ea tion th at h e ha s energi sed (8id xcov evep-

yorjuxvcov).14

Thus the Christian theologian addresses God in terms

o f the same Stoic theology that he had earlier employed in chap

ters 20 and 32. Clement may hesitate as ye t to call Christ A,6yo<; and

to identify him with the Xoyoq ev8id0exoc; and the Xoyoq rcpocpopiKo*;.

But the idea of mani fes ting the structure of crea tio n (ouaxocoiv . . .

e c p a v e p o 7 io i r ] a a ( ; ) is clearly an alternative expression for the same set

of concepts. For the Stoics it was the breath of God, the fiery Xoyoq

permeat ing all things th at was the gr ou nd for fatalistic de te rmin ism.

1 5

A. D e i s s m a n n , Light from the Ancient East, t r a n s . L.R.M. S t r a c h a n , ( L o n d o n :

Hoddcr and Stoughton 1 9 2 7 ) , pp. 342 ff.1 4

Clement Cor. 60,1: GV xf|v devaov xov K o a u o i ) crucrcaaiv 5ia xcov evepyouuevcov

e(pavepo7co{naa<;.



C L E M E N T OF ROME AND DOMITIAN'S EMPIRE 153

Clement, true to such a background, has spoken of God's "breath

(rcvori) in us . . . and when he wills he w it hd ra ws i t ."1 5

Metaphysics in antiquity never serviced a disinterested pursuit of

knowledge of the natural world for its own sake, as it has perhaps

for us since the seventeenth century, though the sociology of knowl

edge has qualified even that assumption. Rather metaphysics serv

iced ethics, and with Stoicism, as we have seen, political philosophy.

W e hav e alrea dy seen ho w Stoicism gave ration al justification to

augury, and thus legitmised the republican political conventions that

re qu ir ed such a religious pra cti ce (2A 2). W e hav e also ar gu ed that

Augustus' reorganisation of the religious cultus served the political

end of imperial unity but also the felt religious need for the pax deo

rum (2A 3). T h e republ ican cult of abs tra ct virtues came to express

representations of a socially constructed, collective personality of the

emperor at the centre of the Imperial Cult.

We see in Clement's prayer, along with its Stoic metaphysics in

which the natural order is reflected in social order, the very deified

abstract qualities that the emperor's cultic acts were to secure as

guarantee of the pax deorum. In 6 1 , 1 we rea d of heal th (uyieia),

peace (eipr|vr|), concord (oudvoia), stability (euoxdGeia), which were

the virtues of the Augustan saeculum aureum and the product of his

augurium salutis (2A 5 and 2B 3). These are to be given "t o ou r rule rs

and leader s (xoiq xe ap^ouoiv Kai T]youuivoi<; fmcov)" as well as "to all

who dwel l upon the e arth (Kai m o w xoi<; KaxoiKouaiv xfjv yfjv)." (60,4)

It would be wrong, however, to interpret such lines as an apol

ogy for the Corinthian community to Roman magistrates dressed up

in terms that they would find palatable.

4B 2. Clement's concept of Order: legitimation not apologetic

Clement has admitted the charge of cxaciq within the Corinthian

community that would immediately destroy any such apologetic case.Rat he r his wor ds repre sen t the use of a ref ormul ated imperialist ide

ology tha t ord ers social relations withi n the co mm un it y. T h e R o m a n

magistrate would find little assurance that such virtues as oudvoia or

eiprjvn we re besto wed u po n Ro me ' s rulers by a Go d wh o m they

Ibid. 21,9: ep£\)vr|xf|<; yap ea xi v evvoicbv m i ev6\)(ir)aecpv • oi) f| 7tvof| ai)xo\ ) ev f|(i ive a x i v , K a i oxav 0eA,ri, aveA,ei a\)i r|v. Cf. 21 ,2 : A.eyei yap no\) [Prov. 20 ,2 7] • 7ive\)|ia

K\)p(o\) Xx>xvo$ epeuvtov xa xajiieia xr\q yaGXpoq.




f o u n d a l i e n , r a t h e r t h a n b y t h e d e a d a n d d e i f i e d A u g u s t u s , a n d h i s

d e a d a n d d e i f i e d s u c c e s s o r s . H e w o u l d c e r t a i n l y n o t b e i m p r e s s e d

t h a t t h e p r a y e r s a n d a c t s o f t h e C h r i s t i a n c u l t t h a t w a s t o s e c u r e

t h e s e q u a l i t i e s a n d th i s a u t h o r i t y fo r t h e e m p i r e w e r e t h r o u g h a

Pontifex Maximus o r d p xi ep e uq w h o w a s o t h e r t h a n t h e e m p e r o r . 1 6

W e s a w i n Luke-Acts t h a t e a r l y C h r i s t i a n a p o c a l y p t i c h a d u n d e r

g o n e r a d i c a l r e f o r m u l a t i o n i n t h e l i gh t o f t h e A u g u s t a n i m p e r i a l i s t

i d e o l o g y . S u c h a r e f o r m u l a t i o n w a s t o b e u n d e r s t o o d a s l e g i t im a t i o n

r a t h e r t h a n a p o l o g y . C l e m e n t ' s g r o u p a t R o m e , lik e T h e o p h i l u s ' in

A s i a M i n o r , b e l i e v e d i n t h e n e e d f o r s u p e r n a t u r a l a c t i v i t y t o a s s u a g e

a d i s t u r b e d n a t u r e r e f l e c t e d i n a d i s t u r b e d s o c i e t y . T h a t belief, as

w e h a v e s h o w n , w a s r e i n f o r c e d b y t h e e x p e r i e n c e o f a c e n t u r y o f

l a t e - R e p u b l i c a n c iv il w a r s a s c o n s t r u c t e d i n t h e h i s t o r i o g r a p h y o f

s u c h w r i t e r s a s L i v y, T a c i t u s , a n d L u c a n . T h e t h o u g h t o f t h e s h a t

t e r i n g o f t h e pax deorum e l ic i ted fears o f K W S D V O C ; a n d dGeuixoq opyn

th a t w er e t h e a n t i t h e s i s o f o ud vo io c a n d e ip f| v r| (1 4 ,2 ; 5 3 , 2 ; 5 9 ,1 ) .

K(vS\)vo<; in 4 1 , 3 - 4 i s t r e a t e d in th e co n te x t o f v io la t i on o f r i tu a l .

V i o l a t i o n o f t h e d i v i n e d e c r e e s r e g a r d i n g h o w t h e H i g h P r i e s t is t o

e x a m i n e t h e sa c ri fi c e i n t h e d i v i n e l y a p p o i n t e d p l a c e is d e s e r v i n g o f

d e a th (oi ouv rcapd T O KaGfJKov Tfj<; pouAiiaecoq O C U T O U rcoiouvTeq T I 6 d v a -

T O V Ttpoax iuov exa uai v ) . I t is n o t the re fo re p r i m a r i ly th e fear o f th e

d a n g e r o f i n t e r v e n t i o n b y t h e se c u l a r a u t h o r i t i e s t h a t is h e r e i n p o i n t

r a t h e r t h a n t h e h o l y f e a r o f otaoiq as a s ac r i l eg e i n t e rm s o f t h e

m e t a p h y s i c a l o r d e r o f n a t u r e r e f l e c te d i n c iv il s o c i e t y . C l e m e n t , l ik e

t h e a u t h o r o f Luke-Acts, w a s n o t s a t i s f y i n g t h e p e r c e i v e d n e e d s o f t h e

e x t e r n a l , p a g a n a u t h o r i t i e s , b u t t h e p e r c e i v e d n e e d s o f h i m s e l f a n d

h is g r o u p i n a G r a e c o - R o m a n c u l t u r a l c o n t e x t b e i n g t r a n s f o r m e d b y

a C h r i s t i a n p e r s p e c t i v e .

B a m m e l w a s t h e r e f o r e w r o n g t o c l a i m t h a t C l e m e n t ' s m o t i v e w a s

p r i m a r i l y a p o l o g e t i c , a n d t h a t t o m a k e a l e g a l c l a i m f o r r e c o g n i t i o n

w a s n o t to m a k e a t h e o l o g i c a l c l a i m . C l e m e n t ' s c l a i m w a s n o t t h a t

o f H e g e s i p p u s o r I r e n a e u s i n t h e i r a r t i c u l a t i o n s o f t h e l a t e r e p i s c o

p a l su cce s s io n li st s. B u t i t w as t h eo lo g ica l i n t h a t t h e r e q u i r e m e n t o f

R o m a n l a w w a s a t h e o l o g i c a l r e q u i r e m e n t n o t t o t a k e p a r t i n c u l

t i c ac t i v i t y t h a t wo u ld u p se t t h e pax deorum a n d t h e r e f o r e t h e o r d e r

o f b o t h n a t u r e a n d c iv il s o c i e ty . C l e m e n t a n d h i s g r o u p , j u s t a s i n

t h e c a s e o f T h e o p h i l u s t o w h o m L u k e w r o t e , w a s a n a r t i c u l a t o r o f

H)

Ibid. 61 ,3 : . . . a o i e^o( ioA,OYo{ )(ie6a 8 i a xo\) dpxiepecoq K O U rcpoaxdxcru xcov i|/\>xa>v

T I U C O V ' Ir |aot> X p ia xo v . . .




a legal argument with the metaphysical basis for which his hearers

had every sympathy. Both Clement and Theophilus shared the cul

tural and philosophi c ba ck gr ou nd of imperial society an d wer e b ot h

as anxious as each other about the metaphysical catastrophe that

had been the civil wars of the republic, and which the Imperial Cult

was believed to have averted. They disagreed with the assumptions

of their cultural background only in so far as in Christianity they

believed they had found the true means of averting the ira dei.

Christian doctrine and Church Order as they had received it were

in consequence transformed in the matrix of their imperialist phil

osophical and cultural, religious heritage. But with the encultural-

ization of the gospel, it is ever an d inesca pab ly so. C le me nt and

Theophilus were not insulated from the social construction of impe

rial reality by which their consciousness had been formed and devel

oped. In consequence, they are not to be accused of the apologetic

ma nip ul at io n of an imperialist ideology ab ou t whos e founda tions

they had no real convictions.

It is fascinating to observe parallels with Luke-Acts in Clement

Corinthians, which we will now examine, where there are no direct

quotations and no direct borrowing.

4B 2.1. Parallels between Luke-Acts and Clement Corinthians

Both see the apostles as the foundations of the Christian cult, though

both account for this cultic significance differently. Luke-Acts, we have

argued (3D), sees the Twelve by analogy with the Arval college in

its Au gus tan transf orma tio n, wh er ea s Cl em en t regar ds it as a ma t

ter of the requirements of an orderly succession as in the case of

official acceptance of a Dionysiac cult. Both will reconstruct the impe

rialist ideology in a contra-cultural fashion with a transparent rever

sion of values.

Clement quotes (in 59,3) 1 Sam. 2,7 and Is. 10,33 where God is

addressed as xov rcoiouvxa xarceivoix; Eiq vyoq Kai xoix; \)\|/r|Aoi)<; xarcei-

vouvxa, xov rctanmôvxa Kai rcxcoxiôvxa, just as in the Magnificat (Lk.

1,52~53) we read: . . . u\j/coaev xarceivotx;. .. Kai rctaruxouvxaq eârceaxeitav

Kevotx;. Furthermore in Lk. 4,18 the eviauxov Kupiou 8eKx6v, which

we argued to be the contra-cultural counterpart to the inauguration

of Augustus' saeculum aureum, commenced with, the glad tidings for

the poor (euayveAioaaOai nxcoxoiq) by contrast with the imperial birth

day-banquets of the city states of Asia Minor.

Luke-Acts had reconstructed traditional apocalyptic with the ideology



156 CHAPTER FOUR

of the Augustan saeculum aureum so that themes of cataclysmic apoc

alyptic ju dg eme nt we re absent an d replac ed by a reign of pe ac e an d

fulfilment longed for hopes (3A 1-3). C lement in his pr ay er (60,3)

asks:

that we may be supported (eiq T O GK£7iao"0fivai rjuaq) by the strength of

your mighty hand (ip xeip( G O V zf\ KpcxTaia) and delivered (Kal pi)a0f|vai)

from all sin (anb K 6 L G T [ < ; duapTiaq) by your high-stretched arm (TCO ppa/iovi

G O V T C O i)V|/r|A,cp): and that you deliver us (Kal pvaai r|ua<;) from those who

hate us unjustly (anb TCOV UIGOVVTCOV f|ud<; dSiKcoq).

Like the KpaToq ev

Ppaxioviamov Lk. 1,51, or the acoTripia . . . E K

XEipoq TcdvTcov TCOV jiiao\)VTCov fijiaq of Lk. 1,71, these expressions occur

in the cont ext of wh at has pr od uc ed the Au gus tan saeculum aureum

of ocoTTipia, oudvoia and eipf|vr| (61,1). Clement in 61,2 then prays

for direction of the counsel of the imperial rulers (ox>, Kt>pie, 8iei>0\)vov

TTJV p o u ^ v auTCOv) just as in the Lucan contra-cultural saeculum aureum

Zachariah's prayer was TOt> KOCTe\)0wai xovq nodaq f|p.cov eiq 686v eipr|vr|<;

{Lk. 1,79).

1 7

As in Luke-Acts tradi tiona l apocaly ptic is overlaid by the peac e an d

security of a golden age long promised, so too in Clement the escha-

ton does not break into the present in any disruptive way that would

destroy the pax dei or deorum. This point can be well established in

his general eschatological references, and to the resurrection of the

body (23-27), as we shall now see.

4B 2.2. Apocalyptic cataclysm replaced by imperial peace

Clement exhorts the community to order (21-22), and places this

desire for order in an eschatological context. The Lord will come

suddenly to his temple as expected, and not delay, in accordance

with Is. 13,22 and Mai. 3,1 (23,5). But Clement has a sense of the

delay of the parousia, and so, like ps eu do ny mo us 2 Pet. 3,4, quoted

from possibly Eldad and Modad, also feels the force of the criticismof those who claim: "these things we have heard (TOCUTCX f jKOuaauev)

even from our fathers' time (Kal EKI TCOV rcocTepcov fijicov) and behold,

we have kept watch (Kal i8o\) yeyr | pdKa ( iev), and no ne of these things

has happened to us (KOCI ouSev fijiiv TO\>TCOV o \ ) v p e p r | K £ v ) . "1 8

Clement 's

reply firstly is to appeal to the well-used apocalyptic image of a plant

1 7 Cf. a l s o Ps. 40,3 q u o t e d in 60,2: mxevjGov xd 8iapf| | iaxa f|(icov ev 6ai6xr|xi Kal5iKaioa\)vf\.

, B

Cf. 2 Pet. 2,4: nox> eoxiv r\ inayyeXia xfjq napovGiaq avxov; d(p' r\c, oi rcaxepeq

£ K o i f i r | 9 r | G a v , rcdvxa omcoq Siaiievei arc' dp%fi<; xf)<; K x i a e t o q .



C L E M E N T O F R O M E A N D D O M I T I A N ' S E M P I R E 157

Cor. 2 3 , 4 - 5 c f . Mk. 1 3 , 2 8 3 1 ; Mat. 2 4 , 3 2 3 5 ; Lk. 2 1 , 2 9 - 3 3 .

b e a r i n g f r u i t q u i c k l y b u t i n d u e s e a s o n .1 9

B u t h e n o w e x t e n d s t h e

i m a g e so a s t o e x c l u d e a n y n o t i o n o f a p o c a l y p t i c c a t a c l y s m o r d i s

o r d e r fr o m h is a c c o u n t o f t h e r e s u r r e c t i o n o f t h e b o d y .

B eg in n in g wi th t h e a s so c i a ti o n o f Ch r i s t ' s r e su r rec t i o n a s t h e Pa u l in e

d rcap x r i w i th t h e t r ee g ro win g to f ru i t i o n , h e can n o w m ak e th e r e s

u r re c t i o n o f t h e b o d y a lm o s t in to an ev e n t o f o rd e r ly n a t u r a l ful fi lm en t.

A s h e n o w c o n t i n u e s :

Let us observe, brothers, (i'Scouev, dyaTcriToi) that the resurrect ion takes

place in due season (xr|v m i d Koupov yivouevriv dv dc ia ai v) . Da y an d

night reveal the resurrection to us. The night goes to sleep, the day

arises . The day departs , n ight comes on.

Corinthians 2 4 , 2

T h e r e t h e n f o l l o w s t h e f a m o u s c h a p t e r o n t h e P h o e n i x ( 2 5 ) . T h e

E g y p t i a n p r i e s ts c a n m e a s u r e a c c u r a t e l y its f i v e - h u n d r e d y e a r l ife

c y c l e . T h e s e n a t u r a l e v e n t s r e v e a l t h e a b i li t y o f t h e c r e a t o r t o b r i n g

a b o u t g r a d u a l l y a n d o r d e r l y , a s p a r t o f t h e n a t u r a l o r d e r o f t h i n g s ,

t h e r e s u r r e c t i o n o f t h e b o d y . T h u s C l e m e n t ' s u s e o f Eldad and Modadd o e s n o t l e a d h i m , a s i t d o e s t h e a u t h o r o f 2 Pet. 3 , 1 0 , t o c l a i m t h a t

t h e u n i v e r s e w i ll b e d i ss o l v e d i n a s u d d e n c a t a c l y s m . F o r h i m t h e

r e s u r r e c t i o n o n t h e L a s t D a y r e m a i n s p a r t o f a u n i v e r s e o f S t o i c

o u d v o i a , a n d it s d o c t r i n a l r e f le c t io n i n t h e c o m m u n i t y w il l l e a d n o t t o

c a t a c l y s m i c s tr if e b u t t o t h e e ip r |v r| o f t h e C h r i s t i a n , c o n t r a - c u l t u r a l

pax dei a s o p p o s e d t o t h e i m p e r i a l pax deorum.

C l e m e n t t h e r e f o r e h a s h i s o w n d i s ti n c ti v e v a r i a t i o n o n t h e L u k a nt h e m e o f t h e s u p e r s e s s i o n of a p o c a l y p t i c i s m b y a r e f a s h i o n e d a n d

C h r i s t i a n i z e d i m p e r i a l i s t i d e o l o g y . I t w i l l b e i n t e r e s t i n g t o a s k t h e

p r e c is e c h a r a c t e r of t h e g r o u p o p p o s e d b y C l e m e n t w h o s e e m t o

h a v e a f f ir m e d s u c h a n a p o c a l y p t i c i s m .

4 B 3 . The character of the group responsible for the cidoiq

T h e q u e s t i o n r e m a i n s a t a n t a l i s i n g o n e o f w h a t p a r t i c u l a r s et o f d o c

t ri n e s m i g h t h a v e r e i n f o rc e d t h o s e i n t h e C o r i n t h i a n c o m m u n i t y w h o

h a d a p p a r e n t l y u r g e d t h e d e p o s i t i o n o f t h e " b l a m e l e s s " p r e s b y t e r -

b i s h o p s . W o u l d t h e r e b e a n y j u s t i f i c a t i o n i n s e e i n g t h e m a s t h e k i n d

o f g r o u p r e p r e s e n t e d b y t h e Didache in which any wi th the g i f t o f a

p r o p h e t c o u l d p r e s i d e a n d t e a c h , a l t h o u g h b y t h e t i m e o f w r i t i n g o f

t h a t d o c u m e n t th e a b u s e s o f s u c h a C h u r c h O r d e r w e r e b e c o m i n g




t h e b a c k g r o u n d t o t h e s e l a t e f i r s t c e n t u r y e v e n t s a t C o r i n t h , t h e s e c

u l a r i s t i n v a s io n in th i s ca se wa s t h a t o f a r e l i g io u s saeculum. C l e m e n t

h a s r e f a s h i o n e d t h e S t o i c , m e t a p h y s i c a l j u s t if i c a t io n o f i m p e r i a l o r d e r

in t e rm s o f t h e pax deorum i n t o t h e pax Christi. T h e C h r i s t i a n c o m

m u n i t y is t o b e a m i r r o r i m a g e o f i m p e r i a l o r d e r , a lb e i t w i t h m a n y

i m a g e s r e v e r s e d o r t r a n s f o r m e d , a s is c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f a p r o c e s s o f

c o n t r a - c u l t u r a l c r e a t i o n .

'AGeuixoc; opyn a n d £r|A,o<; a r e o p p o s e d to t h e im p e ri a l id ea ls of

eip riv r] a n d o u d v o i a ( 6 3 , 2 - 3 ) , s e c u r e d s a c r a m e n t a l l y b y A u g u s t u s ' c u l

t ic augurium salutis t h a t u s h e r e d i n V e r g i l ' s saeculum aureum (2A 5) .

T h o s e c o n c e p t s , n o w t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o t h e pax Christi, p r o v i d e u s w i t h

t h e c o n t r a - c u l t u r a l l e g i t i m a t i o n o f a g r o u p e x c l u d e d f r o m t h e w i d e r

c o m m u n i t y b u t w h i c h n o w c r e a t e s its o w n v a l u e s a n d s t a t u s - h i e r a r

c h y b y a n a l o g y w i t h i ts h o s t c u l t u r e . T h o s e w h o i n h a b i t t h e s o ci a l

c o n s t r u c t i o n o f r e a l i t y t h u s c r e a t e d w i ll s e e t h a t t h e y c a n c o n c e i v e

th e i r s t a tu s a s p o s se s s in g a r caiSeia ( " ed u c a t i o n " , " d i s c ip l i n e" ) b y a n a l

o g y w i t h t h a t o f R o m a n c i v il i sa t io n ( 6 2 , 3 a n d 5 6 ) . Z e n o ' s e t h i c a l

i d e a l , d e v e l o p e d b y C l e a n t h e s , h a d b e e n t h a t £fjv m x ' d p ex f|v w a s

t h e e q u i v a l e n t o f xfj ipuoei 6uoA,oyo\)uevco<; £fjv, w h i c h i n t u r n w a s

e q u iv a le n t to Ka x ' opGov Aoyov f^v.2 2

T h a t e t h i c a l i d e a l , r e a l i s e d i n i m p e r i a l o r d e r a n d g i v e n r e l i g i o u s

e x p r e s s i o n i n t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t , w a s c l e a r ly c o n t r a r y t o t h e a p o c a

l y p ti c v i si o n o f c a t a c l y s m i c j u d g e m e n t d e s c e n d i n g o n t h e s oc i al o r d e r

w i t h its c a t a c l y s m i c c o u n t e r p a r t in t h e n a t u r a l o r d e r . T h e e g a l i ta r

i a n c h a r i s m a t a o f t h e e n d - t i m e w e r e r e m i n i s c e n t o f t h e B a c c h a n a l i a n

r io t a s a s y m p t o m o f t h e m e t a p h y s i c a l c a t a s t r o p h e t h a t m a r k e d t h e

h i s t o r y o f t h e final c e n t u r y o f t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n o f t h e l a t e r R o m a n

R e p u b l i c . S u c h e v e n t s w e r e n o t p o r t e n t s o f salus b u t o f d i s a s t e r , o f

w h a t C l e m e n t ca lls: £f|ta)<;, ipGovoc;, epic;, oxd oic;, 8icoyu6<;, d ic a x a a x a tf ia ,

7i6A,euo<;, a n d a i x u a t a o a i a ( 2 ,6 ) , a n d w h i c h R o m a n h i s t o r i o g r a p h y

c h a r a c t e r i s e d a s t h e c o n d i t i o n o f t h i n g s b e f o r e A u g u s t u s ' augurium

pacis, b e f o r e , i n t h e w o r d s o f t h e p r o c o n s u l a r d e c r e e s o f A s i a (9 B . C . ) ,

t h e 8uxi> %r|ua o f A u g u s t u s ' b i r t h t h a t " h a d s e t r i g h t t h e s c h e m e o f

th in g s th a t h a d p a ss ed in to ca la m it y (eiq dxu%e<; uexapePrjKOc; a x f | u a

dvco pG coaev)." ( 2 B 4 ) C l e m e n t ' s C h r i s t i a n r e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e i m p e

r ia l is t s o c ia l r e a l i t y o f h i s i n t e l l e c t u a l b a c k g r o u n d c o u l d n e v e r s e e

2 2 J . v o n A r n i m ( E d . ) , Stoicorum veterum fragment, ( L ei pz ig : T e u b n e r 1 9 0 2 - 1 9 0 3 ) , 1,

179 . C f. J . M . R i s t , Stoic Philosophy, ( C a m b r i d g e : U . P . 1 9 6 9 ) , p p . 2 - 3 .



C L E M E N T O F R O M E A N D D O M I T IA N ' S E M P I R E 161

d i s o r d e r a n d c h a o s a s a s ig n o f t h e c o m i n g o f C h r i s t ' s k i n g d o m .

T h e S t o i c s o c i a l e t h i c i n t h e c o n t e x t o f t h e i m p e r i a l pax deorum

b e c a m e a n e t h i c o f i m p e r i a l c i ti z e n s h i p . T o " l i v e " i n a m o r a l s e n s e

b e c a m e t o " a c t a s a c i t i z e n (TtotaxeueaOai)." I t is p rec i s e ly t h is c o n ce p t

t h a t C l e m e n t n o w u se s i n a C h r i s t i a n i s e d s e n s e i n o r d e r t o r e j e c t

t h e a p o c a l y p t i c i s m o f h is c h a r i s m a t i c o p p o n e n t s . T h e C o r i n t h i a n s ,

b e f o r e t h e oxdoic;, o r so h e c l a i m s , w e r e " a d o r n e d w i t h a s a c r e d life

(oePccauicp noXmia KeKoaurjuevoi)."23

( 2,8 ) T h i s , h e p o i n t e d l y a s s e r t s

a g a i n s t h i s o p p o n e n t s , w a s b e c a u s e " t h e r e h a d b e e n a full o u t p o u r

ing o f the Holy Sp i r i t upon a l l ( rcA,f|pr|<; rcveuuaxoc; d y i o u EK^UGK; E K I

rcdvxaq eyivexo)." ( 2,2 ) H e a c c u s e s t h e m , i n c o n s e q u e n c e o f t h e i r

o x d o i q , o f " n o t c o n d u c t i n g t h e m s e l v e s (ur |8e TioAaxeueoGai) a c c o r d in g

t o w h a t is b e c o m i n g t o C h r i s t ( m x d xo KccOfJKov xcp X piox cp) ." ( 3,4 ) To

KocGfJKov w a s a t e c h n i c a l t e r m i n S t o i c e t h i c s f or " a n a p p r o p r i a t e

a c t i o n . "2 4

T h o s e w h o h a v e p e r s e c u t e d t h e r ig h t e o u s , a s h a v e t h o s e

w h o h a v e d e p o s e d t h e p r e s b y t e r - b i s h o p s , a r e c a ll e d d v o u o i , d v o a i o i

a n d T c c c p d v o u o i ( 4 5 ,3 ) , b e c a u s e t h e i r b e h a v i o u r o f fe n d s t h e n o r m s o f

C h r i s t i a n c i t i z e n s h i p b y a n a l o g y w i t h t h e i d e a l o f i m p e r i a l c iv il a n d

c u l ti c m o r a l u n i t y .

L e t u s n o w i n c o n c l u s i o n s u m m a r i s e t h e s i g n if i c a n c e o f o u r d is

c u s si o n o f C l e m e n t fo r o u r g e n e r a l a r g u m e n t t h a t t h e d e v e l o p m e n t

o f C h u r c h O r d e r f ollo w s t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t a n d

its u n d e r l y i n g i d e o l o g y t h r o u g h a d y n a m i c so c i al i n t e r a c t i o n c h a r

a c t e r i s e d i n t e r m s o f s o c io l o g ic a l t h e o r y o f c o n t r a - c u l t u r e .

P A R T C . C L E M E N T 'S C O N S T R U C T I O N O F C O N T R A - C U L T U R E

W e h a v e t r a c e d n o t a m e r e l y i n c i d e n t a l b u t a f u n d a m e n t a l p a r a l l e l

b e t w e e n C l e m e n t ' s Corinthians, a n d t h e c o m m u n i t y o f T h e o p h i l u s

a d d r e s s e d i n Luke-Acts. T h e f u n d a m e n t a l p e r sp e c t iv e s o f b o t h r e p r e s e n t

a r e f a s h i o n i n g o f e a r l y C h r i s t i a n e s c h a t o l o g y . C l e m e n t h a s r e f a s h i o n e dt h e m e t a p h y s i c s o f s o ci al o r d e r d e r i v e d fr o m t h e c o n c e p t u a l w e b t h a t

e m b r a c e d t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t a s t h e s a c r a m e n t a l m e a n s o f o b t a i n i n g

t h e pax deorum. W e sa w h o w e v e r t h a t t h is f u n d a m e n t a l p a r a l l e l , w i t h

i n c i d e n t a l o n e s b e s i d e s , w a s b a s e d u p o n n o d i r e c t r e l a t i o n s h i p s u c h

a s w o u l d b e e v i d e n c e d b y d i r e c t q u o t a t i o n s o f o n e b y t h e o t h e r . B u t

'n Cor. 2 , 8 c f . 5 1 , 2 : o i iizxa (p6|5o\) K a i ayartric; 7co^ iTe\)6(iev oi. . .2 4

R i s t ( 1 9 6 9 ) , p p . 9 8 - 9 9 .



1 62 C H A P T E R F O U R

h o w a r e t h e s e p a r a l l e l s t o b e e x p l a i n e d i f t h e r e is n o d i r e c t r e l a t i o n

s h i p ? T h e tertium quid is t h e i m p e r i a l i s t i d e o l o g y f o c u s e d o n t h e

e m p e r o r c u l t a n d t h e c o n t r a - c u l t u r a l r e s p o n s e b o t h i n T h e o p h i l u s '

c o m m u n i t y a n d t h a t o f C l e m e n t , b o t h o f w h o m t h u s e x e m p li fy a

g e n e r a l s oc io lo g ic al p h e n o m e n o n .

T h e g e n e r a l p h e n o m e n o n o f c o n t r a - c u l t u r e in v ol ve s t h e r e c o n

s t r u c t i o n o f s o c i al r e a l i t y b y a n a l i e n a t e d s u b - c u l t u r e t h a t se e k s t o

l e g i t i m a t e it s p o s i t i o n w i t h r e f e r e n c e t o t h e v a l u e s y s t e m o f t h e d o m

i n a n t c u l t u r e . T h e s u b - c u l t u r e r e f a s h i o n s fo r its o w n g r o u p t h e v a l u e

s y s t e m o f t h e d o m i n a n t c u l t u r e s o a s t o c r e a t e a f r a m e o f r e f e r e n c e

i n t e r m s o f w h i c h it s m e m b e r s c a n a c h i e v e t h e s t a t u s t h a t t h e v a l u e

s y s te m o f t h e d o m i n a n t c u l t u r e d e n i e s t h e m . T h e d o m i n a n t c u l t u r e

r e m a i n s u n i m p r e s s e d , a n d d o e s n o t i ts elf t h e r e f o r e e n t e r in t o t h e

s o c ia l c o n s t r u c t i o n o f r e a l it y t h u s c r e a t e d . T h e c r e a t i o n o f a c o n t r a -

c u l t u r e t h e r e f o r e c a n n o t f u n c t i o n a p o l o g e t i c a l l y so a s t o g a i n r e c o g

n i t i o n a n d s t a t u s f or t h e s u b - c u l t u r e f r o m t h e d o m i n a n t c u l t u r e . B u t

t h e d o m i n a n t c u l t u r e is n e v e r t h e l e s s p r e s e r v e d b y t h e c r e a t i o n o f t h e

c o n t r a - c u l t u r e . T h e l a t t e r s e rv e s t h e e n d o f r e - i n t e g r a t i n g d i s c o r d a n t

e l e m e n t s w i t h i n t h e s o c ia l w h o l e i n a f o r m t h a t , t h o u g h d i s c o r d a n t ,

is n e v e r t h e l e s s i n n o c u o u s i n t h a t i t c a n n o t r a d i c a l l y d a m a g e t h e e x i s t

i n g s o c ia l s t r u c t u r e ; i ts r e l a t i o n w i t h t h a t s t r u c t u r e b e c o m e s o n e o f

s y m b i o s i s .

H e n c e , a s w e d i s c u s s e d i n C h a p t e r 1, c r i m i n a l a c t i v i t y s u c h a s

j u v e n i l e d e l i n q u e n c y c a n b e r e g a r d e d a s c o n t r a - c u l t u r e i n t h is s e n s e .

A c t i v it y t h a t m i g h t o t h e r w i s e b e r e v o l u t i o n a r y is r e n d e r e d m a r g i n

a l l y h a rm fu l t o t h e so c i a l f ab r i c wh en s to l en v eh ic l e s d r iv en a t h ig h

s p e e d b e c o m e c o n s t r u c t e d a s s h o w i n g t h e m o r a l q u a l i ty o f " h e a r t " ,

g i v i n g p r e s t i g e t o t h e p e r s o n w h o s o a c t s b y a c o n t r a - c u l t u r a l v a l u e

s y s t e m t h a t h a s t h u s r e v e r s e d t h e s o c ia l n o r m s o f " c a u t i o n " a n d

" s a f e ty , " t h e a v o i d a n c e o f " r e c k l e s s n e s s , " t h e " r e s p e c t " f or o t h e r p e o

p l e ' s p r o p e r t y e tc . S o t o o C l e m e n t ' s r e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f p a g a n s o c i al

r ea l i t y , a s t h a t o f t h e au th o r o f Luke-Acts, can b e r ead in su ch a so c i a l -

t h e o r e t i c a l c o n t e x t . T h e acorn,p{oc a n d e ip f|v ri o f C h r i s t c o m e n o t

t h r o u g h a p o c a l y p t i c c a t a c l y s m i n w h i c h n a t u r e is u p r o o t e d a n d o r d e r

w i t h i n t h e c o m m u n i t y a b o l i s h e d . T h e s e o b j e c t i v e s a r e a c h i e v e d t h r o u g h

t h e o r d e r a n d h a r m o n y b r e a t h e d b y G o d i n t o n a t u r e b e i n g re a li s ed

in t h e o r d e r of t h e c o m m u n i t y , a n d t h r o u g h t h e p r e s e r v a t i o n o f

Tdyuxx in w h i c h o n e m e m b e r su b je c ts t h e m s e l v e s t o a n o t h e r t h r o u g h

a 7tai5e [a that i s a lso a urcoTocyri.

T h u s m e m b e r s o f C l e m e n t ' s g r o u p , a s w e sa w w a s th e c a s e w i th



C L E M E N T O F R O M E A N D D O M I T I A N 'S E M P I R E 1 6 3

t h a t o f T h e o p h i l u s , m a d e l e g i t im a t e in t h e i r o w n e y es t h e i r p o s i t i o n

i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e d o m i n a n t c u l t u r e . T h a t p o s i t i o n f or t h e m t h u s

b e c a m e e n d o w e d w i t h t h e s t a t u s a n d d i g n i t y t h a t t h e d o m i n a n t c u l

t u r e d e n i e d t h e m . T h e y c l a i m e d t o sa tisfy b y m e a n s o f t h e pax Christi

t h e p o l i t i c a l a n d r e l ig i o u s y e a r n i n g s o f t h o s e w h o p a r t i c i p a t e d i n t h e

pax o f A u g u s t u s , a n d t h e c u l ti c e x p r e s s i o n o f t h a t p e a c e in e m p e r o r

w o r s h i p . I n d o i n g s o t h e y b e l i e v e d t h a t th e y h a d d o n e t h e i r d u t y b y

th e i r f e l l o w, p ag an c i t i zen s . Bu t t h e f i n a l p eace wi th t h o se c i t i zen s

t h e m s e l v e s c o u l d o n l y c o m e a b o u t , n o t b y t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f ad

hominem a p o l o g e t i c , b u t b y t h e c r e a t i o n o f a t r a n s f o r m i n g s y n t he s i s

b e t w e e n C h r i s t i a n a n d i m p e r i a l t h e o l o g y i n w h i c h b o t h s id e s f o u n d

t h e i r r e l i g io u s a n d p o l i t i c a l c o n v i c t i o n s a d e q u a t e l y f ulf ille d. C h u r c h

O r d e r w o u l d n e e d still m o r e t o t r a n s f o r m i m p e r i a l i s t O r d e r , b u t i n

t u r n t o b e t r a n s f o r m e d i ts el f b y t h a t e n c o u n t e r , a s t h e c e n t u r i e s

m o v e d t o w a r d s C o n s t a n t i n e a n d J u l i a n .

I n c o n t r a s t t o e x p r e s s i o n s t h a t w e w i l l a r g u e t h a t t h e Apocalypse

r e v e a ls t o h a v e b e e n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t , C l e m e n t ' s

p r a y e r f or th e ru l e r s o f t h e e m p i r e a t t r i b u t e s t o t h e G o d a n d F a t h e r o f

C h r i s t a l o n e s u c h e p i t h e t s a s 6 udvoc; Suvaxoc;, SearcoTric;, a n d fiaoikeix;

t o w h o m a lo n e h e a t t r i b u t e s t h e f in al 8 6 ^ a , u ey aXco au v ri , a n d K p d -

xoq ( 6 1 , 2 - 3 ) . I n o u r n e x t c h a p t e r w e s h a ll find t h e s e e x p r e s s i o n s i n

t h e Apocalypse se t i n t h e co n t ex t o f a q u i t e d i f f e ren t c o n ce p t io n o f

t h e R o m a n e m p i r e a n d t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f a C h r i s t i a n c o m m u n i t y

w i th i t. T o a d i s cu s s io n o f t h e Apocalypse w e s h a ll n o w t u r n .



C H A P T E R F I V E

T H E APOCALYPSE A N D D O M I T I A N ' S I C O N O G R A P H Y

The Lam b's victory in sacrifice and the festal community

W e a r g u e d i n t h e l a s t c h a p t e r (4 A ) t h e g e n e r a l h i s to r i c a l r e l i a b il i ty

o f t h e C h r i s t i a n t r a d i t i o n o f D o m i t i a n a s a s e c o n d N e r o in p e r s e c u t i n g C h r i s t i a n i t y . D i o C a s s i u s Hist. 6 7 , 1 4 w a s h a r d l y c o n t r a r y e v i

d e n c e s in ce b y th e p h r a s e i d xcov 'Iou8a{cov f]0T| t h is a u t h o r p r o b a b l y

h a d n o i n t e n t i o n o f i d e n t if y i n g J u d a i s m a s d i s t in c t f r o m C h r i s t i a n

i ty ( 4 A 1). I n d e e d h e w o u l d n o t h a v e r e g i s t e r e d a n y d i s t i n g u i s h a b l e

d i f fe r e n c e b e t w e e n e i t h e r f a it h a t a s u p e r f ic i a l, p h e n o m e n o l o g i c a l

l ev e l. F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e c l a im t h a t D o m i t i a n w a s a p e r s e c u t o r d i d

n o t r e s t u p o n t h e C h r i s t i a n i t y o f F l a v iu s C l e m e n s a n d F l a v ia D o m i t i l laa l o n e ( 4 A 2 a n d 4 A 3 ) .

B u t i n o n e r e s p e c t t h e E u s e b i a n t r a d i t i o n h a d b e e n d e c e p t i v e i n

t h a t it p r e s u p p o s e d a g e n e r a l e d i c t o f p e r s e c u t i o n i m p o s s i b l e b e f o r e

A . D . 2 5 1 . O u r h y p o t h e s i s w a s t h a t n o n - p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n t h e I m p e r i a l

C u l t , w h i ls t n o t i n i ts e lf i ll e ga l , e x p o s e d t h e n o n - p a r t i c i p a n t t o o t h e r

a c c u s a t i o n s o f p r a c t i c i n g a superstitio t h e p u r p o s e o f w h i c h w a s t o

c a u s e s o c i a l d i s o r d e r t h r o u g h c r e a t i n g m e t a p h y s i c a l d i s o r d e r t h a t d i s r u p t e d t h e c o s m i c h a r m o n y o f t h e pax deorum (3C 2 .3 ) . Bu t i f th i s

w e r e t h e c a s e , t h e n i t w o u l d b e p a r t i c u l a r c h a n g e s in t h e I m p e r i a l

C u l t it se lf t h a t w o u l d c a u s e p e r s e c u t i o n , s i n c e n o n - p a r t i c i p a t i o n w o u l d

a t t r a c t p a r t i c u l a r n o t i c e .

L e t u s n o w c o n s i d e r t h o s e c h a n g e s , a n d h o w t h e y a r e re f le c t ed i n

t h e i c o n o g r a p h y o f t h e Apocalypse.

P A R T A . D O M I T I A N 'S C U L T A N D T H E D A T E O F T H E APOCALYPSE

T h e Apocalypse p r e s u p p o s e s t h e r e a l it y o f a p a r t i c u l a r a n d d a n g e r o u s

c o n f r o n t a t i o n b e t w e e n D o m i t i a n a n d th e C h u r c h . I f n o s u c h n o v e l

a n d p a r t i c u l a r l y v i c i o u s c o n f r o n t a t i o n o c c u r r e d i n t h a t r e i g n , t h e n

t h is w o u l d b e e v i d e n c e a g a i n s t a D o m i t i a n i c d a t e fo r t h e Apocalypse,

a n d h e n c e i ts a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h t h e s i t u a t i o n s p r e s u p p o s e d in t u r n b y



T H E APOCALYPSEAND D O M I T I A N ' S I C O N O G R A P H Y 165

1 B . W . J o n e s , The Emperor Domitian, ( L o n d o n : R o u t l e d g e 1 9 9 2 ) , p. 116.

Clement Corinthians and reflected in the immediately succeeding gen

eration of Ignatius of Antioch. Let us begin, therefore, with a considera

tion of the date of the Apocalypse, an d the confi rmat ion of tha t da te

in critical changes tha t occu rr ed in the cer emo nia l an d icono gra phy

of the Imper ial C ult un de r Dom it ia n th at also find reflections the re.

5A 1. The date of the Apocalypse

Rejecting the testimony of Irenaeus (Adversus Haer. V, 30,3; Eusebius

H.E. 111,18), Jones ar gues for a da te in Ne ro 's re ign. Hi s gr ou nd s

are his belief in the greater probability that the description in Apoc.17, 9-11 refers to that reign. The beast with seven heads is clearly

the Roman empire since they correspond to the seven hills on which

the harlot sits. But they are also seven kings (v. 9). "Five have fallen,

on e still is, and the o th er has no t yet c om e . . ." (v. 10). Jon es con

siders that all other solutions simply "avoid the obvious choice" that

Augustus is the first and the refore Ne ro mu st be the fifth.1

But I would suggest that the choice is only "obvious" to someonewho is in a position to know the specific details of the history of the

Princi pate. Th e aut hor of the Apocalypse, which was a semi-literate

work, was har dly such a pe rson . In his situa tion in Asia Mi no r, he

would get his inf orm at ion from non-l ite rar y artefacts like temple s of

the Imperial Cult such as those at Ephesus, Smyrna, or at Pergamon,

an d from pr om in en t and striking statues an d numi sma tic iconogra

ph y of par tic ula r empero rs to be found the re. He took over such a

kaleidoscope of non-l iter ary ima ger y and refashioned his fra gmen

tary images into new patterns. Though those patterns bear the influ

ence of his Ju da eo -C hr is ti an backg rou nd, they also retain the impress

of the ir origina l pa ga n mat ri x. T h e r e are five indi cat ions of a da te

in Domitian's reign in the text of the Apocalypse itself, from which

we can conclude that the Seer's imagery was drawn from the specific

background provided by his reign.

5A 1.1. Domitian's edict on the vineyards

Apoc. 6,6 ("a choinix of wheat for a de na ri us (%oivi^ o r c o u 8 r | v a p ( o u ) ,

and three choinikes of barley for a denarius (Kai xpeiq xoivuceq KpiGcov

8 r | v a p { o u ) , and do not damage the olive and the vine (Kai TO e tax iov

Kai xovo i v o v ufi d8iicr|CTTi<;)") appears quite clearly to refer to Domitian 's



166 C H A P T E R FIVE

un im pl em en te d edict forbid ding further pl an tin g of vines in Italy,

and the reduction of acerage for vinyards in the provinces, if feasi

ble, by one half.2

It seems to have be en a res ponse to famine ai me d

at encouraging the growing of corn. 3 The instruction TO e'Amov KOCI

TOV oivov \ir\ dSucnGTiq seems therefore to be directed at a situation

where famine prices for wheat were threatening olive and vine-grow

ing. 4 O n the founda tions of this clear indi cati on of a Do mi ti an ic

date for the Apocalypse it is th en possible to po in t to ot he r Do mi ti an ic

allusions found generally in the Apocalypse as well as in the letters to

the seven churches.

5A 1.2. Domitian and Domitia: the divine child: Apoc. 12,1-6

Domiti a's child was bo rn in 7 3 and died in 83 . Do mi ti a was descr ibed

after this event as mother of gods on coins depicting her as Ceres,

De met er , an d Cybele. It is interesting to co mp ar e the ico nogr aph y

surrounding this event with Apoc. 1 2 , l - 6 .5

Here, essentially, there is

a heavenly sign ( K a l or |U£iov u e y a co(p9r| ev TCO o u p a v c p ) . There is "a

woman clothed with the sun (yvvx) rcepipePAriiievn TOV TIAAOV) and the

moon under her feet (Kal f | oeXi\vr\ i m o K a T c o TCOV rco8cov auTf jq) and

upon her head a crown of twelve stars ( K a l ini TT|<; KetpaX-fiq cx\)Tfj<;

O T e c p a v o q d a T e p c o v 8co8eKa)." (12,1) She is pu rs ue d by the seven-headed

dragon, whose tail sweeps away one third of the stars, and who

intends to devour her child, destined to rule the nations (2-4). Then

"she brought forth a male child (Kal eTeKev mov a p a e v ) , destined to

shepherd all the nations with a rod of iron (6q \ieXXei rcoiuaiveiv rcdvTa

T a eGvr| ev pdp8cp a i 8 r | p a ) . And the child was snatched away to God

( m i fip7cda9r| TO Teicvov a\)Tfjq rcpoq TOV Geov) and to his throne ( K a l npbq

TOV GpOVOV OLVTOX).)."

In a coin of A.D . 92 , after he r resto rat ion to favour, Dom it ia is

depicted draped and veiled, and seated on a throne extending her

hand to touch a small boy. He holds in his left hand the sceptre of

2 Suetonius, Dom. 7,2; Philostratus, Vit. Apoll. 6,42; Vit. Soph. 1,21. See also

P. Southern, Domitian, Tragic Tyrant, (London and New York: Routledge 1997),

p . 58.3 Suetonius, Dom. 7,2; Statius, Sihae IV, 3 ,11-12.4

C J. Hemer, The Letters to the Seven Churches of Asia in their Local Setting,

in JSNT.S 11 (1986), p . 4, p p . 158-159 and p . 175.5 E. Stauffer, Christ and the Caesars: Historical Sketches, (Lon don: S.C .M. 195 5),

p p . 1 5 0 - 1 5 3 , which however suffered greatly in argumentative force because of thea u t h o r ' s refusal to document with detailed citation the claims that he made. I have

s o u g h t to remedy this lack where I follow Stauffer in the following account.

http://iexxei/

http://iexxei/

http://iexxei/



T H E APOCALYPSE A N D D O M I T I A N ' S I C O N O G R A P H Y 167

w o r l d d o m i n i o n w h i l s t b l e s s i n g t h e w o r l d w i t h h i s r i g h t . T h e i n s c r i p

t io n r e a d s : D I V I C A E S A R [ I S ] M A T R I ( Pl ate 2 1) . T h e o b v e rs e si de

o f t h e c o i n d e p i c t s D o m i t i a d r a p e d w i t h h e r h a i r ti e d u p a t t h e b a c k

a n d r a i s e d i n a d o m e a t t h e f r o n t w i t h e l a b o r a t e c o i l s ( P l a t e 2 0 ) . 6

D o m i t i a ' s c h i l d t h u s s h o w s , w i t h h is s c e p t r e a n d g l o b e , c l o s e c o r r e

s p o n d e n c e w i t h oq uiAAei rcoiuxxiveiv rcdvxa xd eOvr] ev pdp8cp oiSripa.

F u r t h e r m o r e t h e c h il d h a s d i e d a n d b e c o m e o n e w i t h t h e i m p e

r ia l fami ly in de i f ica t ion , jus t l ike the ch i ld o f the Apoc. 1 2 ,5 : Ka i

fip7cda6r| xo xeicvov auxf|q npbq xov 9 e6 v . A fu r th e r ea r l i e r , g o ld co i n o f

A . D . 8 3 b e a r s t h e i n sc ri p ti o n : D I V U S C A E S A R I M P D O M I T I A N I

F [ I L I U S ] . H e r e t h e n a k e d i n f a n t , divus Caesar is d e p i c t e d a s b a b y

J u p i t e r s e a t e d o n a g l o b e w i t h s e v e n s t a r s a r o u n d h i m ( P l a t e 2 3 ) .

T h e ob v er se o f t h e c oin is i ns cr ib ed D O M I T I A A V G V S T A I M P [ E R A -

T O R I S ] D O M I T [ I A N I ] ( P la te 2 2) .7

T h u s i n t h e i m a g e of Apoc. 12 ,1

w e f ind t h e i n f a n t ' s c ir c l e o r c r o w n o f s e v e n s ta r s i n t e r c h a n g e d w i t h

t h o s e o f t h e w o m a n w h o h a s erci xx\q KecpaA^q amx\q axecpavoq daxepcov

8co8eKa.

T h e t h e m e o f t h e s e v e n s t a r s a s a n a t t r i b u t e o f d i v i n it y a p p e a r s

also in th e le t t er to E p he su s (2 ,1 : xd8 e Aiyei 6 Kpaxcov xoix; ercxd dox ep aq

ev xii S e ^ i a a u x o u ) . M a r t i a l ' s p o e m d e s c r i b e s t h e p r i n c e a s m o v i n g

t h r o u g h t h e a i r a n d p l a y i n g w i t h t h e s e v e n s t a r s , w h i c h i n d i c a t e t h e

s e v e n p l a n e t s .8

T h e t h e m e o f a d i v i n is e d e m p e r o r b e i n g s e n t t o t h e

s t a r s is t y p i c a l o f t h e F l a v i a n d y n a s t y , a s w e c a n s e e f r o m M a r t i a l

(Epig. 9 , 1 0 1 , 2 2 a n d 1 4 , 1 24 ) o r J u v e n a l (Sat. X I I I , 4 6 - 4 9 ) .9

R e g a r d i n g t h e a s s o c i a t i o n o f t h e w o m a n w i t h t h e s u n a n d t h e

m o o n i n Apoc. 1 2 , 1 , w e h a v e t h e i m a g e o f Aeternitas, s t a n d i n g h o l d

i n g t h e h e a d s o f t h e s u n a n d t h e m o o n i n h e r h a n d s , a s a s p e c i a l

m a r k o f F l a v i a n c o i n a g e , w i t h t h e i n s c r i p t i o n A E T E R N I T A T I

A V G V S T . S .C . ( Pla te 2 5 ) .1 0

S il us A t t i c u s d e s c r i b e s D o m i t i a n w h e n

finally d iv in i s ed g iv in g fo r th ray s n e a r h i s s o n .1 1

A g a i n S t a t i u s (Silvae

6 BMC 2 , p . 4 1 3 n o . 5 0 1 a n d p l a t e 8 2 , 8 .7 BM C 2 , p . 3 1 1 n o . 6 2 a n d p l a t e 6 1 , 6 . C f. 6 3 - 6 5 p l a t e s 6 1 , 7 - 9 .8

A l s o D o m i t i a n ' s r es t o r a t io n o f c o i n s h o w i n g t h e h e a d o f D i v u s A u g u s t u s r a d i

a t e t o t h e le ft w i t h a s ta r a b o v e , a n d th e i n c ri p ti o n : D I W S A V G V S T V S P A T E R

w i t h V i c t o r i a o n t h e r e v e r s e s i d e . BMC 2 , p . 4 1 4 n o . 5 0 4 a n d 5 0 5 p l a t e 8 2 , 8 . S e e

a l s o I I p . 8 n o . 4 7 p i . 1 , 1 5 b u s t o f s o l r a d i a te V e s p a s i a n cf . BMC 1 , p . 10 0 no s

6 1 1 ff . a n d p . 1 4 2 n o . 1 5 5 , p l a t e 2 6 , 3 a n d 5 .9

S c o t t ( 1 9 7 5 ) p . 7 1 .10 BMC 2 , p . 3 6 4 n o . 3 0 3 , p l a t e 7 1 , 6 ; p . 3 7 2 n o . 3 4 6 p l a t e 7 3 , 4 ( P l a te 2 4 ) ; 3 7 4 ,

n o . 3 5 3 , c f. K . S c o t t , The Imperial Cult under the Flavians, ( N e w Y o r k : A r n o 1 9 7 5 ) , p . 9 5 .1 1

S i l v i u s S ta t i u s , Punica 3 , 6 2 9 : " s i d e r e i i u x t a r a d i a b u n t t e m p o r a n a t i . "



1 6 8 C H A P T E R F I V E

4 , 1 , 3 - 4 ) d e s c r i b e s h i m o n h i s e n t r y t o h i s s e v e n t e e n t h c o n s u l s h i p

( A . D . 91) as : " A n d h e is r is ing (atque oritur) w i t h t h e n e w s u n (cum

sole novo), with the lo f ty s ta rs (cum grandibus astris), h i m s e l f s h i n i n g m o r e

b r i g h d y (clarius ipse nitens) a n d m o r e g r e a d y t h a n t h e m o r n i n g s t a r (e t

maior Eoo)." T h e " m o r n i n g st a r (xov cxaxepcc xov rcpcoivov) in Apoc. 2 , 2 8 ;

2 2 , 1 6 b e c o m e s a d e s c r i p t i o n o f C h r i s t o r C h r i s t ' s g ift.

5 A 1.3. The topography of Ephesus

I n Apoc. 2 , 7 t h e c o n t r a - c u l t u r a l a n a l o g u e o f t h e s a c r e d xe|xevoq o f t h e

te m p le o f A r t em is a t E p h es u s is th e 7 tocpd8eico<; xou 0eot> . T h e c ros s

t h a t is th e tr e e o f life (8cooco auxcp (payew £K xou ZfiXov xx\q £cofj<;) c o n

s t i tu t e s t h e c o n t r a - e i k o n o f t h e t r e e - s h r i n e d e p i c t i n g t h e b i r t h o f

A r t e m i s .1 2

F r o m l o n g a n t i q u i t y t h a t x ep xv oq h a d b e e n a p l a c e w h e r e

c r i m i n a l s h a d s o u g h t a n d o b t a i n e d a s y l u m . T h e r e is e v i d e n c e t h a t

D o m i t i a n e x t e n d e d th i s a r e a a n d t h u s c o m p o u n d e d t h e a b u s e t o

w h i c h t w o le t te r s o f A p o l l o n i u s o f T y a n n a , a ll e ge d ly c o n t e m p o r a r y

w i t h th i s r e i g n , a t t e s t ( 6 5 a n d 6 6 ) . S u c h e x t e n s i o n s w o u l d h a v e r e a c

t i v a t e d p u b l i c a l a r m a t t h e s c a n d a l o f t h e c r i m i n a l r e f u g e e s in t h e

a r e a a n d g i v e n p e r t i n e n c e t o t h i s r e f e r e n c e , s i n c e A u g u s t u s h a d t r i e d

t o l i m i t t h e a r e a a n d t h e r e f o r e t h e a b u s e .1 3

T h u s t h e c a s e f o r a D o m i

t ia n i c d a t e is s t r e n g t h e n e d . F u r t h e r m o r e w e h a v e a l r e a d y d e s c r i b e d

t h e " u n i o n o f n e c o r a t e s " i n A s i a f o r m e d f r o m t h e a s si m i l a t io n o f

E p h e s u s a s vecoKopoq xfjq 'ApxeuiSoq (Acts 1 9 , 3 5 ) w i t h t h e

I m p e r i a l C u l t f r o m D o m i t i a n ' s t i m e o n w a r d s ( 2 C 2 . 3 . 2 . 3 ) .

5A 1.4. Jewish-Christian relations

H e m e r f o u n d t h e s e c o n d firm D o m i t i a n i c r e f e r e n c e s i n t h e a l l u s io n s

t o t h e " s y n a g o g u e o f S a t a n " b o t h in S m y r n a (Apoc. 2 ,9 ) an d in

P h i l a d e l p h i a ( 3,9 ). A r o u n d A . D . 9 0 t h e Beracoth ha minim w e r e i n s e r t e d

i n t o t h e E i g h t e e n B e n e d i c t i o n s . I n c o n s e q u e n c e it w a s n o l o n g e r p o s

s ib l e f or J e w i s h C h r i s t i a n s t o u s e t h e i r a n c e s t r y a s a m e a n s o f r e m o v

i n g t h e s o ci a l o p p r o b r i u m f or t h e i r n o n - p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n t h e I m p e r i a l

C u l t . T h u s t h e r e w o u l d h a v e b e e n a s l eg a l c o n s e q u e n c e s t h e c h a r g e s

o f superstitio o r contumacia. I g n a t i u s (Philad. 6 ,1 ) im p l i e s t h a t ev en u n c i r -

1 2

H e m e r ( 1 9 8 6 ), p p . 4 2 - 4 7 .13

Ibid. p p . 4 8 - 5 0 w h e r e H e m e r q u o t e s S t r a b o X I V , 1 ,2 3 ; T a c t i u s , Annal. 1 1 1 , 6 0 - 6 3 ;S u e to n i u s , Tib. 3 7 i n c o n n e c t i o n w i th e a r l ie r p r o b l e m s . F o r e v i d e n c e fo r th e D o m i t i a n i c

e x t e n s i o n s h e r e l i e s o n t h e r e c o n s t r u c t i o n i n Syli\ 9 8 9 , BMInscr 5 2 0 .



T H E APOCALYPSE A N D D O M I T I A N ' S I C O N O G R A P H Y 1 6 9

14 Apoc. 2 , 9 a n d 3 , 9 , cf. H e m e r (1 9 8 6 ) , p p . 4 , 8 - 1 0 , 6 6 - 6 7 , 1 6 3 , 1 7 5 - 1 7 6 .

c u m c i s e d G e n t i l e C h r i s t i a n s t r i e d t h is e s c a p e r o u t e w i t h t h e r e s u l t

t h a t i o u Sa i ' o u d v was h ea rd r cap d a i cp o Pu o x o u .

T h i s j u d a i z e d f o r m o f C h r i s t i a n i t y i n A s i a M i n o r m a y h a v e b e e n

h i g h l y s i m i l a r t o t h e c o n c e p t i o n o f t h e r e f o r m e d c u l t o f J u d a i s m t h a t

f o r m e d t h e l e g i t im a t i o n o f t h e u n c i r c u m c i s e d T h e o p h i l u s a n d h i s

c i r c l e (3 B). Bu t su c h g ro u p s i n t h e S ee r ' s ey es w er e c l ea r ly aau v ay co y n

xou l a x a v a . T h e y c l a i m e d t o b e J e w s (EK xcov Xeyovxcov 'Io\)8aiou<; E i v a i

feauxoix;) but they were not so (KOCI OUK E i a i v dAXd\ | /£u8ovxai ) .1 4

M o r e o v e r

t h e b i t t e r n e s s o f t h e l a n g u a g e r ef le c ts p e r s e c u t i o n t h a t J e w s c o u l d

e a si ly a c t i v a t e a g a i n s t t h e i r n o w e x c o m m u n i c a t e d c o - f r a t e r n i ty f or

w h o m t h e r e w a s n o w n o c u l ti c p r o x y . W e h a v e s e e n t h a t t h e i ss u e

o f J u d a i s m a n d t h e r e s p o n s i b il i ty t o p a y t h e t e m p l e t a x as a p r o x y

f or p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t w a s p a r t i c u l a r l y c r i ti c a l a t t h e

t i m e o f D o m i t i a n ( 3 C 2 . 3 . 3 .3 ) .

G i v e n th e r e f o r e t h e D o m i t i a n i c b a c k g r o u n d o f t h e Apocalypse, w e

m u s t n o w as k w h a t s p ec if ic f e a t u r e s o f t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t u n d e r

D o m i t i a n c o u l d h a v e i n s p i r e d s u c h s t r o n g p o l e m i c f r o m t h e S e e r a s

Apoc. 1 7 , 1 - 6 w h e r e t h e " W h o r e o f B a b y l o n d r u n k w i t h t h e b l o o d o f

t h e s a i n t s a n d w i t h t h e b l o o d o f t h e m a r t y r s o f J e s u s " i s d e s c r i b e d

i n s u c h a l u r i d h u e . M o r e is c l e a r l y h e r e i m p l i e d t h a n s i m p l y a n

i n c r e a s e i n c u l t ic b u i l d i n g w o r k s s u c h a s t h e e x t e n s i o n o f t h e XEUEVO<;

o f D i a n a a t E p h e s u s a ss o c i a t e d w i t h a n i m p e r i a l t e m p l e . T o t h e

q u e s t i o n o f D o m i t i a n ' s r e c o n c e p t u a l i s a t i o n a n d r e o r g a n i s a t i o n o f t h e

c u l t w e n o w t u r n .

5 A 2 . The Imperial Cult under Domitian

T h e c l e a r d o c u m e n t a r y e v i d e n c e f or a c h a n g e i n t h e c u l ti c p o s i t i o n

o f t h e e m p e r o r a t t h e t i m e o f D o m i t i a n c o n f i r m s t h i s h y p o t h e s i s .

G a i u s ' a s s u m p t i o n o f d i v i n e h o n o u r s i n h is l if e ti m e h a d b e e n c o n

d e m n e d a t R o m e , t h o u g h o f c o u r s e t h e r e h a d n e v e r b e e n a n y p r o b

l e m i n t h e E a s t a b o u t t h e t h e o l o g i c a l j u s t i f i c a t i o n f o r r u l e r w o r s h i p .N e v e r t h e l e s s S u e t o n i u s (Domit. 1 3 , 1 - 2 ) i n f o r m s u s t h a t " w h e n h e d i c

t a t e d a f o r m a l l e t t e r u n d e r t h e n a m e o f h is p r o c u r a t o r s h e b e g a n :

" Y o u r L o r d a n d G o d [dominus et deus) o r d e r s t h i s t o b e d o n e . I n c o n

s e q u e n c e i t b e c a m e t h e c u s t o m t h a t h e s h o u l d b e a d d r e s s e d i n n o

o t h e r w a y w h e t h e r i n w r i t i n g o r i n s p e e c h . " I n t h e s a m e p a s s a g e h e

r e c o r d s t h a t D o m i t i a n , w h e n t a k i n g b a c k hi s w if e a f te r t h e i r d i v o r c e ,




b o a s t e d t h a t s h e h a d b e e n s u m m o n e d b a c k t o " t h e d i v i n e c o u c h (in

pulvinar)."10

L e t u s f i r s d y c o n s i d e r l i t e r a r y e v i d e n c e f o r D o m i t i a n ' s d i v i n e t i d e s ,

a n d t h e n e v i d e n c e f or a c h a n g e i n t h e r i tu a l a n d b y i m p l i c a t i o n

u n d e r l y i n g t h e o l o g y o f t h e c u l t .

5 A 2 . 1 . Domitian's divine titles: d o m i n u s , p r a e s e n s d e u s , t o n a n s

T h o u g h S t a t i u s a p p e a r s n o t t o u s e dominus as a d iv in e t i t l e , M ar t i a l

c l e a r ly d o e s . H e q u o t e s a n e d i c t r e g u l a t i n g s e a t i n g i n t h e t h e a t r e

th a t b eg in s edictum dom ini deique nostri (Epig. 5 ,5 ). R e g a r d i n g t h e e m p e r o r ' s

b r e a s t p l a t e , h e w r i t e s i n a d d r e s s i n g i t t h a t i t i s domini lorica, a n d t h a t

" y o u a r e h a p p y i n y o u r l o t (felix sorte tud) w h o s e d e s t i n y is t o c l o t h e

t h e s a c r e d b r e a s t (sacrum cui tangere pectus) an d to f ee l t h e g lo w o f t h e

h e a r t of o u r G o d (et nostri mente calere dei)" ( 7',2 ,2 a n d 5 - 6 ) M a r t i a l

p a r t i c u l a r l y m e n t i o n s h i m a s t h e deus w h o e r e c t e d t h e s h r i n e o f J u p i t e r

C a p i t o l i n u s ( 1 3 ,7 4 ) , w h o r e ce i v e s l i b a t io n s , a n d w h o g r a n t s t h e p r a y e r s

o f h i s w o r s h i p p e r s ( 6 , 8 7 ) .1 6

I t w o u l d , I b e l i e v e , b e q u i t e w r o n g t o d i s m i s s M a r t i a l ' s w o r d s a s

o f l i td e s ig n i f i c a n c e , a s m e r e f l a tt e r y . S t a t i u s t o o s p e a k s o f D o m i t i a n

i n s u c h t e r m s a s t h e forma dei praesens, o r t h e proximus ilk deus ( S t a t i u s ,

Silvae I , 1 ,62 ; V , 2 ,7 0 ) . N o r is t h e ev id en ce fo r su ch a ti t le i n co u r t

p o e t s a l o n e . D i o C h r y s o s t o m (Or. 4 5 , 1 ) r e c o r d s t h a t D o m i t i a n w a s

cal led icopioq K a i Geoq b y all G r e e k s a n d b a r b a r i a n s b u t t h a t h e h i m

se l f d i d no t " f la t te r in th i s w a y ( K a i T a u r a ou Gameucov)." T h i s im pl ie s

t h a t e v e n a t R o m e a n d n o t o n l y i n t h e E a s t w e r e s o m e p r e p a r e d

t o b e h a v e i n t h i s f a s h i o n .

T h e tide dominus i n a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h deus w a s a b l a t a n t a b r o g a t i o n

o f t h e i d e o l o g y o f t h e p r i n c i p a t e t h a t n o d o u b t o f f e n d e d t h e s e n a

t o r i a l c la ss w h o h a d o t h e r r e a s o n s a s w e l l f or r e s e n t i n g D o m i t i a n ' s

t e r r o r . P l i n y c e r t a i n l y i n Panegyricus 2 , 2 - 3 c o n t r a s ts T r a j a n ' s r u l e w i t h

t h a t o f D o m i t i a n :

Allow therefore to make their exit and go their way (Quare abeant ac

recedant) those expressions which fear expressed (voces M ae quas metus

exprimebat). We do not have to speak as before, for we do not have to

suffer the things we suffered before. Public addresses regarding the

emperor shal l not be the same (nec eadem de principe palam quae prius

1 5 S c o tt ( 1 9 7 5 ), p p . 1 0 2 - 1 0 3 .1 6 S e e a l s o M a r t i a l Epig. 5 ,5 ; 7 , 5 , 1 - 6 ; 3 4 , 8 - 9 ; 8 , 2 , 6 - 7 ; 8 2 , 1 - 5 ; 9 , 2 8 , 7 - 8 ; 6 6 , 3 - 4 .

T h e s e a n d o t h e r p a s s a g e s a re d i s c u s s e d in S c o t t ( 1 9 7 5 ) , p p . 1 0 4 - 1 0 9 .



T H E APOCALYPSE A N D D O M I TI A N'S I C O N O G R A P H Y 1 7 1

praedicemus) since what we used to say before in secret is now also

different (neque enim eadem secreto quae prius loquimur). The change o f the

times is revealed in our speeches (discernatur orationibus nostris diversitas

temporum). . . O n no occasion (nusquam) should we flatter him as a god,nowhere as a d iv ine presence (ut deo, nusquam ut numini blandiamur); fo r

we are speaking not of a tyrant but of a ci t izen, not of a master but

of a father (non enim de tyranno sed de cive, non de domino sed de parente).

H e r e t h e n w e f ind r e l a t e d t h e i d e a s o f w o r s h i p o f a n e m p e r o r d u r

i n g h i s l if e ti m e ( as o p p o s e d t o p o s t h u m o u s l y ) , a n d t h e i d e a o f b e i n g

a dominus a n d tyrannus r a t h e r t h a n princeps or first civis, w i t h D o m i t i a n

b y c o n t r a s t w i t h T r a j a n h a v i n g b e e n r e s p o n s i b l e f or b o t h .A s i t h a s b e c o m e s o m e t h i n g o f a c o m m o n p l a c e t h a t t h e r e w a s n o

t h e o l o g i c a l s i g n if i c a n c e t o s u c h d e s c r i p t i o n s t h a t w e r e b u t e x p r e s s i o n s

o f fla ttere rs, w e m u s t n o w co n s id e r ev id e n c e t o t h e co n t ra ry .

5 A 2 . 2 . Theological significance of Domitian's changes

T h e e x i s t e n c e o f s u c h a t h e o l o g i c a l j u s t i f i c a t i o n c o n s t i t u t e s c o g e n t

e v i d e n c e a g a i n s t t h o s e w h o d i s m i s s w i t h s c e p t i c i s m t h e c l a i m t h a tD o m i t i a n b e l i e v e d h i m s e l f t o b e d i v i n e a n d a c c e p t e d d i v i n e h o n o u r s .

A s p a r t o f t h e i d e o l o g i c a l a p p a r a t u s t h a t m a d e t h e a u t o c r a c y t h a t

w a s t h e p r i n c i p a t e a c c e p t a b l e w a s t h e re f us a l o f m o n a r c h i c a l t i d e s

s u c h a s dominus o r rex. A u g u s t u s v e i l e d h is a u t o c r a c y b e h i n d q u i t e

e m p t y r e p u b l i c a n f o r m s . B u t i n r e a l i t y h e a n d h i s s u c c e s s o r s k n e w

t h e y p o s se s s ed m o n a r c h i c a l p o w e r . L i ke w i se A u g u s t u s w a s c i r c u m

s p e c t i n a c c e p t i n g c u l t f r o m t h e E a s t e r n G r e e k c i ty s t a t e s . B u t a sw e h a v e s een (2 B 2 ), t h e Lares Compitales, a m o n g s t w h o m A u g u s t u s

w a s d e p i c t e d , b e l i e d a n y n o t i o n t h a t h i s r e fu s a l o f p r e s e n t d i v i n i t y

w a s s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d . F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e a s s o c i a t io n o f v a r i o u s c u lt s o f

d i v i n i s e d a b s t r a c t q u a l i t i e s o r v i r t u e s w i t h t h e c o l l e c t i v e p e r s o n o f

t h e e m p e r o r a ls o w a s i n d i c a t i v e o f a c e r t a i n i n s i n c e r i t y in r e j e c t i n g

divine t i t les (2B 3) .

I n d i c a t i o n s th e r e f o r e t h a t D o m i t i a n o n l y e a r l i e r i n h i s r e i g n r e f u se d

th e t i d e o f dominus, b u t c h a n g e d hi s m i n d l a t e r m u s t b e i n t e r p r e t e d

w i t h c a u t i o n .1 7

I n d e e d , it m a y b e a s k e d w h y if, a s is u n i v e r s a l l y

a d m i t t e d , e m p e r o r s w e r e i n s i n c e r e a b o u t r e f u s i n g p o l i t i c a l t i t l e s t h a t

1 7

S c o t t ( 1 9 7 5 ) , p p . 1 0 2 - 1 0 3 p r o p o s e d s u c h a t h e s is i n o r d e r t o ta k e s e ri o u s l y

D o m i t i a n ' s a l l e g e d l y l a t e r c l a i m a p p a r e n t l y b e l i e d b y h is e a r l i e r o n e . B u t S c o t t

a d m i t s t h a t S t a t i u s Silvae I , 6 , 8 3 - 8 4 o n w h i c h h i s t h e s i s r e st s is u n d a t e d a n d c a n

o n l y t h e r e f o r e b e d a t e d e a r l i e r ex hypothesi.



17 2 C H A P T E R F I V E

i d e n t i f i e d t h e m w i t h a u t o c r a t i c p o w e r , t h e y s h o u l d b e r e g a r d e d a s

p e r f e c d y s i n c e r e i n r e j e c t i n g w o r s h i p u n t i l t h e y w e r e d e a d . T h e r e

w a s a s s t u d i o u s a n a m b i g u i t y a b o u t r e li g i o u s t it le s a s t h e r e w a s

a b o u t p o l i ti c a l o n e s . T h e i d e o l o g y o f t h e p r i n c i p a t e w a s d e s i g n e d t o

m a k e i m p o s s i b l e a n e i t h e r - o r c h a l l e n g e t o its c l a i m s o f e i t h e r t h e f o r m

" a r e y o u d i v i n e o r h u m a n " o r o f " a r e y o u a dominus o r a princeps?" 18

W e h a v e w i t n e s s e d t h e a s s i m i l a t i o n o f t h e c u l t o f V i r t u e s t o t h e

I m p e r i a l C u l t a s f o r m i n g a k i n d o f c o l le c t iv e p e r s o n a l i t y w o r n b y

t h e d e c e a s e d e m p e r o r s a s e m b o d y i n g th e w e l l - b e i n g o f t h e R o m a n

e m p i r e . E v e n i n l a t e r e p u b l i c a n t i m e s w h a t w e r e o r i g i n a l l y d i v i n e

q u a l i t ie s o f t h e R o m a n p e o p l e b e c a m e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h sp ec if ic p e r

s o n s s u c h a s P o m p e y o r S u l l a , a n d w e r e c o n c e i v e d a s o n l y g r a n t e d

t h r o u g h t h e m e d i a t i o n o f t h e s e r u l e r s ( 2 B 3 ). S u c h t h e o l o g i c a l d e v e l

o p m e n t s e n a b l e d a s y n t h e t i c s o l u t i o n t o t h e l o g i c a l p r o b l e m o f h o w

A u g u s t u s a n d h i s s u c c e s s o r s , a s Pontifex Maximus o f t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t ,

co u l d a l so b e t h e o b j ec t o f i ts w o r sh ip (2 A 5 ) .

I t is t h e r e f o r e q u e s t i o n a b l e t o e n d e a v o u r t o d o w n - p l a y t h e r o le o f

t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t i n C h u r c h - s t a t e r e l a t i o n s o n t h e g r o u n d s t h a t t h e

m a i n c h a r g e a g a i n s t t h e e a r l y C h r i s t i a n s w a s t h a t t h e y r e f u s e d t o

w o r s h i p t h e g o d s o f t h e st a t e r a t h e r t h a n t h e e m p e r o r , t h a t t h e

e m p e r o r w a s m e r e l y divus a s o p p o s e d t o deus, a n d t h a t s w e a r i n g b y

t h e g e n i u s o f C a e s a r w a s s o m e h o w t o b e a s o ft er a l t e r n a t i v e a s a

m a r k o f l o y a l ty t o t h e s t a t e a s o p p o s e d to fu ll p a r t i c ip a t io n in it s

p o l y t h e i s m .1 9

S u c h w o u l d i m p l y t h a t t h e d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e l iv i n g

e m p e r o r a s divus, a n d o f t h e ac t o f i n cen se - s ac r i f i ce t o h i s EIKCOV,

b e l o n g e d t o a s e p a r a t e , p o l i t i c a l d i s c o u r s e f r o m t h a t o f r e l i g i o u s w o r

s h i p o f t h e g o d s . B u t b o t h k i n d s o f d i s c o u r s e e x h i b i t e d a g r o w i n g

c o n f l u e n c e a n d i n t e r d e p e n d e n c e b e t w e e n t h e m s e l v e s , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n

t h e c a s e o f t h e a s s i m i l a t i o n o f t h e c u l t o f V i r t u e s w i t h t h e e m p e r o r ' s

1 8

T h u s I fin d q u i t e f a c i le J o n e s ( 1 9 9 3 ) , p p . 1 0 8 - 1 0 9 w h e r e h e d e s c r i b e s t h e c l a i m

t h a t D o m i t i a n w a s s o a d d r e s s e d a s " a l l b u t i n c r e d i b l e . T h e b e s t t h a t a n e m p e r o r

c o u l d e x p e c t a f te r d e a t h w a s t o b e d e c l a r e d a d i v u s a n d n e v e r a d e u s . . . a l i v i n g

o n e h a d to do w i th e v en le s s . . . t er m s used b y f la tterers su ch as M ar t ia l , S tat ius ,

J u v e n t i u s , C e l s u s ( o r P l i n y ) t o s e c u r e a f a v o u r f r o m a n a u t o c r a t h a r d l y c o n s t i t u t e

p r o o f t h a t t h e y w e r e i n s t r u c t e d o r r e q u i r e d t o u s e t h e m . . . D o m i t i a n w a s b o t h

i n t e l l i g e n t a n d c o m m i t t e d t o t h e t r a d i t i o n a l r e l i g i o n . H e o b v i o u s l y k n e w t h a t h e

w a s n o t a G o d , a n d w h i l s t h e d i d n o t a s k o r d e m a n d t o b e a d d r e s s e d a s o n e , h e

d i d n o t a c t i v e l y d i s c o u r a g e th e f e w fla tte re rs w h o d i d . "1 9

G . E . M . D e S t e . C r o i x , W h y w e r e t h e e a r ly C h r i s t i a n s p e r s e c u t e d ? in Past and

Present, 2 6 ( 1 9 6 3 ) , p . 1 0 ; S . R . F . P r i c e , Rituals and Power: The Roman Imperial Cult in

Asia Minor, ( C a m b r i d g e : U . P . 1 9 8 4 ) , p p . 2 2 1 - 2 2 2 .




c o r p o r a t e p e r s o n a l i t y . W e sh a ll a r g u e t h a t c e r t a i n tr a d i t i o n a l s a c e r

d o t a l f u n c t i o n s a d o p t e d b y D o m i t i a n a s s u m e a n e w s ig n i fi c an c e

a g a i n s t t h e s e d e v e l o p m e n t s i n t h e c o n c e p t u a l b a c k c l o t h o f t h e I m p e r i a l

C u l t a t t h e c e n t r e o f w h i c h w a s t h e t i d e dominus et deus.

D o m i t i a n m a d e a s e r i o u s c l a i m f o r h i m s e l f a s a l i v i n g , r e i g n i n g

e m p e r o r t o b e deus a n d n o t s i m p l y divus. Pl in y ' s i n s i s t en ce o f a p a r t i c u

l a r e m p h a s i s b y D o m i t i a n o n h i s s t a t u s a s a deus praesens i s i n d i ca t i v e

o f a n e m p h a s i s o n t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t c e n t r e d o n a l iv i n g r e i g n i n g e m

p e r o r t h a t w a s , a p a r t f r o m G a i u s , a l m o s t u n i q u e t o t h a t r e i g n . C e r

t a i n l y b o t h M a r t i a l a n d S t a t i u s m o v e b e y o n d t h e t r a d i t i o n a l c o m p a r i s o n

o f t h e e m p e r o r w i t h J u p i t e r t o c l a i m i n g id e n t i ty b e t w e e n t h e t w o .

5 A 2 . 2 . 1 . Jovian ideology and Do mitian's changes in the cult

V i r g i l Aeneid 1,257-296 a n d 6 , 7 9 1 - 8 0 7 h a d d e s c r i b e d A u g u s t u s a s

c h o s e n b y J u p i t e r f or R o m e ' s imperium sine fine a n d t h e saeculum aureum.

H o r a c e ' s d e s c r i p t io n o f A u g u s t u s a s soter delapsus ex caelo n e v e r t h e l e s s

p r e s e r v e s t h e d i s t i n c t io n b e t w e e n t h e e l e c t e m p e r o r a n d t h e s u p r e m e

g o d h i m s e l f (Odes I , 2 , 2 9 - 3 0 ; 4 1 - 5 2 ) . Ode 3 , 5 d e s c r i b e s A u g u s t u s l i k eD o m i t i a n a s s o o n t o b e a praesens divus o n e a r t h i n t a n d e m w i t h caelo

tonantem . . . Iovem w h o t h e r e f o r e b y c o n t r a s t r e i g n s i n h e a v e n . N e v e r

t h e l e ss t h e r e is e v e n in s u c h a c l o se c o m p a r i s o n n o r e a l e q u i v a l e n c e .

S i m i l a r l y O v i d , i n Metamorphoses 1 5 , 8 5 8 - 8 7 0 , c o n t r a s t s t h e h e a v e n l y

J u p i t e r w i t h t h e terra sub Augusto, w i t h b o t h d e s c r i b e d a s pater et rec

tor. B u t e v e n i n Tristia 5 , 2 , 4 7 - 4 8 , w h e r e A u g u s t u s is e q u a t e d w i t h

J u p i t e r , t h e r e is n e v e r t h e l e s s th e q u a l i f ic a t i o n o f J u p i t e r o n e a r t h .2 0

B u t i n t h e c a s e o f D o m i t i a n t h e r e is c l e a r l y a f a i lu r e t o p r e s e r v e

t h e n i c e t y o f t h i s d i s t i n c t i o n w h i c h P l i n y (Panegyr. 80) i s to re as se r t

i n t h e c a se o f T r a j a n . M a r t i a l (Epig. 4 , 8 , 1 2 ; 9 , 8 6 , 7 - 8 ) e q u a t e s

D o m i t i a n w i t h J u p i t e r . I n S t a t iu s Silvae. I V , 3 , 1 2 8 - 1 2 9 D o m i t i a n

s t a n d s a s J u p i t e r ' s v i c e g e r e n t o n e a r t h . B u t t h a t D o m i t i a n c h o s e

a p p a r e n t l y t o c e l e b r a t e u n i q u e l y th i s s t a tu s i c o n o g r a p h i c a l l y o n c o i n s

t h a t d e p i c t h i m a s J u p i t e r h o l d i n g a t h u n d e r b o l t a n d c r o w n e d b yv i c t o r y s u g g e s ts t h a t M a r t i a l ' s e q u a t i o n s w e n t b e y o n d flattery a n d

r e p r e s e n t e d a c r i t i c a l d e v e l o p m e n t i n i m p e r i a l i d e o l o g y .2 1

Praeses22

2 0

F e a r s ( 1 9 7 7 ) , p p . 1 2 3 - 1 2 9 .21 BMC 2 p . 7 7 n o . 3 8 1 c f. F e a r s ( 1 9 7 7 ) , p p . 1 3 4 - 1 3 5 .2 2

M a r t i a l , Epig. 5 , 3 , 3 (praeses mundi); 7 , 4 (praeses Romae); 6 , 2 , 5 ; 8 , 8 0 , 5 ; 9 , 1 8 , 1

(te praeside); S t a t i u s , Sib). I , 2 , 1 7 5 (praeses Ausonius); I I I, 3 , 1 8 3 1 8 4 (numina magni prae-

sidis); 5 , 2 , 1 7 6 (magnus praeses).



T H E APOCALYPSE A N D D O M I T I A N ' S I C O N O G R A P H Y 17 5

26 CIL 2 , 1 7 2 a n d 1 9 6 3 cf. F . B o m e r , D e r E i d b e i m G e n i u s d e s K a i s e r s , i n Athen4 4 ( 1 9 6 6 ) , p p . 1 2 3 1 2 4 .

I n d e e d , a s B o m e r p o i n t e d o u t , i t is w i t h D o m i t i a n t h a t w e find

i n s c r i p t i o n a l e v i d e n c e f o r t h e o a t h b y t h e " g e n i u s o f C a e s a r " t h a t ,

i n its c o n t i n u a n c e u n d e r T r a j a n , b e l ie s P l i n y 's h o p e s t h a t s u c h v e n

e r a t i o n h a s e n d e d . U n d e r A u g u s t u s t h e f o r m u l a fo r a n o a t h f r o m

P a p h la g o n ia w a s to Zet><;, r f j "Kkxoq, 0 eo i T c d v i e q K a i rcaoai K a i auxoq

6 l e P a a x o q . I n C a l i g u l a ' s t i m e w e find f r o m A r i t i u m i n S p a i n a n d

A s s o s i n T r o a s b o t h L a t i n a n d G r e e k v e r s i o n s o f a n o a t h i n t h e

n a m e o f divus Augustus et ceteri omnes di immortales/ 'Zeuq Icoxrip, 6e6<;

K a i o a p l e p a a x o q K a i x\ ftdxpioq ayvri I lapGevoq. B u t w i t h D o m i t i a n w e

find per lovem et divom Augustum et divom Claudium et divom Vespasianum

Augustum et divom Titum A ugustum et G enium imperatoris Dom itiani A ugusti

deosque Penates.2** H e r e w e a p p e a r t o w i t n e s s a t r a n s c e n d e n c e o f a m e r e

c o n t i n g e n t a s s o c i a t i o n o f d i v i n e b e i n g s b y m e a n s o f a c o a l e s c i n g o f

D o m i t i a n ' s p e r s o n a l genius wi th t h e co l l ec t i v e genius o f m e m b e r s o f

t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t a n d t h e numen b o t h o f J u p i t e r a n d t h e dei Penates.

I t is i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h J u p i t e r C a p i t o l i n u s t h a t w e h a v e s o m e

i n d i c a t i o n o f r i t u a l d e v e l o p m e n t s in t h e i m p e r i a l i d e o l o g y t h a t t h e s e

i n s c r i p t i o n s i l l u m i n a t e . S u e t o n i u s r e c o u n t s t h e s c e n e a c c o m p a n y i n g

the ins t i tu t ion o f qu inquenn ia l con tes t s fo r th i s cu l t , cons i s t ing o f mus ic ,

h o r s e - r i d i n g , a n d g y m n a s t i c s :

He pres ided at the contes t (certamini praesedit) in half-boots (crepidatus)

clothed in a Grecian toga of purple (amictus toga Graecanica), sport ing

on his head (capite gestans) a golden crow n with an ima ge of Ju pi t er ,

J u n o a n d M i n e r v a (coronam auream cum effigie Iovis ac Iunonis Minervaeque),

assisted b y a priest of Ju p it er (adsidentibus Diali sacerdote) and the col

lege of the Flaviales (e t collegio Flavialium) similarly dressed (pari habitu),

except that his image was also on their crowns (nisi quod illorum coronis

inerat et ipsius imago).

Domitian 4 ,4

W e see i n t h e corona aurea with i t s effigies a c l a i m t o r e p r e s e n t e s p e

c ia lly a n d s a c r a m e n t a l l y J u p i t e r , J u n o , a n d M i n e r v a o n t h e p a r t o f

t h e h i g h p r i e s t o f t h e C a p i t o l i n e g a m e s . I t m a y b e s a i d t h e r e f o r e

t h a t p r o p i t i a t i o n i s per lovem et Iunonem et Minervam, as wel l as per

genium Domitiani w i t h w h o m a n d t h r o u g h w h o m , a s it w e r e , D o m i t i a n ,

dominus et deus, is p r o p i t i o u s . S u c h a r c h i e r a t i c coronae w e r e c u s t o m a r y

i n t h e E a s t . B u t I s u b m i t t h a t t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f t h e e m p e r o r ' s




i m a g e o n t o t h e coronae o f o th e r p r i e s t s im p l i e s a n ew s t ag e o f d ev e l

o p m e n t o f t h e c o ll ec t iv i st i m p e r i a l i s t i d e o l o g y . T h e a c c o m p a n y i n g

collegium Flavialium w e r e pari habitu w i t h D o m i t i a n , b u t t h e a d d i t i o n

o f h i s i m a g e t o t h e i r coronae s i n g l e d h i m o u t (nisi qu od illorum coron is

inerat et ipsius imago) a n d a w a r d e d h i m a n e w s t a tu s . S u e t o n i u s w a s

su f f lc i en d y i m p r es se d wi th t h e n o v e l ty o f t h i s ev en t a s t o g iv e i t s p e

c i a l e m p h a s i s .

In o rd e r t o r e in fo rce t h e n o t io n th a t t h e s ac r i f i c i a l ac t s o f o th e r

pontifices a r e b o t h s u b j e c t a n d d e p e n d e n t o n h is o w n , a n d t h a t h e is

t h e e q u a l s o u r c e o f t h e p r o p i t i a t i o n e f f e ct e d b y t h e i r a c t s , t h e y w e a r

o n t h e i r c r o w n s b o t h D o m i t i a n ' s i m a g e a n d t h e i m a g e of t h e s e d e it ie s

a s w e l l w i t h w h o m D o m i t i a n i s t h u s d e c l a r e d t o b e e q u a l . T h u s s u c h

a c o l le c t iv e c o m p r e h e n s i o n o f t h e d ei fi ed C a e s a r s i n t h e p e r s o n o f

t h e Genius o f D o m i t i a n t h a t w e s a w i n t h e c h a n g e s i n t h e o a t h u n d e r

D o m i t i a n is a l s o r e f l e c t e d i n t h e i m a g e r y o f t h e corona aurea.21

I t m u s t

b e e m p h a s i s e d t h a t w e a r e d e a l i n g h e r e w i t h n o i d i o s y n c r a s y o f

D o m i t i a n in c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h e c u lt o f J u p i t e r C a p i t o l i n u s a t R o m e

a l o n e . E v e n i n t h e W e s t , a s T e r t u l l i a n b e a r s w i t n e s s (De Idol 18 ,1 ) ,

a l o n g w i t h p a g a n , A f r i c a n a n d D a c i a n i n s c ri p t io n s (CIL 3 , 1 4 3 3 a n d

8 , 1 7 8 9 6 ) , p r o v i n c i a l p r ie s t s o f t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t w o r e t h e corona aurea

b e a r i n g t h e i m a g e o f t h e e m p e r o r . In t h e E a s t it h a d b e e n c o m m o n

in H e l l en i s t i c ru l e r cu l t s , fo r e x am p le , i n t h e ca se o f t h e p r i e s t e s s o f

L a o d i c e a , a s w e l e a r n f r o m a n e d i c t o f A n t i o c h u s I I I ( 2 0 4 B . C . )

w h e r e a g o l d e n c r o w n b e a r i n g t h e l ik e n e ss o f t h e q u e e n w a s w o r n .2 8

W e h a v e f r a g m e n t s o f c r o w n s t h e m s e l v e s , a n d r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s o n

c o in s w h i c h r e v e a l a n u m b e r o f d e p i c t i o n s o f e m p e r o r s .2 9

T h e r e i s

t h e r e f o r e a r g u a b l y u n d e r D o m i t i a n t o b e d e t e c t e d a t h e o l o g y o f r e p

r e s e n t a t i o n t h a t p o s t u l a t e d t h e e q u a t i o n o f t h e genius o f C a e s a r w i t h

t h e numen o f d iv in i ty .

A t a ll e v e n t s i n t h e E a s t , i n t h e p r o v i n c e o f A s i a M i n o r , r u l e r

w o r s h i p p r o g r e s s e d w i t h its o r d i n a r y n o r m a l i t y . A t E p h e s u s D o m i t i a n

e r e c t e d a t e m p l e i n t h e c e n t r e o f a l a r g e p r e c i n c t s e t o n o n e s id e

o f t h e m a i n s q u a r e . O n t h e a d j a c e n t s i d e o f t h a t s q u a r e s t o o d a

2 7

A . A l f b l d i , Die Mona rchische R epresentation im rbmischen Kaiserreiche, ( D a r m s t a d t :

W i s s e n s c h a f l i c h e B u c h g e s e l l s c h a f t 1 9 7 0 ) , p . 7 4 a n d f o o t n o t e 1, w h e r e h e c r i t i ci z e s

M o m m s e n ' s " A u f f a s s u n g v o n d e r B e l a n g l o s i g k e i t d e s K a i s e r k u l t e s i m S t a a t s r e c h t d e r

f r u h e r e n K a i s e r z e i t . "

2 8 D . F i s h w i c k , T h e I m p e r i a l C u l t i n t h e L a t i n W e s t : S t u d i e s i n t h e R u l e r C u l t o f

t h e W e s t e r n P r o v i n c e o f t h e R o m a n E m p i r e , i n EPRO 1 0 8 ( 1 9 9 1 ) , 2 ,1 p p . 4 7 7 - 4 7 8 .2<

> Ibid. p . 4 7 7 a n d P la te L X X X V b a n d L X X X V I a a n d b .



T H E APOCALYPSE A N D D O M I T I A N ' S I C O N O G R A P H Y 177

P r i c e (1 9 8 4 ) , p . 1 3 9 f ig . 3 a n d 1 4 0 .

Ibid. p . 1 8 7 .

d o u b l e t e m p l e o f Roma a n d J u l i u s C a e s a r , a n d a t its c e n t r e a t e m

p le o f A u g u s tu s . A lo n g th a t ad j a ce n t s i d e r a n a l so t h e o x o d p aaiA ,n c r|

d e d i c a t e d t o A r t e m i s , A u g u s t u s a n d T i b e r i u s .3 0

T h e e r e c t i o n o f a t e m p l e to D o m i t i a n h e r e re f le c te d t h e r e f o r e b o t h

a r e i n f o r c e m e n t o f t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t t h r o u g h t h is e m p e r o r w h o is

t h u s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h b o t h A u g u s t u s a n d A r t e m i s . D o m i t i a n ' s s t a t u e

is c o n s t r u c t e d i n p a r t i c u l a r l y l a r g e p r o p o r t i o n s .3 1

I n d e e d w e c a n r e a d

i n t h e s e a r c h i t e c t u r a l d e v e l o p m e n t s t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e I m p e r i a l

C u l t itself, f ir st w i th t h e a s so c i a t i o n o f t h e ab s t r a c t i o n o f Roma w i t h

J u l i u s C a e s a r a n d t h u s i ts f u r t h e r p e r s o n i f i c a t i o n i n t h e c o l l e c t iv e

p e r s o n a l i t y o f t h e e m p e r o r . W e s e e a l so a n i n t e g r a t i o n o f t h e t r a d i

t i o n w o r s h i p o f A r t e m i s w i t h t h e p a t r i o t i c a n d i m p e r i a l e m o t i o n s

a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t .

G i v e n t h e r e f o r e c l e a r e x a m p l e s o f c h a n g e s in t h e id e o l o g y o f t h e

I m p e r i a l C u l t a c c o m p l i s h e d u n d e r D o m i t i a n , l et u s e x a m i n e t h e w a y

i n w h i c h t h o s e c h a n g e s a r e r e f l e c t e d in t h e Apocalypse.

P A R T B . T H E D O M I T I A N IC B A C K C L O T H T O T H E APOCALYPSE

W e d i s cu s sed ea r l i e r t h e im ag e r y d e r iv e d sp ec if ica ll y f ro m th e Im p e r i a l

C u l t i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h e D o m i t i a n i c d a t i n g o f t h e Apocalypse, in

p a r t i c u l a r b o t h t h e figure o f D o m i t i a , a n d sp e c if ic f e a t u r e s o f h o w

D o m i t i a n w a s r e p r e s e n t e d i n t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t (5 A 1). O u r d i s c u s

s io n h e re wi ll b e i n tw o p a r t s . W e wi ll su m m ar i s e (5 B 1) b as i ca l l yt h e p o s i t io n of R a m s a y a n d H e m e r , w h i c h w e g e n e r a l l y a c c e p t , o n

th e r e f l ec t i o n s o f t h e Im p e r i a l C u l t sp ec if i cal ly i n t h e l e t t e r s t o t h e

C h u r c h e s (Apoc. 2 , 9 - 3 , 2 2 ) . W e w il l t h e n s h o w ( 5 B 2) t h a t s i m i l a r

t h e m e s c o n t i n u e i n t h e te x t o f t h e Apocalypse o u t s id e t h e l e t t e r s t o

t h e s e v e n c h u r c h e s , f r o m c h a p t e r 4 o n w a r d s , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t h e s o n g s

o f t h e e l d e r s a n d li v in g c r e a t u r e s . H e r e t h e h e a v e n l y c u l t u s a r o u n d

t h e t h r o n e o f G o d a n d o f t h e L a m b re fl ec ts i m a g e s o f t h e I m p e r i a lC u l t i n a w a y t h a t c o m p l e m e n t s s i m i l a r i m a g e r y i n t h e l e t t e r s t o t h e

s e v e n c h u r c h e s .



1 7 8 C H A P TER F I V E

5B 1. Letters to the Seven Church es of A sia

I t is f r o m R a m s a y a n d H e m e r ' s a n a l y s i s o f t h e le t t e r s t h a t m y t h e s i s

r e g a r d i n g t h e a p p l i c a b i li t y of t h e s o c io l o g ic a l c o n c e p t o f c o n t r a - c u l t u r et o t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f O r d e r i n e a r l y C h r i s t i a n c o m m u n i t i e s finds

its s t r o n g e s t s u p p o r t . I n d e e d , it w i ll b e m y a r g u m e n t t h a t t h e i r t h e

sis s h o u l d b e e x t e n d e d t o c o v e r t h e t h e m e s o f t h e Apocalypse i tself

o u t s i d e of t h e l e t t e r s . T h e r e is a s t r o n g p a r a l l e l b e t w e e n t h e p a r t i c

u l a r p a g a n cu l tu s t h a t ex i s t ed i n t h e l o ca l s e t t i n g o f t h e le t t e r s i n

t h e c o n t e x t o f p a r t i c u l a r c it ie s , a n d t h e e s c h a t o l o g i c a l p r o m i s e s t h a t

a r e m a d e t o t h e b e l i e v e r t h a t r e s i s t s t h a t c u l t u s . H e m e r ' s a c c o u n tw ill t h e r e f o r e b e s h o w n t o s u p p o r t t h e n o t i o n t h a t t h o s e c o m m u n i

t ie s w e r e f o r m i n g a c o n t r a - c u l t u r e i n w h i c h t h e s ta t u s d e n i e d b y

t h e i r r e j e c t i o n o f t h e h o s t - c u l t u r e a s s u m e s t h e p r o p o r t i o n s o f a h i g h l y

o r g a n i s e d c o m p l e x o f r e v e r s e d i m a g e s .

L e t u s n o w , t h e re fo re l is t t h e f ea tu re s o f t h e l o ca l s e t t i n g o f t h e

l e t te r s , a n d t h e c o n t r a - c u l t u r a l o r d e r a t t h e p h e n o m e n o l o g i c a l l e v el

o f so c i a l r ea l i t y , t o wh ich th ey g iv e r i s e .

5 B 1 .1 . A p o c . 2,6 7iapd8eioo<; and the tfiXov xfjc; £cofi<;

T h e o v e r c o m e r ( x a > VIKCOVII) is to eat (cpayeiv) of the tree of life (eic

TOU £uta) u xfjq ^cofjq) w h ic h is in th e p a r a d is e of G o d (o eax iv ev T£>

rcapaSeiacp xou 0e ou ).

T h ese ex p res s io n s a re ch a rac t e r i s t i c o f Gen. 2 ,9 an d d e r iv ed l i t e ra tu re .

H o w e v e r i n t h a t p a s s a g e t h e m o r e u s u a l t e r m 8 e v 8 po v is u s e d . £,x>Xovc a n h a v e t h a t s e n s e , t h o u g h i n t h e N e w T e s t a m e n t it is t h e c r o ss

o f C h r i s t t o w h i c h t h e t e r m u s u a l l y re f e r s (Acts 5 , 3 0 ; 1 0 , 3 9 ; 1 3 , 2 9 ;

Gal. 3 , 1 3 ; 1 Pet. 2 ,2 4 ) . M o reo v e r t h i s ex p res s io n fo r t h e c ro s s i s a l so

t o b e f o u n d e l s e w h e r e i n t h e Apocalypse a p a r t f ro m th i s l e t t e r : t h e

c ro s s a s t h e t r ee o f lif e is t o b e f o u n d b e a r i n g h e a l in g a n d s alvi fi c

fru i t (22 ,2 ; 14; 19) .

U n d o u b t e d l y b o t h o f t h es e t e r m s h a v e a n O l d T e s t a m e n t a n de a r l y C h r i s t i a n b a c k g r o u n d b u t t h e i r m e a n i n g s a r e t ot al ly u n r e l a t e d

t o e a c h o t h e r . W h y s h o u l d t h e g i b b e t o f t h e c r o s s b e l ik e n e d t o t h e

t r e e in p a r a d i s e ? H e m e r ' s a r g u m e n t is t h a t it is t h e p a r t i c u l a r l o c al

g e o g r a p h i c a l a n d a r c h i t e c t u r a l e n v i r o n m e n t a t E p h e s u s t h a t b r i n g s

t h e s e t w o d i s t i n c t i m a g e s i n t o t h e i r p r e s e n t r e l a t i o n s h i p .

T h e T e m p l e o f A r t e m i s a n d i ts c u l t u s a t E p h e s u s g r e w o u t o f

wh a t was o r ig in a l ly a t r ee sh r in e , a s can b e e s t ab l i sh ed b y th e l i t e r a r y a l lu s i o n s o f C a l l i m a c h u s a n d P e r i e g e t e s , a n d th e e x c a v a t i o n s




t h a t it w a s u n d e r D o m i t i a n t h a t t h e s ig n if ic a ti o n o f t h e i c o n o g r a p h y

o f t h a t c u l t u s w a s m o r e s h a r p l y d e f i n e d w i t h t h e i n t e n t i o n o f i n t e

g r a t i n g f u r t h e r d i s p a r a t e e l e m e n t s o f t h e p a g a n c u l t u s i n t o a g e n e r a l

w e b a t t h e c e n t r e o f w h i c h w a s th e e m p e r o r a n d h is w o r s h i p . W e

s a w t h a t t h e a r c h i e r a t i c a r r a n g e m e n t s fo r t h e C a p i t o l i n e g a m e s a n d

th e coronae w a s a n i m p o r t a n t e x a m p l e of s u c h i n t e g r a t i n g d e v e l o p m e n t s

( 5A 2 . 2. 2 ). T h e r e w a s m o r e o v e r a t S m y r n a a t e m p l e o f t h e I m p e r i a l

C u l t t h a t h a d b e e n d e d i c a t e d t o T i b e r i u s , L i v ia a n d t h e S e n a t e , a n d

i n w h i c h a c u l t - s t a t u e d e p i c t s T i b e r i u s i n a t o g a a n d v e i l e d f or

s ac r i f i ce . In h i s h an d h e h o ld s a patera o v e r t h e a l t a r .3 6

W e s h a ll

a r g u e i n t h e n e x t s e c t i o n t h e a s s o c i a t i o n o f t h i s s y m b o l i s m a n d t h e

angels wi th the i r ip id tax i (Apoc. 5 , 8 ; 1 5 , 7 ; 1 6 , 1 - 1 7 ; 1 7 , 1 ; a n d 2 1 , 9 ) .

5 B 1 .3 . A p o c . 2,13; 17: Gpovoq xou locxava , udvva KeKpuujj ivov,

yfjcpoq Xeuicri

P e r g a m o n h a d a p o s i t i o n o f p r e - e m i n e n c e i n t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t

a l t h o u g h i ts p r e c i s e s ta t u s i n c o m p a r i s o n w i t h t h a t o f E p h e s u s h a s

p r o v e n d if fic ult t o d e t e r m i n e . T i b e r i u s d e f e n d e d h i m s e l f b e f o r e t h e

S e n a t e f o r a l l o w i n g h i s c u l t i n P e r g a m o n o n t h e g r o u n d s t h a t A u g u s t u s

h a d a ll o w e d t h e r e a T e m p l e t o h i m s e l f a n d R o m a .3 7

F u r t h e r m o r e ,

t h e r e is e v i d e n c e o f a n a s s i m i l a t i o n o f t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t w i t h t h a t

o f A s k l e p i u s , p o r t r a y e d w i t h a s e r p e n t e v o c a t i v e o f t h e S a t a n i c i n

th e ey es o f t h e See r (Apoc. 20,2: 6 ocpiq 6 dp%ocio<;, oq eoxiv Aid(}oAo<;).38

I n a n i n s c r i p t i o n f r o m C o s , A s k l e p i u s is d e s c r i b e d a s t h e Pergameus

deus an d o co x r ip .3 9

5 B 1.3 .1. Gpovoq xou Iccxocva

W e h a v e a J u l i o - C l a u d i a n i n s cr ip t io n f ro m P e r g a m o n w h i c h h o n

o u r s D e m e t r i o s M i l a t u s .4 0

T h i s t ex t is h ig h ly i n s t ru c t iv e fo r t h e w ay

i n w h i c h i m a g e s a n d r i t u a l o f A s c l e p i u s a n d o f t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t

3 f i P r i c e ( 1 9 8 4 ) , p . 1 8 5 a n d T a c i t u s , Annal. X V , 5 5 - 5 6 .

*7 T a c i t u s Annal. I V , 3 7 : " . . . H i s p a n i a u l t e r i o r m i s s i s a d s e n a t u m l e g a t i s o r a v i t ,

u t e x e m p l o A s i a e d e l u b r u m T i b e r i o m a t r i q u e e i u s e x s t r u e r e t . . . C a e s a r . . . r e s p o n

d e n d u m r a tu s i is . . . h u i u s c e m o d i o r a t i o n e m c o e p i t : . . . A s i a e c i v i t a t ib u s n u p e r

i d e m i s tu d p e t e n t i b u s n o n s i m a d v e r s a t u s . . . c u m d i v u s A u g u s t u s s i b i a t q u e u r b i

R o m a e t e m p l u m a p u d P e r g a m u m s is ti n o n p r o h i b u is s e t. " ; cf. D i o C a s s i u s 5 1 , 2 0 , 7 .3 8 C . H a b i c h t , Altertiimer von Pergamon, V I I I , 3 : D i e I n s c h r i f t en d e s A s k l e p i e i o n s ,

( B e r l in : D e G r u y t e r 1 9 6 9 ) , n o . 7 1 : 'AOKA.TI7UO> Icoxfjpi K A I ' Y y i a x o v 5 e £ i o \ > u e v o v

S p m c o v x a ; T a f . 3 2 , 1 6 0 b .m

IGRR 4 , 1 0 5 3 a n d M a r t i a l , Epig. 9 , 1 6 ; P h i l o s t r a t u s , Vit. Apol. 4 , 3 4 ; S t a t i u s ,

Silvae I II , 4 , 2 3 - 2 4 cf. H e m e r ( 1 9 8 6 ), p p . 8 5 - 8 6 .4 0

H a b i c h t ( 1 9 6 9 ) n o . 3 6 .



THE APOCALYPSE AND D O M I T I A N ' S I C O N O G R A P H Y 181

were not only in spatial approximation but in a high state of syn

thesis. Demetrios is "high priest for life of the Pietas Augustorum (iepe[a]

ifj^xcbv I[e- ] [paa]xcov Eu aje jp da c; 8 ia pi[ou]) , who has fo un de d a fes

tival of Sebastoi Savi ours within the temple of the Savio ur Asc lepios

([lcJaBeupovTa rcavfiyupiv e[v] [TCO] xou Icoipipjoq 'AGKXrpt[iou] [xejuivei

lepaaxcov Icoi[r|-] [pco]v)."41

T h e cult of the em pe ro r an d the cult of

Asklepios are not simply associated spatially within the same tem

ple. T h e s am e divine titles (acoirip and acoifipeq) are ap pl ie d to b oth

of them. The reference to the Gpovoq TOU l a x a v a fits well therefore

with the context of the pre-eminence of the Imperial Cult in Pergamon.

T h e choir of Asia was c om m an d ed to gat her at Pe rg am on to per

form on the birthday of "Sebastos Tiberius Caesar god" and to per

form sacrifices.4 2

Furthermore, the reference (Apoc. 2,13) to "An ti pa s my faithful

mar tyr ('Avxucaq 6 uxxpxix; uo\) 6 moxoq uoi)) who was slain am o ng you

(oq d7C£Kxdv&ri nap ' uuiv) wh er e Sa ta n dwells (pnov 6 locxocvaq KOCXOIKEI)"

is indicative of pe rse cut ion specifically in co nnec tion wi th tha t cult.

T h e contra st bet ween Chri st's comin g an d his pro mis e: "I will ma ke

wa r with th em with the swor d of my m o u t h " suggests a c ont ra -

cultural parallel with the ius gladii of the pro-consul of Asia.4 3

As one

of the leading centres of the Impe ria l Cult in Asia Mi no r, Pe rg am on

wou ld have be en the mos t likely place wh er e non-p art ici pat ion in

the cult would have exposed Christians to the Dionysiac charges,

an d wh er e offence to the ideology of the Co m m u n e of Asia coul d

be most sensitively felt.

In this pagan, cultic context the "teaching of Balaam" (2,14) can

now be considered, which, it is claimed, involves the eating of idol

atrous food ((payeiv eiScoAoGuxa) an d committing fornication (rcopveuaou).

T h e latter char ge is characteristic of Ol d Te st am en t polemi c against

idolatry bu t the former is a distinctive characteristi c of New Te st am en t

gentile or mixed Christian communities, as Acts 15,20 and 1 Cor. 8,1-6

makes clear.

Note however how at Pergamon collegia and their festivities were

rel ated to the Imp er ia l Cul t. It is in co mp ar is on wi th such festivities

that both the udvvcc K £ K p \ ) j L i p e v o v and the \|/fj(po<; XEVKI] are, I will argue,

to be unde rst ood.

41

Ibid. p. 81 taf. 13, l i n e s 4-9.42 IGRR 4, 1 6 0 8 c and P r i c e (1 9 8 4 ) , p. 105.4 3

H e m e r ( 1 9 8 6 ) , pp. 82 84.



THE APOCALYPSE AND D O M I T I A N ' S I C O N O G R A P H Y 183

suffered. Those addressed will be acquitted finally by Christ at his

coming, or given a place in his kingdom denied by their present rulers.

But xj/ficpoq can also, I believe, have the meaning of tessera as a

certificate of admissi on to a nd the custom of hospitality be twee n

me mb er s of pa ga n mystery cults. It is im po rt an t to be ar in m in d

that an inscribed v|/f|(po<; ca n have the mea ni ng of certificate of admis

sion. But here if it is to have this sense we must also explain why if

the \ | /f | (pO(; X,euicr| is a certificate of admission, it has to have written

on it the person's name which strangely only the bearer knows (Apoc.

2,17: enx xf]v yiicpov 6vo|Lia KOUVOV yeypa^jaevov o ou8ei<; oiSev ei uri 6

A,a|!pdvcov).

We hav e an inscription rec or ding the articles of associati on of the

GUGTTIUXX or auve8piov of the rcpeopuxepoi or yepouoia that admi ni s

tered the gymnas ium at Pe rg am on in the time of Ha dr ia n.4 6

A priv

ilege of membership was a reducted entrance fee for their sons.4 7

T h e e nt ra nc e fee is called an eiorjMoiov whic h implies a tessera or

vjffjcpoq issued for the fee.

In an inscription relating to the imperial mysteries at Pergamon,

we find th at the con du cto r of the choir is to char ge an entry fee

for the imperial sacrifices and mystery play.4 8

Further corroborat ion

of an eioriMoiov in connect ion with Dionysiac mysteries at Sm yr na ,

at the temple of Dionysus Brisaeus, is to be found in CIG 3173

(= IGRR 4, 1393), dated A.D. 80 in Domitian's reign. In line 15 a

list of persons are introduced as: oi7te7tAr|pcoK6xe<;xa ianMaia. Amongst

the na me s listed ar e Ar tem idorus an d Apollonius bot h of wh om are

called 7iaxpo|Lit>oxr|<;. O n side b of the column we find a let ter of

Marcus Aurel iu s wr it te n (A.D. 158): ouvoSco xcov 7 i e p i xov Bpeioea

Aiovuoov xaipeiv.4 9

In IGRR 4, 1400 (= CIG 3176 b) line 9 - 1 0 we

ha ve a le tter of Antoninus Pius ouv68cp xcov ev I|nt>pvTi xe/veixcov Kai

|L iu axcov xaipeiv. T hus the eiorjMotov specifically in connec tion with

entry into the liturgy of a mystery celebration also implies a tessera

or xj/ricpoq.

4 6

H. H e p d i n g , Die A r b e i t e n zu P e r g a m o n , 1 9 0 4 - 1 9 0 5 , in Ath. Mitt. 32 ( 1 9 0 7 ) ,

pp . 2 9 3 4 - 2 9 6 , no. 18. See a l s o M.N. Tod, N o t e s on s o m e i n s c r ip t i o n s f r o m A s i a

M i n o r , in CR 29,1 ( 1 9 1 5 ) , pp. 1-2.4 7

o u o i c x ; 5e eiaepxeo~9ai x o ix ; v i o i x ; xcov uexexovxcov, 8oKiuao9evxa<; U E V Kai C M J X O V X ; ,

5i86vxa<; 8e e i a r i M a i o v .48

IGRR 4, 353 d l ine 14: 'IOT IAAKJIO-U rcape^ei 6 Ka x a o x a Ge i q i)uvcp86<; ei<; B v a l a q

xov lePaoxoi) Kai xi\q Tcburiq . . .49

IGRR 4, 1399 (= CIG 3176 a) l ine 5-6.



184 C H A P T E R F I V E

But how are we to explain why on this entry ticket is not a price

bu t a 6vo|ia mivov un de rs to od only by its bearer? We possess a num

ber of inscript ions in which \|/il(po<; means &pi0uo<; and is use d in a

magical or mystery context involving secret wisdom. There is clearly

an association between a counter as the physical representation of

a number, and a ticket bearing an entrance price. But magical inscrip

tions show us how it is possib le t hat a v|/f](poq on wh ich a numbe r is

writte n can be re gar de d as a cryp to gram for a per son 's na me . O n e

graffito from Pompei commemorates a loved one known to the writer

alone bu t in which the deceased is simply repr ese nted by a n um

ber .5 0

In another graffito "Amerimnos ('Apipiuvoq) has remembered

Ha rmon ia (euvr|G0r| 'Apuoviac;) his own (dear) lady (xfjq ei8ia<; leupiocq),

for her benefit (ETC' ayocGq)), th e n um be r of whos e beauti ful na m e

is 45 (r\q 6 &pi0uo<; \iz xov KOLXOV ovojuaxoq)."51

Clearly "Obtainable

('Auipiuvoq)" and "Compliance (f

Apuov(oc)" are real names the alle

gorical ch ar ac te r of wh ic h the graffitist seeks to veil in nu me ri ca l

mystery.

That however such graffitti are more than lovers' games is shown

by the evidence of two epitaphs, wh er e the na me of the deceas ed

is given as a num er ica l cry ptogr am. O n e epi tap h is from Ph er ae in

Thessaly in the second or third century. In IG 5,1 1368 we read:

"If you seek my number (Znxcov \iox> ir\v \|/fj(pov), o wayfarer (rcap-

oSeixa), you will know who I a m who lies here (yvcoafl xov K e i j i e v o v

e v 0 a 8 e | i e ) , I lie here ( K e i j i a i 8 ' ) in the earth which nourished me (ev

ya(p xfi jie dvaOpexj/aiLievTi), (number) 1354 (ATNA)." Here knowledge

is clearly associat ed with solution to a mys tery. Final ly we hav e a

second-century, epitaph from Bithynia on a plinth in the form of an

altar supporting a sarcophagus. To unravel the name requires the

wayfarer to be a companion of the Muses and a partaker of wis

dom (yvcoaxoq ear] Mouaa iq K a i aocpiriq uexoxoq).52

We thus have evidence for payments (ior\ki>Gia) for entrance into

mystery rites associated both with Dionysus and with sacrifices for

M

CIL 4 s u p p l . II ( 1 9 0 9 ) no. 4861 ( P o m p e i ) : <piAio f|<; dpiGuoq <pfie\ ("I am in l o v e

w i t h her w h o s e n u m b e r is 5 4 5 " ) . See a l s o 432 ( 1 9 8 2 ) 1142; L. R o b e r t , Bulletin

Epigraphique 5 ( 1 9 6 4 ) no. 618; 9 ( 1 9 7 9 ) no. 556; F. Dornseiff., Das A l p h a b e t in

M y s t i k und M a g i e , in I T O I X E I A VII ( L e i p z i g and B e r l i n : T e u b n e r 1 9 2 2 ) , p. 112.:)l

CIL 4 s u p p l . II no. 4 8 3 9 . See a l s o G. M a n g a n a r o , Graff i t i e i s cr i z i o n i fu n e r -

arie del la Sici l ia O r i e n t a l e , in Helikon 2 ( 1 9 6 2 ) , pp. 4 8 5 - 5 0 1 .> 2

W. P e e k , Griechische Vers-Inschriften, Bd. 1: Grab-Epigramme, (Ber l in : A k a d e m i e

V e r l a g 1955) no. 1324.



T H E APOCALYPSE AND DOMITIAN'S ICONOGRAPHY 185

the Imperial Cult. We have evidence for numbers as cryptograms

for names associated w i t h the search for oocpioc in magical rites. We

can therefore reasonably hypothesise that the Apoc. 2,17 : erci rfw \jrn(pov

ovojLicx raivov yeypauuevov o ouSeiq oi8ev ei \ir\ 6 A,au|}dvcov is a refer

ence by analogy to admission to mysteries at Pe rg am on requir ing

an en t rance i|/fj(po<; for pa yme n t of an eio ri Ma io v on wh ic h th e

bearer's name was in the form of a numerical cryptogram. IGRR

4,353 d line 14, as we have seen, records an eicmAuoiov specifically

related to the Imperial Mysteries.5 3

We have an inscription from

Hadrian 's t ime in which a meal of br ead an d wine ac com pa ni ed

w i t h incense and the wearing of garlands (axecpavoi) are associated

w i t h the emperor as their saviour and founder. We shall consider

this inscription in further detail in connection w i t h the Seer's gen

eral vision in the rest of the Apocalypse (5B 3.2-2).

The selection of such a cultic interpretation of vj/fjcpoc; seems to

l in k this term to admission to Imperial Cultic meals implied by the

references to ipccyeiv eiScoAoGuxa and the 9p6vo<; xou locxocva. Jus t as

the cont ra-cul tural cou nter pa rt to the former is the eschatological

udvva KeKpuuuevov whose foretaste is the Eucharist, so too the yfjcpcx;

XEVKX] is the tessera of admi ssion to the Chr is ti an cultic me al , n amely

bap tis m. It is not withou t relevance to ou r int erp ret ati on here tha t

Tertullian was later to use contesseratio hospitalitatis between apostolic

churches in this sense.5 4

Nor shou ld we rule ou t a significance for

the Church of the author's present in these words on the grounds

t h a t the ir promis e is eschatological. We shall argue late r that the

eschatological order of the heavenly Church is a reflection of the

Order of the writer's ow n communi ty w i t h its liturgical imagery pro

jected into the realm of the heavenly now entering the earthly in

eschatological fulfilment.

T h us the cultic paral lelism is also de te rm in ed by the promise to

the overcomers of "a new name (ovoua K a i v o v ) written upon the

pebble (en! XT V xjriitpov.... yeypauuevov) which n o - o n e knows except he

w h o receives it (o ouSeic; oiSev ei UTI 6 Xaupdvcov)." Im ag er y of C hurch

membership and sacraments is clearly being refashioned in the direc

t i o n of a pagan cultic fellowship w i t h its mysteries and secret in i t i

ation rites. Thus it is such pagan rites t h a t remain primary within

™ See footnote 48.5 4

T e r t u l l i a n , De Praesc. Haer. 20, 7-9 cf. Brent ( 1 9 9 5 ) , pp. 505-507 ff.




t h e n e v e r t h e l e s s C h r i s t i a n c o n t r a - c u l t u r a l i c o n o g r a p h y d e v e l o p e d b y

m e a n s o f s u c h c o n t r a r y r e fl e ct io n s . T h e c u l ti c c h a r a c t e r o f t h o s e c o n

t r a r y r e f l e c t i o n s t h u s d e t e r m i n e t h e p a g a n c u l t i c i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e

o r i g i n a l p r i m a r y d a t a a g a i n s t o t h e r p o s s ib l e a l t e r n a t i v e s . 3 5

5 B 1 .4. A p o c . 2,20,26-28: J e z e b e l a n d t h e d o x r |p npmvoq

T h e fi gu r e o f " J e z e b e l " a t T h y a t e i r a is c l e a r ly a n O l d T e s t a m e n t

c r y p t o g r a m t h a t c o n c e a l s t h e o r i g i n a l a n d c o n t e m p o r a r y p e r s o n w h o s e

o r i g i n a l i d e n t i t y is t h e r e b y lo s t. B u t h e r t e a c h i n g is c l e a r l y a v a r i a n t

o f w h a t wa s a l so be in g ta u g h t in P e r g a m o n . Oocyeiv eiScotaSGuxa (Apoc.

2 ,1 4 cf. 2 ,2 0 ) is o n ce m o r e t h e ac tu a l ex p r es s io n o f sp i r i t u a l fo rn i c a

t i o n (r co pv eu ao u) . H e n c e th e sp i r it o f O l d T e s t a m e n t i d o l a t ry is s een

t o f in d e x p r e s s i o n i n t e a c h e r s i n b o t h c it ie s a d v o c a t i n g p a r t i c i p a t i o n

i n m e a l s o f p a g a n m y s t e r y c u l t s , w i t h w h i c h , a s w e s h a ll s h o r t l y s e e ,

t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t w a s t o a c h i e v e a n e w a s s o c i a t i o n ( 5 B 2 . 2 ) .

T h e r e f e re n c e t o t h e m o r n in g s t a r (d o x f |p rcp co 'ivo q) is t o t h e p l an e t

V en u s , s een a s a sy m b o l o f au th o r i t y fro m B ab y lo n ia n tim es. Bu t t h e re

is, I b e l i e v e , a ls o a r e f e r e n c e t o t h e c l a i m s o f A u g u s t u s ' t o b e filius

deorum d u e to t h e m y th i c a l i n i ti a t i o n o f t h e gens Julia b y V e n u s . F u r t h e r

m o r e , w e h a v e A u g u s t a n c o i n s , r e s t o r e d b y T i t u s , i n w h i c h o v e r t h e

h e a d o f A u g u s t u s r a d i a t e t h e r e is d e p i c t e d a s t a r ( P l a te s 1 6 a n d 1 8 ) .5 6

I n v i e w o f t h e c le a r e m e r g e n c e o f p a g a n a n d im p e r i a l i c o n o g r a p h y

b o t h i n t h e l e t t e r s , a n d , a s I w i ll s h o w , i n t h e r e m a i n d e r o f t h e

Apocalypse itself, I c a n n o t fo llo w H e m e r ' s h e s i t a n c y i n t h is r e g a r d .5 7

W e h a v e a l r e a d y s h o w n t h a t t h e a ll u s io n t o Ps. 2 , 7 - 9 (Apoc. 2 , 2 6 - 2 7 )

a n d Num. 2 4 , 1 7 (Apoc. 2 , 2 8 ) d o n o t i n v a l i d a t e t h e i r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n i n

a p a g a n c u l ti c c o n t e x t . T h e O l d T e s t a m e n t i m a g e r y is u s e d t o r e c o n

s t r u c t t h e p a g a n c u l ts s o a s t o p r o d u c e a s y s t e m o f C h r i s t i a n c o u n t e r -

i m a g e s .

5 B 1 .5 . A p o c . 3,4-5 iudxicc XEVKOL and x \ pipAxx; xfjq £cofi<;

S a r d i s u n d e r A u g u s t u s h a d b e e n a m o n g s t t h e f i r s t c i t i e s o f A s i a

M i n o r t o b e g r a n t e d a c u l t a n d t e m p l e . T h e c it y w a s t o d e d i c a t e a

s t a t u e o n t h e c o m i n g o f a g e o f G a i u s C a e s a r i n t h a t t e m p l e .5 8

It is

h e r e , m o r e o v e r , t h a t w e h a v e a l l u s i o n s t o t h e D o m i t i a n i c c h a n g e s

H e m e r ( 1 9 8 6 ) , p p . 9 6 - 1 0 4 d i s c u s s e s a l s o g l a d i a t o r i a l a n d m a g i c a l a s s o c i a t i o n s .%

BMC 2 , p p . 2 8 2 - 2 8 3 n o s . 2 6 6 , 2 6 7 , a n d 2 7 1 a n d p la t e 5 4 , 3 .5 7 H e m e r ( 1 9 8 6 ), p p . 1 2 5 - 1 2 6 .5 8 P r i c e ( 1 9 8 4 ) , p . 6 6 .



THE APOCALYPSE A N D D O M I TI A N'S I C O N O G R A P H Y 187

in t h e fiscus judaicus ( 3 C 2 . 3 .3 . 3 ) . I f C h r i s t i a n s w e r e u n p r e p a r e d t o

p u t t h e i r n a m e s o n s y n a g o g u e ro ll s a n d t h u s j o i n w h a t i n S m y r n a

w a s d e s c r i b e d a s t h e " s y n a g o g u e o f S a t a n , " (Apoc. 2 ,9 ) o r i f r a th e r

t h e y w e r e e x c o m m u n i c a t e d i n t e r m s o f t h e Biracoth ha Minim, t h e n

t h e i r n a m e s c o u l d b e s a i d t o b e " b l o t t e d o u t " o f t h e r e g i s t e r t h a t

g a v e t h e m p r o t e c t i o n . T h e s u sp i c io n s a r o u s e d b y n o n - p a r t i c i p a t i o n

i n t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t w i t h o u t t h e e x e m p t i o n t h u s a f f o r d e d w o u l d l e a d

t o t h e a c c u s a t i o n t h a t t h e y w e r e i n v o l v e d in D i o n y s i a c rites t h a t

t h r e a t e n e d b o t h t h e s o c i a l a n d m e t a p h y s i c a l pax.

I t is p rec i s e ly t h i s s i t u a t i o n th a t is r e f l ec t ed i n t h e r ev e r se d im ag e

o f t h e r e t u r n i n g C h r i s t w h o p r o m i s e s t o t h e o v e r c o m e r in S a r d i s

tha t : " I wi l l no t b lo t ou t (ou \ix\ e^ccXeiyco) hi s n a m e (xo ovouoc ocuxou)

f ro m t h e b o o k o f life (eic xfjq pi p ta ro xfjq £cof\<;)." (Apoc. 3 ,5 ) T h e c l e a r

p a t t e r n t h a t is t h e r e f o r e e m e r g i n g f r o m a n a n a l y s is o f t h e s o c i al c o n

t e x t o f t h e l e t te r s is t h e c l a s h w i t h t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t . W e s h o u l d

c l e a r ly r e a d in s u c h a c o n t e x t t h e i m m e d i a t e l y p r e c e d i n g p r o m i s e t o

t h e o v e r c o m e r t h a t : " h e w il l b e c l o t h e d ( r c e p i p a ta i x a i ) i n w h i t e g a r

m e n t s (ev i u ax io iq A,e\)Koi<;)," t h u s r e f l e c t in g t h e w e a r i n g o f w h i t e t h a t

w a s t r a d i t i o n a l fo r p a r t i c i p a n t s i n a ll p a g a n p r o c e s s i o n s .

W e h a v e a l r e a d y d r a w n a t t e n t i o n t o t h e e v i d e n c e o f t h e Lex Nar-

bonensis a c c o r d i n g to w h i c h t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s w o r e fe st al w h i t e fo l

l o w i n g t h e supplicatio w i t h m y r t l e w r e a t h e s o n t h e i r h e a d s a n d m y r t l e

b r a n c h e s i n t h e i r h a n d s .5 9

W e h a v e m o r e o v e r s ev e ra l E a s t e r n e x a m

p l e s o f t h i s p r a c t i c e . W e h a v e a d e s c r i p t i o n o f a n adventus c e r e m o n y

i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h e cu l t o f A t t a l u s I I I ( 1 3 8 - 1 3 3 B . C . ) a t P e r g a m o n

(OGIS 3 3 2 ) . T h e stephanophoroi o f t h e t w e l v e d e i ti e s , a s t h e y m e e t h i m

on h is a r r iva l , a re to wear the i r gar lands ( [oxe](pavr |<popf |oou ; / . 27-29) .

T h e p ri es ts ar e to offer i n ce n se (e7ci6uuovxaq XiPavcoxov; /. 29) as

A t t a l u s is m e t in p r o c e s s i o n b y t h e p e o p l e " g a r l a n d e d a n d in w h i t e

ra im e n t (ev ea0[f j ]o iv ^ a u r c p a iq eaxecpavcouevouq . . . ] ; / . 3 7 - 3 8 ) . "6 0

A s a c o n t r a i m a g e o f t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t , t h e o v e r c o m e r s h e r e a r e

d e s c r i b e d a s c l o t h e d i n w h i t e i n a n a s s o c i a t i o n t h a t g i v e s t h e m t h e

s t a t u s o f p a r t i c i p a n t i n t h e C h r i s t i a n c u l t u s d e n i e d t o t h e m i n t h e i r

i s o la t i o n a n d a l i e n a t i o n w i t h i n t h e i r p r e s e n t c u l t u r e .

59

CIL 1 2 , 6 0 3 8 , s ee a l s o 2 B 4 a n d 3 C 2 . 3 . 3 . 3 .< ) 0 S e e a l s o Syli" 6 9 5 , 3 5 ; 1 1 5 7 , 3 5 ; H e r o d i a n 1 1, 2,9 ( o f P e r t i n a x in ): o i o x p a x i c o x c u . . .

Ie(3cxax6v rcpoaeutov... . o u oc av xe q m i 9\>oavxe<; , 8acpvr| (popoi )vxe< ; . . .




5B 1.6. Ap oc. 3,12: TO ovouoc.. .ifjq 7i6A,eco<; xov Geou \iov

Strabo XII, 8,18 described Philadelphia as full of earthquakes (oeiGpcov

7tA,f|pri<;), and Hemer claims in consequence that the earthquake of

A . D . 17 affected the collective psychology of the inhabitants of that

city. Cer ta inl y Philade lphia ap pe ar s am on gs t the cities of Asia which

expressed their gratitude to Tiberius for the aid that he gave fol

lowing this disaster.6 1

Suc h grat itude took the form of assu ming the

imperial cognomen and honouring Germanicus with a posthumous cult.

Coins of Philadelphia show the name of the city changed to Neo-

caesarea, with a magi strat e an d priest of the Impe ri al Cult vene rat

ing Germanicus.6 2

After Claudius, the city reverted to its original

name, but under Vespasian it used the epithet Flavia to ho no ur the

imperial house.6 3

Domitian's edict (A.D. 92) required acreage for vinyards to be

reduced, arguably to alleviate famine by encouraging more corn to

be grown. Hemer perceptively associates this edict with the situation

in Philadelphia.6 4

We have already argued the relationship between

this edict and Apoc. 6,6 as establishing a Domitianic date for the

Apocalypse (5A 1). T o a city such as Ph ila del phi a, whose pri ncipal

deity was Dionysius, god of the vintage festival, such an edict was

arg uab ly an affront. T h us He m e r is able to see in the pr omis e to

the overcomers a reflection of the disillusionment of a loyal city

whose faithfulness has been mocked by a cynical emperor.

Those who have not denied Christ 's name (v. 8) will "hold fast

( K p d x e i ) to what you have (8 e%eiq)." They will be shaken neither by

physical no r by mo ra l ea rt hq ua ke nei ther such as that afforded by

Domitian's decree nor his new claims for his own cult, but will be

made "a pillar (GTUA,OV) in the temple of my God (ev TCD vocco)."

(v. 12) T h e "n ew na me (TO ovopd jiou TO KCCIVOV)" will not be "Neo-

cae sar ea" but "the na me of my Go d (TO ovouoc TOU QEOV UOD) and of

the city of my God (Kai xr\q KOXEQM; XOV QEOV pou), of the new Jerusalem

(xr\<; Kaivfjq 'Iepo\)GaA ,r ||Li)-" (v. 12) Once again, therefore, we see a

parall elism between the religio-political structu res of the present and

61

CIL 10, 1624: H i e r o c a e s a r e a cf. T a c i t u s , ArmaL, II, 4 7 , 3 - 4 and H e m e r ( 1 9 8 6 ) ,

p. 156.62

Catalogue of Coins in the British Museum, Lydia, P h i l a d e l p h i a no. 55 (C a l i g u l a ) , no.

5 6 (C l a u d i u s ) and H e m e r ( 1 9 8 6 ) , p. 157.e s

Ibid. nos. 51-52 (C a l i g u l a ) .M

H e m e r ( 1 9 8 6 ) , pp. 1 5 8 - 1 6 0 .




t h e i m a g e s o f t h e p e r s e c u t e d c o m m u n i t y in h o p e o f e s c h a t o l o g i c a l

v i n d i c a t i o n .

5 B 1 .7 . A p o c . 3,21: KaGioai uex ' euou ev xcp Gpovcp uou

P a r t i c u l a r r e f e r e n c e s h e r e to o u r c o n c e r n s w i t h t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t

a r e s p a r s e , e v e n t h o u g h H e m e r d e t e c t e d a n d r e i n f o r c e d e a r l y d i s

c u s s io n s o f t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n w h a t is r e c o r d e d b y a n c i e n t w r i t

e r s a n d in s c r i p t i o n s r e g a r d i n g L a o d i c e a a n d th i s l e t t e r .6 5

T h e w e a l t h

a n d s el f- suf fi c ien cy o f t h e c i t y m e a n t t h a t it w a s in a p o s i t i o n to

d e c l i n e to a sk f or i m p e r i a l a i d f o ll o w i n g t h e e a r t h q u a k e a l r e a d y m e n

t i o n e d ( 5 A 3 . 1 . 6 ) . H o w e v e r , t h e p r o m i s e h e r e to t h e o v e r c o m e r s is

"to s i t w i th m e o n m y t h r o n e (icaG ioai ue x' euo u ev xcp Gpovcp uou)

e v e n a s I h a v e b e e n v i c t o r i o u s (coq Kocycb ev i ic r | aa ) a n d s it w i th m y

f a t h e r o n h i s t h r o n e (Kai eicdGiaa uexd xou rcaxpoq uo u ev xcp Gpovcp u o u ;

v. 2 1 ) . "

T h e r e w a s h o w e v e r a n i m p e r i a l t e m p l e e r e c t e d in h o n o u r o f

D o m i t i a n at L a o d i c e a in c o m m e m o r a t io n o f h i s o f t en fictitio us, m i l

i t a r y , v i c t o r i e s . T h e d e p i c t i o n o f t h e t e m p l e o n c o i n s r e p r e s e n t s

D o m i t i a n in a r m o u r w i t h a s p e a r a n d w i t h t h e i n s c r i p t i o n : e m v e u a o c ; .6 6

F u r t h e r m o r e , a s H e m e r n o t e s , R a m s a y r e s t o re d a n i n s c r i p t i o n f r o m

L a o d i c e a in w h i c h a f r e e d m a n o f t h e e m p e r o r , T i b e r i u s C l a u d i u s

T r y p h o n , d e d i c a t e s a t r i p l e g a t e a n d t o w e r s : "to J u p i t e r (A[u]) t h e

g rea t e s t Sav io u r (u ey io [x co ] I [ co]xfjpi) a n d e m p e r o r D o m i t i a n ( K a i

AuxoKpdxopi [Aou ix iavcp ]) , C a e sa r A u g u s tu s ( K a i o a p i I e |3 ao xcp ), pon

tifex maximus (dp%iepei ueyioxco)." 6 7 W e h a v e s h o w n t h e c l e a r e m p h a

sis in t h e o t h e r l e t t e r s o n a c o n t r a - c u l t u r a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f C h r i s t i a n

e s c h a t o l o g y in t e r m s o f t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t . It is i n t e r e s t i n g to ask ,

t h e r e f o r e , w h e t h e r t h e a d d r e s s o f t h e L o r d C h r i s t ( " B e h o l d I s t a n d

at t h e d o o r a n d k n o c k " v. 2 0 ), h o w e v e r a l l u s o r y , is n o t a p a r a l l e l

w i t h t h e g a t e b e a r i n g t h e e m p e r o r ' s n a m e a n d b y w h o s e w ill p e o

p l e c o m e in a n d c o m e o u t . T h e s u p p e r is c l e a r l y e s c h a t o l o g i c a l (Apoc.

3 ,20 cf. 19 ,9 a n d 17) b u t a f o r e t a s t e is t h e E u c h a r i s t o f t h e p r e s e n t

w h i c h h a s a l r e a d y in p r e v i o u s l e t t e r s b e e n p a r a l l e l e d w i t h t h e c u l t i c

fes t iv i t ies of the gui lds at P e r g a m o n ( 5 B 1 . 3 ) a n d T h y a t e i r a ( 5 B 1 . 4 ) .

L e t us n o w e x a m i n e h o w t h e i m a g e s o f c o n t r a - c u l t u r a l p a r a l le l i sm

6 5

H e m e r ( 1 9 86 ) c h a p . 9 .6 6

B M C Phrygia p . 3 0 7 n o s . 1 8 1 - 1 8 2 , 1 8 5 ; p . 3 0 8 n o . 1 8 8 ; P r i c e ( 1 9 8 4 ) , p . 1 8 3

a n d p . 2 6 4 C a t . 8 7 .1)7 CIG 3 9 4 9 = IGRR 4 , 8 4 7 = MAMA 6 , 2 = EpAnat 2 6 ( 1 9 9 6 ) , p p . 3 1 - 4 0 cf.

H e m e r ( 1 9 8 6 ) , p . 1 9 5 .




i m p e r i a l h o u s e h o l d p l a y e d a p i v o t a l r o l e . I m a g e s of th e i m p e r i a l f a m

ily w e r e i n c l u d e d w i t h b u s t s of A r t e m i s for c a r r y i n g f r o m the l a t

t e r ' s t e m p l e f r o m w h e r e t h e y w e r e k e p t to the t h e a t r e . T h e y h a d

s p e c i a l b a s e s t h e r e on w h i c h t h e y c o u l d be set up. T h e r e s a c r i f i c e s

t o o k p l a c e a t m e e t i n g s of the a s s e m b l y a n d fes t iva l s such as the

Sebasta, the Soteria, and the f o u r - y e a r l y G r e a t Ephesia.74

A t A t h e n s it was the c o u n c i l of e l d e r s w h i c h was r e s p o n s i b l e for

m a k i n g t h e s e s p e c i a l i m a g e s q u i t e d i s t i n c t f r o m the p e r m a n e n t l y

s t a n d i n g s t a t u e s . Old and d a m a g e d im a g e s w e r e the r e s p o n s i b i l i t y of

t h e c o u n c i l of e l d e r s a t E p h e s u s .7 5

F u r t h e r m o r e y o u t h s at A t h e n s a n d

T a n a g r a s e r v e d as offic ia ls cal led sebastophoroi. 76 F u r t h e r m o r e , i m p e r i a l

m y s t e r i e s w e r e c e l e b r a t e d w i t h a special off ic ia l , the a e p a a x o c p d v i r i q .7 7

I t was S t a u f f e r w h o , w i t h c o n s i d e r a b l e i n s i g h t , p o s i t e d the c o n

n e c t i o n b e t w e e n s u c h f e a t u r e s of the I m p e r i a l C u l t and the s c e n e s

o f the Apocalypse 78

T h e s c e n e w h i c h f o l l o w s the seven le t te rs , f i l l ed

t h e m s e l v e s w i t h a l l u s i o n s to the I m p e r i a l C u l t as we h a v e s h o w n f o l

l o w i n g H e m e r a n d R a m s a y , is a s c e n e r e s p l e n d e n t w i t h i m a g e r y

f r o m the g a m e s , the chora l fes t iv i t i es , the h o r s e r a c e s , the i m p e r i a l

m y s t e r i e s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h the c a r r y i n g of the eiicoveq, the p r e s b y t e r s

o f the c i t i e s o r g a n i s i n g a n d f u n d i n g the I m p e r i a l C u l t m a n y of w h o m

h a d c u l ti c f u n c t i o n s t h r o u g h the off ices they he ld in the s a c r e d c o l

l e g e s s u p e r i n t e n d i n g the i m p e r i a l m y s t e r i e s , etc . T h e c o n t r a - c u l t u r e

wil l of c o u r s e r e v e r s e the i m a g e s of the h o s t c u l t u r e , in p r o c e s s of

t a k i n g on its v a l u e s a n d r e f a s h i o n i n g t h e m .

L e t us now see in d e t a i l how the t h e m e s of eiKoveq in the i m p e

r ia l mys ter ies , the b u r n i n g of i n c e n s e , the p o u r i n g of l i b a t i o n s , the

f e s t i v a l t h a t c o m b i n e d h y m n o d y w i t h g y m n a s i a , g a m e s a n d t h e a t r e ,

a re r e f l ec t ed in the v i s io n of the Apocalypse.

74

Ibid. p. 104.75

/. Eph. II, 23.7 6

P r i c e ( 1 9 8 4 ) , p. 189.7 7

H.W. P l e k e t , An a s p e c t of the i m p e r i a l c u l t : i m p e r i a l m y s t e r i e s , in HThR 58,4

( 1 9 6 5 ) , p. 337 m e n t i o n s the B i t h y n i a n i n s c r i p t i o n (Ath. Mitt. 24 ( 1 8 9 9 ) ) in w h i c h

xcov uuoxripicov iepocpdvxriq and aePaoxocpdvxr|<; are u s e d as e q u i v a l e n t s . A n o t h e r

A s i a n e x a m p l e , f r o m D o r y l a e u m in P h r y g i a (IGRR 4 , 5 2 2 (= OGIS 4 7 9 ) ) , w o u l d be

a n H a d r i a n i c i n s c r i p t i o n e r e c t e d by A s k l e p i a d e s son of S t r a t o n i k o s O e o i q lePaoxoiq

K a i 0ea i< ; leftaaxau; mi ' O u o v o i a l e p a a x f j K a i 9ea T c b u p . His tit le is o e p a a x o c p d v -

X T |< ; 8 i a p(o\) K a i iepeix;.7 H

See f o o t n o t e 5.




5 B 2 . 1 . The angels and cpidAxxi: A p o c . 16: festival

T o t h e f es tiv e c r o w d a t E p h e s u s t h e a p p e a r a n c e o f t h e h i g h p r i e s t

o p e n i n g a n e w s e ri es o f g a m e s b y t h r o w i n g d o w n a m a p p a o r p u r

p l e s ig n a l -c lo th , o r em p ty in g a s ac r i f i c i a l b o wl , was a f e s t i v e s cen e

o f r e j o i c i n g .7 9

B u t t o t h e S e e r i t is a n a n g e l w h o p o u r e d o u t h i s

" l i ba t io n bo w l o f th e w r a t h o f G o d (cpidAriv xov Guuou xou G eo u). . .

u p o n t h o s e w h o h a v e t h e m a r k o f t h e b e a s t (ETC! xouq dv0pam o\)<; xoix;

EXOvxaq xo xdpayuxx xov O n p u y o ) a n d w h o w o r s h i p h i s i m a g e (Ka i xoix;

rcpoaicuvouvxaq xf\ EIKOVI a \>xo\))." (Apoc. 1 6 ,2 ) T h u s t h e s e v e n a n g e l s

w i t h t h e i r s e v e n cpidtaxi c o m m e n c e t h e g a m e s t h a t a r e t h e f i n a l c o n

t e st (dycov) b e t w e e n B a b y l o n a n d t h e C h u r c h , a n d it is i n t h a t a r e n a

t h a t A r m a g e d d o n a n d t h e t r i b u l a t i o n w o e s o f t r a d i t i o n a l a p o c a l y p

t i c a re t o t ak e p l ace (1 6 , 3 -2 1 ) .

I f i n c en se a s we l l a s t h e s ac r if i ce o f a b u l l w as ch a ra c t e r i s t i c o f

t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t , so t o w a s t h e s y m b o l i s m o f t h e e m p e r o r , v e i l e d

as a p r i e s t fo r s ac r i f i ce , p o u r in g a d r in k o f fe r in g f ro m a patera ((pidA,r|).

T h e t e m p l e a t S m y r n a s h o w e d T i b e r i u s w i t h h is h e a d v e i l e d .8 0

F u r

t h e r m o r e t h i s s h o u l d n o t b e s e e n a s s u g g e s t i n g a d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n

a h u m a n - p r i e s t e m p e r o r a n d full w o r s h i p o f t h e g o d s s i n c e , a s P r i c e

p o i n t s o u t , g o d s a r e o f t e n d e p i c t e d a s p r i e s t s o f t h e i r o w n e p o n y

m o u s c u l t s .8 1

T h e v i s i o n o f t h e a n g e l s w i t h t h e i r (p id A m m a y w e l l

a ls o h a v e b e e n i n f o r m e d b y s u c h p a g a n a n d i m p e r i a l i m a g e r y , s u c h

a s t h a t o f t h e p r i e s t e s s a t P o m p e i i w i t h stole a n d patera (Plate 14) .

I n s t e a d o f t h e e m p e r o r b r i n g i n g b l e s s in g a n d s a lv a t i o n b y m e a n s o f

h is l i b a t io n , t h e s e a n g e l s b r i n g t h e w r a t h a n d j u d g e m e n t o f G o d

u p o n t h o s e w h o w o r s h i p h i s EIKCOV i n t h e cu l t .

5 B 2 . 2 . 7cp£apt>x£poi a n d EIKOVE^: theatre and mysteries

W e h a v e a l r e a d y d r a w n a t t e n t i o n t o t h e s ig n i fi c a nc e o f m y s t e r y col

legia i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h e l e t t e r t o P e r g a m o n ( 5 B 1 . 3 ) . I t i s n o w

t i m e f o r u s t o a s s e s s i n g r e a t e r d e t a i l t h e l i n k s b e t w e e n e p i g r a p h i c

e v i d e n c e f o r s u c h collegia a n d t h e r o l e o f t h e 7tp£aPt>x£poi , their choirs

a n d t h e i r ax £< pa vo i, a r o u n d t h e h e a v e n l y s a c r if ic ia l a l t a r o f t h e L a m b .

7 9

S ta u f f e r (1 9 5 5 ) , p . 1 8 6 .8 0 BMC I o n i a p . 2 6 8 n o s . 2 6 6 - 2 6 8 a n d P r i c e c a t . 4 5 a n d P l a te l b m i s c i t e d a s

3 b i n P r i c e (1 9 8 4 ) , p . 1 8 5 .8 1

P r i c e ( 1 9 8 4 ) , p . 1 8 5 : " B u t t h e g o d s o f t e n h e l d t h e i r o w n e p o n y m o u s p r i e st

h o o d s a n d a r e o f t e n s h o w n m a k i n g s a cr i fi c ia l o f f e ri n g s . . . " c i t e s ( f o o t n o t e s 7 6 a n d

7 7 . ) L . R o b e r t , S u r d e s i n s c r i p t i o n s d ' E p h e s e , 6 . L e t t r e s i m p e r i a l e s a E p h e s e , RPhil

4 1 , 3 ( 1 9 6 7 ) , p p . 4 4 - 6 4 ; a l s o RPhil ( 1 9 5 9 ) , p p . 2 0 0 2 0 4 ; cf. D i o 5 9 , 2 8 , 5 o n G a i u s .




IGRR 4 , 353 is a l a r g e s t o n e a l t a r t a k e n f r o m t h e t e m p l e of R o m a

a n d A u g u s t u s in P e r g a m o n a n d i n s c r i b e d o n four s ides . At the f ro n t

is a d e d i c a t i o n ( l i n e s a . 4 - 5 a ) t o H a d r i a n " s a v i o u r a n d f o u n d e r

( o c o x T i p i K ai [ K T { ] O T T I ) . " B u t t h o s e w h o m a k e th e d e d i c a t i o n a re an

e x i s t i n g c h o i r of the I m p e r i a l C u l t , t h e "hymn-s ingers ( i )uvcp8o i ) of

d i v i n e A u g u s t u s (G eou l e p a o x o u ) a n d o f the g o d d e s s R o m a ( K a i Qeaq

Tcouriq)." (a. /. 5b) T h i r t y f i v e n a m e s s t o o d t h e r e o r i g i n a l l y t h o u g h

t w o h a v e b e e n e r a s e d (a. /. 1 7 - 1 8 ) . I t was c e r t a i n of the h i g h - r a n k i n g

m e m b e r s of t h i s s e l e c t g r o u p , of the f am i ly of A. C a s t r i c i u s P a u l u s ,

w h o d e d i c a t e d th e a l t a r f r o m t h e i r p r i v a t e m e a n s (a. /. 3 0 - 3 1 : dv

[aOevxcov] x[6]v Pcouov £K xcov i8icov Kaoxpudcov).

O n e of his f a m i l y w h o s e n a m e s u r v i v e s in th e m u t i l a t e d l i n e s 3 1 -

3 2 is C a p i t o w h o s e o f f i c e is t h a t of GeoAoyoq. This w as a t i d e t h a t

C h r i s t i a n t r a d i t i o n was to a w a r d to th e S e e r of the Apocalypse.82 B u t

o r i g i n a l l y it was t h e t i t le of a f u n c t i o n a r y in the I m p e r i a l C u l t a n d

a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e i m p e r i a l u u o r n p i a in w h i c h h e p r o n o u n c e d th e

e u l o g y u p o n t h e e m p e r o r a n d p e r h a p s t o o k p a r t in c h o r e o g r a p h y in

w h i c h h e p l a y e d t h e e m p e r o r ' s r o l e in th e d r a m a of the c u l t .8 3 T h e

S e e r n e v e r t h e l e s s a c t e d in a f a s h i o n r e m i n i s c e n t of s u c h a c u l t w h e n

h e d e s c r i b e d t h e e u l o g i s t i c h y m n s of the p r e s b y t e r s t o G o d a n d t o

t h e L a m b , as w e sh a l l sh o r t l y see (5B 3).

P r o v i s i o n is n o w m a d e for th e c e l e b r a t i o n of the d e a d A u g u s t u s '

b i r t h d a y on the first d a y o f the m o n t h t h a t b e a r s his n a m e (b . /. 5 :

u u vo q K a i o a p o q l e P a o x i i , y ev ea ic o l e p a o x o u ) . Bu t the c o n t e x t for the

c e l e b r a t i o n is th e i m p e r i a l m y s t e r i e s to w h i c h a l l u s i o n is n o w m a d e

8 2 SEG 4,517 = /. Eph. Ia, 45 A, 1-8, translated in P.R. Coleman-Norton, Roman

State and Christian Church, (London: S.P.C.K. 1 9 6 6 ) , III, no. 577;J. Schmid, Studien

zur Geschichte des griechischen Apocalypse-Textes, 1. Der Apocalypse-Kommentar

des Andreas von Kaisareia, in Munchener Theologische Studien, (Miinchen: Karl Zink

1 9 5 5 ) , p. 7; /. Eph. VII,2 4 1 3 3 , 9 ; /. Eph. VII,2 4311(a): Graffito on the farthest

west of the two pillars the Church of St. John in Ephesus: (cpoPo 7tpoceA.6e nx>h\vxov GeoAoyoi)); VII,2 4314: Another pillar on the North row has a petition in prayer

(GeoAxSye) VII,2 4318 (a): Running well in North Corridor of the nave of St. John

of Ephesus, graffito on marble cladding (ic(\>pi)e K(t>pi)e dyne 6eoA,6ye, (3OT|9TIGOV XO V

S O V X O G O V Teopynov); Eph. IV, 1279: Byzantian prayer inscribed on wall tile in white

marble (K(\>pi)e ' H o o v Xfpioxe K a i 'IcodvvTi(<;)] 6 GeoXoyoq [p\>oaxe r\\ia<; anb co-]).8 3

Pleket ( 1 9 6 5 ) , pp. 3 3 7 - 3 3 8 ; see also /. Eph. Ia, 22, 1-8 ; /. Eph. Ia, 2 7 , 2 9 2 - 2 9 7 ;

I. Eph. Ill 6 4 5 , 3 - 7 : [x]6 7tpoa<piAi[ox]axov x[f\] dyicoxaxp [6]ea> ' A p x e u i 5 i a\)ve8piov

[x]cov -buvcpScov [K]ai6eo^6ycov [K]ai0ea|icp8tov. See also /. Eph. Ia 4 7 , 7 3 (M.Ko(A,(ioq)

'HXi68copo<;0£otaSYO<;); IV, 1 0 2 3 , 4 (A.D. 104) Titus Flavius Dionysius Sabinus BeoAxSyoq;VII, 1 3 0 7 4 (GeoXoyoq); /. Eph. VII, 1 3 0 1 5 , 2 .




i n the inscription on the right hand side of the altar. Ind ee d t he

bi rt hday is bu t on e of five festivals tha t are to be com mem ora ted .

The second is the festival of new year presents (dies strenarum = 1st

Ja nu ar y) , the third is the Rosalia (poSicuoq) (24th May) for the com

me mo ra ti on of the dep ar te d an d the fourth is for the mysteries of

the 25 th J u n e (unvoq Acoou y p u oxn p ioK; ) , and the fifth for Livia's

bi rt hday (21st Se pt embe r; b. /. 3-11). Associated with each festival

is the annual provision (oca xcp evia\)xcp rcapexei xr\q dpxnq) by the

choir's president or "conductor (6 eu Koou oq ) ." (b. /. 2)

The conductor is to provide (nape^e i bk 6 evKoafioq) both for Augustus'birthday (xr\ xov Xepaaxou EVUTIVCO yeveaico) and for the rest of the birth

days of the dead and deified emperors (Kai xai<; Xoinalc, yevealoiq xcov

avxoKpaxopcov) and they shall crown with garlands the hymn-singers

and the mysteries (oxeyavovq xoiq \)uvcp8oi<; m i xoi<; |JA)oxrip{oi<; axeqxxv-

cociv) in the choir hall (ev xcp vuvcoSeicp). . .

b . /. 12-19

T h e co nduc to r is fur the rmo re to provide br ea d an d wine for these

mysteries, along with "sacrificial cake (rcorcavov), incense (Aapavov)

and lamps ( K a i Xv%vov<;) for Au gustus (xcp LePaoxcp)." W h e n we turn

to the inscriptions on the back of the altar we find the context of

these art icles xcp lePaaxco. H ere t he priest (6 iepeix;) ap pointed for th e

year has, in add iti on to br ea d an d wine , to pro vid e a cove ring

(axpcooiv) for the images of the Augusti (eiq e i K o v a q xcov ZePaaxcov)."

(c . /. 4 -7 ) T h e ca nt or is to ma ke similar prov ision of wine and a

covering. We then learn that "those who are co-opted as hymn-

singers from other cities shall give 50 denaria (c. /. 1 0 - 1 1 : 8coao\)aiv

8e oi KaGiaxdpevoi e^coxiKoi uuvcpSoi... Srivapia' v') for the images of

the Augusti (eiq ekovaq xcov ZePaaxcov)." (c. /. 10-11)

Clearly the Xvyyox, the axpcoaiq, the o i v o q , the a p x o q , the Xipavoq

and th e rcorcavov to ge th er wi th the uuvoi of the uuvcoSoi all ha ve ref

erence to mystery-rites involving the e i K o v e q of the dead and deified

emperors (xcov Zepaaxcov). T h e inscript ion on the left side of the altar,

whilst specifying the financial contributions towards these articles nec

essary for the performance of the rite for guild officials such as the

secretary (6 ypappaxetjq), also men tions (d. /. 10) th at these are for

the mysteries ([ivaxr\pioiq) on the 23r d J u n e whi ch was the first day

of the month of Ka ioa p (urivoq Acoou lePaaxfi ). Fu r th er mo re, as the

inscription on the right side has already reminded us, the souls ofdeparted members are also included in the incense rite, and the




ar ch on is to pro vid e the cost for a de ad m e m b e r wh ich he ca n

recoup from the person who replaces him.8 4

W e can now beg in to dr aw a nu m b er of paral lels with the text

of the Apocalypse itself.

5B 2 . 2 . 1 . Apoc. 13-14: e iKoav xou Oripiou

IGRR 4,35 3 c. /. 10 -1 1 and c. /. 4 - 7 m en ti on ed t he impe rial mys

teries with e i K o v e q and A,u%voi, as we have seen, in the context of

the imperial mysteries, with a GeoXoyoq to both compose and inter

pr et the ritual of the mystery play. T h e figure th at the Seer observes

"in t he midst of the l amps (ev ueocp xSv A,u%vicov)" has, like th e image

of Aug us tus , a h u m a n form (ojioiov uiov dvGpcoTcou)." (Apoc. 1,12-13)

The lamps that celebrate and illuminate in their cult are the seven

churches (Apoc. 1,20). T h e wri ter behaves like the aepaaxo(pdvxr|<; who

uncovers the e i K c o v , or like the OeoXoyoq who unravells the imperial

mysteries: he is to write TO jxuoxripiov xcov ercxd d a x e p c o v and of the

ercxd AA)%V{OC<; (1,20). Christ is not called the e iKobv xou Geou as in other

early Christian literature (Col. 1,15) since the horror of th e euccbv xouOripiou pr ov ed too resistant to cont ra- cult ura l tran sfor mat ion. T h e

division between believers and non-believers remains characterised

in this respect in negative terms. The latter are those who worship

the beast and his image (Apoc. 14,9 ,15- 16, 19-2 0), an d the for mer

those who do not (Apoc. 13,15; 20,4). But the description of the

chu rch es who thr ou gh their cultus illuminate the Son of M a n an d

their situation is swa the d in the enig mat ic lan gua ge of the myster ies, as we saw particularly to be in point with regard to Pergamon

(5B 1.3).

In this light Price is surely correct to interpret the scene of the

image of the beast coming to life (Apoc. 13,14-15) in the context of

the ritual associated with the imperial e i K o v e q .8 5 Here in the ani

ma te d d r am a of the ritual is the descript ion of the priestly mag ici an

of w h o m it coul d be said: "and t her e was gr an te d to hi m (Kai e 8 6 0 T |

auxa>) to give a spirit (8ouvai rcveujLia) to the i mage of the beast (xii

e i K o v i xou 0T|p{ou) in o rde r tha t the imag e of the beas t could speak

( i v a Kai taxfoioTi fi ekow xou Oripiou) and shoul d ca use to be slain all

those who would not worship the image (Kai rcoirjori i va oaoi edv uri

8 4

b. /. 20: xotq Se dva7ca \ )ouevo i< ; eiq A,{|3avov rcpoxpriaei 6 dpxcov 8r |vdpi<x ie',

arco>.T|\|/£T(xi T c a p d xou ei<; xov XOTCOV a\>xoi) e i a i o v x o q .8 5

Pr i ce ( 1 9 8 4 ) , pp. 1 5 6 - 1 5 8 .



THE APOCALYPSE AND DOMITIAN'S ICONOGRAPHY 197

rcpoaKDvr|ocoGiv T T I eiKovixoa)9T |p[o \ )d7COKTav0coaiv) ." (Apoc. 13,15) This

woul d have argua bly been very m uc h ho w the panegyric s of the cult

arranged by the GeoAoyoq, and the drama performed by its oePaaiocpdv-

xr|<;, wo ul d hav e ap peared to the See r.

T h e souls of the de pa rt ed were repr esent ed in the Imper ial Cul t

along wit h those of the de ad and deified empe ro rs , and this fea ture

of those mysteries is represented in the Apocalypse too.

5B 2.2.2. Apo c. 6 and 8: xaq \|n)%d<; xcov eotpaypivcov

As we noted in connection with the mysteries (puornpioiq) for the

first of th e m on th of Loos , name ly 23 rd J u n e (jinvoq Acoou lePaaxfi) ,incens e was offered bo th to the de pa rt ed m e m be rs of the guild

(b . /. 20: xoiq 8e dvarcocuouivoiq eiq X(Pavov) as well as for the dead

and deified emperors.

In the Apocalypse, likewise, ince nse is associated with the heave nly

alt ar, and for the souls wh ic h lie under it. In 6,9 and 11 , at the

opening of the fifth seal, we find:

. . . under the altar (i)7coKcxTco icri) GDaiaoTrjpioi)) the souls of those who

have been slain (xotq vj/Dxdq TCOV sacpayuivcov) for the Word of God (8id

xov AxSyov TOV Geov)... to each of whom was given (e869t| amoiq emoTcp)

a white robe (GTOAJI tauicf)), and they were told (Kai eppe&n amoic;) to

repose for a short time (iva d v a r c a w o v T a i ETI xpovov uiKpov) until their

fellow servants should find their fulfilment (ecoq rctaipcoGcooiv Kai oi

G V V S O V X O I avTcov) along with their brethren (Kai oi dSetapoi amcov) who

were about to be slaughtered like themselves (oi [leXXovxeq drcoKTevveaGai

cb<; Kai avxoi).

T h e t he me of the souls of the faithful d ep ar te d is of cou rse famil

iar from the Wisdom literature (Wis. 3,1-9). But the direct associa

tion with their cultus in the ir association with an altar is not made .

Although Charles was committed to deriving the vision almost wholly

from Je wi sh sources, his quo ta ti on from 1 Enoch 6,11 will not sup

po rt such a claim here since there is no reference to the rep ose oftheir souls. In Apoc. 6, 11, to the cont rar y, the identical ter m for th e

repose of departed members of the college of the imperial choir is

used for Christian martyrs (Apoc. 6,11 d v a T t a u a o v i a i cf. IGRR 353 b.

/. 20: d v a 7 t a \ ) o u i v o i < ; ei<; AiPavov). Incense (AaPavoq) too follows the

op en in g of the seals in 8, 3- 4 whe re "t he angel stood at the alt ar

(eaxdOri eni xov G \ )a iaaTr |p{o\ ) ) with a golden incense-charger (e%cov

AiPavcoxov xpuaouv)" and whe re he pr oc ee ds to offer th e incense(6upid |LiaTa), not in propitiation to the divinized souls of the departed,




b u t as p r a y e r s o f t h e w h o l e p e o p l e o f G o d w h i c h i n c l u d e s t h e m (Ka i

dvePr] 6 Kanvbq xcov Gujiia udxcov xai<; rcpoaeuxaiq xcov dyico v).

T h e c o n t r a - c u l t u r a l i m a g i n a t i o n m a y c h o o s e t h e J e w i s h t e r m s G u oi-

ao x r ip io v an d Gu u iau o t fo r t h e h eav en ly cu l t , s i n ce a cu l t i n t h a t l o ca

t i o n c o u l d n o t c o n c e i v a b l y b e d e s c r i b e d i n p a g a n t e r m s o f pcouoq

(IGRR 4 ,3 5 3 a . / . 3 1 : dv[a6e vxcov ] x[6]v pcouov) o r Aapavcoxoq. B u t th e

c o n c e r n fo r s o u ls o f d e p a r t e d m e m b e r s i n t e r m s o f t h e d v a r c a u o u i v o i

r e v e a l s t h a t t h e c o n t r a - i m a g e o f t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t is r e s p o n s i b l e f or

t h e r e d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e h e a v e n l y s c e n e in s u c h s a n i t i s e d J e w i s h t e r m s .

F u r t h e r m o r e , d e p a r t e d m e m b e r s o f t h e c o ll eg e o f t h e C h r i s t i a n

c u l t a r e d e s c r i b e d a s xaq \\f\>xaq xcov eocpayuivcov 8 i a xov Xoyov xou Geou.

W e h a v e p o i n t e d o u t a l r e a d y t h a t o n e o f t h e office s o f t h e P e r g a m o n

im pe ri al co l lege w as th a t of GeoXoyoq (IGRR 4 ,353 a . / . 31 : [Ka7i(]xcovo<;

G eotaSyou). F u r t h e r m o r e , a l t h o u g h t h e a u t h o r o f t h e Apocalypse d o e s

n o t u se t h i s t e rm o f himself, GeoAoyoq b e c a m e th e c l a s s ic d e sc r ip t i o n

o f h i s o ffic e a s it w a s c l e a r l y p e r c e i v e d b y h i s n e a r c o n t e m p o r a r i e s .

W e h av e a l r ea d y m e n t i o n e d t h e ro l e o f t h e of fice o f t h e GeoAoyoq in

w r i t i n g t h e d i s c o u r s e o r Xoyoq o f t h e c u lt ic d r a m a i n w h i c h t h e i m p e

r i a l eiKoveq w e r e i n v o l v e d . T h e Xoyoq o f t h e C h r i s t i a n c u l t , f o r w h i c h

t h e m a r t y r s w e r e s l a u g h t e r e d , is a r g u a b l y h e r e j u x t a p o s e d w i t h t h a t

o f t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t . C e r t a i n l y , a s w e h a v e a l r e a d y i n d i c a t e d , t h e

l e t t e r s t o t h e c h u r c h e s h a v e t h e q u a l i t y o f t h e u t t e r a n c e o f a m y s t -

a g o g u e s u r r o u n d e d b y t h e X u% via a n d r e v e a l i n g t h e m y s t e r i e s o f t h e

figure ouo iov uio v dvGpcbrcou in th e ir m id st in t e r m s of su ch ve i le d

i m a g e r y a s w h i t e s t o n e s a n d h i d d e n m a n n a (5 B 1.3).

IGRR 4 , 3 5 3 a ls o m e n t i o n e d a 3 5 m e m b e r c h o i r o f t h e I m p e r i a l

C u l t , t h e " h y m n - s in g e r s (uuv cp Soi) o f d iv in e Au g u s tu s (Geou l e p ao x o u )

a n d o f t h e g o d d e s s R o m a (Kai Qeaq Tcouriq ). " (a . /. 5b ) . W e t u r n n o w

to pa ra l le l s w i t h su ch uuvcp8oi in the so ng s o f th e rcpeopuxepoi a r o u n d

t h e h e a v e n l y a l t a r i n t h e Apocalypse.

5 B 2 . 2 . 3 . A p o c . 4,4; 7,14: angels, uuvco8oi and rcpeapuxepoiW e sh a ll d i sc u s s f u r t h e r t h e q u e s t i o n of a n y c o r r e s p o n d e n c e b e t w e e n

t h e Tcpeapuxepoi a r o u n d t h e h e a v e n l y a l t a r i n t h e Apocalypse a n d

C h u r c h O r d e r o f t h e S e e r ' s c o m m u n i t y w h e n w e d e a l w i t h t h e

I g n a t i a n c o r r e s p o n d e n c e ( 6 A 1.1.1). B u t f o r t h e m o m e n t w e s h a l l

c o n s i d e r t h e s c e n e s a r o u n d t h e h e a v e n l y a l t a r a s r e f l e c t i o n s o f t h e

I m p e r i a l C u l t , a n d t h e p r a y e r s s a i d b y t h e p r e s b y t e r s , t h e a n g e l s ,

t h e " g r e a t c r o w d " o r t h e h y m n s u n g a n d t h e 1 4 4 , 0 0 0 a s r e f le c t io n sof w h a t w a s sa id by rcpeopeiq o r rcpeopuxepoi o r s u n g b y uuvco8o{ at



T H E APOCALYPSE AND D O M I T I A N ' S I C O N O G R A P H Y 199

imperial celebrations, whether in connection or not with imperial

mysteries.

Pleket concluded that, as part of the mysteries at Pergamon, a

aepaaxocpdvxriq exposing "the imperial image under glaring lamp

l igh t ,"8 6

would have been accompanied at least on occasions by

uuvco8oi and GeoAoyoi singing the divine emperors' praises. Though

there is no reference to a aepaoxocpdvxr|<; in IGRR 4, 353 , we find

allusions to such a cultic role elsewhere (IGRR 4,522 (= OGIS 479);

643).8 7

T h e r e a re also ot he r allusions to uuvqxSoi of the Im pe ri al Cu lt

at Pergamon, for example Asia (Hypaepa).8 8

It is to be emp hasi se d th at th e uuvcp86<; is appo in ted for a sacrificial

function (6 K a x a a x a G e i q uuvcp86<; ei<; Guoiaq xou lePaoxou) and that his

hymn (rcapapoouiov) is co nn ecte d wi th an al tar .8 9

The hymn in the

Apocalypse to which we can draw a parallel with the Imperial Cult,

sung by the 144,000 (14 ,2-3), alludes to such imper ial mys tery rites

in a musical context:

. . . the voice which I heared (r\ (pcovfj r\v TiKouaa) was as of harpists playing on their harps (ox; K i 0 a p c p 8 c b v KiGapi^ovxcov ev xaiq KiGdpaic; auxcov),

and they sang a new song (Kai a5oi)oiv ax; qxSfjv Kawf|v ) before the throne

and before the four animals and elders (evomiov xou Gpovou Kai evamiov

xcov xeoadpcov £a>cov Kai xcov TtpeoPuxepcov) and no-one was able to learn

the song (Kai ou8ei<; e8uvaxo paGeiv XTJV a)8f|v) except the 144,000.

Prior to this hymn, we have three prayers said (Xeyoviaq):

(i) T h e first is by the twent y four elders rcpeaPuxepoi, the prec ise

n u mb er of whi ch indicates their collegial ch ar ac te r (4,10),

(ii) the second (7,9) by "a great crowd (6%Ao<; noXvq)... from every

nation and tribes (he navibq eGvouq KaicpuAxov.) . . . standing befo re the

throne and before the Lamb (eoxcoxeq evamiov xou Gpovou Kai evamiov

xou dpviou) ," an d

(iii) the th ird (7,11) by ange ls wh o "s tood in the circle of the thr on e

and of the elders and of the four living animals ( e i o x f | K e i a a v KUK^CO

8 6

P l e k e t ( 1 9 6 5 ) , pp. 3 4 5 - 3 4 6 .8 7

See a l s o f o o t n o t e 90.8 8

IGRR 4,1608 ( C l a u d i u s ) : a. /. 10: oi i)uvco8oi a v e 6 r | K a v K a x a T O y e v 6 | i e [ v o v ]

\ j / r | (p ioua ev nepydnq) hub xfjq i e p a q [ a \ ) v o ] 8 o u e v y p d y a v i e q Baa S i m i a [Kai

[(p iA,dv]9pamd eoxiv avxdiq 8 e 8 o ^ i e [ v a \>JC* a\>xoi)] and b. /. 5 . . . [xii iep]a i)uvco8(ov

[ O D V O S C O %aipe iv] . . .

89

IGRR 4,353 d. /. 14-15 cf. c. /. 10; T a c i t u s Hist. 2,55: "At R o m a e . . . . pop-

u l u s cum l a u r u et flo rib us G a l b a e i m a g i n e s c ir c a t e m p l a tu l i t ." See a l s o P l e k e t

( 1 9 6 5 ) , p. 341; A l f o l d i ( 1 9 7 0 ) , pp. 71-72 ff.




xov Bpovcru Kai xcov 7cpeap \ )T8pcov Kai TCOV Teoadpcov £cbcov) ." T h e first

three prayers however do not appear to allude to the imperial mys

teries as such, since they are open, cultic prayers. But undoubtedly

the prayers of the presbyters, the great crowd, and the angels enjoy

the same cultic context as the hymn of the 144,000.

As Alfbldi pointed out , from Republican times acclamations for

great m e n from the crowds often took a rhythmic form. According to

Suetonius, the crowds "greeted Augustus returning from the province

not only with every prayer for his blessing (faustis omnibus) b u t with

rhythmic songs (modulatis carminibus).90

At the games accompanying

the Imperial Cult we have descriptions of the crowds chanting as

"so many thousands of men ( T O o a u T a i p/upid8e<; avOpcorccov). . . even

as some choir accurately taught (coarcep xiq aKpiPcoq x°P°S 8e8i8ay-

pevoq)."9 1

These are the concrete events reflected in the rhythmic

chants of the elders and the angels, or the sung hymn of the 144,000.

The scenic background both of the prayers and of this hymn to

which we have made reference is therefore undoubtedly cultic. T h e

Gpovoq before which the presbyters pray in adorat ion is the same as

that of the lamb before whom the great standing crowd say their

prayer (kox&xeq evamiov xov Gpovou Kai evcorciov TOU apviov). In Apoc.

8,3 it is clear that the golden altar stands before this throne (TO

6 i) G i aoT r |p iov TO xpuoouv TO evamiov TOU Gpovou). T h e L a m b is not

found on the altar but on the throne, yet nevertheless he stands as

once slain but now alive a n d therefore standing a n d later sharing

God's throne.9 2

T h e blood of the Lamb still decorates those for wh o m

he died and who in turn have laid down their lives (6,14).

Fur thermore , in the dress of the 6%Xoq noXvq, a n d what they carry,

we find a very close parallel with the Imperial Cult . In 7,9 we find

them "clothed in white robes (rcepiPepAriuivoix; oxoXaq Xevycaq) a n d

palm branches in their hands (Kai c p o i v i K e c ; ev xaiq %epaiv a v Tc o v ) . " W e

read in the decree of Tiberius' reign from Gytheion (Laconia) that

" there was to be a procession (KOILK^V GxeXXexa* CK TOU iepou TOU

'AaK^riTciou K a i xr\q Tyieiaq) with the ephebes and the young and the

other citizens processing (rcouTieuovTcov TCOV xe ecpriPcov K a i vecov K a i TCOV

9 0

S u e t o n i u s , Aug. 57,2: " R e v e r t e n t e m ex p r o v i n c i a non s o l u m f a u s t i s o m i n i b u s

sed et m o d u l a t i s c a r m i n i b u s p r o s e q u e b a n t u r . "9 1

Dio 7 8 , 2 0 , 1 cf. A l fo l d i ( 1 9 7 0 ) , pp. 7 9 - 8 8 .92 Apoc. 5,6: d p v ( o v £GTT|K6< ; coq e a c p a y u e v o v cf. 7,9: e a x w x e q e v a m i o v xov G p o v o u K a i

e v a m i o v x o f i a p v i o u ; 22,1 and 3.



T H E APOCALYPSE AND D O M I T I A N ' S I C O N O G R A P H Y 201

aXXcov rcoXeixSv), wreathed with c rowns of laure l (eoxeixuivcov Sdcpvrjq

oxecpdvoiq), and clothed in white ( K a i A,euKa dujiexouevcov)."93

Further

more, Herodian (VIII, 7,2) informs us that, on the accession of

Maximus in A.D. 235, the Italian cities "sent embassies (rcpeoPeiaq

erceiircov)" whose members "were clothed in white (Xeu%eiuovouvxe<;)

carrying laurel branches (8acpvr|(p6poi)" with "images (dydA .|Liaxa)" and

"gol den c rowns (oxecpavoi xpuoou)." Mo re ov er the ar my jo in ed the

processi on "in peaceful appe a ranc e (ev eipr|viKcp axr|uaxi), ca rr ying

laurel branches (8acpvr|<p6po<;)."94

At the temp le of the em pe ro rs ( Kaiadp iov) the scene is of the

unbloody sacrifice of thure et vinum and of a bull sacrificed by th e

Ephors "for the salvation of our rulers and gods (urcep xr\q xcov fjyeudvcov

K ai Gecov acoxupiaq) an d t he e te rn al con t inu anc e of thei r rul e (Kai

di'8{ou xfjq fyyeuoviaq auxcov 8iauovf)<;)."95

In Apoc. 7,14 the sacrifice at

the heavenly altar is of the Lamb in whose blood the byXoq TcoXuq

ha ve "washe d the ir robes (ercXuvav xdq cxoXaq) and whitene d th em

(Kai e ^ e u K a v a v auxdq ev xcp ai ua xi xou dpviou)." Fu r th erm or e , imme

diat ely previous ly (7,10), thei r h ymn is also of fj acoxr)pia but di rect ed

"to our G o d (xcp Gecp fiuxov) w ho sits on the th rone (xcp KaGrjuivco E K I

xcp Gpovcp) and to t he L a m b (Kai xcp dpv(cp)."

T h e first pr ay er (4,11) is said by the twen ty four presbyte rs who

we ar axecpavoi upon thei r he ad s an d wh o are also clo the d in whi te

garments (4,4). Bot h officials called rcpeopuxepoi and th e wearing of

garlands (oxecpavoi) in seats of honour (7cpoe8piai) were features of

the Impe ri al Cul t in many of the city states of Asia Mi no r. W e shall

now see the significance of these features from the pagan cultic back

ground in Asia minor.

5 B . 2.2.4. Apoc. 4,4 rcpeoPuxepoi KaGujievoi and ;cpoe8piai

The rcpeopuxepoi KaGnuevoi have their counterpart in the Imperial

Cu lt . T h e r e is no dis tinct office of rcpeoPuxepoi clearly d is tinguishable

in the Im pe ri al Cul t. T h e rcpeopuxepoi of the Seer 's vision clearly ar e

Jewish or Christian Elders playing their part in the liturgy of the

synagogue or church. But, as we have argued, such Jewish-Christian

93

SEG 11, 922, /. 25 ff. = E h r e n b e r g and J o n e s 102 a.9 4 F i s h w i c k ( 1 9 8 7 ) 2,1 p. 478; W e i n s t o c k ( 1 9 7 1 ) , p. 207 and 397. Cf. Dio C a s s i u s

6 3 , 4 , 2 .95 Ibid. I. 2 8 - 2 9 : o x a v 8e erci xo K aia dp r | ov TI JCOUJCTI 7capayevr|xai, 6 ex co o a v oi ecpopoi

t a f i p o v i)7iepxr\q xcov fiyeuovcov Kai Gecov a c o x i i p i a q Kai a i 8 { o \ ) xr\q f i y eu o v i a q a\>xcov 5ia-

u o v i i q . . .




co nc ep ts , a s in the case of the Je w is h te rm s 0DGiaaxr |p iov a n d G uu iau a ,

i n p l a c e o f t h e p a g a n pcouoq a n d Aipavcoxoq, a r e th e r e be c a us e the y

a r e i n t e n t i o n a l l y p l a c e d t h e r e b y t h e c o n t r a - c u l t u r a l i m a g i n a t i o n .

C o r r e s p o n d i n g t o t h e J e w i s h o r C h r i s t i a n rcpeoPuxepoi w e r e t h o s e

o ff ic ia ls w h o oc c u p i e d se a t s o f h o n o u r in th e c u l t . A 7ipoe8p{a w a s

a f ron t sea t , g iv en as a pr iv i leg e to off ice ho ld er s su ch as pr ie s t s a n d

a m b a s s a d o r s (Tcpeapeiq), w h o o c c u p i e d s u c h se a t s. M . G a v i u s S q u i l l a ,

the " l i fe long pr ies t o f Victoria Augusta ( i eped 8id p i ou le^acxr\<; Neucnq),"

w a s " h o n o u r e d . . . w i th f ir st s e a t s (xex£iur| | ievov . . . 7ipoe8p{ai<;)" b y

t h e c i ty - s t a te s o f P a m p h y l i a , L y c i a a n d A s i a (IGRR 4 , 778 / . 1 a nd

1 5 ( A t t a l e a ) ) . A t N a r b o , t h e rcpoe8pia (subsellio primo spectandi) w a s

spec i f ica l ly g iven to the pr ies t (flameri) o f t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t .9 6

W e sh a ll p u r s u e f u r t h e r t h e s e l e xi c al c o n n e c t i o n s w h e n w e c o n s i d e r

t h e I g n a t i a n c o r r e s p o n d e n c e , a n d w h e r e t h e t h e m e s o f n p o K a O r i p e v o q

a r e e c c le s i a s t i c a lly fu r th e r de ve lo pe d f ro m Ka0r|pevo< ; e t c . a n d th e

c o n c o m i t a n t i m a g e r y t h a t w e a r e f i n d i n g h e r e . F o r t h e m o m e n t , l e t

u s n o t e t h a t , w h e n t h e C o u n c i l a t A t t a l e a r e c o r d e d its h o n o u r p a i d

t o D i o n y s i u s s o n o f G l y k o n , o n e o f h i s e x i s t i n g h o n o u r s w a s t h a t h e

"enjoyed the office also of f irst seat ( i iexexovxa Kai xfjq rcpoeSpiaq; IGRR

4 , 1 1 6 7 /. 4 ) . " T e o s s p ec if ic a ll y a w a r d e d t o c e r t a i n a m b a s s a d o r s t o

R o m e b o th a rcpoeSpia a n d a xpu ao uq axecpavoq.9 7

W e t u r n n o w t o

th e c h a ra c te r of the oxecpdvoi of Apoc. 4 , 4 .

5B 2. 2 .5 . axecpavoi %puao{, rcpeaPuxepoi and axecpavr|(p6poi

Xxecpavoi w e r e a w a rd e d to a th le t e s a n d o th e r s a s a m a rk o f h i gh h on o u r , a n d so w o u l d p r e f i g u r e i n t h e g a m e s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h i m p e r i a l

p r o c e s s i o n s a n d b i r t h d a y s . P r i e s t s o f t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t , p a s t o r p r e

s e n t , w o u l d a l so w e a r s u c h c r o w n s , a s i n d e e d D o m i t i a n d i d w h e n

p r e s i d i n g o v e r t h e C a p i t o l i n e g a m e s ( 5 A 2 . 2 . 2 ) . T h u s t h e t i d e a x e -

(pavricpopoq i s a s so c ia ted w i th t he I m p er ia l C u l t .

T h e S a c r e d G e r o u s i a (i ep d y e p o u a i a ) a t E p h e s u s e n j o y e d s a c e r d o

t a l f unc t io ns in r e l a t io n to th e c u l t o f A r te m is im p l i c i t in th e a d je c t iv e i e p d . I n c o n s e q u e n c e , i t b e c a m e c lo s e l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e

I m p e r i a l C u l t w h e n t h e l a t t e r b e c a m e a s s i m i l a t e d w i t h t h e f o r m e r .

% L e x N a r b o n e n s i s , CIL 1 2 , 6 0 3 8 : [ d e h o n o r i b u s e i u s q u i fla men e r i t ] r e s t o r e d

l i n e 5 : [i n te r d e c u r i o n e s s ] e n a t o r e s v e s u b s e l l io p r i m o s p e c t a n [ d i l u d o s p u b l i c o s e i u s

p r o v i n c i a e i u s e s t o ] .

97

IGRR 4 , 1 5 5 8 /. 2 7 - 3 0 ( T e o s) = OGIS 2 ,567: . . . e'5o£ev xr \ p ou X fl . . . e7iaw[eaai

xo]i)<; TtpoyeYpauiievoix; a v 8 p a < ; m i KaXeia6ai eiq 7tpo[e5p(av KOCT'] eviavxov Aiovoaicov

xcp dyfcovi] ecoq a]v £cociv, K a l [axe(pavo\jo]9ai xpuoxo oxecpdvw . ..




A s O l i v e r sa i d , " T h e w o rd rcpeopuxepoi is a ll ov e r A s i a sy no ny m ou s

w i th y e p o u o i a . "9 8

F u r t h e r m o re t he ye p ouo i a is de s c r i b e d a s (p iA ooe Pa a-

xoq , a n d a t Hy e t tu s t he loca l ins t i tu t i on de sc r ib ed i tse l f a s f| i ep d yep

ouaia xou Icoxfjpoq 'AoKAr |7 t tou .9 9

H e r e i n d e e d , u n u s u a l l y a n d e x c e p t i o n a l l y , t h e t i d e o f a f u n c t i o n a r y

c a l l e d a rcpeaPuxepoq d i d a p p e a r i n c o n j u nc t i on w i t h t he Im pe r i a l

C u l t . A m o n g s t s u c h rcpeoPuxepoi w o u l d h a v e b e e n t h o s e h o n o u r e d

w i th a oxecpavoq a n d in c o n s eq u en c e d es c r ib ed as oxecpavr jcpopoi.10 0

W e h a v e a n A s i a n in s c r i p t io n ( L a m p s a c u s ) i n h o n o u r o f A u g u s t u s '

w if e L i v i a , i n w h i c h t he G e ro us i a o rd e r t he e r e c t i on o f h e r s t a t ue w i t h

s t ep s d e d i c a t e d t o " J u l i a S e b a s t a H e s t i a ('Iou^iav I e p a a x f | v ' E a x i a v ) ,

t h e n e w D e m e t e r ( v e a v Af |u r | xpa) ." P a r t o f t h e e x pe ns e is " fo r t he

h o n o u r i n g w ith w r e a th s (urcep xfjq ei<; xoix; oxecpdvouc; eu ae Pe iaq ) of th e

pr ies t o f the Sebastoi (xou iepecoq xcov lePaaxcov)."1 0 1

I n a n i n s c r i p t i o n

f rom Cy z i c u s (c . A .D . 37 ) t h e c i t i z e n bo dy is i n s t ru c t e d , w h e n w e l

c o m in g ce r ta in roy a l v i s i to rs , t o g re e t t h e m pxxd xcov dpxovxcov K a i

xcov axecpavr|cp6pcov, in th e co n te x t of th e I m p e r ia l C u l t .1 0 2

T h e r e is a l so i n IGRR 4 , 3 5 3 b. 1. 1 5 -1 6 , a s w e saw (5B 2 .2) , t he

c o n d u c t o r (6 m x a o x a G e i q uuvcoSoq) w h o p r o v i d e d o n i m p e r i a l b i r t h -

9 8 J . H . O l i v e r , T h e S a c r e d G e r u s i a , i n Am eriacn Excavations in the Athenian Agora,

Hesp. S u p p l . 6 ( 1 9 4 1 ) , p p . 2 6 a n d 4 1 , c o n t r a r y t o T o d ( 1 9 1 5 ) , p p . 2 - 3 , w h o s a id :

" E x a m p l e s f ro m A s i a M i n o r a re ra re , p a r t l y p e rh a p s b ec a u s e o f t h e u s e o f t h e t e rm

rcp eaPtJT Ep oq i n co n n ec t i o n w i t h t h e g y m n a s i a a n d w i t h m a n y o f t h e g u i l d s a n d

s o c i e t i e s o f t h e G r a e c o - R o m a n w o r l d , a n d a b o v e a ll i n t h e t e r m i n o l o g y o f t h e

C h r i s t i a n C h u r ch m a d e it l e s s s u i t a b l e f o r t h e p u rp o s e o f d i s t i n g u i s h i n g a f a t h er

f r o m h i s s o n w h o b o r e t h e n a m e . " N e v e r t h e l e s s h e c i t e s t w o i n s c r i p t o n s f r o m A d a d a

in Pis id ia re fer rin g to Bidvcop 'Avxioxcru 7tpea(3i>xepo<; w h o i s a l s o dpxiepeix; xcov

l ep a o x co v ( p . 3 ) .9 9

Ol i v er ( 1 9 4 1 ) , p . 3 9 .100

I.G. 1 2 , 2 , 5 8 = OGIS 4 5 6 = IGRR 4 , 39 (M i ty l e ne 11 B .C . ) a. /. 10 : xou dp x-

lepecoq Kai xov axecpavricpopou.101

CIG 3 6 4 2 = IGRR 4 , 1 8 0 .102

IGRR 4 ,145 refers to the c iv i c recept ion for k ings res tored by Cal igula a f terthe i r de po s i t i on b y T ib er ius . T h e de cr ee i s h ow ev er (xo 8e \j/r |cp iop .a e iv a i ) ab ou t

re l ig ious de vo t io n to th e E m p er or (rcepi x ' ev ae Pe iaq xf|< ; e iq xov l e p a a x o v ) an d the

honour for the k ings (Kai XTI<; eiq xoix; (JaaiAiaq x eiu fj q; /. 2 5 ) . T h e m o n a r ch s w ere

t o b e w e l c o m e d i n a p r o c e s s i o n a r o u n d t h e t e m p l e s . " . . . a t t h e ir a r r iv a l (i)7to8e xpv

ei oo 8o v avxcov) the pr i es t s a nd pr i es te sses (xoix; uev i epetq Kai xaq i epe iaq) , ha v in g

op e n ed the shr ine s (dvo i^ avx aq xa xejxevT |) an d a do rn ed the im ag es (Kai 7 ipooKoaur |a -

a v x a q x a £ 6 a v a xcov Gecov), a re t o p r a y f o r t h e e t ern a l co n t i n u a n ce o f G a i u s C a es a r

( d 5 £ a a 6 a i u e v i)7cep xiiq rai)o\) K ai oa p oq a icovCou 8 iauovf jq) an d for the i r sa fety (Kai

xfj<; xovxcov acoxrip iaq). Al l the C yz ic en es are to sh ow the i r go od - fe e l i ng for t h em

(K \ ) ^ I K T | V O \ X ; 8 e i cd v x a q ev S e i Kv o u ev o i x ; xr\v sic, a v x o i x ; e i S v o i a v ), a n d t o m e e t a n dg r e e t t h e m w i t h t h e a r c h o n s a n d stephanephoroi. . . (i)7iavxr|aavxa<; uexd xcov dpxovxcov

Kai xcov axecpavTicpopcov d a r c d a a a G a i . . .). •• (/ . 1 9 -2 4 ) .




days crowns for the i)uvcp8oi (axe9avou(;xoi<;\)jLivcp8oi<;Kaixoi(;|a \)aTr|pioi(;

axecpdvcoaiv). Whether the rcpeaPuxepoi oi Apoc. 4,4-11 are to be viewed

as singing as opposed to rcpeaPeiq making prayerful panegyric is a

mute point, a n d perhaps the Seer did not always carefully distin

guish the images of various figures of the Imper ial Cult t ransfor med

contra-culturally into the heavenly scene. T h e rcpeapuxepoi as i)uvcp8o{

would clearly have worn such crowns. But that the crowns are golden

implies further a n d perhaps other images than that of the choir.

T h e 7Up£oPt>x£poi in Apoc. 4 are moreover crowned with golden

cro wns (oxetpdvoix; xpuaovq). T h e fact that their garlands are of gold

is significant because the general gathering of white-robed citizens

wore ordinary garlands. From the decree of Gytheum we see that

the general population "were wreathed with crowns of laurel (eaxeu-

uivcov 8dtpvri<; oxecpdvoiq)."1 03

T h e crowns worn by the ax£(pavr|(p6poi

were therefore special crowns. Benefactors were awarded them such

as Perigenes of Alexandria , son of Leontiskus who "for his piety

(euaepeiocv)" towards Ptolemy IV and Arsinoe, was "to be garlanded

with a go lden cr ow n (axetpavcoaai xpuafi axecpdvcp)."10 4

As we saw in

the last paragraph, sometimes a axecpavncpopoq could be a priest,

though whilst sacrificing the priest specifically of the Imperial Cult

would wear the corona aurea with its effigies (see also 5A 2.2.2). Poly-

cleides was a stephanephorus (axecpavricpopouvxoq IIOAA)KA£{8OI)) "on account

of his erecting an image of Ar tem is L eucophryene (urcep xfjq Ka6i8pt>-

aecoq xou ^odvou xfjq 'Apxepi8o<; xf|<; Ae'OKoepp'ovfiq)." He in consequence

joins the priestesses a n d other axe<pavr|<p6poi in both processing a n d

sacrificing.1 0 5

In the first prayer (Apoc. 4,11), the rcpeaPuxepoi "cast their crowns

(PaAouaiv xoix; oxeyavoxx; auxcov) before the throne (evawiiov xou Gpovou)."

This directly parallels the Imperial Cult in that it was a customary

practice to present the divine ruler with a gold crown, and to wor

ship before his empty chair. In Dio Cassius 59,24, 3-4 the senators

in a body did obeisance in the Capitol to the chair of Gaius .1 0 6

1 0 3

E h r e n b e r g and J o n e s ( 1 9 5 5 ) 1 0 2 , 2 5 = SEG 1 1 , 9 2 2 - 9 2 3 .104

OGIS 2 , 7 3 0 .105

SylP 695 /. 3 3 - 3 4 : xaq 8e y i v o u e v a q i e p e i a q xx\q ' A p i e u i S o q , u e x a axe9avTi96pov

noAA)ictai8riv K a i xoix ; axecpavricpopoix; ev xcpKa9' e a u x o i x ; e v i a u x c p O v c i a v K a i 7cou7triv

a u v x e X e i v . See a l s o IGRR 4 , 1 3 0 4 /. 5; 1349 /. 16; 1558 /. 2 7 - 3 1 .1 0 6 D.G. A u n e , The I n f l u e n c e of the R o m a n I m p e r i a l C o u r t C e r e m o n i a l on the

A p o c a l y p s e of J o h n , in Papers of the Chicago Society for Biblical Research, 28 ( 1 9 8 3 ) ,

p p . 13-14 c i te s a l so Dio C a s s i u s 4 5 , 6 , 5 ; 5 3 , 3 0 , 6 1 . Cf. L. R o s s T a y l o r , The D i v i n i t y




M a x i m i n u s in A . D . 2 3 5 is m e t b y d e l e g a t i o n s (r cp ea Pe ia q) o f p r o m i

n e n t c i t i z e n s d r e s s e d i n w h i t e a n d w e a r i n g l a u r e l w r e a t h s , w h o b r o u g h t

wi th t h em s t atu es o f t h e i r g o d s an d g o ld en c ro w n s (He ro d ian V H I ,7 ,2 ) .1 0 7

T h e l a t t e r p r a c t i c e to o is s u p p o r t e d f r o m e p i g r a p h i c e v i d e n c e . F r o m

M y t i l e n e (c . 2 7 B . C .) a g o l d e n c r o w n w a s t o b e s e n t t o A u g u s t u s

a n d O c t a v i a a n d p r e s e n t e d b y t h e a m b a s s a d o r s ( r c p e o p e i c ; ) .1 0 8

I n Apoc. 4 ,1 0 th e r cp eo pux ep oi p r a y p r ay e r s w h i ch a re a lm o s t i d e n

t ic a l i n c o n t e n t w i t h t h o s e o f t h e g r e a t c r o w d a n d t h e a n g e l s . L e t

u s l o o k a t t h e c o n t e n t o f t h e s e p r a y e r s in c o m p a r i s o n w i t h t h e w o r

s h ip f u l p a n e g y r i c s , p a r t i c u l a r l y o f t h e npeofieiq, i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h

t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t . W e a r e a s i g n o r a n t o f t h e w o r d s o f t h e h y m n s

o f t h e uu v co 8 oi a n d Geo Ao yo i, w h e th e r i n t h e m y s t e r i e s o r i n o p e n

c u l t ic c e l e b r a t i o n a s w e a r e o f t h e w o r d s o f t h e s o n g o f t h e 1 4 4 , 0 0 0 .

A s A u n e p o i n t e d o u t , t h is w o u l d a l so b e t r u e o f t h e s p o k e n p r a y e r s

o f t h e o ff ic ia ls o f t h e Im p er i a l C u l t .1 0 9

B u t t h e w o r d s o f s u c h o ff ic ia l p r a y e r s w o u l d n o d o u b t b e r e f l e c t e d

in w h a t w as s e t t o m u s i c . W h e t h e r t h e p r ay e r s o f t h e rcpeo pu xep oi

w e r e s p o k e n o r s u n g , w e find i n t h e m r e f l e c t io n s o f t h e l a n g u a g e o f

t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t . T h i s l a n g u a g e m a y i n d i c a t e t h a t w e h a v e h e r e i n

th e p ra y e r s o f t h e C h r i s t i a n rcp eo Pux ep oi m o d e l s o f w h a t w as o r ig i

n a l ly s u n g b y t h e p a g a n c h o i r s . W e n o w t u r n t o t h e c o n t e n t s o f

t h e s e p r a y e r s t h a t w e b e l i e v e w e c a n a s s o c i a t e m o r e d i r e c t l y a n d

e x a c t l y w i t h t h e l a n g u a g e o f t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t t h a n t h e a t t e m p t e d

r e c o n s t r u c t i o n s o f A u n e .1 1 0

5 B 3 . Imperial ideology in A p o c . 4,10 and 7,10

E a c h o f t h e t h re e p r ay e r s is ad d r es se d b e fo re t h e t h ro n e (evcbiciov

x ou 0 p 6 v o u ) , l ik e t h o se o f t h e S en a t o r s a t t h e C ap i to l i n t h e r e ig n o f

G a i u s , t o h is v a c a n t c h a i r , w h e t h e r b y p r e s b y t e r s , a n g e l s , o r t h e g r e a t

c r o w d .1 1 1

T h e r e a r e c o m m o n c o n c e p t s r e p e a t e d . T h e s e a r e : 8 6 £ a ,

e u x a p i a x i a , xi|xf|, a n d S uv a ji iq , (4 ,1 1 ) t o w h i c h t h e a n g e l s a n d " e v e r y

o f t h e R o m a n E m p e r o r , i n American Philological Association, Philological Monographs, 1

( 1 9 3 1 ) , ( C o n n e c t i c u t 1 9 3 1 ) , p . 8 7 n o t e 1 5 a n d D J . W e i n s t o c k , Divus Julius, ( O x f o r d :

C l a r e n d o n 1 9 7 1 ) , p . 2 8 3 .1 0 7

A u n e ( 1 9 8 3 ) p . 1 2 .108

IGRR 4 ,39 b . / . 3 0 - 3 1 : TteuxpOfjvai 8e Kai oxecpavov anb x pv ac o v 8 i a x ^ ic o v

ov

K a i d v a S o O f jv a i i>nb xcov upeapecov.1 0 9

A u n e ( 1 9 8 3 ) , p p . 1 5 - 2 0 .1 1 0

A u n e (1 9 8 3 ) , p p . 1 7 ff .1 1 1

S e e f o o t n o t e s 9 8 a n d 9 9 .




creature" adds ei)Xoyia, Kpdxoq and nXomoq (5,13), to whi ch 7, 10 -1 2

adds ia%t><;, aoqnct and ocoxripia. We can now tra ce m ost of these con

cepts, with the exception of oocpia, in the inscriptions.

5B 3.1 . 86^a, euxapio xia, Kpdxoq

In the Myti lenia n dec ree (c. 27 B.C.), to wh ich reference ha s a lr eady

been made , thanksgiv ing (euxapiaxia) is given for the benefits bes towed

by the imperial family in the mutilated beginning (b. /. 6: .. euepyeoicov

vouaa[ . . . £\>xa]piGx{av) . The inscription continues:

[Such benefits] are to be concluded from a natural generosity becauseit is never possible for the more humbling experiences in fate or in

nature to be applied to those who have achieved heaven's glory (86£ a)

and the superiority of the gods and their strength (Kpaioq) .1 1 2

In /. 24 and 34 we read that the ambassadors (npecfieiq) who, as we

ha ve seen, ar e to pr es en t t he crcicpavoq xpuaouq, ar e "to praise (eu%api-

o x f} o a i ) " the imperial family.

Similarly, in IGRR 4,1 45 /. 5 (Cyzicus), ho no ur in g Calig ula for

the restorat ion of ce rt ai n kings in Asia, th e decr ee is for h im "for

the praise of such a god (eiq £x>%apiGxiav xr|A,iKot>xou Oeou)."

We find the theme of Kpdxoq too in the Ephesian graffito: " R o me ,

queen of all, (Tcbpa r\ na\i$aGiXe\a) your strength will never perish

(xo aov Kpdxoq o\)7cox' 6A,£ixai)."11 3

5B 3.2. ocoxripia

It is at first sight qu it e in co ng ru ou s that a pr aye r shoul d be offered

(Apoc. 7,10) to the Ju da eo -C hr is ti an G o d offering hi m salvation or

safety (ocoxripia). Ye t in the co nt ex t of th e god-Emperor such a pa ra

dox is ap pr op ri at e. Fr om Ad ra ae in Ar ab ia we hav e two inscr iptions

in A.D. 262-3 commemorating walls and gates "on behalf of the

salvation and victory of our Lord (vnep ocoxn.p{a<; ice viicriq xot> Kupiou

f^pcov)" the form er of wh ich preserves the wo rd s "E mper o r Gal lienus

Sebastos ( a u x o K p a x o p o q T a ^ i r | v o \ ) I e | i . ) "1 1 4

112

IGRR 4 , 3 9 (Mytilene) b. /. 6 - 1 1 : £7uXoy{aao6ai 8e xfj[<;] OIKECOK ; jieyaAjOcppoawriq

ox[ i ] xoiq o v p a v i o i ) xexe[\)]x6ai 56[£TI<; Kai Gecov \)7iepoxfvv Kai K p a x o q exovaiv oi>8e7ioxe

8 i )vaxa i a\)ve^iaco9fjvai x a K a i xr\ xt>xii xarcewoxepa K a i xr\ [cpvaei.113 /. Eph. II, 599 .114

IGRR 3, 12 8 7 / . 4 and 12 8 8 /. 5.




5B 3.3. 8uvaua<; and ioxuq

T he re is not a grea t deal of evidence for 8uvaui<; in the inscrip tions

for the Impe ri al Cult , and no ne that I ca n find for ioxuq perhap s

because, at all events, it is synonymous with Kpdxoq.

If we go for an earl ier desc rip tion of the Hellenisti c ruler -cul t

before Aug ust us, th er e is the de cr ee from Pri ene in h o n o u r of

Lysimachus in 306 B.C. (OGIS 12). Her e the re are all the trappin gs

of the later Imp eri al Cul t that we have observed. T h e people are

to erect a bronze statue (oxr|aei 8e 6 8fjuo<; xou PaoiAiox; ayaAuxx xaAxouv;

/. 15). T h e rcpeaPeuxai are to cr own him wi th a go lden crow n (oxe-

cpavcoaouoiv auxov oxecpdvcp xpuoco; /. 14). T he y ar e furthermore to

rejoice to ge th er with the king (ouvr|a6r|oovxai xcp paaiAei ) th at he

himself is st rong (oxi ccuxoq xe eppcoxai) and his power (Kai f| Suvauxq)...

(/. 10).

For the time of the Imperi al Cu lt itself, we have an Egyptian

inscripti on in which Tib eri us Jul iu s Alexa nde r is the au th or of a

decree addressing various complaints and petitions to Galba in 68

A . D . (OGIS 669) . He writes of necessity (rcpoeypa\|/a dvayKaicoq) "con

ce rn ing each par ti cu la r th ing sought (rcepi em ox ou xcov eTu^rjxoupivcov),

many of whi ch I can judge a nd do (ba a eêaxi uoi K p e i v e i v K a i icoieiv)

but other s which are too grea t an d requir e the powe r of the em pe ro r

(xd 8e jieiôva K a i Seojieva xr\q xou a u x o K p d x o p o q 8uvd|ieco<;....(/. 8-9))."

5B 3.4. nXomoq

Neither nXomoq nor euAoyia are direcdy attested in the inscriptions

with particular reference to the Imperial Cult. However, cognate

terms are found on coinage associated with the iconography of the

Imperial Cult. Fortuna is found as the deified personi fica tion along

with Abundantia, Annona, Felicitas, or Moneta expressing the wealth

(rcôuxoq) associated with the imperial divinities.

Re ga rd in g rcXouxoq, we have a nu mber of coins from Do mi ti an 's

tenth consulate (A.D. 84) bearing the radiate head of the emperor

with Annona on the reverse, seated and holding corn ears, in one

case with a small figure and a ship in the distance, inscribed A N N O N A

A V G [ V S T A ] .1 1 5

As we noted with the cult of virtues (2B 3), here a

deified abst rac tion is be in g associa ted with the collective per sona lity

1 , 5 BMC 2, p. 360 no. *, see also p. 365 no. 304 plate 71,5, and p. 373 no. 347

p l a t e 73,6.




o f t h e E m p e r o r b y m e a n s o f t h e q u a li fy i ng a n d a p p r o p r i a t i n g a d d i

t i o n o f augusta. L i k e w i s e w i t h Moneta, t h e g o d d e s s p e r s o n i f y i n g t h e

M i n t , D o m i t i a n ' s c o i n s s h o w h e r d r a p e d a n d h o l d i n g s c a l e s a n d a

cornucopia w i t h i n sc ri p ti o n M O N E T A A V G V S T [ A ] . 1 1 6

Simi la r ly in co ins f rom Ti tus ' s re ign (A.D. 81-82) Felicitas i s inscr ibed

as F E L I C I T [ A S ] A V G V S T f A ] , d e p ic t e d h o l d i n g cornucopiae.ul T h e r e

a r e a ls o e x a m p l e s o f i n s c ri p ti o n s o f t h e f o r m : F E L I C I T A S P V B L I C A

S . C . , i n w h i c h Felicitas h o l d s cadeus a n d cornucopiae a n d th u s is a sy m

b o l o f 7 t A x r i ) T O < ; .1 1 8

PART C . I N C O N C L U S I O N : APOCALYPSE A N D T H E IMPERIAL C U L T

W e h a v e th u s s u r v e y e d t h e i m a g e r y a n d b a c k g r o u n d o f t h e Apocalypse,

a n d l o c a t e d th i s f i rm l y i n t h e c o n t e x t o f t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t i n A s i a

M i n o r in D o m i t i a n ' s r e i g n . W e h a v e a r g u e d in t e r m s o f c o n t r a - c u l

t u r a l t h e o r y t h a t t h e i m a g e r y o f t h e Apocalypse is t o b e u n d e r s t o o d

a s a J u d a e o - C h r i s t i a n r e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e v a lu e s o f p a g a n c u l t u r ei n w h i c h t h e i m p r e s s o f t h a t c u l t u r e is r e - e x p r e s s e d i n a r e v e r s e d

f o r m . T h e p i c t u r e o f C h r i s t a n d t h e S o n o f M a n i n t h e m i d s t o f

th e l a m p s t an d s o f t h e s ev en ch u r ch es , t h e l an g u ag e o f t h e GeotaSyoq

o f t h e m y s t e r i e s t h e r e u s e d , t h e g o l d e n l a u r e a t e p r e s b y t e r s a r o u n d

t h e h e a v e n l y t h r o n e o f i n c e n s e , t h e w h i t e r o b b e d t h r o n g o f m a r t y r s ,

t h e l a n g u a g e o f t h e h y m n s s u n g o r p r a y e r s s a id a r o u n d t h e h e a v

e n l y a l t a r , t h e i m a g e r y o f m o t h e r a n d c h i l d , o f a n g e l s w i t h v i a ls e t ca ll r e f l ec t ed t h e im a g e ry o f t h a t c u l t .

F u r t h e r m o r e t h e r e f le c t io n w a s a r e v e r s e r e f le c t io n . T h e c o n t r a -

c u l t u r e t a k e s o n t h e v a l u e s o f t h e h o s t c u l t u r e i n a r e v e r s e d t r a n s

f o r m a t i o n . I t c r e a t e s i ts o w n f r a m e o f r e f e r e n c e t h a t is a k i n d o f

m i r r o r i m a g e o f t h e h o s t c u l t u r e , w i t h w h i c h t h o s e w h o i n h a b i t i ts

r e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f s o c i a l r e a l i ty f in d t h e s t a t u s a n d s e l f- e s te e m t h a t

t h e h o s t c u l t u r e d e n i e s t h e m . T h e q n a A m o f p l e n t y r e p r e s e n t e d o nt h e i m p e r i a l c o i n a g e a s d i s p o s e d b y Abundantia, Annona, Felicitas, Fortuna,

o r b y D o m i t i a a s t h e m o t h e r o f a d i v i n e c h i l d h a v e b e c o m e t r a n s

f o r m e d i n t h e v i s io n o f t h e S e e r i n t o t h e (p id A m o f G o d ' s w r a t h . T h e

s a c ri fi ce s o n t h e a l t a r b e c o m e , n o t t h e b u l ls , b u t t h e m a r t y r s w h o

1 , 6

BMC 2 , p . 3 6 7 n o . 3 1 4 ( A . D . 8 5 ) , p . 3 7 5 , a n d p . 3 7 8 n o . 3 6 5 p l a t e 7 4 , 8 .117

BMC 2 , p . 2 5 5 n o . 1 5 6 , s e e a l s o p . 2 8 0 .1 , 8

BMC 2 , p . 2 1 2 n o . 8 5 6 p l a te 4 1 , 9 .




h a v e w a s h e d t h e i r f es ta l r o b e s w h i t e in t h e b l o o d o f t h e L a m b .

D o m i t i a a n d h e r ch i l d b e c o m e M a r y a n d J e s u s , p u r s u e d b y S a t a n .

T h e f ea s ts a n d b a n q u e t s o f t h e i m p e r i a l f e st iv a l, a n d o f t h e i m p e r

ia l m y s t e r i e s , b e c o m e t h e m a r r i a g e s u p p e r of t h e L a m b .

B u t g i v e n t h a t t h e c h u r c h i n h e a v e n is r e f l e c te d i n t h e c h u r c h o n

e a r t h , w h a t if a n y t h i n g d o e s t h e p i c t u r e o f t h e f o r m e r i n t h e Apocalypse

t el l u s a b o u t t h e s t a t e o f C h u r c h O r d e r a t t h i s t i m e ? C a n w e s e e

i n t h e p r e s b y t e r s o f t h e Apocalypse o r t h e a n g e l s o f t h e C h u r c h e s a n y

r e fl ec ti on o f a c o n t e m p o r a r y C h u r c h O r d e r ? I a m g o i n g n o w to su g

g e s t t h a t t h e r e is a r e s o l u t i o n t o th i s a n c i e n t p r o b l e m i n t h e l e t t e r s

o f I g n a t i u s o f A n t i o c h t h a t r e fl e ct in v a r i o u s a n d d i s c r e t e w a y s t h e

i m a g e r y o f t h e Apocalypse w h i c h r e a p p e a r i n w h a t is u n q u e s t i o n a b l y

a d e s c r i p t i o n o f h o w h e r e g a r d s t h e i c o n o g r a p h y o f t h e C h u r c h g a t h

e r e d f or w o r s h i p o n e a r t h . I t is t o t h e I g n a t i a n d e v e l o p m e n t s t h a t

w e n o w t u r n .



C H A P T E R S I X

I G N A T I U S O F A N T I O C H A N D T H E

M A R T Y R ' S P R O C E S S I O N

Imp erial am bassado rs, representation, and confron tation

T h e r e a r e , c o n t r a r y t o K o e s t e r , s uf fi cie nt c o n n e c t i o n s b e t w e e n t h e

I g n a t i a n c o r r e s p o n d e n c e a n d t h e Apocalypse t o s u g g e s t a r e l a t i o n s h i p

b e t w e e n t h e p a r t i c u l a r c h u r c h e s of A s i a a d d r e s s e d in b o t h w o r k s .1

I t w o u l d t h e r e f o r e b e w r o n g t o s u p p o s e t h a t w i t h i n t h o s e c i ti e s t h e r e

w e r e s e p a r a t e c h a r i s m a t i c g r o u p s to w h i c h t h e l a t te r w e r e a d d r e s s e d ,

a n d s e p a r a t e e p i s c o p a l g r o u p s t o w h i c h t h e f o r m e r w e r e a d d r e s s e d ,

w i t h n o r e l a t io n t o e a c h o t h e r . T h e c h u r c h e s in E p h e s u s , P e r g a m o n ,

a n d P h i l a d e l p h i a , a d d r e s s e d b y t h e S e e r , w e r e t h e s a m e g r o u p s s o m e

fifteen t o t w e n t y y e a r s l a t e r a d d r e s s e d b y I g n a t i u s , a n d n o t r i v a l

g r o u p s w i t h i n t h e s a m e c it y w i t h n o c o n n e c t i o n w i t h e a c h o t h e r .

In c o n se q u en ce , i t w i l l b e p o s s ib l e for m e to a r g u e in t h e first

h a l f o f t h i s c h a p t e r (6 A ) t h a t w e c a n u s e t h e I g n a t i a n c o r r e s p o n

d e n c e t o u n d e r s t a n d h o w t h e h e a v e n l y a n g e l s a n d p r e s b y t e r s o f t h e

Apocalypse b e c a m e I g n a t i u s ' r e a l - l i v e b i s h o p s a n d p r e s b y t e r s s o m e

fifteen ye ar s l a t e r , i f in d e e d thes e o f f icers w er e n o t ye t p re se n t int h e c h u r c h e s a d d r e s s e d b y t h e S e e r . T h e s e h e a v e n l y b e i n g s r e f le c t ed

f e a t u r e s o f t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t a n d i ts r i t u a l . S u b s e q u e n t l y , w h e n t h e y

b e c o m e g r o u n d e d i n a n e a r t h l y i n s t i tu t i o n a t t h e I g n a t i a n , f u r t h e r

s t ag e o f d e v e l o p m e n t so m e fifteen y e a r s l a t t e r , t h ey wil l a l so r e f lec t

s o m e f e a t u r e s o f t h e p a g a n i n s t i t u t io n s o f w h i c h t h e y a r e t h e c o n t r a -

c u l t u r a l m o d e l s . W e s ha l l s h o w m o r e o v e r a t y p o l o g y o f r e p r e s e n t a

t i o n i n I g n a t i u s ' d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e th r e e f o l d O r d e r w h i c h re f le c ts t h et h e o l o g y of r e p r e s e n t a t i o n i m p l i e d in D o m i t i a n ' s c h a n g e s , a s h i g h

p r i e s t o f t h e C a p i t o l i n e g a m e s in t h e i c o n o g r a p h y o f t h e coronae. S u c h

a t y p o l o g y w e s h a l l s e e t o b o t h i n c l u d e a n d t o g o b e y o n d t h e e p i s

c o p a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f a n g e l ic c o r p o r a t e p e r s o n a l i t i e s o f c o m m u n i

t ies in the Apocalypse.

1 H . K o e s t e r , T N Q M A I A I AO O P O I: T h e O r i g i n a n d N a t u r e o f D i v e r s i f i c a t io n i nt h e H i s t o r y o f E a r l y C h r i s t i a n i t y , i n J . M . R o b i n s o n a n d H . K o e s t e r , Trajectories

through Early Christianity, ( P h i l a d e l p h i a : F o r t re s s P r e s s 1 9 7 1 ) , p p . 1 1 4 - 1 5 7 .



I G N A T IU S O F A N T I O C H A N D T H E M A R T Y R ' S P R O C E S S IO N 2 1 1

2

F o r a n e a r l i e r v e r s i o n , s e e A . B r e n t , I g n a t i u s o f A n t i o c h a n d t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t ,in VCh 5 2 , 1 (1 9 9 8 ) , p p . 3 0 - 5 8 .

3

T h e L i g h t f o o t - Z a h n c o n s e n s u s o n t h e g e n u i n e n e s s o f t h e M i d d l e R e c e n s i o n h a s

r e c e n t l y b e e n a s s a i l ed b y , a m o n g s t o t h e r s , R . J o l y , Le Dossier d'Ignace d'Antioche,

( U n i v e r s i t e L i b r e d e B r u x e l l e s : F a c u l t e d e P h i l o s o p h i c e t L e t t r e s : L X I X 1 9 7 8 ) ;

J . R i u s - C a m p s , The Four Letters of Ignatius the Martyr, ( R o m e : P o n t i f i c iu m I n s t i tu t u m

O r i e n t a l i u m S t u d i o r u m 1 9 8 0 ) . T h e i r g r o u n d s a r e u n s a t is f a c to r y s e e , e . g . W . S c h o e d e l ,

A r e t h e L e t t e r s o f I g n a t i u s o f A n t i o c h A u t h e n t i c ? i n RelStRev 6 ( 1 9 8 0) , p p . 2 6 1 - 2 9 7 ;

C P . H a m m o n d B a m m e l , in JThS 3 3 ( 1 9 8 2 ) , p p . 6 2 - 9 7 ; A . B r e n t , T h e I g n a t i a n

E p i s t l e s a n d t h e T h r e e f o l d E c c l e s i a s t i c a l O r d e r , i n JRH 1 7 ,1 ( 1 9 9 2 ) , p p . 1 8 - 3 2 ;

Idem. T h e R e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n I g n a t i u s o f A n t i o c h a n d t h e Didascalia Apostolorum, in

SecCent 8 , 3 ( 1 9 9 1 ) , p p . 1 2 9 - 1 5 6 . F o r f u ll e r b i b l i o g r a h y s e e a l s o B r e n t ( 1 9 9 1 ) .4

S e e f o o t n o t e 1 a b o v e .

F u r t h e r m o r e , w e s ha ll s h o w (6B ) t h a t I g n a t i u s ' u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f

h i s m a r t y r d o m i s i n t h e c o n t e x t o f a n i m p e r i a l c u l ti c p r o c e s s i o n , w i t h

t h e r o l e s o f t h e C h r i s t i a n c l e ri c s w h o a c c o m p a n y h i m d e s c r i b e d b y

a m b a s s a d o r i a l t i d e s . T h e s e t i d e s w i ll b e s h o w n t o h a v e e q u i v a l e n t s

i n i n s c r i p t i o n s o f t h e p r o v i s i o n s m a d e b y t h e c i t y s t a te s o f A s i a M i n o r

t o a p p o i n t v a r i o u s o ffic er s fo r t h e p r o c l a m a t i o n a n d c e l e b r a t i o n o f

t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t .2

PART A . I G N A T I A N T Y P O L O G Y A N D D O M I T I A N ' S I C O N O G R A P H Y

T h e c la s si c al , t h r e e f o l d O r d e r o f l a t e r C h r i s t e n d o m a p p e a r s f or t h e

f irs t t i m e u n a m b i g u o u s l y i n t h e le t t e r s o f I g n a t i u s o f A n t i o c h , w h o

w r i t e s i n t h e re i g n o f T r a j a n a r o u n d A . D . 1 0 9 .3

T h e q u e s t i o n o f t h e

r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n I g n a t i u s a n d t h e Apocalypse is a n i n t e r e s t i n g o n e .

S e v e r a l o f t h e d e s t i n a t i o n s o f I g n a t i u s ' l e tt e r s ( E p h e s u s , S m y r n a , P h i l a

d e l p h i a ) a r e i d e n t i c a l w i t h t h e d e s t i n a t i o n o f t h e le t t e r s a d d r e s s e d t o

t h e m b y t h e S e e r i n A . D . 9 5 . I f t h a t r e l a t i o n s h i p c a n b e e s t a b l i s h e d ,it is a n i n t e r e s t i n g q u e s t i o n w h a t k i n d o f C h u r c h O r d e r e x i s te d i n

t h e s e c h u r c h e s a t t h e tim e o f t h e S e e r , a n d h o w it d e v e l o p e d b y t h e

t i m e o f I g n a t i u s .

K o e s t e r a r g u e d t h a t d i f f e r e n t C h r i s t i a n g r o u p s m a y b e a d d r e s s e d

e v e n w i t h i n t h e s a m e c i t i e s b y I g n a t i u s a n d t h e S e e r .4

B u t a l t e r n a

t iv el y t h e r e m a y h a v e b e e n c o m m u n i t i e s w h i c h h a d a c h i e v e d , c o m -

m e n d a b l y i n I g n a t i u s ' o p i n i o n , t h e t h r e e f o ld O r d e r , a n d o t h e r s w h i c hl a c k e d t h is O r d e r ( T h y a t e i r a , L a o d i c a e a , P e r g a m o n , a n d S a rd is ) a n d

t h e r e f o r e d i d n o t w a r r a n t a n e p i s c o p a l l e t t e r . T h e a b s e n c e o f l e t t e r s

t o t h e s e i m p o r t a n t c e n t r e s , l e t a l o n e t o T a r s u s o r A n t i o c h i n P i s i d i a ,

d o e s n o t t h e r e f o r e n e c e s s a r il y s u p p o r t t h e c l a i m s o f t h e o p p o n e n t s



2 1 2 C H A P T E R S I X

o f t h e M i d d l e R e c e n s i o n . T h a t n o n e o f t h e s e w e r e a p p a r e n t l y suffi-

c i e n d y i n t e r e s t e d i n t h e m a r t y r ' s h i g h w a y o n w h i c h I g n a t i u s t r a v e l l e d

to R o m e to s e n d c l e r i ca l v i s i t o r s , if i n d ee d th e y h a d c l e r ic s t o s e n d ,

is full y co n s i s t e n t w i th t h e l ack o f a u n iv e r s a l t h ree fo ld O r d e r a t t h i s

t i m e . B i s h o p I g n a t i u s d i d n o t r e c o g n i s e s u c h c e n t r e s a s c o n t a i n i n g

t r u ly C h r i s t i a n g r o u p s .

D e s p i t e t h e a p p a r e n t d i ff e re n c e b e t w e e n t h e c h a r i s m a t i c c u l t u r a l

a m b i e n c e of t h e Apocalypse a n d t h e e c c l e s i a s t i c a l O r d e r o f I g n a t i u s ,

t h e r e a r e n e v e r t h e l e s s s o m e i n t r i g u i n g l in k s b e t w e e n t h e t w o w o r k s .

T h e s e l in k s w i ll s u g g e s t t h a t t h e t h r e e c h u r c h e s t o w h i c h b o t h t h e

S e e r a n d I g n a t i u s a d d r e s s l e t t e r s ( P e r g a m o n , E p h e s u s a n d P h i l a d e l p h i a )

w e r e t h e s a m e c o m m u n i t i e s , h i s t o r i c a l l y c o n t i n u o u s a n d n o t s e p a

r a t e d f r o m e a c h o t h e r . B r o w n a n d M e i e r c l a i m e d t h a t t h e c h a r i s

m a t i c g r o u p s i n A n t i o c h i n S y r i a , i d e n t i f i e d i n St. Matthew b y t h e i r

r e d a c t i o n c r i t ic i s m o f t h a t g o s p e l , w e r e p a r t o f t h e h i s t o r y o f I g n a t i u s '

o w n c o m m u n i t y , a n d f ro m w h i c h his e p i sc o p a l C h u r c h O r d e r h a d

d e v e l o p e d ( 3 A 2 ) .5

T r e v e t t c e r t a i n l y s a w a s u p e r s e s s i o n o f c h a r i s m a t i c p e r s o n s in t h e

s i l e n c e o f t h e b i s h o p o f P h i l a d e l p h i a (Philad. 1,1).6 I myself, f u r t h e r

m o r e , a r g u e d t h a t c h a r i s m a w a s n o t n e c e s s a r i l y a n t i t h e t i c a l t o e p i s

c o p a l O r d e r , a s is o f te n a s s u m e d f r o m t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y c h a r i s m a t i c

e x p e r i e n c e .7

I f c h a r i s m a a n d e p i s c o p a l O r d e r d o n o t n e c e s s a r i ly

r e q u i r e di f fe r e n t c o m m u n i t i e s fo r t h e i r o p e r a t i o n in t h e c a s e o f

A n t i o c h i n S y r i a , t h e n t h e s a m e c a n b e e q u a l l y t r u e f o r E p h e s u s ,

P h i l a d e l p h i a , a n d S m y r n a . J o h n t h e S e e r d o e s n o t n e c es s ar i l y t h e r e

fo re ad d res s d i f f e ren t g ro u p s i n t h e s am e c i t i e s t o t h o se l a t e r t o b e

a d d r e s s e d b y I g n a t i u s .

L e t u s t h e r e f o r e e x a m i n e t h e l in k s i n i m a g e r y u s e d b y t h e S e e r

a n d I g n a t i u s i n o r d e r t o e s t a b l i s h t h e h i s t o r i c a l c o n t i n u i t y b e t w e e n

a t l e a s t s o m e c h u r c h e s a d d r e s s e d b y t h e S e e r a n d b y I g n a t i u s o f

A n t i o c h .

5 R . E . B r o w n a n d J . - P . M e i e r , Antioch and Rom e: New Testament Cradles of Catholic

Christianity, ( N e w Y o r k : P a u l i s t P r e ss 1 9 8 3 ) , c h a p t e r s 3 - 4 .6 C . T r e v e t t , P r o p h e c y a n d A n t i - E p i s c o p a l A c ti v it y : A T h i r d E r r o r C o m b a t t e d

b y I g n a t i u s ? i n JE H 3 4 ( 1 9 8 3 ) , p p . 1 6 5 - 1 7 1 , cf. H . C h a d w i c k , T h e S i l e n c e o f

B i s h o p s i n I g n a t i u s , i n HThR 4 3 (1 9 5 0 ) , p p . 1 6 9 - 7 2 a n d L . F . P i z z o l a t o , S i l e n z i o

d e l v e s c o v o e p a r o l a d e g l i e r e t i c i i n I g n a z i o d ' A n t i o c h e i a , i n Aevum 4 4 ( 1 9 7 0 ) , p p .

2 0 5 - 2 1 8 .7 A . B r e n t , P s e u d o n y m i t y a n d C h a r i s m a in t h e M i n i s t r y o f t h e E a r l y C h u r c h , in

Aug 2 7 , 3 ( 1 9 8 7) , p p . 3 4 7 - 3 7 6 .



I G N A T I U S O F A N T I O C H A N D T H E M A R T Y R ' S P R O C E S S I O N 2 1 3

6A 1 . Common Imagery in Ignatius and the A p o c a l y p s e

A c o m m u n i t y s u c h a s t h a t a t E p h e s u s ( I g n a t i u s , Eph. 9 ,1 ) can be

d e s c r i b e d a s " t e m p l e s t o n e s (XiQoi vocou) m a d e r e a d y i n a n t i c i p a t i o nfo r G o d th e Fa th e r ' s b u i ld in g (r cpo u x oiu ocau iv o i e iq OIKOSOUTW Geou

rcaxpoq)." In Apoc. 2 1 , 1 4 a n d 19 t h e N e w J e r u s a l e m h a s w a l ls w i t h

f o u n d a t i o n s b e a r i n g t h e n a m e s o f t h e t w e l v e a p o s d e s , a n d w h i c h a r e

" a d o r n e d w i th ev e ry p re c i o u s s to n e (o i Geu e tao i x ou xeixou< ; xfjq noXeax;

rcocvxi XiGco xipicp K e K o a u r i j i e v o i ) . ' '

T h e c r o s s is r e p r e s e n t e d a s a t r e e b e a r i n g t h e fr u it o f i m m o r t a l

i t y i n b o t h w o r k s . I n Trallians 1 1 , 1 - 2 t h e h e r e t i c s a r e n o t " t h e p l a n t ing o f the Fa ther (cpuxeia T t a x p o q ) ; f o r if t h e y w e r e , t h e y w o u l d h a v e

a p p e a r e d a s b r a n c h e s o f t h e cr o ss (K^CX8OI xou oxocupou) a n d th e ir

fru it i m m o r t a l (6 Kocprcoq auxcov oupGapxoq)." I n Apoc. 2 2 , 2 w e r e a d o f

th e " t r e e of l ife (2;uA,ov £cof|<;) p r o d u c i n g tw e lv e fru its . . . a n d th e

le av es o f th e t r e e (xa cpuA,A,a xou £t>A,ou) a r e for th e h e a l i n g o f t h e

n a t io n s (eiq Gepocrceiccv xcov eGvcbv)." £uAov g e n e ra ll y in e a r ly C h r i s t i a n

l i t e r a t u r e m e a n s t h e C r o s s , a n d t o t h e o v e r c o m e r it is g r a n t e d " t oe a t o f t h e t r e e / c r o s s o f life (cpayeiv eic xou £uA,ou xfjq £cofj<;) w h i c h is in

th e g a r d e n of G o d (o eo xw ev rcocpaSeiocp xou Geou)." (Apoc. 2,7)

B u t t h e r e a r e t w o f u r t h e r k i n d s o f l in k t h a t c o n n e c t t h e Apocalypse

w i t h I g n a t i u s i n a f ar m o r e c o m p r e h e n s i v e a n d f u n d a m e n t a l w a y .

T h e s e li nk s f u r t h e r m o r e c o n n e c t I g n a t i u s n o t o n l y w i t h t h e Apocalypse

b u t w i t h w h a t w e h a v e s e e n t h e l a t t e r w o r k t o r e fl e ct o f t h e l i t u r g y

a n d th e o lo g y o f t h e Im p er i a l C u l t (5 B 1.1).

6A 1 .1 . Heavenly Church and corresponding earthly typology

T h e f ir st s e t o f l i n k s c an b e s een in t h e t e n d e n cy o f b o th w o r k s t o

s ee r e fl ec ti on s of a t r a n s c e n d e n t a n d h e a v e n l y C h u r c h O r d e r e n t e r

i n g t h e w o r l d o f t h e p r e s e n t C h u r c h . T h e s e c o n d se t s h o w s a s i m

i l a r i t y b e tween th e way in wh ich an g e l i c b e in g s r ep re sen t t h e co rp o ra t e

p e r s o n a l i t i e s o f d i s t i n c t c h u r c h e s i n t h e Apocalypse, a n d t h e w a y i nw h i c h , i n I g n a t i u s , t h e s a m e c o r p o r a t e p e r s o n a l i t y o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l

c o m m u n i t y is r e p r e s e n t e d m y s t i c a ll y b y t h e b i s h o p , a n d o t h e r c l e r

i ca l p e r s o n a g e s t h a t a r e p a r t o f t h e th r e e f o l d h i e r a r c h y .

6 A 1 .1 .1 . Ignatius and A p o c a l y p s e : The heavenly liturgy

T h e r e i s a g e n e r a l a c c e p t a n c e o f s o m e re f le c t io n , a l b e i t g e n e r a l a n d

i l l- f o r m e d , o f e a r l y C h r i s t i a n w o r s h i p in t h e d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e h e a v

e n l y w o r s h i p o f t h e Apocalypse. T h e p r e s b y t e r a l c ir c le , i n w h i c h t h e

f o u r l iv i n g c r e a t u r e s p a r t i c i p a t e a r o u n d t h e t h r o n e o f G o d a n d t h e




L a m b , is ev o ca t i v e o f s cen es in t h e l i t u rg y o f t h e Apostolic Tradition

i n w h i c h t h e b i s h o p w h o p r e s i d e s sits s u r r o u n d e d b y a c i rc l e o f s e a t e d

p r e s b y t e r s w i t h s t a n d i n g d e a c o n s g i v i n g l i t u r g i c a l i n s t r u c t i o n s t o t h e

p e o p l e , a n d r e c e i v i n g t h e l a t t e r ' s g ifts o f b r e a d a n d w i n e f o r c o n

s e c r a t i o n a n d e v e n t u a l c o m m u n i o n . 8 T o d i s e n t a n g l e t h e i m a g e r y o f

t h e c o n t e m p o r a r y C h u r c h r e f l e c t e d i n t h e h e a v e n l y C h u r c h i s d i f f i c u l t ,

g i v e n th e w a y in w h i c h w e h a v e s e e n t h a t t h e i m a g e r y o f t h e p a g a n

I m p e r i a l C u l t u s w i t h its a l t a r , v i al s , i n c e n s e , a n d w h i t e r o b b e d w o r

s h i p e r s is b l e n d e d w i t h a n y s u c h p u t a t i v e e c c le s i a st ic a l i m a g e r y .

H o w e v e r , w e h a v e s o m e c o n t r o l o v e r a c o r r e c t r e a d i n g o f t h e Apocalypse

i n t h e c o n t e x t o f t h e k i n d o f s o c i al e n v i r o n m e n t i n w h i c h it w a s

w r i t t e n , g i v e n t h e i d e n t i t y o f c o m m u n i t i e s a d d r e s s e d b y b o t h w r i t

e r s ( 6 A 1). W e h a v e a l r e a d y a r g u e d a s i m i l a r i t y o f g e n e r a l i m a g e r y

t h a t r e v e a l s f a r m o r e i n c o m m o n t h a n s i m p l y i n s o m e c a s e s a n i d e n

t it y o f c it ie s o f A s i a M i n o r i n t h e C h u r c h t h a t is a d d r e s s e d .

P r i g e n t a r g u e d t h a t t h e t w e n t y f o u r e l d e r s o f Apoc. 4 - 5 , s e a t e d

c r o w n e d a n d u p o n th r o n e s a r o u n d t h e t h r o n e o f G o d a n d t h e L a m b ,

r e p r e s e n t e d O l d T e s t a m e n t E l d e r s a n d t h e i r l it u r g ic a l r e f ra i n w a s

o r i g i n a l l y p a r t o f a J e w i s h l i t u r g y .9

B u t g r a n t e d t h i s o r i g i n a l locus o f

t h e i m a g e r y o f t h e s e p a s s a g e s , t h e n a t u r a l tr a n s i t i o n i n t o C h r i s t i a n

u s a g e w a s h a r d l y d i r e c t l y i n t o t h e l i t e r a t u r e o f t h e Apocalypse. T h e

m o s t n a t u r a l , i m m e d i a t e locus b e f o r e a p p e a r a n c e i n t h e v i s i o n o f t h e

S e e r w o u l d h a v e b e e n via a C h r i s t i a n li t u rg y s h a p e d b y w h a t w e

h a v e a r g u e d t o b e its p a g a n , c u lt ic b a c k g r o u n d .1 0

S u c h a l i t u r g y ,

c o n c e p t u a l i z e d o r ig i n al ly in J e w i s h t e r m s , w o u l d , w e h a v e a r g u e d ,

b e e n r e f a s h i o n e d i n p r o c e s s o f c o n t r a - c u l t u r a l r e f o r m u l a t i o n , i n its

C h r i s t i a n c o n t e x t , a s a s p ec if ic r e s p o n s e t o t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t .

W i t h i n a g e n e r a t i o n a f t er t h e v i s i o n o f t h e S e e r , I g n a t i u s w a s t o

b e a r w i tn e s s t o t h e p r e s e n c e o f a n O r d e r o f p r e s b y t e r s in t h e c h u r c h e s

o f E p h e s u s , S m y r n a , a n d P h i l a d e l p h i a . H e t h e r e f o r e c la i m s t h a t t h o s e

c h u r c h e s p o s se s se d a n O r d e r , h o w e v e r n a s c e n t a n d c o n t r o v e r t e d ,

s i m i l a r t o t h a t o f h is o w n A n t i o c h in S y r i a . C o n t e m p o r a r y r e d a c

t i o n c ri t i c is m o f t h e g o s p e l o f t h a t C h u r c h , Matthew, r e v e a l s p r e s

b y t e r s w i t h i n t h a t c o m m u n i t y l i vi n g i n t e n s i o n w i t h m o r e c h a r i s m a t i c ,

p r o p h e t i c g r o u p s .1 1

F u r t h e r m o r e , H e r m a s b e a r s w i tn e ss i n m i d - s e c o n d

8 P s e u d o H i p p o l y t u s , Ap. Trad. 4 ; Didasc. Apost. I I, 5 7 , 4 - 5 .9 P . P r i g e n t , A p o c a l y p s e e t L i t u r g i e , i n CTh 5 2 ( 1 9 6 4 ) , p p . 4 8 - 5 5 , p . 6 8 .

1 0 S u c h w a s t h e a r g u m e n t o f J . P . A u d e t , La Didache: Instructions des Apotres, (Par is:

Libr a ire Leco f fre 19 58) , p . 37 7 c f. Pr igen t (19 64 ) , p . 50 .1 1 B r o w n a n d J . P . M e i e r ( 1 9 8 2 ) c h a p t e r s 3 a n d 4 .



I G N A T I U S OF A N T I O C H AND THE M A R T Y R ' S P R O C E S S I O N 215

1 2

H e r m a s Vis. Ill, 9,7: vfiv ox>v i)uiv A-eyco xoiq 7tpoTry(n)|Lievoi<; xr\c, E K K X T I G I O K ; Kai

xoi<; 7tpcoxoKa6e8pixou<;. . . cf. Vis. II, 4 , 3 : . . . uexa xcov rcpeap'uxepcov xcov Ttpo'ioxauevcov.

S e e a l s o Man. 11,12 w h e r e it is a \j/e\)5o7ipo<pr|XTi<; who is 6 mOriuevoq erci X T ^ V K < X 6 -

e 8 p a v . See a l s o B r e n t (1 9 9 5 ) , pp. 4 3 1 - 4 5 4 ff.1 3

See f o o t n o t e s 6 and 7.1 4

A. S a t a k e , Die G e m e i n d e o r d n u n g in der J o h a n n e s a p o k a l y p s e , in WMANT 2\

( 1 9 6 6 ) , pp. 1 4 7 - 1 5 0 ff.: " A u c h die d r i t t e D e u tu n g , d a s s s i c h im H a n d e l n der 24

A l t e s t e n das des i r d i s c h e n P r e s b y t e r i u m s w i d e r s p i e g e l t , ist m e i n e r A n s i c h t n a c h

u n h a l t b a r , und z w a r vor a l l e m d e s w e g e n , w e i l die v i e r W e s e n , die n e b e n i h n e n

a u f t r e t e n , auf k e i n e n F a l l in der i r d is c h e n G e m e i n d e e in e E n t s p r e c h u n g h a b e n . "1 5

See a l s o Z a n k e r ( 1 9 9 0 ) , p. 115 fig. 93 and p. 117 fig. 95.

century Rome to a prophetic Seer addressing a church that clearly

acknowledged his charisma whilst acknowledging presbyters whose

office was that of rcpcoxoicaGeSpixai occupying 7tpcoxoKa0e8p{ai.12

It

would be a mistake, therefore, to agree with Satake that the Church

Order of the Apocalypse had no office holders apart from prophets,

as if this work cou ld st an d ap ar t from its pl ace in kn ow n, late first-

century contexts. Trevett has moreover emphasised charismatic and

prophetic elements subsumed under Ignatius' episcopal behaviour,

which reveals different elements in tension rather than the presence

of a pro phet ic ord er pre clud ing a presbyteral on e .1 3

Satake concludes that the presbyters in the Apocalypse can only be

he ave nly beings on ac co un t of thei r cr own s a nd their hea ven ly

glorification.1 4

But it is by no me an s incong ruo us th at a descr iption

of a hea ven ly reflection in an ea rth ly liturgy should cr ow n an d glo

rify those who preside at that liturgy. Furthermore Satake's treat

ment ignores the variety of earthly images synthesised by the Seer

into the heaven ly scenes. ~.

The seated presbyters are associated with the slain lamb who sits

in the midst of them at an altar of sacrifice. It would have been

priests who presided at a sacrifice and not presbyters had the O.T.

symbolism been preserved here in an uncontaminated form. Instead

that symbolism has undergone radical reformulation. In the case of

the living crea tur es , as in that of the slain la mb, pa gan ele ments

join the synthesis. The images here are taken from the bucranium

of Au gu st an ar t, and the living crea tur es tha t often ad or n sacrifi

cial scenes in Augustan cultic frescoes.1 5

The elders (Apoc. 5,8) each

possess a harp ( e^ovxeq e K o t G x o q Ki0dpav) and incense bowls (Kai

ymXaq %p\)oa<; y e p o u a a c ; 9\)piapdxcov). Though incense was used by

priests an d not by elders in the Te mpl e, her e the ac co mp an yi ng

KiG&poc and an actual sacrificial victim places the scene outside an



216 C H A P T E R SIX

1 6 A. B ren t , H i p p o l y t u s and the R o m a n C h u r c h in the T h i r d C e n t u r y : C o m m u n i t i e sin T e n s i o n b e f o r e the E m e r g e n c e of a M o n a r c h - B i s h o p , in Suppi VCh. 31 ( L e i d e n :

E J . Bril l 1 9 9 5 ) , pp. 1 9 2 - 1 9 7 ; pp. 4 5 8 - 4 6 2 ff.

un co nt am in at ed Jew ish c onte xt of the "ho ur of ince nse. " (3B 2) Th e

presbyte rs "fall before th e La m b (erceoav evamiov xou dpviou)." Fu r

th er mo re , we argued th at the very chara cte r of the hymns of praise

associated with the presbyt ers clearly reflect the cult of Vir tue s no w

an integral part of the ideology of the Imperial Cult (2B 3). They

represent Christian, ministerial office holders proclaiming a reversal

of pa ga n cultic express ions in the direc tion of the Chr ist ian a nd not

the imper ial G od .

Certainly Ignatius' descriptions of the liturgical scene in the churches

to whom he writes bear many idealised and visionary features rem

iniscent of the heavenly scenes in the Apocalypse. There we met with

angels and presbyters praying with incense around the heavenly altar

and singing their hymns. He says to the Ephesians:

Therefore it is right for you to run together with the mind of the

bishop, which indeed you do; for your worthily esteemed presbytery,

worthy of God, is attuned to the bishop (ouxco<;cuvr|p |iooTaiTcp e7ciaK07ccp),

like strings to a harp (& q x°p8«i K i G d p a ) ; therefore in your concord and

harmonious love (8id xouxo ev xrj o u o v o i a i)ua>v Kai ouuxpcbvcp dydTiri) Jesus

Christ is sung ('Irjaouq Xpiaxoq a8exai). And each of you should become

part of that choir (oi mx ' dv8pa 8e x°po$ y i v e o G e ) , that being in har

monious concord (iva a\>u<pcovoi o v x e q ev o u o v o i a ) , receiving God's vari

ation in unity (xp&pa 0eo\> ax(36vxe<;, ev e v o x i ) , you may sing with one

voice through Jesus Christ to the father (a8r|xe evcpcovfl uaa 8id 'Irjaoi)

X p i a x o i ) xcp rcaxpi). . .

Ephesians 4, 1-2

The xopoq, like that at the imperial festivals reflected in the Apocalypse

(5B 3) extols that divinized quality of imperial unity that is ouovoia,

and which we saw was a feature of the doxology of Clement Cor.

60-61 (4B 1.2.2). An altar (Guoidaxnpiov) moreover prefigures in

such liturgical scenes (Ephes. 5,2; Mag. 7,2; Philad. 4).

But how, more specifically, do both Ignatius and the Apocalypse

reflect wh at we know of the actual ar ra ng em en t of early Chri stia nworship?

Pseudo-Hippolytus ' Apostolic Tradition, if that ind eed was originally

the tide of the Egyptian Church Order, was a community product involv

ing mo re tha n one individual an d mo re tha n one confluent cor por ate

tradi t ion.1 6

Ap. Trad. 4 makes it clear that the presbyterate concele-



I G N A T I U S O F A N T I O C H A N D T H E M A R T Y R ' S P R O C E S S I O N 2 1 7

1 7

B r e n t ( 1 9 8 9 ), p p . 3 1 1 - 3 1 6 ; Idem, C u l t u r a l E p i s c o p a c y a n d E c u m e n i s m , i n Studies

in Christian Mission 6 , ( L e i d e n : E J . B r ill 1 9 9 2 ) , p p . 8 4 - 8 5 a n d f o o t n o t e s .

b r a t e w i t h t h e b i s h o p i n s o f a r a s w h e n a p r e s b y t e r " p l a c e s h i s h a n d s

o v e r t h e o f fe r in g (imponens manuam tuam super oblationem (rcpoocpopd))"

h e is j o i n e d i n w o r d s a n d p r e s u m a b l y a c t b y t h e p r e s b y t e r s (cum

praesbyteris dicat gratias agens). T h e a c t u a l l i t u r g i c a l p o s i t i o n o f t h e p r e s -

b y t e r a t e o n l y b e c o m e s c l e a r e r i n s u b s e q u e n t d e v e l o p m e n t s o f t h is

C h u r c h O r d e r w h e r e t h e p o s i t io n in t h e l i t u rg y o f t h e p r e s b y t e r a t e

is sp e l l ed o u t a s t h e h a l f - c i r c l e o f s ea t s fo rm in g a h o r se - sh o e o n ea ch

s i d e o f t h e c e n t r a l l y s e a t e d b i s h o p (Apost. Const. (= Didasc. Apost.) I I ,

5 7 , 4 - 5 ) .

T h a t su c h a s e a t in g a r r a n g e m e n t w a s c u r r e n t w e ll b e f o r e th e t u r n

o f t h e t h i r d c e n t u r y is m a d e c l e a r b y I g n a t i u s in h is l e t t e r s . I g n a t i u s

e n v i s a g e s t h e M a g n e s i a n s ( 1 3, 1 ), w h o s e C h u r c h h e h a d n e v e r v is it e d ,

a s b e i n g i n u n i o n w i t h b o t h t h e " t e a c h i n g s o f t h e L o r d a n d o f t h e

a p o s d e s ( 8 6 y p a a i v TOV Kvpiov K a i TCOV drcooToAxov)" an d wi th t h e l i f e

o f t h e t r i u n e G o d (ev vx& K a i rcaipi K ai ev rcveupaxi). As th e s ig n o f

t h a t u n i t y , I g n a t i u s c a n a d d r e s s t h e m a s g a t h e r i n g , "w i t h y o u r b i s h o p ,

w o r t h y o f h o n o u r , (u e i d TOV dîorcperceoTdTOD erciaKorcoi) uuxbv), w i t h

t h e g lo r i o u sl y w o v e n , s p i r i tu a l c r o w n o f y o u r p r e s b y t e r a t e (Kai d£ i07t -

XOKOU rcveupaxiKou axecpdvoi) TOV TCpeapircepioi) upcbv) , a n d w i th t h e

d e a c o n s a c c o r d i n g t o G o d (Ka i TCOV Kaxd 6e6v 8 iaKovcov) ." H e r e th e

dîoKÔKoq nveupaxiKoq cxcecpavoq c l ea r ly r e fe r s t o t h e l i t u rg i ca l p re s -

b y t e r a l h o r s e s h o e a r o u n d t h e s e a t e d b i s h o p . I n d e e d , I h a v e a r g u e d

e l s e w h e r e t h a t rcpOKaOripivoq is t o b e u n d e r s t o o d i n it s p r i m a r y s e n s e

o f " s i t ti n g p r o m i n e n d y " i n t h e l it u r gi c a l a s s e m b l y w h i c h is t h e p r i m a r y

f oc u s o f t h e p r e s i d e n c y o f t h e t h r e e f o l d O r d e r in u n i t y r a t h e r t h a n

o f t h e b i s h o p a l o n e . 1 7 But we have a l so seen tha t the sea ted rcpeopwepoi

o f t h e Apocalypse h a v e a l s o oxecpavoi , a n d t h a t th i s i m a g e r y o f t h e i r

a u t h o r i t y w a s c o n n e c t e d w i t h t h a t of t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t ( 5B 2 .2 . 5 ).

W e a sk , t h e r e f o r e , i n c o n c l u s i o n , w h e t h e r t h e c o u n t e r p a r t t o t h e

s c e n e a r o u n d t h e a l t a r i n h e a v e n is n o t t h e c h u r c h o n e a r t h , p r e s i d e d

o v e r b y a c i rc l e o f p r e s b y t e r s s u r r o u n d i n g a t h r o n e o c c u p i e d b y a

p r e s i d i n g b i s h o p ? T h e h e a v e n l y t h r o n e is d e s c r i b e d a s " t h e t h r o n e

o f G o d a n d o f t h e L a m b (Gpovoq TOV Qeov K a i TOV d p v i o u ) . " (Apoc. 2 2 , 1

a n d 3 ). " T h e L a m b " is d e s c r i b e d a s " i n t h e m i d s t o f t h e t h r o n e

(dpvxov x o d v d p e a o v TOV Gpovoi)) ." (7 ,17) At f i rs t s ight th is appears a

v e r y o d d i m a g e . D o e s t h e r o y a l f i g u re h o l d t h e L a m b o n h is l a p o r

d o es t h e l a t t e r s i t b y h i s s i d e? I h av e a sk ed p rev io u s ly wh e th e r , i n




the light of what we rea d in Ignat ius, the refe rence is not to a pre

siding bishop or presbyter in the Seer's own church offering the

"pur e sacrifice of the gen ti le s. "1 8

Certainly, according to Ignatius, the bishop is "pre-eminent (rcpoKa-

Gnuivoq)"1 9

as a type of (eiq xurcov rcaxpcx;), or a ccording to so me tex

tual read ings , in the plac e (eiq xorcov) of G o d the F ather .2 0

Here the

throne in the midst of the presbyters is actually occupied by an eccle

siastical min ister on ea rt h. But wh et he r or not the re is, in the Seer 's

time, an actual bishop on an actual episcopal throne amid actual

presbyt ers , his heaven ly vision has certa inly influenced and effected

the earthly form of Ign ati an epis copa cy.2 1

At this point we may turn to Ignatius' theology of representation

and its earlier reflection in the Apocalypse.

6A 1.1.2. Typology of representation

Ignatius' description of the liturgical assembly ( e K K ^ua ia ) is highly

idealised and visionary. As I have argued in greater detail elsewhere,

as a transit prisoner Ignatius had little contact with, or knowledgeof, the actual churches to whom he wrote.

2 2

In place of any such

empirical experience, he gives rather a mystical vision prompted by

the persons of the clerical visitors in whom he sees mystically the

cor por ate qualities of their comm uni tie s. Th us idealised, perso nal

qualities of an almost Chri st ian perfection a re prais ed as he imag

ines the members of the communities gathered with their clerics in

an idealised Eucharist. Expressions such as ev otKivT|xcp Tu oxe i , evouovoia 0eou etc. ab ound .

2 3

Thus both the Apocalypse and Ignatius are united in a view of the

community as having a corporate personality. Clearly the angels of

the Ch ur ch es are the cor por at e personalities of their various c om

munities. They can in consequence be addressed by the Seer in the

1 8

B r e n t ( 1 9 8 7 ) , p. 361. For e a r l y i m a g e s of the E u c h a r i s t in s u c h t e r m s see Did.,

1 4 , 3 and J u s t i n M a r t y r , Dial. 41. See a l s o G. Dix, The Shape of the Liturgy, ( L o n d o n :

D a c r e 1 9 4 7 ) , p. 28 and p. 134.1 9

For my d e f e n c e of th i s t r a n s l a t i o n , see B r e n t , Cultural Episcopacy ( 1 9 9 2 ) , pp.

8 4 - 8 5 .20

Magnes. 6,1; Tral. 3,1.2 1

For my v i e w of I g n a t i u s as i n f l u e n c e d by a v i s i o n of the h e a v e n l y C h u r c h s i m

ilar to the S e e r ' s , and i m p o s i n g t h a t v i s i o n on the n a s c e n t O r d e r of the C h u r c h e s

th a t he had n e v e r v i s i t e d but d e s c r i b e s in an i d e a l i z e d , v i s i o n a r y fo r m , see B r e n t

( 1 9 9 2 ) , Ignatian Epistles, pp. 1 8 - 3 2 .2 2

B r e n t ( 1 9 9 2 ) , Ignatian Epistles, pp. 19 -27.23

Tral. 11,1; Magnes. 6,1; Smyr. 1,1; 7,2; Ephes. 1,3; 2,1, see B r e n t ( 1 9 9 2 ) Ignatian

Epistles, p. 20.



IGNATIUS OF ANTIOCH AND THE MARTYR'S PROCESSION 219

24

Apoc. 2,1; 2,8; 2,12; 2,18; 3,1; 3,7; 3,14.25

Ephes. 1,3; Brent (1990), pp. 268-269; Brent (1991), pp. 151-153; Brent (1992),Cultural Episcopacy, pp. 85-87.

26

Smyr. 8,2; Tral. 8,2 (ev6eov K \ T \ % O $ cf. W. Schoedel, Ignatius of Antioch: A Com

mentary, (Philadelphia: Fortress Press 1985), p. 112.2 7

Too little attention has been given in the discussion to this point made orig

inally by J. Colson, VEveque dans les Communautes Primitives, (Paris: Les Editions du

Cerf 1951), p. 97: "Et il ecrit aux Tralliens a propos de Polybe, leur eveque: "C'est

votre Eglise tout entiere que je contemple en sa personne." Tel est, selon saint

Ignace et dans la ligne de 1'Apocalypse, le role de Peveque, sa place dans l'Eglise."2 8

I follow Colson (1952) in Brent (1987), pp. 356-361 against Hemer (1986),

p p . 32-34. For the case in favour of angel-bishops see A. Lemaire, Les Ministeres

aux origines de l'Eglise: Naissance de la triple hierarchic eveques, presbyters, diacres, (Paris: Les

Editions du Cerf 1971), pp. 118-122 and M. Thurian, L'Organisation du ministere

dans l'Eglise Primitive selon Saint Ignace d'Antioche, in VC 2\ (1967), pp. 1 6 5 - 7 1 .

singular and described as having the distinctive features of those

communi t ies .2 4

Likewise Ignatius claims that, in the clerical repre

senta tives of the ch ur ch es from w h o m he receives visitors, he is

beho ldin g the corp orat e charac ter of their com muni ties .

In Polybius, the bishop of Tralles, Ignatius claims to see, not the

latter's individual personality, but the community's. With bishop

On es im us he has such "conve rse of mi nd (ouvf|0eia)" that he was

able to see their corporate personality, their noXvnXyfieia (Ephes. 1,3

and 5,1), in him as also in the case of bishop Polybius of Tralles.

Ignatius claims that their bishop has revealed to him "your un

wa ve ri ng and blameless mind (duo)uov 8idvoiccv Kai d8idicpixov). . . so

that I saw yo ur whole gat he re d mult it ude in hi m (coaxe jie xo nav

TcXfiBoq ev auxco Gecopiioai)." (Tral. 1,1) Thus Polybius becomes "an

exampl e of yo ur love (e£eu7iA,dpiov xfjq aycuv^q upxov)." (3,2) In Damas ,

bishop of Magnesia, likewise he claims to have seen "your whole

multitude (xo nav nXrfioq; Magnes. 6,1)." In the case of Onesimus,

bishop of Ephesus, he claims to have seen their 7ioA,urcA,r|6eia.25

nXriGoq

is the usual wo rd for the gath ered ch ur ch in Ig na ti us.2 6

The fact that angels such as Michael, in Dan. 10, 10-21 and 12,1,

are mystical representa tiv es of nat ions is often held to refute the

notion that the angels of the churches in Apoc. 2~3 are in fact h u ma n

figures and stand for chu rch officials. Ignati us make s it quite clear

that human bishops can nevertheless, like angels, stand for the cor

porate personalities of the communities which they oversee.2 7

Whether

the angel s of the churches should be eq ua te d with hu m a n officials

such as bishops, or left as myst erious heaven ly beings personifying

earthly communities, is a question that I will here leave open.2 8

T h e




p o i n t t h a t I h a v e m a d e is t h a t t h e r e is a t h e o l o g i c a l c o n t i n u i t y

b e t w e e n w h a t t h e S e e r s a ys a b o u t t h e c h a r a c t e r o f c u l ti c r e p r e s e n t a

t io n a r o u n d A . D . 9 1 a n d w h a t I g n a t i u s s ay s a r o u n d A . D . 1 1 2 . T h i s

p o i n t w il l h o l d e v e n i f a p u r e l y h e a v e n l y c o n s t r u c t i o n i n t h e c a s e o f

t h e f o r m e r c o m e s o n l y t o b e g r o u n d e d i n t h e C h u r c h O r d e r i n s p a c e

a n d t im e in t h e ca se o f t h e l a t t e r .

B u t I g n a t i u s h a s i n j e c t e d a n e w t h e o l o g i c a l c o n c e p t w h e n h e b e g i n s

t o s p e a k o f t h e i m a g e s o f t h e s e a t e d p r e s b y t e r s , f o u n d i n t h e Apocalypse

a s c o n t r a c u l t u r a l e x p r e s s i o n s o f t h e of fic ia ls o f t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t ,

su ch a s t h e npec^eiq w i t h t h e i r p a n e g y r i c s , a s rcpoKocOriuivoi eiq XUTCOV.

L e t u s n o w t r a c e t h is n e w c o n c e p t i n I g n a t i u s o f A n t i o c h , w h i c h w e

s h a ll a r g u e t o b e f u r t h e r r e l a t e d t o t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t a n d t o h a v e

g r o w n o u t o f t h e p a g a n s y m b o l i sm o f t h e c u l tu r a l b a c k g r o u n d t h a t

h e a l so s h a r e d w i t h t h e S e e r , b u t b e y o n d w h o m h e n o w g o e s .

6 A 2 . Ignatian typology and the Imperial Cult

I n c l a i m i n g t h a t t h e a n t i t y p e s o f F a t h e r , S o n , a n d S p i ri t- f il le d a p o s t ol ic c o u n c i l a r e r e p r e s e n t e d b y t h e x tm o i o f b i s h o p , d e a c o n s , a n d

p r e s b y t e r s , I g n a t i u s a p p e a r s a t f i r s t s i g h t t o r u n c o n t r a r y t o t h e r e p

r e s e n t a t i v e i m a g e r y t h a t h e s h a r e d w i t h t h e Apocalypse a n d w h i c h w e

d i scu s sed in t h e l a s t s ec t i o n (6 A 1.1.2). I f t h e t h r e e f o l d t y p o l o g y r e p

r e s e n t s t h e s e d i v i n e p e r s o n s i n t h e E u c h a r i s t i c a s s e m b l y , h o w a t t h e

s a m e t i m e c a n th e y b e r e g a r d e d a s e m b o d y i n g t h e c o l le c t iv e p e r

s o n a l i ti e s o f t h e i r c o m m u n i t i e s , a s d i d t h e a n g e l s o f t h e C h u r c h e s i nt h e Apocalypse, o r P o l y b i u s , b i s h o p o f E p h e s u s o r D a m a s , b i s h o p o f

T r a l l e s i n t h e I g n a t i a n c o r r e s p o n d e n c e ?

I h a v e a r g u e d t h a t I g n a t i u s d o e s r e s o lv e t h is d i c h o t o m y a n d w i t h

c o n s i d e r a b l e s o p h i s t i c a t i o n .2 9

T h e c l e r i c a l i c o n s d o n o t a s i t w e r e

i n c a r n a t e t h e h e a v e n l y C h u r c h di r ec t ly f r o m t h e t r a n s c e n d e n t w o r l d

b e y o n d s p a c e a n d t i m e , b u t r a t h e r fr o m t h e s a v i n g a c t s t h a t b e g a n

i n h i s t o r y b u t c o n t i n u e in t h e C h r i s t i a n c o m m u n i t y . T h e c l e ri c a li c o n s r e p r e s e n t a c o m m u n i t y i n p r o c e s s o f r e d e m p t i o n , a n d t h e sa v

i n g a c t s o f F a t h e r , S o n , a n d S p i r i t a t w o r k i n s u c h a c o m m u n i t y .

S u c h sa v i n g a c t s , e x p e r i e n c e d b y t h e c o m m u n i t y a n d e m b o d i e d i n

th e E u c h a r i s t i c l i t u rg y a n d in t h e c l e r ica l ro l e s p l a y e d , d i sp l ay C h r i s t ' s

F o r t h e c a s e a g a i n s t , s e e E . D a s s m a n n , Z u r E n t s t e h u n g d e s M o n e p i s k o p a t s , i n JbAC

17 ( 1 9 7 4 ) , p p . 7 5 - 7 6 a n d S a t a k e ( 1 9 6 6 ) , p p . 1 5 0 - 1 5 5 ff.2 9

A . B r e n t , H i s t o r y a n d E s c h a t o l o g i c a l M y s t i c i s m i n I g n a t i u s o f A n t i o c h , i n EThL

6 4 , 4 ( 1 9 8 9 ) , p p . 3 0 9 - 3 2 9 ; B r en t ( 1 9 9 2 ) , Cultural Episcopacy, p p . 8 0 - 8 1 , 8 7 - 8 8 .




victory to the demonic powers who are thereby shaken: "For when

ever you assemble frequendy (oxav yap TTUKVOK; em TO GCUTO yiveaGe),

the powers of Satan a re destroyed (KaGaipouvxai a i 8uvdpei<; xou

laxava), and his destruction is dissolved (Kal Xvezai 6 oXeQpoq amov)

by the h a r mo n y of your faith (ev xfi 6uovo(a upcov xfjq juoxecoq)."30

Ignatius therefore expresses the view that the threefold Order is

to be understood as representing, in a sacramental sense, the heav

enly Church, which is incarnated in the present community a n d rep

resented by the clerical icons of that community . T h e typology of

Magnes. 13,1 is followed by a c o m m a n d to obedience "to the bishop

and to each other (urcoxdynxe xcp EKIOK6K(O K al aXXi\Xoi<;), as Jesus

Christ to the Father (ax; 'Inaouq Xpiaxoq xcp rcaxpi), and the apostles

to Christ and to the Father ( K a l oi anooToXoi xcp Xpiaxcp K a l xcp rcaxpi),

in order that there may be both a physical and a spiritual union

( iva evcooiq f| a a p K i i c f | xe Kal rcveupaxiKn.)." (13,2)

T h u s to speak of the incarnat ion of a heavenly Church Order in

the present is well warranted by the expression evcooi<; f| a a p K i i c r i xe

Kal rcveupaxiKri, even though I have argued elsewhere t he qualifying

thesis that what was now timeless began in t ime in the Upper Room

and at the Resurrect ion. T h e commingl ing of flesh a n d spirit did

not simply begin o r begin afresh at every Eucharist, but was con

tinuous with the commingl ing (KpaGevxeq xfj a a p K i auxofi Kal xcp aiumi)

that took place when the risen Christ "came to those ar ou nd Pete r"

and "h e said to them: take, handle m e . . . a n d immediately they

touched h im . . . "3 1

There is therefore a n historical continuity between

the past and the present in so far as the timeless, entering time in

the present moment, has continuously done so at every Eucharist

from the Church's historical beginning.

Each ZX>KO<; in the threefold Order makes concrete or incarnates

in the Eucharistic action what it represents, namely the Father (bishop),

the Son (deacons) and the spirit-filled apostolic council (the presbyters).3 2

In Mag. 13,1 : "T h e bishop stands ou t (rcpOKa&npivou xou e r c i o K O T i o i ) )"

in this drama "as a type of God (eiq xtmov Geou) and the presbyters

(Kal xcov 7cpeaP\)xepcov) as a type of the apostolic council (eiq xtmov

auve8pio\) xcov drcoaxoAxov) and the deacons (Kalxcov 8iaKovcov). . . . as

30

Ephes. 13,1 cf. Smyr. 6,1.31

Smyr. 3,2 cf. B r e n t ( 1 9 8 9 ) , pp. 3 1 6 - 3 2 0 .3 2

B r e n t (1 9 8 9 ) , pp. 3 0 9 - 3 2 9 ; Idem. ( 1 9 9 0 ) , pp. 2 6 2 - 2 6 6 , Idem. ( 1 9 9 1 ) , pp. 1 3 9 - 1 4 3 ,

a nd Idem. ( 1 9 9 2 ) , Cultural Episcopacy, pp. 8 0 - 9 2 .




e n t r u s t e d w i t h t h e m i n i s t r y o f J e s u s C h r i s t (rceTuoxeuuivcov SKXKOVIOCV

' I u a o u X p i a x o u ) . " B u t t h e s e r e a l i t ie s a r e n o t s t a t ic b u t d y n a m i c .

T h e t h r e e O r d e r s e a c h p o r t r a y i n t h e i r p a r t i c u l a r a c t s t h e p a r

t i c u l a r r o l e t h a t is p l a y e d in t h e i r E u c h a r i s t i c r e - e n a c t m e n t o f t h e

d r a m a of r e d e m p t i o n . I n t h e U p p e r R o o m , a c c o r d i n g t o Jn. 2 0 , 1 9 - 2 2 ,

th e r e is t h e Sp i r i t -f i l led c o u n c i l o f h e ap o s d e s , a n d so t o o t h e se a r e

f o u n d r e p r e s e n t e d b y t h e p r e s b y t e r a t e . A s t h e s e a t e d F a t h e r s e n d s

t h e S o n , s o t o o t h e b i s h o p s s e n d s t h e d e a c o n s t o c o m m u n i c a t e t h e

p e o p l e o r t o r e c e i v e f r o m t h e m t h e i r o f f e r i n g f o r t h e b i s h o p t o c o n

s e c r a t e , o r t o g i v e t h e m l i t u r g i c a l d i r e c t i o n s .

T h e r e i s a l i t u r g i c a l p r o c e s s i o n o r % cbpr|oi<; b e t w e e n t h e t h r e e

O r d e r s l i k e t h e p r o c e s s i o n w i t h i n t h e g o d h e a d . Magnes. 7 , 1 - 2 g o e s

o n t o c o n n e c t t h e e c c l e s i a st i c a l t y p o l o g y w i t h t h a t o f t h e g o d h e a d .

T h e d e a c o n s a n d p r e s b y t e r s p r o c e e d f r o m t h e b i s h o p a n d r e t u r n t o

h im ju s t like th e d ia c o n a l So n p r o c e e d s f rom th e Fa th e r (rcpoeABovxoc)

a n d r e t u r n s t o h i m ( % c o p r | o a v x a ) . F u r t h e r m o r e t h e p r e s b y t e r a t e r e p

re se nt s th e ou ve 8p io v xcov dcrcooxotaov (Magnes. 6 ,1), w h o in t h e j o h a n n i n e

T r a d i t i o n (Jn. 2 0 , 2 2 ) , r e c e i v e t h e i n b r e a t h i n g of t h e S p i r i t a n d w h o

r e v e a l t h e S o n w h o c a m e f o r th fr o m a n d r e t u r n e d t o t h e F a t h e r .

T h e f o cu s t h e r e f o r e i n I g n a t i u s o f t h e t h e o l o g y o f i c o n o g r a p h i c a l

r e p r es en t a t i o n (xurcoi) is i n t h e c l e r i ca l fu n c t io n s i n t h e E u ch a r i s t i c

l i t u r g y .

I t s h o u l d b e n o t e d t h a t Tral. 3 , 1 - 3 a n d r e l a t e d p a s s a g e s (Ephes.

5 , 1 a n d Magnes. 1 3,1 ) r e q u i r e a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t y p o l o g y i n t h e

sen se o f c l e r i ca l p e r so n s s t an d i n g e iq x urcov , w i th o u t t h e r e l a t ed p as

sage s us in g the te r m xurcoc; as suc h . I t is fo r th i s re as o n t h a t I w o u ld

r e j e c t t h e a m e n d m e n t xonoq fo r zvnoq i n Magnes. 6 , 1 - 2 , a n d a c c e p t

t h e l a t t e r a s t h e o r i g i n a l r e a d i n g f o ll o w i n g S y r i a c , A r a b i c a n d A r m e

n i a n t e x t s . C e r t a i n l y Tral. 3 , 1 h a s t h i s r e a d i n g u n c o n t e s t a b l y i n ms.

s u p p o r t e d b y Ap. Const. 2 , 2 6 . I h a v e d e m o n s t r a t e d e l s e w h e r e t h e

fa i lu re o f the Didascalia Apostolorum, t h e p r e d e c e s s o r o f t h e l a t t e r t e x t ,

t o u n d e r s t a n d I g n a t i a n t y p o l o g y . 3 3 T h i s l a c k o f u n d e r s t a n d i n g i ts el f

w o u l d , I s u b m i t , e x p l a i n c o r r u p t e d r e a d i n g s , o f t en l e a d i n g t o a n

o m i s s i o n o f t h e t e r m , i n s o m e G r e e k mss.3* A t a l l e v e n t s , a r e a d i n g

for Mag. 6 ,1 - 2 in te rm s o f a b i s h o p b e in g d es cr ib e d as rcpoKa0r||jivo<;

e iq xorcov x ou Geou wo u ld a p p e a r b i za r r e a s i t w o u l d s ee m to im p ly

3 3

B r e n t ( 1 9 9 1 ) , p p . 1 3 4 - 1 4 5 .3 4

L i g h t f o o t ( 1 8 8 5 ) , p p . 1 5 6 - 1 5 7 a n d p p . 1 1 8 - 1 2 0 , cf. S c h o e d e l ( 1 9 8 5 ) , p p .

1 1 2 - 1 1 5 a n d p p . 1 4 1 - 1 4 2 .



I G N A T I U S OF A N T I O C H AND THE M A R T Y R ' S P R O C E S S I O N 2 2 3

a p h y s i c a l " p l a c e " for G o d in th e a r c h i t e c t u r e of the E u c h a r i s t i c

A s s e m b l y .

T h u s I g n a t i u s m a y b e r e g a r d e d as h a v i n g , w i t h c o n s i d e r a b l e t h e

o l o g i c a l s o p h i s t i c a t i o n , s y n t h e s i s e d t h e f u n d a m e n t a l c o n t r a d i c t i o n

b e t w e e n r e p r e s e n t a t i o n b y c l e r i ca l i co n s of th e c o r p o r a t e p e r s o n a l

i ty of the c o m m u n i t y , a n d r e p r e s e n t a t i o n by the s a m e i c o n s of th e

d i v i n e a c t s of p e r s o n s of th e g o d h e a d . Bu t his ab i l i t y to s y n t h e s i s e

s h o u l d n o t c o n c e a l f r o m us the f a c t t h a t his use of h u m a n p e r

s o n s to be xvnoi of d i v i n e b e i n g s c o n s t i t u t e s a r a d i c a l d e v e l o p m e n t

o f t h e t y p o l o g y of O r d e r f ro m t h a t w h i c h he has i n h e r i t e d f r o m

t h e k i n d of c u l tu r a l b a c k g r o u n d r e p r e s e n t e d by the S e e r . W e wil l

n o w s u g g e s t t h a t t h e o r i g i n of t h i s c o n c e p t w a s n o t J e w i s h , b u t

p a g a n , a n d a s s o c i a t e d w i t h w h a t w e h a v e e s t a b l i s h e d to be th e i d e o

lo g y of the I m p e r i a l C u l t . T h e u s e by I g n a t i u s of t h i s n e w , n o n -

J o h a n n i n e i m a g e r y w ill t h e r e f o r e r e p r e s e n t a new in f lux of i m p e r i a l

c u l t i c i m a g e r y in a d d i t i o n to t h a t u s e d a l r e a d y by the S e e r a g a i n s t

h is p a g a n b a c k c l o t h .

L e t us t h e r e f o r e n o w t u r n in g r e a t e r d e t a i l to the specif ic ep i -

g r a p h i c a l e v i d e n c e for th e m e a n i n g b o t h of TX>KO<; a n d TipoKaGruievoq

i n I g n a t i u s ' p a g a n r e l i g i o u s b a c k g r o u n d , in o r d e r t h a t w e m a y e s t a b

l i s h c o n c l u s i v e e v i d e n t i a l l i n k s b e t w e e n t h e s e t e r m s a n d w h a t w e wil l

u n d e r s t a n d as the h u m a n , e p i s c o p a l e i K o v e q a n d piuripccxa of his

C h r i s t i a n dywv |JA)GXIK6<; (6B 2).

6 A 2 . 1 . xtrnoq as statue, and as eiKcbv

I t m u s t b e e m p h a s i z e d t h a t t h e w o r d xvnoq u s u a l l y m e a n s a " s m a l l

s t a t u e " o r a "relief." A t E p h e s u s w e h a v e t h i s w o r d u s e d of the u p

r i g h t f i g u re (TUTCOV opBiov) of A n t o n i n u s set i n t o t h e r e c e s s of a w a l l .3 5

W e h a v e a ls o t h e s t a t u e a t R o m e of M a r c i a n , p r o c o n s u l of A c h a i a ,

d e s c r i b e d in th e i n s c r i p t i o n t h a t it b e a r s as a x u r c o q . 3 6 W e h a v e f u r

t h e r e p i g r a p h i c e v i d e n c e w h i c h r e v e a l s s o m e i n t e r e s t i n g c o g n a t e t e r m s .

W h e r e a s r e g u l a r l y xxmoq is u s e d to d e s c r i b e , in the s i x t h c e n t u r y ,

s t a t u e s c o m m e m o r a t i n g c h a r i o t e e r s in the H i p p o d r o m e ,3 7 t h e t e r m

35 /. Eph. II, 28 6 (= CIG 2 9 6 7 ) : T O V T O V ov e i a o p d a q , x i m o v o p G i o v ' A v i c o v e w o v

AcopoGeoq nxeAifl 0T|K<XTO K p u r c x o ^ e v o v . . . .3 6 ( M o r e t t i ) IGUR 1,67 (= SEG 31, 1 7 0 3 ) . M a p i a a v o v oxftpei T W K W ;

f E M d 8 o < ;

avG-oj iaxo io .3 7

R. A u b r e t o n and F. B u f f i e r e , Anthologie Grecque: Deuxiem e P artie: Anthologie dePlanude, Tom. X I I I , ( C U F r : A s s o c i a t i o n G u i l l a u m e B u d e : P ar is 1980) nos 350: 8: oov

5 e TUTCOV x e x v T l e£e<J£, I l o p ( p i ) p i e . ( " a n d , Po rp h y ry , an artist's ski l l has p o l i s h e d y o u r




alent of rcpoioxriua and its variants. T h e latter is the normal term for

"preside" found in the inscriptions.4 0

T h e rarity of TcporaOripevoq can

be illustrated by the one sole entry in SEG, where this term is used

of cities ra th er t ha n individuals. He re rcpomGe^opevoc; c an either refer

to the presidency of a city such as Tarsus over—or, as I would pre

fer, its pre-eminence in—Cil icia .4 1

Indeed Ignatius reveals his knowl

edge of the normal use of this term in connection with a city when

he too uses it of the C h u r ch of R o m e "who is pre-eminent ( l i x i q K a i

7 c p o K d 0 r | x a i ) in the place of the district of the R o man s (ev xorcco xcopiou

Tcopaicov) . . . p r e - emi n en t in Christian charity (rcpoKa0ripevr| xfjq

d y d 7 c r |< ; ) . " (Rom. insc.)

But the other subject of rcpoKaOripevoq is not a city but a god or

goddess, who can be called eniaKonoq.

We have a n inscription from Pergamon in A.D. 129 (Syll.3

6 9 5 ,

/. 50-54) which refers to "presenting the best sacrifice ( m p a o x a [ G f j ] v a i

8e K a i 0-oaiav o>[<; KaX,]^(axr |v ) to Demet e r a n d Kore (xf\ x e [Ar|]ur|xpi

K a i x f i K6p[fi), the goddesses who are pre-eminent over o u r city (xaiq

7 i ] p o K a 0 r | p e v a i < ; [ 0 e ] a i q xfjq noXevx; f i p [ S v ) , as well as t o R o m a and to

all the other gods a n d goddesses ( o p o j i c o q 8e K a i xf\ ['Pcbujfl K a i xoiq

aXXox[<; Geoijq rcaai K a i 7 c d a a i < ; ) . " In such a pagan context, I would

suggest that the description of Ignatius the EnicKonoq, as one who is

described as T i p o K a O r i p e v o q etc; XUTCOV Geou, can be identified as a quite

precise a n d intended parallel. T h e bishop "presides over" o r ra ther

"is pre-eminent in" the Church, just as the statues of R o m a and the

other gods a n d goddesses did in the city-states of Asia, but not as

a god himself bu t rather as the Christian version of a xvnoq 9eo\i.

In this connection too it is not without relevance that we have a n

4 0

See e.g. SEG 35, 8 2 6 , 9 - 1 0 w h i c h is a d e d i c a t i o n to a p r i e s t e s s (yevou£va xe

xaq Aduxxxpoq Kai K o p p a q iepeia xcov xe iepcov ica [Xcoq Kai] bomq upoeaxa); l i k e w i s e

1 1 3 , 4 (jcpjo'iaxdxcoaav) d e s c r i b e s t h o s e w ho p r e s i d e o v e r the Eleus in ian r i te s ofD e m e t e r and K o r e . T h i s t h e r e f o r e is the u s u a l t e r m for p r e s i d e n c y o v e r the rites

o f a c u l t , P a g a n or C h r i s t i a n (see J u s t i n M a r t y r , Apol. 1, 98 (rcpoeoxox;); cf. B r e n t

( 1 9 9 1 ) , pp. 1 2 9 - 1 5 6 ) . 7tpOKa9r|U £vo< ; is u s e d in a s o m e w h a t d i f f e r e n t s e n s e , as c i t e d

i n f o o t n o t e 41. For g e n e r a l u s e s of 7tpo{oxT|Ui and its d e r i v a t i v e s see e.g. SEG 27,

7 5 8 , 3 ; 33, 6 9 4 , 4 ; and 34, 94; cf. B r e n t ( 1 9 9 1 ) , pp. 1 2 9 - 1 5 6 .41

SEG 29, 1527 ( S e v e r u s A l e x a n d e r ) (= OGIS 578): T d p a o q fi Tcpcbxri K[ai

(leyiaxri] Kai KaXXioxi] ii[T\xp6no\i<;] xcov y ercapxeicov 7tpOKa6e£ou ivTi KiXiKiaq. F r o m

P e r g a m o n f r o m an i n s c r i p t i o n in h o n o u r of S e p t i m i u s S e v e r u s we h a v e (= (M o r e t t i )

IGUR 1, 33): K a i a d p i a x\ u[r|xp6]7toA,i<; K[iXiK(a<; 'Iaa\)p(][aq A\)Ka]o[v(a<; 7cp]oKa-

6e£[ouevTi Cf (M o r e t t i ) IGUR 1,78 and 80. N o t e f u r t h e r m o r e t h a t the n o r m a lw o r d for " p r e s i d e " is u s e d w h e n th i s s e n s e is r e q u i r e d as in SEG 35, 1106: . . . fi

rcjpoeaxcooa xfj<; jcoXecoq fiucov Geoq "Apxe[ui<;. . .




i n s c r i p t io n f r o m A c m o n i a i n D o m i t i a n ' s r e i g n ( A . D . 8 5 ) . I t r e a d s a s

t h e wi l l o f T i t u s P r a x i a s p r o v i d i n g h o n o u r s fo r h is m e m o r y . H e r e h e

m ak es " o v e r see r s an d wi tn es ses ( em [a ]K6 [ rco u ]< ; K a i u d p x u p a q ) [of h is

i n t e n t i o n s ] t h e d i v i n e Augusti (Geoix; I [ e p ] ao x o u q ) a n d th e an ce s t r a l

g o d s (KaiGefouqTcaTpioufq]; IGRR 4 ,6 61 /. 22—23). Ig na t iu s is a n ov er

s e e r (enioKonoc,) w h o i s n o t h i m s e l f d i v i n e b u t a xxtnoq o f t h e F a t h e r

w h o is m o r e o v e r a w i t n e s s (uxxpxuq), i n t h e C h r i s t i a n s e n s e o f o n e

w h o is to lay d o w n h is l ife , as a urur|xr|<; of d i v i ne suffe r ing.

T h e t h r e e O r d e r s a r e xurcoi o r eiKoveq t h a t r e p r e s e n t a c o m m u n i t y

i n p r o c e s s o f r e d e m p t i o n , a n d t h e s a v i n g a c t s o f F a t h e r , S o n , a n d

S p i r i t a t w o r k in s u c h a c o m m u n i t y . W e s h al l n o w e x a m i n e h o w

t h e i r f u n c t i o n i n I g n a t i u s ' C h r i s t i a n c u l t e x p l i c i t y m i r r o r s b o t h D o m i

t i a n ' s r e f o rm o f t h e Im p e r i a l Cu l t i n ritu al, a n d it s r e l i g io u s o b j ec

t i v e i n s ecu r in g th e pax deorum.

6 A 2 . 3 . Domitian's c o r o n a a u r e a and Ignatian xurcoi

W e h a v e a r g u e d p r e v i o u s l y ( 5A 2 .2 .2 ) t h a t S u e t o n i u s ' a c c o u n t o f

h o w D o m i t i a n r e f a s h i o n e d t h e i c o n o g r a p h y o f t h e t h e coronae aureae,

wo rn b y p r i e s t s an d h im se l f a s h ig h p r i e s t p re s id in g o v e r t h e Cap i to l i n e

g a m e s , i m p l i e d a p a g a n t h e o l o g y o f r e p r e s e n t a t i o n . D o m i t i a n i n t r o

d u c e d a n e w , p a g a n i c o n o g r a p h i c t h e o lo g y i n t o t h e g e n e r a l w e a r i n g

o f s a c e r d o t a l c r o w n s in s c r i b e d w i t h d i v i n e im a g e s . H e w o r e a s p e

c i a l l y d e s i g n e d corona aurea i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h h is a l t e r a t i o n s i n t h e

ritual o f t h e c u l t o f J u p i t e r C a p i t o l i n u s w h i c h h a d i m p l i c a t i o n s f or

t h e i d e o l o g y o f e m p e r o r w o r s h i p , i n w h i c h h e c l a i m e d t o b e b o t h

dominus et deus. T h e corona aurea t h a t h e w o r e a t t h e i n s t i t u t i o n o f

q u i n q u e n n i a l c o n t e s t s f o r t h is c u l t w a s i m p r e s s e d w i t h " a n i m a g e o f

J u p i t e r , J u n o a n d M i n e r v a (coronam auream cum effigie Iovis ac Iuno nis

Minervaeque)." H o w e v e r , t h e p r i e s t o f J u p i t e r a n d t h e co l le g e o fFlaviales

a s s i s t i n g h i m i n t h e c e r e m o n i a l a l s o w o r e (pari habitu) c r o w n s w i t h

i m a g e s o f t h e s e t h r e e d e i ti e s , b u t i n c l u d e d , in a d d i t i o n , D o m i t i a n ' s

o w n i m a g e (nisi quod illorum coronis inerat et ipsius imago).* 2

W e see i n t h e corona aurea with i t s effigies o r imago a s a c r a m e n t a l r e p

r e s e n t a t i o n o f J u p i t e r , J u n o , a n d M i n e r v a o n t h e p a r t o f t h e Pontifex

Maximus. T h e s e d e i t i e s a r e m a d e s a c r a m e n t a l l y p r e s e n t b y t h e c u l t i c

a c t s o f D o m i t i a n a s Pontifex Maximus, j u s t a s t h e Fa th e r , So n , an d sp i r i t -

f i l l ed , apos to l ic c i rc le o r c rown (rcveuuaxiKoc; oxecpavoq) a r e m a d e sac ra-

4 2 S u e t o n i u s , Domit. 4 .



I G N A T I U S OF ANTIOCH AND THE MARTYR'S PROCESSION 227

mentally present by the xurcoi (imago, effigies) of bishops, presbyters,

and deacons (Magn. 13,1). T h e bis hop repr esen ts G o d the Fat her ,

with whom the spirit-filled apostles are united in the presbyters and

the Son in the deacons. Likewise Domitian, dominus et deus, is made

sacramentally present in all the priests who wear his image on their

crowns, and unite their individual acts into his one cultic act.

We have already referred to the JJ.UGXIK6<; dycov at t he t em pl es of

Roma and Augustus at Pergamon in which the oepaaxocpdvxnq dis

play ed the imag e of the Em pe ro r as the climax of the mystery play

(5B 2.2). Here the EIKCOV as a statue or xurcoq (effigies) on a crown can

be said to ma ke the impe ri al genius or xuxr| sacrament al ly pre sent.

Likewise in Igna tius ' pic tu re of the Euchari sti c assembly , the saving

figures of Fa th er , Spirit filled Aposdes, and So n ar e m a de sac ra

mentally present by the liturgical drama enacted by bishop, pres

byters an d deac ons , of whi ch they are the xunoi. W e have mo re ov er

in He ro di an V, 5,6 -7 a n acco unt of the acc lamat ion of the Sen ate

and their act of sacrifice before Ela gabal us (A.D . 218), in wh ich the

emperor ' s CIKCOV is assoc iat ed with the xurcoq xou emxcopiou Geou:

Wishing the Senate and the Roman People to become used to the

sight of his appearance (pouAxSpevoq ev eGei yeveaGat xfjq xov axrjuaxoq

6\j/eco<;), and a test be made whilst he was absent (drcovxoq XE avxov

rceipav 5o6fjvai) as to how they would accept the sight of his appear

ance (n&q (pepouoi xr\v 6\jnv xov c>xr|paxo<;), having had painted a great,

full-sized representation of himself ( e k o v a iieyiaxnv ypdyac; navxbq eauxou),

in which he appeared reaching forward and performing sacrifice (oloqrcpoicbv xe Kai iepovpycov ecpaivexo), and having placed in the picture the

form of the god of the country (rcapaaxrioaq xe ev xfi ypacpfi xov xvnov

xov ercixcopiou Geou) with whom of course he was depicted as obtain

ing good omens (co 5f| raAAiepcov eyeyparcxo), and having sent it to Rome,

he ordered the image to be hung up in the exact centre of the sen

ate house and in the highest spot (eKe^euaev ev xcp n.eoaixaxcp xr\<; cruyKA,r|xau

XOTCCO i)\|rnA,oxdxcp xe xr\v eiKova dvaxeGiivai), over the head of the statue

of Victory ( V K E O KecpcxAijq xov dydA,uaxo<; xfjq Ndcnq), so that when theyassembled in council (cbq auvi6vxe<; e<; xo poiAeuxripiov) they each would

burn incense (Xipavcoxov xe GuptcoGiv eKaaxoq) and pour libations of wine

(Kai oivouq arcevSo-uoi).

Here clearly the EIKCOV of the emperor is associated with the xurcoq

of the Geoq eni%(opioq whi ch it med iat es from t he cen tre of the Sen at e

ga th er ed for its business as the ce nt re of its unity , ju st as Ign at iu s'

bishop stands at the centre of the Eucharistic assembly as the xvnoqnaxpoq.



2 2 8 C H A P T E R SIX

A t t h i s p o i n t the i c o n o g r a p h y of e c c l e s i a l O r d e r m e r g e s i n t o b o t h

t h e i c o n o g r a p h y of m a r t y r d o m and of a c u l t i c p r o c e s s i o n . Let us

n o w e x a m i n e the p a r t i c u l a r c h a r a c t e r of I g n a t i u s ' m a r t y r p r o c e s s i o n

as a c u l t i c p r o c e s s i o n by a n a l o g y w i t h the I m p e r i a l C u l t . W e sh a l l

e x a m i n e too, in a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h the l a t t e r , the a m b a s s a d o r i a l t i d e s

g i v e n to v a r i o u s c l e r i c s w h o a c c o m p a n y I g n a t i u s ' p r o c e ss i o n in o r d e r

t o e s t a b l i s h t h e i r e q u i v a l e n t s w i t h t h o s e o f f i c i a l s a p p o i n t e d by the

c i ty s ta tes of A s i a in o r d e r to s e c u r e i n a u g u r a t i o n a n d c e l e b r a t i o n

o f a new I m p e r i a l C u l t .

P A R T B. THE M A R T Y R P R O C E S S I O N AND C U L T I C A M B A S S A D O R S

S c h o e d e l d e s c r i b e d c l e a r l y the " s t a g e d " c h a r a c t e r of the j o u r n e y of

I g n a t i u s f r o m his n a t i v e A n t i o c h in S y r i a to p r o s p e c t i v e m a r t y r d o m

a t R o m e . T h e m a r t y r d o m is p r o c l a i m e d b e f o r e h a n d to the R o m a n

C h r i s t i a n s by C r o c u s the d e a c o n a n d o t h e r s f r o m E p h e s u s , " wh o

p r e c e d e d m e f r o m S y r i a to R o m e to the g l o r y of G o d (Rom. 1 0 , 1 - 2 ) . "

F u r t h e r m o r e , I g n a t i u s c o l l e c t s i n d i v i d u a l s w h o j o i n his p r o c e s s i o n as

r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s of the c h u r c h e s of th e v a r io u s c i t i e s (E p h esu s , M ag n es i a ,

a n d T r a l l e s ) , w h o c o m e to him in S m y r n a s i n c e the r o u t e s e l e c t e d

b y his g u a r d s has a l l o w e d h im p r e v i o u s l y o n l y to v i s i t P h i l a d e l p h i a .

N o t o n l y did s o m e of t h e s e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s s t a y w i t h his e n t o u r a g e

a n d p r e c e d e him to R o m e (Rom. 10 ,2 ) , b u t s o m e w e r e e l e c t e d to

c o n g r a t u l a t e th e C h u r c h of A n t i o c h on its p e a c e (Philad. 10,1 ; Smyr.

1 1 , 2 - 3 ; Pol. 8,1). The r e p r e s e n t a t i v e c h a r a c t e r of t h o s e w h o c o m e

f r om t h e i r C h u r c h e s to j o i n his p r o c e s s i o n is e m p h a s i s e d in Tral.

1 2 , 1 w h e r e he can say: "I g r e e t you f r o m S m y r n a , t o g e t h e r w i t h

t h e C h u r c h e s of G od wh o are p r e s e n t w i t h m e (dj ia xaiq a\)U7tapot>aai<;

p o t eKKXnoiaiq xov 8 e o u ). " T h u s th e i r C h u r c h e s are c o n s i d e r e d v e r y

m u c h to be p r e s e n t in t h o s e s e n t to a c c o m p a n y h im. T h r o u g h t h e i r

r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s ,4 3

C h u r c h e s " w h i c h did not lie on my way (oci \ir\

4 3 I g n a t i u s c l a i m s to see the c o r p o r a t e p e r s o n a l i t y of the C h u r c h e s w h i c h he has

n e v e r v i s i t ed as m y s t e r i o u s l y r e p r e s e n t e d in c l er i c al p e r s o n s . W i t h b i s h o p O n e s i m u s

he has " c o n v e r s e of m i n d (crovf|9eia)" so t h a t he was a b l e to see t h e i r c o r p o r a t e

p e r s o n a l i t y , t h e i r no\x>nXr\Qeia (Ephes. 1,3 and 5,1) as a l s o in the c a s e of b i s h o p

P o l y b i u s (Tral. 1,1) or b i s h o p D a m a s (Mag. 6,1: coerce u£ xo nav nXrfioq ev avxcp

Secopf iaa i ) . See f u r t h e r A. B r e n t , The R e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n I g n a ti u s of A n t i o c h and

the Didascalia Apostolorum, in SecCent 8,3 ( 1 9 9 1 ) , pp. 1 5 1 - 1 5 3 ; B r e n t ( 1 9 9 2 ) , Cultural

Episcopacy, pp. 8 5 - 8 8 .



I G N AT I US O F A N T I O C H A N D T H E M A R T Y R 'S P R O C E S S I O N 2 2 9

7 ipoa f | K o \ ) oa{ uoi ) accord ing to the f lesh (T T J 68cp x f\ Kax d o d p K a) l ea d

th e way b e fo re m e c i t y b y c i t y (Kax d noXiv \ ie Tcpofjyov; Rom. 9 , 3 ;

Philad. 1 0 ,2 ) . "

B u t h o w d i d b o t h I g n a t i u s himself, a n d t h e C h u r c h e s w h i c h c o

o p e r a t e d in t h is " s t a g e m a n a g e m e n t " o f t h e m a r t y r ' s p r o c e s s i o n , v i e w

t h e p u r p o s e o f t h e j o u r n e y ? I n w h a t s oc ia l c o n t e x t a r e w e t o p l a c e

t h e " t h e a t r e " th u s st a g e d ? W e n e e d t o g o b e y o n d S c h o e d e l ' s i n d i

v i d u a l i s t i c a n d p s y c h o l o g i s t i c i n t e r p r e t a t i o n e x p r e s s e d i n s u c h w o r d s

a s " g a i n i n g r e c o g n i t i o n a n d s u p p o r t , " a n d " t o b r i n g t o e x p r e s s i o n

t h e i r d e e p e s t h o p e s a n d f e ar s a n d to c h a n n e l t h e m e f f e c ti v e l y ."4 4

I g n a t i u s d e s c r i b e s h is a p p e a r a n c e i n R o m e in l a n g u a g e t h a t c l e a rl y

i m p l i e s t h a t h is a c t c o n f r o n t s R o m a n p o w e r w i t h a s u p e r i o r , s p i r i tu a l

a l t e r n a t i v e . I g n a t i u s c l a i m s (Rom. 2 ,2 ) t h a t : " G o d j u d g e d t h e b i s h o p

o f Sy r i a t o b e fo u n d a t t h e su n ' s s e t t i n g (eic; Su a iv ) h a v in g s en t h im

from the (sun ' s ) r is ing (anb d v ax o Af jq ) . " Sch o ed e l co m m en t s t h a t : " t h e re

is a s e n s e o f m o v e m e n t i n t h e b i s h o p ' s m e n t a l g e o g r a p h y s tr ik i ng l y

d i ff e re n t f ro m t h e d e f e n d e r s o f R o m a n p o w e r w h o s p e a k s i m p l y o f

R o m e r u l i n g f r o m t h e r is i n g t o t h e s e t t in g s u n . "4 5

C e r t a i n l y Rom. 6 ,

1 r e p r e s e n t s a s e l f- c o n s c io u s r e v e r s a l o f i m p e r i a l v a l u e s o n t h e p a r t

o f a b i s h o p w h o is c o n t r a s t i n g h i s i n d i v i d u a l p u r p o s e w i t h t h a t o f

t h e R o m a n E m p e r o r .4 6

B u t S c h o e d e l r es is ts a n y i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f

I g n a t i u s ' a c t a s p a r t o f a c o n t r i v e d m a r t y r o l o g i c a l c u l t . T h e self-

s a c r if i c in g b i s h o p f r o m t h e e a s t is a p p a r e n d y s i m p l y a h e r o i c f i g u re

p r o c l a i m i n g t h e t r i u m p h o f C h r i s t i a n g r a c e o v e r t h e E m p e r o r ' s n a t

u r a l p o w e r .

I n w h a t f o ll ow s I w i ll a r g u e t h a t I g n a t i u s ' p r o c e s s i o n t o m a r t y r

d o m r e f l e c t s t h e C h r i s t i a n c o u n t e r p a r t i n t h e a r e n a t o t h e i m p e r i a l

p r o c e s s i o n t h a t e n d s w i t h s a cr if ic e o n a p a g a n , i m p e r i a l a l t a r . H i s

C h r i s t i a n e n t o u r a g e a r e t h e c o u n t e r p a r t s o f t h e p a g a n o ffic ia ls a n d

p r i e s t s . I w i ll i n t e r p r e t t h e i m a g e s w i t h w h i c h h e e x p r e s s e s h i s u n d e r

s t a n d in g o f w h a t is t ak in g p l ac e i n t h e li g h t o f t h e so c i a l a n d re l i

g i o u s c o n t e x t i n t h e c i ty s t a t e s o f A s i a M i n o r , i n p a r t i c u l a r t h e i r

a d h e r e n c e t o a n d d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t . W e d o w e ll to

4 4

S c h o e d e l ( 1 9 8 5 ) , p. 12 .45

Ibid. p p . 1 7 0 - 1 7 1 .46

Rom. 6 , 1 : " T h e furth es t en d s o f th e w or ld prof i t m e n ot h in g (ov)8ev ue cb(peA.f|oei

x a Ttepaxa xo v KOOUO'D) n o r d o t h e k i n g d o m s o f t h i s a g e (ovbk a i | 3aa iA,e ia i xov a i covoq

xo\)XO\)): i t i s be t ter for m e to d i e (m A,6v uo i arcoGaveiv ) for the sa ke o f J e s u s C h r i s t(8 ia ' Ir j oo u v X p i a x o v ) t h a n t o re i g n o v er ea r t h ' s fu r t h es t en d s (r\ P a a i X e v e i v xcov

T c e p a x c o v xfjq yfj<;)."




ask whether Ignatius and his martyrdom are not set over against

that cult, in the way in whi ch he reg ards his jou rne y to R o m e as

a procession securing those deified qualities of Victoria and Pax.47

I

will argue:

1. Ig na ti us sees his person al sacrifice (his dvx{\|n)%ov on the Gumao-

xr|piov exoiuov) at Ro m e as ce nt re d in a cultic pro cess ion, a nd the

compar ison be twe en his highway to victory an d that of Ro me 's pow er

is a cultic co mp ar is on with the deve lopi ng Imper ial Cult.

2 . The cult is a mystery cult that parallels the imperial mysteries,in which those who participate in the martyrological drama are

pip-nxou and cv \i\i\>Gxai. His picture of the xopoq gathered for the

Euchar ist, an d his lan gua ge abo ut its me mb er s an d their actions

(xpiaxocpopoi, vococpopoi, ocyiocpopoi), mirrors wha t epig raphi cal evidence

will inform us regarding the mysteries associated with the Imperial

Cul t (iepotcpopoi, pcopocpopoi).

3 . Ign at ius ' pa rt icular tide, "T heophor us (Geotpopoq)" and ther efore

"be ar er of G o d " is to be und er st ood in co mp ar ison with the be ar er

of th e im pe r ia l image (eiiccov) in th e ritua l of th e Impe r ia l Cu lt

(aePccoxocpopoq, GeoXoyoq (oepaaxoA,6yo<;) 0eo(pdvxr|<; (oepaaxo(pdvxr|<;)).

Certainly xvnoq is used equivalendy to EIKCOV as a "statue" or as a

"relief" in several insciptions, as we have seen (6A 2.1). Also related

with this title was the use of xurcoq in the description of the bishop's

office as KpoKaGripevoq eiq xxmov rcaxpoq (6A 2). This desc ript ion also

mirrored the theology implied by Domidan's changes in the icono

graphy on the priesdy coronae wo rn as pa rt of th e ritual associated

with the Capi tol ine ga me s (6A 2.3). W e shall no w be able to locat e

the particular focus of this set of images specifically in the proces

sion associated with the Imperial Cult and in some instances involv

ing impe rial mysteries.

4 7

Certainly Schoedel (1985) Introduction pp. 1 1 - 1 2 , and p. 213 saw Ignatius'

v i e w of his martyrdom in such terms ("All this makes sense if we recall how c a r e

fully planned Ignatius' whole journey appears to have been for calling out support

f r o m the churches on his route and how intimately such support figures in the

b i s h o p ' s reflections on the significance of his mission as a man set on u n i ty " ) .

S c h o e d e l however left ill-defined the particular social and religious context which

w o u l d give meaning to Ignatius' conceptualization of the various roles of those

i n v o l v e d in his procession.




6B 1. The &VT{\|/\)XOV at the 0 \ ) a i a a x f | p i o v eioipov

As they greet Ignatius in chains at Smyrna through Onesimus their

bishop a n d representative w h o meets h im there, the Ephesians aredescribed as "being imitators of God, inflamed by the blood of God

(Ephes. 1,1)." But these words cannot in this context be interpreted

simply as an indication of their general piety.4 8

H e claims that their

piety is focused upon his coming martyrdom. They are "inflamed

by the blood of God (&va£(D7Tupf|oavT£<; eva i u m i Geofi)" because they

were praying that he should attain his goal of fighting with the wild

beasts.The spectacle of "the blood of God" reflected in the p{pr|oi<; of

the martyr-bishop is thus the cause of their anxious haste to come

to see him (iaxopf|ocu e o 7 i o u 8 d o a T e ) . It is therefore the martyr bishop,

becoming the eiiccov or zvnoq of the suffering God, to which they are

drawn in a cult in which they will re-enact or "imitate (UIUTITOCI ovxeq

TOU Geou)" the saving event.4 9

It is to be emphasised therefore that such uiur|oi<; is clearly cul

t i c . In the arrival of the bishop from the East at the arena of the

empero r of the West we have the climax of the cultic procession

which began in Antioch a n d gathered its members from the churches

of Asia Minor to whom Ignatius wrote. As Perler pointed out, Ignatius

used the rare word avTVAjruxov as equivalent to the Pauline iXaaxripiov

or atoning sacrifice.5 0

Such was his sacrificial role in the cultic pro

cession in which he invited members of the Ephesian Church to

jo in . "I am your atoning sacrifice (dvTi\|ru%ov upcov eycb), and of those

wh o m you sent to Smyrna for the honour of God (Kai tbv e7cep\ | /axe

eiq 0eou xipfrv ei<; Ipvpvav) ." (Ephes. 21,1 cf. Smyr. 10,2; Pol. 2,3)

In this way Ignatius' sufferings become a kind of extension of his

action as bishop in the Eucharist , as his words "I am God 's wheat"

4 8

Cf. S c h o e d e l ( 1 9 8 5 ) , pp. 4 1 - 4 2 .4 9

T h i s p o i n t was e s t a b l i s h e d at l e n g t h by H.W . B a r t s c h , G n o s t i s c h e s Gut und

G e m e i n d e t r a d i t i o n bei I g n a t i u s von A n t i o c h i e n , in Sammlung wissenschqftlicher Mono-

graphien, 2,44 ( G i i t er s l o h : E v a n g e l i s c h e r V e r l a g 1 9 4 0 ) , pp. 7 8 - 9 8 , and o n l y p a r t i a l l y

m o d i f i e d in K. B o m m e s , W e i z e n G o t t e s , U n t e r s u c h u n g e n zur T h e o l o g i e des

M a r t y r i u m s bei I g n a t i u s von A n t i o c h i e n , in Theoph 27 ( K o l n und B o n n : H a n s t e i n

1 9 7 6 ) , pp. 9 2 - 1 0 7 . See a l s o W.M. S w a r t l e y , The I m i ta t i o C h r i s t i in the I g n a t i a n

L e t t e r s , in VCh 27 ( 1 9 7 3 ) , pp. 8 1 - 1 0 3 and Th. Pre is s , La m y s t i q u e de l ' i m i ta t i o n

d e C h r i s t et de l ' u n i t e c h e z I g n a c e d ' A n t i o c h , in RHPhR 18 ( 1 9 3 8 ) , pp. 1 9 7 - 2 4 1 .5 0 O. P e r l e r , Das v i e r t e M a k k a b a e r b u c h , I g n a t i u s von A n t i o c h i e n , und die a l t e s t e n

M a r t y r e r b e r i c h t e , in RivAC 9 ( 1 9 4 9 ) , pp. 47 ff. cf W . H . C . F r e n d , Martyrdom and

Persecution in the Early Church, ( O x f o r d : B l a c k w e l l 1 9 6 5 ) , pp. 199 ff.




(Rom. 4,1) indicate .5 1

T h e 0 u o i a o x r | p i o v of the arena is an extension

of the 0 u a i a a x r | p i o v that prefigures in Ignatius' liturgical scenes (Ephes.

5,2; Magnes. 7,2; Philad. 4). Indeed, Ignatius anticipates his experience

in the arena as a kind of Eucharist in which instead of the pagan

crowds there will be the Roman Chris t ians as participants in a cult

in which he himself is sacrificed on an altar that is ready (0uoiaaxr|piov

exoiuov). (Rom. 2,2) His words are "to be poured out as a libation

to G o d (xou a 7 i o v 8 i o 9 f ] v a i 0ea>)," which m a y reflect Paul's words in

Eph. 5 ,1~2.5 2

But Ignatius is not simply commenting on Scripture in

a social vacuum. T h e 0 u o i a a x r | p i o v exoiuov has clear associations with

the Imperial Cult and its offerings of thus et vinum, as a sacrificial

term for which orcov8io0f|V (xi is also appropriate.5 3

In place of the church gathered for the Eucharist, as uiot a d p ^ . . .

ev 7coxr |p iov ei<; evcooiv xou aiVocxoq auxou- ev 0 u a i a a x f | p i o v . . . (Philad.

4), there is therefore the martyr pouring out his blood a n d giving

his body, which he prays may be found pure bread, as God's wheat

(Rom. 2,2 ; 4,1). In Rom. 8,3 he asks the Roman Chris t ians to behave

like the pagan spectators w h o express to the arena officials their wish

for death rather than life for a person for whom the mome n t to be

selected or otherwise has come. "If I should suffer (edv 7cd0co), you

had expressed your wish [for it] (f)0eA ,r|aaxe), if I should be rejected

(edv d7io8oKiuxxa0co), you had expressed your hatred (euiof|aaxe)."5 4

The church's prayer in the arena is not therefore that bread a n d

wine become Christ's body a n d blood, b u t that in Ignatius' body

5 1

For a d i s c u s s i o n on the r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n E u c h a r i s t and m a r t y r d o m see,

G . P . W e t te r , A l t c h r i s t l i c h e L i tu r g i e n : Das c h r i s t l i c h e M y s t e r i u m : S t u d i e n zur Ge-

s c h i c h t e des A b e n d m a h l e s , in FRLANT 13 ( 1 9 2 1 ) , pp. 1 1 7 - 1 1 9 , 1 3 6 - 1 3 7 ; B a rt sc h

( 1 9 4 0 ) , pp. 1 0 2 - 1 0 6 ff., cf. B o m m e s ( 1 9 7 6 ) , pp. 6 1 - 6 3 , 8 9 - 9 3 . See a l s o H. S c h l i e r ,

R e l i g i o n s g e s c h i c h d i c h e U n t e r s u c h u n g e n zu den I g n a t i u s b r i e f e n , in B^NW 8 ( 1 9 2 9 ) ,

p p . 1 5 2 - 1 6 9 .5 2

Cf. S c h o e d e l ( 1 9 8 5 ) , pp. 29-31 and p. 42.0 3

For the use of i n c e n s e on T r a ja n ' s a l ta r at P e r g a m o n , see SEG 11, 9 2 2 - 9 3 3

( G y t h e u m ) ; V. E h r e n b e r g and A . H . M . J o n e s , Documents Illustrating the Reigns of Augustus

and Tiberius, ( O x f o r d : C l a r e n d o n 1955) no. 102 (a); IGRR 4, 353 b 20. See a l s o

S . R . F . P r i c e , Rituals and Power. The Roman Imperial Cult in Asia Minor, ( C a m b r i d g e :

U . P . 1 9 8 4 ) , p. 208. In the H e l l e n i s t i c r u l e r c u l t in P t o l e m a i c E g y p t the b u r n i n g of

i n c e n s e and l i b a t i o n s as o p p o s e d to a n i m a l s a c r i f i c e s was a l re a d y c o m m o n b e fo r e

i t s a d a p ta t i o n to e m p e r o r w o r s h i p , see D. F i s h w i c k , The I m p e r i a l C u l t in the L a t i n

W e s t : S t u d i e s in the R u l e r C u l t of the W e s t e r n P r o v i n c e of the R o m a n E m p i r e ,

in EPRO 108 ( 1 9 9 1 ) , 2,1, p. 513.

5 4 The force of the two aor is ts (rfieXr\cax£, e u i o f | a a x e ) is b e s t b r o u g h t out as a

o n c e for all e x p r e s s i o n (by the c r o w d s in the a r e n a ) of the a c t i o n of the v e r b and

t r a n s l a t e d a c c o r d i n g l y .



I G N A TI U S O F A N T I O C H A N D T H E M A R T Y R ' S P R O C E S S I O N 2 3 3

5 5 F o r t h e v i s i o n a r y c h a r a c t e r o f h i s d e s c r i p t i o n o f c o m m u n i t i e s t h a t h e h a s n o tv i s i t ed a t t h e i r E u c h a r i s t i c w o r s h i p s e e A . B r e n t , T h e I g n a t i a n E p i s d e s a n d t h e

T h r e e f o l d E c c l e s i a s t ic a l O r d e r , i n JR H 17 ,1 ( 1 9 9 2 ) , p p . 1 8 - 3 2 .

t h o s e r e a l i t i e s m a y b e d i s p l a y e d . H e e x h o r t s t h e m r e g a r d i n g t h e w i l d

b e a s t s i n t h e a r e n a : " I n t e r c e d e t o t h e L o r d f o r m e ( t a x a v e u o a x e xov

Kupiov urcep euou) th a t t h r o u g h the se i n s t ru m e n ts ( i v a 8 id xcov opydvcov

xouxcov) I m ig h t b e f o un d G o d 's sacri f ice (Geou G uo ia eupeGco)." (Rom.

4 ,2 ) H i s v i si o n o f t h e R o m a n c o m m u n i t y h a s n o b i s h o p , p r i e s t , o r

d e a c o n a t t h is p o i n t , a s h a d h i s v i s io n s o f t h e c o m m u n i t i e s t o w h i c h

h e a d d r e s s e s h i s o t h e r l e t t e r s ,5 5

b u t o n l y t h e R o m a n o ff ic ia ls a n d

t h e i r f u n c ti o n s i n t h e a m p h i t h e a t r e . W h a t t h e R o m a n C h r i s t i a n s c a n

d o is t o " c o a x " t h e w i l d b e a s t s t o d e v o u r h i m q u i c k l y a n d n o t t r y

t o k e e p t h e m a w a y (Rom. 4 ,2 ) .

G i v e n t h e r e f o r e t h a t t h e v ic t o r i o u s j o u r n e y o f t h e b i s h o p o f S y r i a

f r o m t h e E a s t c o n f r o n t i n g t h e e m p e r o r o f t h e W e s t is a c o n f r o n t a

t i o n b e t w e e n r i v a l c u l t s , c a n w e n o w i n t h e l ig h t o f t h e i n s c r i p t i o n s

o f t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t d e l i n e a t e f u r th e r t h e c h a r a c t e r o f I g n a t i u s r e v e r s e

i m a g e s ? W h a t , a c c o r d i n g to I g n a t i u s , a r e t h e f e a t u re s o f t h e C h r i s t i a n

l it u rg i ca l c o m m u n i t y t h a t m i r r o r t h o s e o f p a g a n e m p e r o r w o r s h i p ?

6 B 2 . The %opo<; and the dyo)v uuaxucoq

T h e R o m a n c o m m u n i t y is r e g a r d e d a s a xop oq g a t h e r e d a r o u n d a

p a g a n G u o ia a x ri pi o v e x oiu o v. T h e m y s t e r y - d r a m a i n w h i c h t h e b i s h o p

is a xujcoq is n o w a n a r e n a sc en e in w h ic h h e is a UIUT|XT|<; o f t h e

su ffe rin g g o d (xou rcdGouq xou Geou uou) . (Rom. 6 ,3 ) Ig n a t iu s i n v i t e s t h e

R o m a n C h r i s t i a n s , g a t h e r e d i n h is i m a g i n a t i o n i n t h e a r e n a , t h a t :

. . . in love be com ing a choir ( iva ev aycxTrn xopo<; yevojievoi), yo u m a y

sing to the F ath er in Je su s Ch rist (aonxe xcp rcaxpi ev 'Incou Xpiaxcp) that

God has deemed the b ishop of Syria worthy to be found at the sun ' s

sett ing, having despatched him from the sun's ris ing.

Rom. 2,2

T h e y a r e t o s in g as a ch o ir a t th e sacri f ice (%opo<; yevopxv oi) , as h e

e n v i s a g e d t h e E p h e s i a n s ( 4 , 1 - 2 ) f o r m e d l ik e a c h o i r a t E u c h a r i s t ( 6 A

1.1.1), o r a s t h e S e e r d e s c r i b e d t h e " g r e a t m u l t i t u d e " (Apoc. 7,9) or

t h e 1 4 4 , 0 0 0 ( 1 4 , 2 - 3 ) .

I g n a t i u s t h u s a l s o s a w h i s c o m m u n i t i e s g a t h e r e d fo r t h e S u n d a y

E u c h a r i s t o r h i s o w n m a r t y r o l o g i c a l E u c h a r i s t a s s i n g i n g t h e v i c t o r y i n

m a r t y r d o m o f t h e C h r i s t i a n b i s h o p ri si n g f r om t h e E a s t a n d t r i u m p h i n g




i n the arena over the Emperor . In this respect they paralleled the

way in which the choir at Pergamon sung the emperor 's praises. Just

a s we saw was the case (5B 2.2-2.2.3) with the imperial 0eoA,6yoi or

uuvcoSoi of Pergamon or of Hypaepa (mG -uuvouvxeq xov l e P a o x o v OIKOV)

i n the Imperial Cult (IGRR 4, 3 5 3 , b . /. 12-19), there is the xopoq

of the Christian cult. That xopoq extols that divinized quality of impe

rial unity that is ouovoicc (Ephes. 4,2), and which was also a feature

of the doxology of Clemen t Cor. 6 0 - 6 1 . Ignatius' martyrological cult

was also to celebrate the peace experienced by the Church of Antioch

i n Syria. Thus o p o v o i a , like the pax deorum, was a particular objective

of the Imperial Cul t which w as achieved by Ignat ius ' Chris t ian

Cult . T h e hymn singers were moreover garlanded (IGRR 4, 35 3, b.

/. 18-19: oxecpdvoix; xoiq uuvcp8oi<; Kai xolq puaxripioiq oxecpdvcoaiv) just

a s Ignatius ' presbyterate are described as a "spiritual crown (Magnes.

13,1: d^iorcXoKou TrveupaxiKou a x e c p d v o u ) . "

Moreover , we followed (5B 2.2.3) Pleket's account of the role of th e

aePaaxo(pdvxr|<; in exposing the e i K o v e q .5 6 There were also other allu

sions to i)uvcp8o( of the Imperial Cult at Pergamon, for example Asia

(Hypaepa) .5 7

In order to locate further the function of these e i K o v e q

i n the ritual of the cult, we need to refer to SEG 6,59 (= IGRR 3 ,

209) , which is the "decree of the international association of the

craftsmen of Dionysus (\|/f|(pioua xcov anb ix\q o i K o u p e v n c ; rcepi xov Aiovuaov

xexve(xcov)" (/. 1-5) from Ankyra. T h e occassion is the incorporation

of the cult of the emperor Hadrian into that of Dionysus and Hadrian's

n ame is added to the association's title as the "new Dionysus" (Kai

AuxoKpdxopa Tpatavov 'ASpiavov lepaaxov K a t a a p a v e o v Aiovuaov). Here

we find t h a t it is the honoured benefaction of Ulpius Aelius Pompeianus

t o "exhibit the mystery-spectacle (dycovoGexfjoai xov dyfiva xov puaxucov)."

Pompeianus summoned (xoix; dycovioxdq d v e K a A i o a x o ) the contestants

"already on their highway with anxious speed (xcp xe xd%ei xfj<; G7io\)8fj<;

68euovxa<;)," and "h e provided (ercf |pKeoev) for every part in the mys

tery (rcavxi pepei xou puaxriplou)." Ignatius too f o u n d the Ephesians

anxious for the spectacle of his mar ty rdom (1,5: i o x o p f i o a i e o 7 c o \ )8d-

a a x e ) , just as he regards all of them through their representatives as

5 6

P l e k e t ( 1 9 6 5 ) pp. 3 4 5 - 3 4 6 , w h e r e he c o m p a r e s IGRR 4, 353, c. /. 4-7 w i t h

IGRR 4, 522 = OGIS 479; 643. See a l so my d i s cu s s i o n in 5B 2.2.57

IGRR 4, 1608 (C l a u d i u s ) : a. /. 10: oi i )u v o )8 o i a v e 9 r | K a v raxa xo y e v 6 | i e [ v o v ]\ | / r | (p i o | ! a ev n e p y d u c o i)7co xfjq i e p a q [ a v v 6 ] 8 o \ ) e y y pd \ j/ a vx e < ; ooa 5 i K a i a [ K a i

[<p iXdv]9po)7td eax iv auxoiq 8e8o( i . e [va im ' auxof i ] . and b. /. 5 . . .[xf\ i ep ]a i )uvco8(ov

[ a u v 6 8 ( p x a i p e i v ] . . .




5 8

P l u t a r c h , De Is. et Osir. 361 D, 27 w h e r e I s i s is d e s c r i b e d as " h a v i n g i n t e r

m i x e d w i t h the m o s t h o l y r i t e s (xaiq dyicoxdxaK; dvaui^aaa xeXexctiq), i m a g e s and

s u g g e s t i o n s and r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s of her su f fer ings at th a t t i m e ( e i K o v a ^ K a i vnovoiaq

m i u i u f |u ax a xcov xoxe 7ca0r |udxcov) . . ." Cf. the m y s t e r i e s of A tt i s in L u c i a n , De DeaSyria 15: 'Pep 8e x e p v o v x o u m i " A x x e a u i u i o v x a i , and E l e u s i n i a n M y s t e r i e s , El. Lysias

c. Andoc. 30: The Hierophant says : e8 i )< ; xr\v cxoXryv uiuot>uevo<; xd i epd e jc iSe iKvoe

xolq duA)r|xoi<; m i e u te xfj (pccvi) xd dic6ppr |xa (cf. H i p p o l y t u s EL V, 8 , 3 9 ) . For the

e q u a t i o n of I si s w i t h D i o n y s i a c m y s t e r i e s , see P l u t a r c h , De Is. et Osir. 364 E, 35:

o x i pev o\)v 6 avxoc, eoxi Aiovuoitp xiva u<xA,Ax)v rj ae yvyvcooKeiv, d) KXea.5 9

For the P l a t o n i c j u s t i f i c a t i o n for th i s see S. C a l d e r o n e , T e o l o g i a , P o l i ti c a,

S u c c e s s i o n e D i n a s d c a e C o n s e c r a t i o in Eta C o n s t a n t i n a , in Culte des Souverains, dans

I'Empire Romain, in Entretiens 19 ( 1 9 7 2 ) , pp. 2 3 6 - 2 3 7 and f o o t n o t e s ; A. H e i t m a n n ,

I m i t a t i o Dei. Die e t h i s c h e N a c h a h m u n g G o t t e s n a c h der V a t e r l e h r e der z w e i e r s t e n

J a h r h u n d e r t e n , in StAns 10 ( 1 9 4 0 ) . See a l s o W e t t e r ( 1 9 2 1 ) , pp. 6 6 - 6 7 , pp. 1 2 4 - 1 2 5 ;

S c h l i e r ( 1 9 2 9 ) , pp. 1 3 5 - 1 3 6 , 1 6 3 - 1 6 4 ff.; S. A n g u s , The Mystery Religions: A Study in

the Religious Background of Early Christianity, (New Y o r k : D o v e r 1 9 7 5 ) , pp. 1 0 9 - 1 1 2 ,

p p . 132 133, pp. 137 138, pp. 3 0 7 - 3 0 8 .

"companions on the way (ouvoSoi rcdvxeq)." His martyr-cult , in which

he shares with Paul, is a mystery cult in which the Ephesians part i

cipate as fellow initiates (ouu^uoxai) who are on an highway (rcdpo8o<;).

(Ephes. 12,2) Let us now explore further the general background of

|iiur|oi<; in parallel with Ignatius' use of the term.

6B 2 . 1 . uiur|GK; in the Isis mysteries and imperial extensions

T h e wo rd uiur|xr|<; in Ignatius Rom. 6,3 has a parallel in the mystery

cults of Isis5 8

which were assimilated to those of Dionysus which

were, as Hadrian's example shows, assimilated in turn to the Imperial

Cult. Here piur|xf|<; is used, with its cognates, uiuoujievoq xd iepd a n d

uiur|| iaxa xcov xoxe 7ia6r|udxcov, in the sense of actor in that participants

acting out their role in the divine drama become mystically identified

and absorbed into the realities which they act.5 9

Certainly Ignatius sees his role as bishop at one point as a mys-

tagogue. In Tral. 5,2 he claims: "I am able to know (8uvaum voeiv)

the heavenly things (xd ercoupdvia), both the angelic locations (Kai

xdq xorcoGeaiaq xdq d yyetaKaq ) and the ranks of the archons ( K a i xdq

auaxdaeu; d p x o v x i K a q ) . " In Ephes. 19,1 he speaks of Mary's virginity,

and Christ 's conception a n d passion as xpia nuaxripia. In Philad. 7,2

he speaks of the Spirit that moves him as: "he exposes hidden things

(xd Kpu7cxd eAiyxei)." Like the high-priest of the Imperial Cult, he is

"entrusted ( r c e T t i a x e u u e v o q ) with the holy of holies (xd dyia xcov dyicov). . .

with the secrets of God (xd Kpurcxd x o u Geou; Philad. 9,1)."

W e can now ask what was the character of the ritual performed by

those to whom were assigned the various parts in the dycbv uuoxiKoq, and

how they were paralleled in Ignatius' description of the martyr-cult .




6B 2.2. Image bearers in the Imperial Mysteries

We have already noted the use of eiKoveq of the em pe ro r an d thei r

expo sure in the d r a ma by th e 6eo<pdvxr|<; of Dionysus . T h e la tt er

bec ame the aePaaxocpdvxriq when the two cults be gan to be assimi

lated as we saw takin g place und er Ha dr ia n. But othe r symbolic

objects were deployed in the ritual and persons assigned to carry

them. T h e ge nera l te rm iepocpopoq is used of those who car ry sac red

objects in a pagan cultus,6 0

but we find this term particularly applied

in the context of the mystery play. Regarding the Isis mysteries,

Plut arch informs us tha t: "Isis . . . is wise . . ., and discloses the divine

mys ter ies (8eiKvt>oi)aav xd Geia) to those who t ruly a nd jusdy ha ve

the name of 'bearers of the sacred vessels' and 'wearers of the sacred

robes ' (xoiq d^rjGSq Kal 8tm{co<; iepacpopoiq Kai iepoaxotanq rcpooayo-

peuopevoiq; De hide et Osiride 352 B, 3)."

But there were also more particular roles assigned in the ritual of the

mysteries, some of which Robert lists as pcouotpopoq, Kioxacpopoq, jropcpo-

poq, A,iKva(popoq, Kavqcpopoq, GaMxxp6po<;, cpaMxxpopoq, a nd Geocpopoq.61

W e find the lat ter ter m be co ming oePaoxocpopoc; when for exam pl e

the Dionysiac mysteries are assimilated with Hadrian's Imperial Cult.6 2

Kioxacpopoq occurs in Syll.3

736 (Andania 92 B.C.) where the law for

cel ebrati ng the myster ies is inscr ibed. H er e "the sacred virgins (a!

TcapGevoi a i iepai ) as t hey are selected (raGo*; dv A,d%covxai) draw the

chariots ( d y o \ ) o a i xd appa xa ) laiden with chests cont aining the objects

for the sacred mysteries (erciKeipevafq] Kicxaq e x o u a a q iepd p/uaxim;

V I , 1, 30 -3 1) ."

Among the objects car ri ed in the ritual of the sacred mysteries,

in addition to the EIKCOV of the emper or expo sed by the oePaoxotydv-

xrjq, were small models or pictures of an altar. Apollonius son of

Apol lonius is given the tide pcopocpopoq in P e rgamon.6 3

W e find an

explanation of this tide in Apuleius' description of the Isis mysteries:

The foremost high priests (antistites sacrorum proceres). . . carried beforethem the distinctive attributes of the most powerful gods (potentissimo-

6 0

IG 12, 5, 291.6 1

L. R o b e r t , Recherches E p i g r a p h i q u e s , VI Inscriptions d'Athenes, in Opera Min.

Set. 2 ( 1 9 6 9 ) , p. 839 note 6 (= REA 62 ( 1 9 6 0 ) , p. 323 note 6). See also Idem. Le

S e r p e n t Glycon d'Abonouteichos a Athenes et Artemis d'Ephese a R o m e , in Opera

Min. Set. 5 ( 1 9 8 9 ) , pp. 747-769 (= CRAI ( 1 9 8 1 ) , pp. 5 1 9 - 5 3 5 ) .6 2 L. R o b e r t , H e l l e n i c a , II, Inscription E p h e b i q u e , in Opera Min. Set. 2 ( 1 9 6 9 ) ,

p p . 1277-1278 (= RPhil 13 ( 1 9 3 9 ) , pp. 1 2 4 - 1 2 5 ) .< , : i

M.P. N i l s s o n , Zwei Altare aus P e r g a m o n , in Eranos 54 ( 1 9 5 6 ) , p. 172; I. Perg. 336.




rum deum proferebant insignes exuvias) . . . the second . . . (secundus) carried

with both hands an altar (manibus ambabus gerebat altarid), that is, "a

source of help," (id est auxilid) whose special name was derived from

the helping providence of the supreme goddess (quibus nomen dedit pro-prium deae summatis auxiliaris providentid).

Apuleius, Metamorphoses, 11,10

As Apuleius makes clear, the foremost priests take precedence w h o

carry insignes exuviae of the gods themselves. Furthermore, what these

priests carry are not merely the portable accompanyments of ritual.

They carry the clothing or attributes (exuviae) of the gods themselves.

T he y are thus to be distinguished from the second group w h o carry

the altaria. Thus though the second group in the Isis mystery pro

cession may be describable as iepoupopoi,64

the first group may be

described as Oeocpopoi. Indeed the term occurs generally in the mys

tery cults.

In the inscription of Agrippinilla found in Torre Nova south of

R ome , we have a l i s t of functionaries of the Dionysiac c u l t c. 150

A . D . Agrippinilla heads the list as priestess a n d head of the associ

ation, b u t two of the functionaries, Gallicanus a n d Dionysius, are

called 0eo<p6poi.65

T h e Geotpopoq inevitably, following the assimilation

of such mysteries w i t h the Imperial Cult , comes to be r e na me d

o e p o t G T X x p o p o q , as in the Ephebic inscription from Athens.6 6

These

carried the imperial images in the mystery rite. Th os e divine images

were cared for by the sacristan or £dicopo<; xcov Geicov e i i c o v c o v ,6 7 pro

visions for w h i c h we have already seen to have been made in o u r

discussion of IGRR 4,353 c. /. 1 0 - 1 1 (5B 2.2). W e m e t there w i t h

a special official, the O£|3aoxo<pavxri( ; , by w h o m imperial mysteries

were celebrated.

We t h u s see how in Ignatius' Martyr Cult, in direct parallel w i t h

the imperial mysteries, those w h o j o i n the procession either in per

son or through clerical representatives are assigned roles analogous

to the i e p o ^ o p o i , a n d the bish op at the cen tre of the c u l t is described

as the 0£O(p6po<; w h o bears a spiritual image, the x u r c o q of their Father

God.

6 4

R o b e r t Opera Min. Sel. 2 ( 1 9 6 9 ) , pp. 1 2 7 7 - 1 2 7 8 (= RPhil 13 ( 1 9 3 9 ) , pp. 1 2 4 - 1 2 5 ) .6 5

M.P. N i l s s o n , The D i o n y s i a c M y s t e r i e s of the H e l l e n i s t i c and R o m a n Age, in

Acta Instituti Atheniensis Regni Sueciae, 8,5 ( L u n d : G l e e r u p 1 9 5 7 ) , pp. 46 and 5 6 - 5 7 .66

Ath. Mitt. 59 ( 1 9 3 5 ) , pp. 7 7 - 8 8 ; R o b e r t ( 1 9 3 9 ) , pp. 1 2 3 - 1 2 5 . See also Pr ice

( 1 9 8 4 ) , p. 189.6 7

P l e k e t ( 1 9 6 5 ) , p. 345; cf. R o b e r t Opera Min. Sel. 2 ( 1 9 6 9 ) , pp. 8 3 2 - 8 3 5 (= REA

6 2 ( 1 9 6 0 ) , pp. 3 1 6 - 3 1 9 ) .




As their fellow-citizens in the city states of Asia Minor, in partic

ular centres of the Imperial Cult such as Ephesus, Smyrna, or Tralles,

responded to the supplicatio by joining the sacrificial procession, so

figuratively the Chri st ian Ephesi ans jo in Ignat ius' marty r-p rocession.

As Ignatius says:

You are all therefore (eaxe oSv) companions on the way (cri)vo8oi rcdv-

xeq), God-bearers (Geocpopoi) and temple-bearers (Kal vaocpopoi), Christ

bearers (xpicxocpopoi), bearers of holy things (dyiocpopoi), in every way

adorned with the commandments of Jesus Christ (mid rcdvxa KeKoopripevoi

ev evioXaiq 'Inaoi) Xpiaxov).

Ephesians 9,2

Those w h o come at the summons of the martyr-bishop to join his

procession carry not the ekcbv of the emperor but, in their conduct

ing of Ignatius, the vbnoq or uaprjxriq of the suffering Father-God.

T h e y are analogously the equivalents of the Geocpopoi, iepacpopoi

(ayiocpopoi), a n d pcouocpopoi (vaocpopoi) of the traditional cults paral

leled by the imperial Sacristan of the div ine images (^arapoq xcov

0eicov eiKovcov). Instead of being clothed ev Xa\inpaiq eaGfjoiv for the

martyr 's sacrif ice ,6 8

they instead a r e m x d rcdvxa K e K o a p r i p e v o i ev

evxoAxxiq 'Inaou Xpiaxou. T h e letter to the C hurc h of Smyrna more

over is also addressed: e K K ^ n a i a Geov. . . ayiocpopcp (Smyrn. inscr.).

But what of the office of the martyr-bishop at the centre of the

cult at whose representation of the suffering God the Ephesians are

so "inflamed?" (Ephes. 1,1) Ignatius continually emphasises his otherna me or title (6 K a l Geocpopoq) at the beginning of each of the seven

letters. Ju st as there is in his thought a continuity between the liturgy

of the Eucharist each Sunday, and the prospective scene in the arena

where he is destined to be the Guoiaoxripiov exoiuov (Rom. 2,2), so

too I would suggest there is a continuity between Ignatius as Geocpopoq

of the suffering God and the bishop as xurcoq xou rcaxpoq (6A 2).

6B 2.3 . Geocpopoq and xurcoq in pagan cultic imagery

We saw that the bishop and presbytery, an d, by implication or assim

ilation, the deacons, are described in the Ignatian letters as rcpoKaG-

npevoi eiq xtmov (6A 2). We saw that this new concept in Ignatius of

Antioch grew out of the pagan symbolism of Syria a nd Asia Minor

6 8

W e have from Smyrna a marble tablet from the Museum and Library for the

ru ler cult of Attalus III in OGIS 332, 38: ev eo0[fj]aiv A.[au7cpa!<; eoxecpavcouevoDq . . . ] .




6B 2.4. Ignatius' procession and ouovoia and the pax deorum

As we have seen, Augustus' cult had, according to the Decree of

the Koi no n of Asia initi ating the Imperi al C ul t the re in 9 B.C., set

right a fallen social and political ord er if not a dis tur bed na tu ra l

or de r (2B 4). Cer tai nly wha t Luc an des cribe d in his de- mythol ogised

Stoic account of the Civil War as discors natura (Siarceurcov K a l ei<;

axx>%zq uexaPePnKoc; <5%r\\ia) ne ed ed a n act of au gu ry to be set right

(dvcbp0coo£v) (2A 4.2.1-2). We have stressed throughout the origins

of the Impe ria l Cult in an extra -or din ary act of aug ury whi ch ha d

secured the millennial pax of the saeculum aureum (2A 5). How, in the

imperial mysteries, was the supernatural and millennial pax, once

achi eved by Augu stus , to be co nti nue d sacr amentall y?

In the pax Augusti, we may say in pa ro dy of Igna tius ' "destr ucti on

is dissolved (Auexai 6 oXeGpoq) .. . in c on co rd (ev o u o v o i a ) . "7 2 'Ouovoia

(Concordia) was one of the ideal ized personif ied Vi rtu es ce leb ra ted in

a distinctive cultus, but associated early with Augustus' own divinity

as Concordia Augusta.13

Imperial society with the collective memory of

several generations of destructive civil war, in greeting pax et princeps,

wou ld have co nc ur re d t hat "n ot hi ng is bet te r tha n peac e (ouSev eaxiv

dueivov e ip r iv r iq ) , in which all war of earthly and heavenly things is

abol ished (ev r\ naq 7i6A,euo<; Kaxapyeixa i e r c o D p a v l c o v Kal e7iiye{cov) ."

(Ephes. 13) As we have seen, civil discord of "earthly things (erc iyeicov)"

went hand in hand with a discors natura supernaturally understood

(ercoupavlcov). Furthermore, we found the themes of o u o v o i a sung by

the cultic xopoq in Ephes. 4,1-2 (6A 1.1.1).

Thus in Ignatius the Christian cult, through its cultic act, brings

to an e nd th e otaGpoq of the cosm ic powe rs and the ir des tructi on.

That cultic act exhibited Christ's victory and peace to the daemonic

powers through its human icons or xurcoi, and through the dyiocpopoi

who att en de d the m. Suc h was the cosmic effect of thei r frequently

assembling as an eK K ^ r j m a (Ephes. 13,1: o x a v y a p KVKV&<; ercl TO a u x o

yiveoGe). T h u s the Chr is ti an C ul t paral lels in its acts and pu rp os e

tha t of Augus tus, who se aug ura l act secured th e pax deorum.

72

Ephes. 13,2 cf. 4, 1-2; Magnes. 15: eppcoaGe ev ouovoia 6eov, K£KiT|uevoi a8idicpi-

xov rcvevaa, oq eaxiv ' iTiaovq X p i a x o q . In Magnes. 6,2 6uor|0eiav Geofi is achieved by

b e i n g united with the bishop in the threefold Order (evcoOnxe xcp ejuaiconq) Kai xoiq

7tpOKa9r|uevoi<;. . .). See also Tral. 12,2; Philad. inscr. and 11.7 3

J.R. F e a r s , The Cult of Virtues and Roman Imperial Ideology, in ANRW 2,17,2

( 1 9 8 1 ) , p. 886: "The cult epithet Augusta, attached to Pax, Justitia, Concordia, and

P r o v i d e n t i a , expressed the quintessence of the personalization of the cult of Virtues

at Rome." See also idem. pp. 8 8 9 - 8 9 2 .



I G N A T I U S OF ANTIOCH AND THE MARTYR'S PROCESSION 241

Ignatius' use o f human persons to be Turcot of divine beings thus

constitutes a radical dev elopm ent of the typology of Ch ur ch Or de r,

but it is nevertheless a kind of reverse reflection of the typology of

the Imperial Cult. But ambassadors are mentioned in connection

with the Imperial Cult and the pax and concordia thus achieve d, a nd

to these and their Ignatian parallels we now turn.

6B 3. The role of the rcpeapeioc in the martyr-procession

It is im po rt an t for us to begin by no ting the connect ion be tween

the carrying of sacred Turcot and embassies from various cities toR o m e . Ig na ti us ' role as the ma rt yr bi sho p is linked in his con

sciousness, as we have shown (6B 2.3), with the pagan concept of a

Geocpopoq in a pagan myst ery ri te . Likewise his role as rcpoKcxGriuivoq

e i q Turcov rcotTpoq is linked with the pr om in en t or pr e-emin en t statu

ary of pagan Turcot of the gods in their cities (6A 2.2). But such Turcot

pla yed a role, no t only in pa ga n mysteries examp les of whi ch ca me

to be associated with the Imperial Cult, but also in ambassadorialprocessions.

Robert points to the way in which small statues (iepcouxxTcc or

&YaA,u,dTioc) were carried by individuals and groups such as mer

chants in their clothing.7 4

Furthermore, he notes that these small idols

were descr ibed in Jo se ph us as Turcot , with reference to Rachel's idols

in Gen. 31 , 31 -35 .7 5

Fur the rmo re, the purpose of such o rna men ts

was not simply general individual devotion or drcoTporcr | . There were

"elements d'un laraire porta t i f" in groups that carried images of

their common, protecting gods. The Alexandrine Acts of the Pagan

Martyrs describe two embassies, Ale xan dr ian a nd Jewish , the former

of whi ch has as their spo kes man H er ma is cu s, wh o ar gu ed their

respective cases before the tr ibunal of Tr aj an .7 6

Regarding the Alex

andrians, it is recorded that they were: e K a a T o i p a a T d £ o v T £ < ; Touq i5iouq

Oeouq (/. 17-18) . Furt he rmo re p a a T c i ^ e i v is a technica l term me an

ing "to carry in a procession." "The bust of Sarapis (IcxpdrciSoq rcpo-

T o u r | ) which the ambassadors were carrying (tiv epdoTOt^ov oi rcpeaPetq)

7 4

Robert Opera Min. Sel. 5 ( 1 9 8 9 ) , pp. 751-755 (= CRAI ( 1 9 8 1 ) , pp. 5 1 7 - 5 2 1 ) .7 3

Josephus, Antiquit., 1,9,10 (= 322): 'Paxr|A.a jcuvOavouevTi KaxaxiOr|ai xoix; xvnovq

ei<; XTIV odynv xfiq cpepovariq a\)xr\v mur |A,o \ ) .7 6 Robert, Opera Min. Sel. 5 ( 1 9 8 9 ) , pp. 764-765 (= CRAI ( 1 9 8 1 ) , pp. 5 3 0 - 5 3 1 ) ;

H . A . Musurillo, The Acts of the Pagan Martyrs, Acta Alexandrinorum, (New York: Arno

Press 1 9 7 9 ) , 8, pp. 4 4 - 4 8 .




su d d en ly b e g a n sw ea t in g (a i(p v{ 5io v i8 p co aev ) ?" a n d t h e m i r a c l e c a u s e d

c o n s t e r n a t i o n (/. 5 1 - 5 5 ) .

W e h a v e f u r t h e r m o r e t h e e p i g r a p h i c a l r e m a i n s o f a l e t t e r o f

C a r a c a l l a to E p h e s u s ( A . D . 2 0 0 - 2 0 5 ) . I n o n e p a r t o f t h e i n s c r i p t i o n

s e p a r a t e f r o m t h e m a i n b o d y o f t h e l e t t e r w e h a v e C a r a c a l l a ' s c o m

m e n t s o n t h e m e m b e r s o f t h e e m b a s s y w h o h a v e p r e s e n t e d t h e i r

c i ty 's c o n g r a t u l a t i o n s t o t h e e m p e r o r o n h is v i c t o r y o v e r t h e P a r t h i a n s .

W h e n h e sa y s : [ a 8 e rc] poercpeopeuev T I rcdxpioc; uucbv 0e6<; "A px eu iq, h e

m e a n s th a t " y o u r a n c e s t r a l g o d d e s s A r t e m i s h e a d s t h e e m b a s s y "

b e c a u s e h e r i m a g e is l it e ra l ly c a r r i e d a t t h e e m b a s s y ' s h e a d . T o p a r

a ll el I g n a t i a n u s a g e , w e m a y s ay t h a t , in t h e a m b a s s a d o r i a l p r o c e s

s ion, the ivnoq xfjg uucov Geou 'Apx euioo q is " p r e - e m i n e n t (7ipoKa0n,uevo<;),"

j u s t a s i n I g n a t i u s ' m a r t y r p r o c e s s i o n , a s i n h i s C h r i s t i a n c u l t , t h e

b i s h o p is 7ipOKa0r|uivo<; eiq xurcov 0eo u uucbv. J u s t as in th e Acts of the

Pagan Martyrs t h e x un oq o f S e r a p i s c a u s e d w o n d e r a t R o m e b y t h e

m i r a c l e t h a t it p r o d u c e d , so t o o I g n a t i u s , w h o b e a r s t h e x tm o q o f

t h e s u ff er in g G o d , w ill i n t h e a r e n a c o n f r o n t R o m e ' s p o w e r a s t h e

b i s h o p f r o m t h e E a s t c o n f r o n t s t h e E m p e r o r f r o m t h e W e s t .7 7

B u t t h e c o n c e p t o f Kpec^eia is r e l a t e d t o I g n a t i u s ' i m p e r i a l b a c k

g r o u n d i n o t h e r a n d m o r e g e n e r a l w a y s t h a n t h e b e a r i n g o f i m a g e s

a l o n e . T h e e l e c t io n o f d e a c o n s a s a m b a s s a d o r s i n Philadelphians a n d

Smyrnaeans w a s r e l a t e d t o t h e s i t u a t i o n i n I g n a t i u s ' C h u r c h o f A n t i o c h

i n S y r i a . U n d o u b t e d l y , a n d a t v e r y l e a s t , s u c h e l e c t i o n s o f d e l e g a

t i o n s f r o m t h e l e a d e r s o f c o m m u n i t i e s w a s a g e n e r a l f e a t u r e o f t h e

f o r m a l r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n t h e c i t y s t a t e s i n A s i a M i n o r , a n d c a n b e

u n d e r s t o o d b y a n a l o g y w i t h s u c h c i v i c r e l a t i o n s .7 8

B u t w h a t w a s t h e

p u r p o s e o f t h i s e m b a s s y a n d w h a t s e n s e c a n b e m a d e o f it a g a i n s t

s u ch a c o n t e m p o r a r y b a c k g r o u n d ?

I b e l i e v e S c h o e d e l t o b e c o r r e c t i n i d e n t i f y i n g a d i v i d e d C h r i s t i a n

c o m m u n i t y a t A n t i o c h w h i c h h a s f o u n d p e a c e , r a t h e r t h a n a C h u r c h

p e r s e c u t e d e x t e r n a l l y .7 9

W e m a y n o t e f r o m t h e e x a m p l e o f C l e m e n t

Cor. t h a t s u c h a n e x t e r n a l t h r e a t m a y fo l lo w , n o t in t e r m s o f a g e n

e r a l p e r s e c u t i o n , b u t f r o m t h e ci vi l c o n s e q u e n c e s o f i n t e r n a l d i v i s i o n s

f o r a c o m m u n i t y d i v i d e d b y i n t e r n a l s t r i f e a n d t h e n e e d f o r t h e

a u t h o r i t i e s t o i n t e r v e n e . B u t t h e r e is s till a p r o b l e m r e g a r d i n g t h e

p u r p o s e a n d m e a n i n g o f t h e e l e c t io n a n d s e n d i n g of t h e s e c l e r ic a l

S e e a ls o f o o t n o te s 4 6 - 4 9 .

T h u s S c h o e d e l ( 1 9 8 5 ) , p . 2 1 3 .

S c h o e d e l ( 1 9 8 5 ) , pp. 1 0 - 1 2 , 2 4 8 2 5 1 .




8 0

emaîa for the p o s s e s s i o n of w h i c h O n e s i m u s , b i s h o p of E p h e s u s , p r a i s e s his

c o n g r e g a t i o n (Ephes. 6,2); cf. C l e m e n t Cor. 37,2; 40,1.

ambassadors even on the view that strife had given way to peace

within a divided Christian community.

Why should Ignatius have considered it necessary to send repre

sentatives whose office he concei ved in ter ms of am bass ad ors in or de r

to rejoice with them in the gathered Eucharistic assembly? Ambassadors

were usually sent to confer s ome benefit or ma rk of rega rd , in p ar

ticular upon the emperor in connection with his cult. Ignatius con

siders th e imperi al virtue s of oudvoia an d eipr|vr| as essen tial fea tures

of an y Chr ist ian c om mu ni ty tha t by its very natu re will be ma rk ed

by the threefold hierarchy.8 0

These were also the divine qualities

associated with Augus tus' act of aug ury an d contin ued sacram entally

in his cult, as we have sh own.

I propose, therefore, that we should understand references to a

clerical rcpeopeia in the Ignatian letters in the light of the 7ipeaPei<;

associated with the inscriptions of the Imp eri al Cult .

W e have the dec ree of the Peopl e (8fjuo<;) and Council (yepouaia)

of Sardis hono ur in g Me no ge ne s son of Isidore. H e was to be co me

priest of R o m a a nd Augus tus shor dy after his selection as an am ba s

sador on an embassy to Augustus, to seek approval for the conse

cration of a day co mm em or at in g his gra nds on Ga ius ' ass umpti on of

the toga praetextata. Here the usual provisions for an imperial cultic

celebration are prescribed.

. . . all in resplendent clothes shall wear crowns (ev taxprcpaic; eaOiiciv

oxe<pavr|(popeiv arcavxaq), and the strategoi each year shall present sacrificesto the gods (0 [i )]aia(;TeKapiaTdvaiToi<;9eoi(;xou(;Kax

,

îauT6vaTpaTr |Yoi)(;)

and make prayers through the sacred heralds for his safety (Kai K a x e u x d q

rcoieioGai 8 i d xcov iepoicnpuKCGv vnkp xn<; acoxripiaq auxou), and they shall

set up and consecrate his statue in the shrine of his father (cruvraBiepcoaai

xe dyaXpa auxou xcp xou rcaxpoq evi8pt>ovxa<; vaco) . . . and an embassy be

sent on these matters to go to Rome (rcpeoPr |av X E urcep xouxcov axeiAm

X T ] V dcptôuevnv eiq 'PcbpTw) and to congratulate him and Augustus (Kai

a u v x a p T i o o p e v i i v a\>xcp xeKai xa> l e [PJaoxcp). . . and there were chosen

as ambassadors (Kai fipe9t|aav rcpeaPei<;) Iollas son of Metrodorus and

Menogenes son of Isidore . . .

IGRR 4, 1756 I, /. 10-23

Following the cultic provisions, 7ipeopei<; are therefore duly appointed,

whose function is to take the provisions for the extension of the




Imp eri al Cul t to R o m e for the appro val of those who m the cult

hon our s. "E mp er or Ca es ar son of Go d, Augustus, high pr ie st . . ."

replies in approval {IGRR 4,1756 I I ) . 8 1

T h e rcpeaPeiq funct ion the ref ore as pr oc la imer s of the cult, w ho

convey its benefits to the ir fellow-citizens. A similar idea su rr ou nds

Ignatius' cultic procession which proclaims as a counter-culture aris

ing from the East the reverse image of the Imperial Cult of the West

as it arrives at the latt er 's a rena of sacrifice. Th is is wh y he will also

ch an ge the na mes of civic officials to give th em a Chri st ian mean

ing , as wh en he calls a rcpeaP\)xr|<; a 0eo7ipeaPuxr|<;, or a TipepoSpouoq

a GeoSpouoq.

Fu r th er mo re there is epi graphical evidence of rcpeopeiq who ac co m

panied the emperor. These Georcpeapuxai should therefore return and

accompany the martyr-bishop from the East, as the counterpart to

the emp er or a n d his cult in the Wes t. npeoPeuxcu clearly ac co mp an y

Julius Caesar as general (SylL3

761 A, /. 2-5), where Callistus of

Knidos (48/47 B.C.) is described as "coming to Greece (yevouevoq eni

xfjc; 'EXkxSoq) in the company of the imperator (u[exdxou auxoKpJdxopoq)

and in the company of his ambassadors (Kai uexd xcov e K e i v o u rcpeo-

Peuxcov).

We can see how the communities who support Ignatius' proces

sion enlarge it by sen di ng the ir ow n rcpeopeia to jo in it. T o the

Philadelphians he says:

. . . since according to your prayer (ercei&n m x d XTJV rcpoaeuxfiv v p x o v ) . . .

it has been announced (anr\yyekr\ uoi ) to me that the Church in Antioch

in Syria is at peace (eipT|vet>eiv x f j v e K K A ^ a i a v XTJV ev 'Avxio%e{a xf jq I \ ) p ( a q ) ,

it is fitting for you ( r c p e n o v e a x i v \ ) u i v ) as a church of God (d>q eKK^rjaia

9eot>) to elect a deacon to conduct God's embassy there ( % e i p o x o v f j a a i

8 i a K o v o v eiq xo Ttpeapevaai eKei QE O V rcpeaPe(av), in order to rejoice with

them when assembled (eiq xo a\)yxapf|vai amoiq inx xo avxb y e v o u e v o i q )

and to glorify the name (Kai 8o £d aa i xo o v o u a ) . . .

Philad. 10,1

Though Ignatius mentions that it is a deacon who acts as a rcpeopuxriq

(rcpeoPeuoai) here, he goes on to assert that such an office can be

also exercised by bishops and presbyters.8 2

8 1

E h r e n b e r g andJ o n e s ( 1 9 5 4 ) no. 99 (= IGRR 4, 1756 = I. Sardis 7 , 1 , 8 , /. 1 2 - 1 4 ) ;

Pr i ce ( 1 9 8 4 ) , p. 66 and p. 259 cat. no. 56.82

Philad. 10, 2: ox ; mi a i ey y i a x a e i a c X r i a i a i e7teu\j/av ETiiaKOTtoix;, a i 8e rcpeaPwepoix;

K a i 8iaic6vo\)<;.



I G N A T I U S OF A N T I O C H AND THE M A R T Y R ' S PR OC E S S I ON 24 5

8 3 IGRR 4, 1756, X /. 104.

8 4

See f o o t n o t e 84.

T hus th e e K K ^ r j a i a 0eou in Philadelphia sent a n elected deacon

as a n ambassador a n d n o doubt welcomed him on his return a n d

received his report ( d 7 t 0 7 t p e a P e i a ) . Like th e embassy (rcpeaPeiav) of

Menogenes, that would travel to R o m e a n d greet Gaius a n d Augustus

(xuv dq>i!;ou£vr|v e i q TCOUTW K a l Guy%apr |aouevr |v a u x c p xe K a i xcp l e p a a x c o ) ,

so too this deacon as ambassador is to greet th e gathered Church

in Antioch ( e i q xo ouyxapiivai auxoiq en\ xo auxo yevouevoiq). Th is de a

con however will n o t proclaim th e cult of Augustus a n d sacrifices

for Gaius' birthday, b u t rather th e progress of the martyr 's proces

sion. They ar e " to glorify t h e na me ( K a i 8o£daai xo ovoua)" of Christ

which is associated with both Ignatius' martyrdom an d t he peace of

Christ's sacrifice of which that martyrdom is an image o r xurcoq.

Ignatius informs those w h o a r e "inflamed by the blood of G o d

(dva^coTtupf ioavxeq ev a i u o c x i Geou)." that it is "for the common name

(u7i6 xou KOIVOU ovouxxxoq)" that h e goes bound (8e8euevov) to th e arena

(0up iouccxf |Ga i ) . " T o suffer reproach for the name (6vei8(£eo0ai)" is

a common martyrological sentiment (1 Pet.4,14). B ut here it is quali

fied by th e adjective K o i v o q a n d indicates that what h e does is shared

in common with all those churches through which his procession

passes a n d which respond to his apellatio.

Koivov was , after all, the na me of the "Commonwea l th of Asia"

(Koivov xii<; 'Aoiaq) that organised a provincial Imperial Cult a n d

elected a n archierew/zsiaxch.. Menogenes is approved because h e "acted

also as an ambassador (npeofievGaq x e K a i ) to Caesar Augustus (npbq

xov l e p a a x o v Kaiaapa) o n behalf of the Koinon of Asia ( u r c e p x e xou

KOIVOU xcovf

E A A f | v c o v ) . "8 3

Jus t as the object of that cult wa s the pax

deorum, so too Ignatius' cultic procession is involved with securing

the pax Christi, and i ts ambassadors a r e concerned with that e n d .

Wha t " h a s been announced (drcr|yyeX,r| uoi) to m e , " just as the glad

tidings were announced (euayye^{o0n) a t Sardis of Gaius' celebra

tion,84

was that the Church in Antioch in Syria is at peace (eipnveueiv

xf|v eKKtaiaiav xnv ev 'Avxioxeia xfjq l u p i a q ) . Furthermore, that peace

was in accordance with th e congregation's prayer (Kaxd xrjv Ttpoaeuxuv

u u x o v ) , jus t as the prayers (Kaxeu^dq) through th e sacred heralds (8id

xcov iepoKnpuKcov) a t Sardis were for Gaius' safety ( u r c e p zr\q a c o x r j p i a q

auxou).



I G N A T I U S O F A N T I O C H A N D T H E M A R T Y R 'S P R O C E S S I O N 2 4 7

Ig n a t iu s h e re i s p ro v id in g in t h e fu n c t io n o f Geo Sp ouo c;, a C h r i s t i a n

vers ion o f the f |pepo8p6uo<; .8 6

T h i s t e r m r e f e rs to a v e r y f as t r u n n e r

o r c o u r i e r , w h o b e c a u s e o f i m p e r i a l b u s in e s s w a s a l lo w e d t o u s e t h e

cursus publicus (8p6uo<; 8r|uooio<;). 8 7 I g n a t i u s ' c o m p a n i o n s w e r e a l lo w e d

to u se t h e cursus publicus i n h i s c a s e a s t h e y w e r e a c c o m p a n y i n g a n

o ff ic ia l p a r t y w i th a p r i s o n e r i n ch a i n s . I t is t h e re f o re a fu r t h e r co r

r o b o r a t i o n o f I g n a t i u s ' t r i u m p h a l i s m t h a t h e re a s s ig n s t h o s e w h o

a c c o m p a n y h i m in t h e r o l e o f a c o n d e m n e d c r i m i n a l ' s f r ie n d s t o t h e

c a t e g o r y o f t h e of fic ia l e n t o u r a g e o f t h e b i s h o p f r o m t h e E a s t r is

i n g , li ke t h e s u n , a g a i n s t t h e E m p e r o r f ro m t h e W e s t .

I n Philad. 2 , 2 t h i s t e r m a p p e a r s a g a i n , w i t h r e f e r e n c e t o f a l s e t e a c h

ers w h o h a v e t r i ed to ta ke th e GeoSpopoi ca p t ive s (xouq 0eo8p6po\)<; -

a ix^ iaXco x i^ o u aiv) , n o d o u b t i n a f i g u ra t i v e s en s e , a n d so im p e d e th e

p r o g r e s s o f t h e m a r t y r - p r o c e s s i o n .8 8

T h e y a r e " m a n y p l a u s i b l e w o l v e s

(rcoAAoi yap M K O I d ^ i6 7 i i ax o i ) , "8 9

g u id e d " b y ev il p l e a su re (f|8ovf| K a i q i ) . "

C l e a r l y " t h e s e w i l l h a v e n o p l a c e i n y o u r u n i t y (aXX* ev xfj evornTi

a m o s t w e l l p l e a s i n g w a y (XT V 7tpeapr|av exmperceaxaxa) worth i ly o f the c i ty (a^ icoq

xfiq rcotaox;)."8 6

Z a h n ' s v i e w (Ignatius p . 2 8 6 n o t e 3 ) , c o n t r a d i c t e d in S c h o e d e l ( 1 9 8 5 ) , p . 2 7 8 ,

w o u l d s e e m t o b e c o r r e c t i n v i e w o f t h e c i v i c b a c k g r o u n d i n t h e c i t y - s t a t e s o f A s i a

M i n o r t h a t I h a v e s k e t c h e d h e r e f o r b o t h I g n a t i u s a n d t h e Apocalypse. I c a n n o t s e e

w h y t h e u s e o f 9 e o 8 p 6 | i o i i n Philad. 2 , 2 s h o u l d d e n y t h a t v i e w s i n c e h e r e t h e t e r m

i s n o t u s e d , a s S c h o e d e l s a y s , " t o C h r i s t i a n s i n g e n e r a l , " b u t t o m e m b e r s o f t h e

I g n a t i a n c u l t i c p r o c e s s i o n w h i c h t h e p a r t i c u l a r c h u r c h e s t o w h i c h h e w r i t e s h a v e

u n d e r t a k e n b o t h i n s p ir it a n d t h r o u g h r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s t o j o i n .8 7

Fo r f iu£po8p6uo<; s ee SEG 4 2 , 1 7 4 5 = S y / / .3

3 0 3 a n d P a u s a n i u s V I , 1 6 , 5 (M e n a c l e s

o f E l i s . . . . f iu e po 8 p 6u o < ; o f A l e x a n d e r s o n o f P h i l i p ). S e e a l s o L i v y 3 1 , 2 4 : h e m e r o -

d r o m o s v o c a n t G r a e c i i n g e n s d i e u n o c u r s u e m e t i e n t e s s p a t i u m . F o r t h e i r c o n n e c

t i o n w i t h t h e cursus publicus i n i m p e r i a l t i m e s , s e e H . S t e p h a n , D a s V e r k e h r s l e b e n

i m A l t e r t h u m , i n Historisches Taschenbuch ( E d . F . v o n R a u m e r ) 9 , 4 ( L e i p z i g : B r o c k h a u s

1 8 6 8 ) , p . 9 3 : " D e r c u r su s p u b l i c u s w a r n i c h t fu r j e d e r m a n n b e n u t z b a r ; e s b e s t a n d

k e i n r e g e l m a s s i g e r , f o r t l a u f e n d e r P o s t e n g a n g m i t v o r h e r f e s t g e s e t z t e n A b g a n g s - ,

A n k u n f t s - u n d B e f b r d e r u n g s z e i t e n ; v i e l m e h r fa n d d i e B e f b r d e r u n g n u r s ta tt , w e n n

g e r a d e D e p e s c h e n o d e r R e i s e n d e n v o r k a m e n . . ." S e e a l s o H . G . P f l a u m , E s s a i su rL e C u r s u s P u b l i c u s s o u s l e h a u t - e m p i r e R o m a i n , i n Extrait des mem oires presentes par

divers savants a L'Academie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres 1 4 , ( P ar is : I m p r i m e r i e N a t i o n a l e

1 9 4 0 ) , p p . 2 2 - 6 1 .8 8

C f. C i c e r o ' s c o m p l a i n t a g a i n s t P i s o' s a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f M a c e d o n i a a s g o v e r n o r

a n d h i s a c c u s a t i o n s t h e t h e l a t t e r h a d a l l o w e d obsessio militaris viae, (In Pison. 4 0 ) : S e e

a l s o P f l a u m (1 9 4 0 ) , p . 3 2 : " L a m i l i t a r i s v i a . . . d o n t i l s ' a g it e s t L a V i a E g n a t i a ,

q u i tr a v e r s e d e b o u t e n b o u t la p r o v i n c e d e P i s o n . C e t t e r o u t e n 'e s t p a s s e u l e m e n t

i n f e s t e e p a r l e s i n v a s i o n s e n e m i e s , e l l e e s t m a r q u e e p a r d e s c a m p s t h r a c e s . . . "8 9

N o t e t h e u s e o f t h e ager publicus b y f r a u d u l e n t p e r s o n s m e n t i o n e d i n J u s t i n i a n

( M o d e s t i n u s ) , Dig, X L V I I I , 1 0 , 2 7 , 2 : " Q u i s e p r o m i l i t e g e s s i t v e l i ll i ci t is i n s i g n i b u s

u s u s e s t v e l f a l s o d i p l o m a t e v i a s c o m m e a v i t , p r o a d m i s s i q u a l i t a t e g r a v i s s i m e p u n i e n -

d u s e s t . " S e e a l s o P f l a u m (1 9 4 0 ) , p . 1 2 5 .




uucov oux e^ouovv TOTIOV)," t h a t is t h e u n i t y o f n a s c e n t e p i s c o p a l O r d e r

b e i n g r e i n f o r c e d b y t h e p r o c e s s i o n o f t h e m a r t y r - b i s h o p o f A n t i o c h

a n d e ff ec ti ng p e a c e in h i s h o m e C h u r c h . I n d e e d t h e y a r e l ik e h i g h

w a y r o b b e r s a t t a c k i n g t h e b i s h o p w h o s e le g i t i m a c y is v i n d i c a t e d i n

h i s m ar ty r s ac r i f i ce a s Turcoq o f t h e su f f er i ng G o d .

P A R T C . O R D E R I N C L E M E N T , I G N A TI U S A N D T H E APOCALYPSE

I n t h i s a n d o u r l a st t w o c h a p t e r s ( 4- 6) w e h a v e e x a m i n e d t h r e e e a r l y

C h r i s t i a n w r i t e rs : C l e m e n t o f R o m e , th e S e e r of t h e Apocalypse, a n dI g n a t i u s . H a v i n g e s t a b l i s h e d t h e i r b a c k g r o u n d i n D o m i t i a n ' s r e i g n ,

w e h a v e c o m p a r e d t h e i r d e v e l o p i n g v i ew s o f e c c le s ia s ti c al O r d e r o v e r

a g a i n s t t h e d e v e l o p m e n t s i n t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t i n h i s r e i g n . C l e m e n t ' s

C h r i s t i a n b a c k g r o u n d in R o m e w a s c l e a rl y u n r e l a t e d t o t h a t o f

I g n a t i u s a n d t h e Apocalypse i n A s ia M i n o r . T h e C h u r c h O r d e r o f

C l e m e n t , Corinthians w a s c l e a r l y n o t t h a t o f I g n a t i u s ' S y r i a , w h e n t h e

f o r m e r e n v i s a g e d a c h u r c h g o v e r n e d b y a p l u r a l i t y o f £ 7 U G K 0 7 t o i -

j cpeaPu x ep o i a s su cc es so r s o f t h e ap o sd es , w h e re a s t h e l a t t e r b y a s in

g le b i s h o p a s a r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f G o d t h e F a t h e r . W e s a w , h o w e v e r ,

t h a t , d e s p i t e g r e a t d i s s i m i l a r i t i e s , t h e r e w e r e c l e a r c o n n e c t i o n s b e t w e e n

t h e Apocalypse a n d I g n a t i u s . W e e x p l a i n e d t h o s e d i s si m i l ar i ti e s i n t e r m s

o f a r a p i d h i s t o r ic a l d e v e l o p m e n t t h a t s e p a r a t e d t h e c o m m u n i t i e s o f

A s i a M i n o r i n A . D . 8 5 - 9 5 f r o m t h o se w h i c h e m e r g e d i n 1 0 7 - 1 1 8 .

D e s p i t e t h e l a ck o f c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n C l e m e n t o n th e o n e h a n d ,a n d I g n a t i u s a n d t h e Apocalypse o n t h e o t h e r , w e d e t e c t e d t h e I m p e r i a l

C u l t a s b a ck g r o u n d to al l t h ree wr i t e r s . In C le m en t w e fo u n d re fl ect io n s

o f t h e i d e o l o g y o f t h a t C u l t , a n d t o o u r p i c t u r e w e w e r e a b l e t o a d d

t h e i c o n o g r a p h y o f t h e Apocalypse, a n d th eo lo g y o f Ig n a t iu s . In C lem en t ' s

d o x o l o g y t h e v a l u e s o f i m p e r i a l u n i t y f o u n d e x p r e s s i o n , a n d t h e e n d s

d e s i r e d t h r o u g h t h a t u n i t y (e ip u vr i, o u d v o i a , u y i e i a ) w e r e r e q u e s t e d

f r o m t h e C h r i s t i a n G o d (4 B 1.2.2).

C l e m e n t ' s v ie w o f t h e o i d o u ; o f h is c o m m u n i t y a s d v o a i o q r e v e a l e d

t h e f e a rs , d e e p s e a t e d i n h i s I m p e r i a l C u l t u r e , o f a n u p s e t t i n g o f c u l

t i c o rd e r t h a t wo u ld l ead to Kiv Su v o q fo r t h e so c i a l an d p o l i t i ca l

o rd e r (4 B 3 ) . As su ch h e w as r e f l ec t i n g t h e p e r sp ec t iv e o f t h e l a t e

R e p u b l i c a n d e a r l y E m p i r e b o t h e x e m p l i f i e d b y a n d f o r m e d i n t h e

p r o g r a m o f t h e Res Gestae. T h e p e r c e i v e d e x t r a o r d i n a r y a n d p o r t e n

t o u s c o l la p s e o f b o t h t h e n a t u r a l a n d m e t a p h y s i c a l o r d e r r e q u i r e d

a n e x t r a o r d i n a r y a c t o f a u g u r y , t h e augurium salutis c e l e b r a t e d b y




Augustus when he initiated his reformed, Imperial Cult (2A 5-6).

Clement assured both himself and his circle that the Christian cul

t u s , wit h its O r d e r in te rms of Apostolic Succession (4B 1.1-4B 1.2),

could banish more truly and therefore effectively than the Imperial

Cult both the political and metaphysical disorder that every good

Roman citizen, whether in Italy or in Asia Minor, feared (4B 2.2

and 4B 3).

We saw regarding the Apocalypse that general relations between the

Letters to the Churches and the Imperial Cult had been well estab

lished by Ra ms ay an d H e m e r (5B 1). W e th en do cu me nt ed further

links between the Letters and the main text of the Apocalypse (5B 2).

Inscriptional and numismatic evidence illuminated the cultic scene

around the heavenly altar in which clear reflections of the Imperial

Cu lt we re revealed. Specific example s of such reflections we re the

i)|ivq)8o{ and rcpecpuxepoi, the e iK oveq and the imperial mysteries, the

7ipoe8p(ai as places of hon our for notable spectato rs an d the con

co mi tant s of sacrifice such as cpidAm and whi te rob be d worship pers ,

axe9avr|(p6poi and a i 8 ( p a v o i % p \ )oo ( , etc. (5B 2.1-2.2.5). We saw in the

praises of the pray er s an d the hym ns of the Apocalypse typical themes

(86£cc, euxapiaxia, K p d x o q , acoxnpia, Suvapiq, ia/tx;, rcAoftxoq and euXoyia)

of amba ssa dori al panegyrics in conne ctio n with the Impe rial Cult

(5B 3.1-3.3).

Having established the general background to the Apocalypse in the

expe rience of the Imper ial Cul t in Asia Mi no r, we th en re tu rn ed to

our specific thesis of the rela tionshi p be twee n C h u r ch O r d e r an d

the Imperial Cult as a contra-cultural relationship. We argued that

there was a historical relationship between the communities of Asia

Minor addressed by the Seer, and those to whom Ignatius of Antioch

was to wri te som e 10 - 15 year s la te r (6A 1). In the light of th at rel a

tionship we were able to use Igna tius ' claims ab ou t C h u r ch O r d e r

in his contemporary situation to illuminate the historical situation as

witnessed by the Apocalypse out of whi ch those claims ha d deve loped .

W e saw tha t on e typology of represen ta tion found in Igna tiu s was

also sh ar ed by hi m with the Seer. T h e angels of the churc hes embo d

ied the cor por at e personalities of the co mmuni tie s tha t they re pr e

sented as did the Ignatian clerics (6A 1.1.2). We saw also that the

heavenly liturgy of the Apocalypse was replicated in both the Hippolytan

horsesh oe of the pre sby ter ate sea ted liturgically a ro un d the bi shop's

throne, and in Ignatius' description of the presbyteral rcveupccxiKOc;

ox&pccvoq at the Eucharist (6A 1.1).




I n s o f ar a s t h o s e c u l t i c s c e n e s , w h e t h e r o f a h e a v e n l y o r e a r t h l y

C h u r c h O r d e r , w e r e re f le c ti o n s o f t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t , t h e y w e r e c o n

t r a - c u l t u r a l r e f l e c t i o n s ( 6 A 1.1.2). I n a n o t h e r k i n d o f I g n a t i a n t y p o

lo g y o f O r d e r , t h a t o f t h e th ree fo ld , c l e r i ca l TUJCOI, w e g a v e e p i g r a p h i c

a n d l it e r a r y e v i d e n c e fr o m t h e i c o n o g r a p h y o f t h e c u lt t h a t e s t a b

l is h e d h e r e a ls o a c o n t r a - c u l t u r a l r e l a t i o n s h i p ( 6A 2 . 1 - 2 . 2 ) . W e e s t a b

l i sh e d I g n a t i u s ' c o n c e p t i o n o f h i s m a r t y r d o m i n t e r m s o f a n i m p e r i a l

cu l t i c p r oc es s io n (6B) in wh ic h as b i sh op h e se rv ed as Turcoq, as t he

b e a r e r o f t h e d i v i n e i m a g e a n d e x p o s i t o r o f t h e C h r i s t i a n m y s t e r i e s

(aePaoxocpdvTTiq/Geocpopoq) in which diaconal npicfiexq p l a y e d a p a r

a ll el r o l e t o t h a t o f t h e i r p a g a n c o u n t e r p a r t i n t h e i n s c r i p t i o n s o f t h e

I m p e r i a l C u l t ( 6 B 2 . 2 ). I n th i s p a r a l l e l t h e i m p e r i a l g a m e s p l a y e d

t h e r o l e o f t h e c u l t o f t h o s e g a t h e r e d fo r t h e E u c h a r i s t a t R o m e

a r o u n d t h e Gu a iao x f ip io v ex o iu o v (6 B 1 ).

T h u s w e h a v e e s t a b l i s h e d a r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t h e d e v e l o p m e n t

o f O r d e r b o t h a t R o m e w i t h C l e m e n t , o r i n A s i a M i n o r w i t h t h e

S e e r a n d I g n a t i u s , w h i c h s u p p o r t s o u r c o n t r a - c u l t u r a l t he s is . T h e

C h r i s t i a n g r o u p in e a c h c a s e , m a r g i n a l i s e d a n d d e n i e d s t a tu s b y t h e

w i d e r c u l t u r e in v i e w o f i ts n o n - c o n f o r m i t y w i t h t h e s ta t e r e l i g i o n ,

c o n s t r u c t s a c o u n t e r c u l t u r e w h i c h c o n s t i t u t e s a s y s t e m o f r e v e r s e d

v a l u e s a n d s t a tu s , t h u s a w a r d i n g its m e m b e r s si g n if ic a n c e a n d e s t e e m

d e n i e d t o t h e m b y t h e w i d e r c u l t u r e . T h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f a C h r i s t i a n

c o n t r a - c u l t u r e , w i t h i t s O r d e r a n d M i n i s t r y , w a s a c r e a t i v e a c t p r o

v i d i n g a s o l u t i o n t o a s o c i a l p r e d i c a m e n t .

W e s h a ll n o w se e h o w t h e p r o c e s s c o n t i n u e s in t h e l i t e r a t u r e o f

t h e C h u r c h O r d e r a n d A p o s t o l i c S u c c e s s i o n i n t h e l a t e s e c o n d a n d

e a r l y t h i r d c e n t u r y as w i t n e s s e d in H e g e s i p p u s a n d I r e n a e u s , a n d i n

P s e u d o H i p p o l y t u s a n d t h e C l e m e n t i n e s . W e sh a ll t r a c e a s t h e g o v

e r n i n g p r i n c i p l e a N e o - P l a t o n i c m e t a p h y s i c s o f s o c ia l o r d e r t h a t

s e v e r e l y m o d i f i e d i f n o t r e p l a c e d t h e e a r l i e r S t o i c c o n c e p t i o n , a n d

t h e n e g a t i o n b y t h a t m e t a p h y s i c s o f a n a r c h i c , G n o s t i c i n d i v i d u a l i s m .



C H A P T E R S E V E N

P A G A N A N D C H R I S T I A N M O N A R C H I A N I S M

Severan Universalism, the Imperial Cult,

and Christian Apologists

T h e c lo s e o f t h e s e c o n d c e n t u r y a n d t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e t h i r d w a s

t o s e e t h e f in a l d e v e l o p m e n t o f a n i d e o l o g y o f i m p e r i a l u n i t y b a s e d

u p o n a r e l i g i o u s s y n c r e t i s m a n d e x p r e s s e d i n t h e i c o n o g r a p h y a p p l i e d

t o t h e e m p e r o r ' s p e r s o n . T h e Constitutio Antoniniana, d r a w n u p b y

C a r a c a l l a , g a v e c i t i z e n s h i p g e n e r a l l y t h r o u g h o u t t h e E m p i r e t o a l l

i n h a b i t a n t s o f t o w n s a n d v il la g e s b e y o n d t h e c i ti e s .1

T h e m o t i v e f o r

t h e p o l i c y c a n n o t s i m p l y h a v e b e e n t h e e x t e n s i o n o f t a x a t i o n2

o r a n

a t t a c k u p o n t h e s e n a t o r i a l a r i s t o c r a c y .

3

O n e i n s c r i p t i o n m a k e s i t c l e a rt h a t t h e p r i m a r y m o t i v a t i o n w a s re l i g io u s , a n d t h a t it w a s a n e x t e n

s io n o f t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t .4

T h e e m p e r o r a n d h is c o n s o r t w e r e t o

p o s s e ss t h e r e l i g i o u s f u n c t i o n o f e f fe c t in g s a c r a m e n t a l l y t h e u n i t y o f

t h e e m p i r e f or w h i c h t h e e x t e n s i o n o f c i t i z e n s h i p c o n t a i n e d t h e h o p e .

C a r a c a l l a a p p e a r s o n c o i n s a s t h e L o r d o f t h e w o r l d a n d t h e r e fl e c ti o n

o f t h e d i v i n e li g h t o f t h e s u n , p e r m e a t i n g al l t h i n g s a n d c r e a t i n g u n i

v e r s a l o r d e r .

5

I n th i s r e s p e c t w e s h a l l s e e , i n C h a p t e r 8 , t h a t w h a t E l a g a b a l u s

1

J u s t i n i a n U l p i a n , Dig. 1 , 5 ,1 7 : " I d e m ( s c. U l p i a n u s ) l i b r o v i c e n s i m o s e c u n d o a d

e d i c t u m . In o r b e R o m a n o q u i s u n t e x c o n s t i t u t i o n e i m p e r a t o r i s A n t o n i n i c i v e s

R o m a n i e f fe c ti s u n t . " C f . S . N . M i l l e r , C a r a c a l l a , i n CAH x ii , p p . 4 5 - 4 7 .2

F . M i l l a r , T h e d a te o f th e Constitutio Antoniana, in JEgArch 4 8 (1 9 6 2 ) , p p . 1 2 4 - 1 3 1 .3

C f . M . R o s t o v t z e f f , Social and Econom ic History of the Rom an Em pire, ( O x f o r d :

C l a r e n d o n 1 9 5 7 ), p p . 4 1 8 - 4 2 8 .4

A . H . M . J o n e s , A n o t h e r I n t e rp r e t a ti o n o f t h e C o n s t i t u t io A n t o n i a n a , i n JRomS,

2 6 , 2 ( 1 9 3 6 ) , p p . 2 2 3 - 2 2 5 ; J . S t r o u x , D i e C o n s t i t u ti o A n t o n i a n a , in Phil 8 8 (4 2 )

( 1 9 3 3 ) , p p . 2 7 2 - 2 9 5 , i n s c r i p t i o n c i t e d p . 2 9 4 : x o vy ot po vv v o u i^ c o o i i t w u e [yaXonpen&c,

Kai Geooepjcbq 8\>vaa9ai xfj ^eyaAxioxrixi avxcbv xo IKOCVOV r c o i e w e i x o o d i a a < ; u v p i o u q

6oaKi<; ed v i )7teiaeA,6coaiv ei< ; xoix; euo ix; dvBp am oix; [au vO uo vxa q] e iq x d i ep d xcov Becov

c r uv e iG e v ey K o iu a , c i t e d a l s o i n W . C . H . F r e n d , Ma rtyrdom and Persecution in the Early

Church, ( O x f o r d : B l a c k w e l l 1 9 6 5 ) , p . 3 3 8 . S e e a l s o F . G h e d i n i , G i u l i a D o m n a t ra

O r i e n t e e d O c c i d e n t e : L e f o n t i a r c h e o l o g i c h e , i n La Eenice, Collana di Scienze delV

Antichita 5 , ( R o m a : « L ' E r m a » d i B r e t s c h n e i d er 1 9 8 4 ), p p . 5 7 - 9 0 , 1 2 2 - 1 6 0 .5

S e e a l s o A . B r e n t , H i p p o l y t u s a n d t h e R o m a n C h u r c h in t h e T h i r d C e n t u r y :C o m m u n i t i e s i n T e n s i o n b ef o r e t h e E m e r g e n c e o f a M o n a r c h - B i s h o p , i n Suppl. VCh

3 1 ( L e i d e n : E J . B r ill 1 9 9 5 ) , p p . 8 4 - 8 5 .



2 5 2 C H A P T E R S E V E N

a t t e m p t e d w i t h s u c h d i s a s t r o u s e f f e c t s w a s a n o v e r t l y d o g m a t i c v a r i

a n t o n a g e n e r a l t h e m e r a t h e r t h a n a r a d i c a l v a r i a t i o n . T h e S u n

G o d o f E m e s a w a s t o b e fin ally i n t e g r a t e d i n t o t h e i c o n o g r a p h y o f

t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t , a s t h e l a t e r d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e c u l t o f Sol Invictus

u n d e r A u r e l i a n ( 2 7 0 - 2 7 5 ) w a s c o n t i n u e d t o o b y h is s u c ce s s or P r o b u s

( 2 7 6 - 2 8 2 ) , w h o s e c o i n s e x u l t h is p e r s o n a s soli invicto comiti.6 B u t p r e

v i o u sl y , f r o m M a r c u s A u r e l i u s o n w a r d s , w e s h a ll f in d a g e n e r a l a s s i m

i l a ti o n of c e r t a i n o r i e n t a l c u l ts w i t h t h e i m p e r i a l i c o n o g r a p h y i n o r d e r

t o s e r v i c e a n i d e o l o g y o f i m p e r i a l u n i t y . T h e S e v e r a n p o l i c y o f i n c o r

p o r a t i n g a ll c u l t u r e s w i t h i n t h e o n e e m p i r e f o u n d r e li g io u s e x p r e s

s i o n i n t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t , a n d t h e s y n c r e t i s t i c a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h i t o f

s u c h u n i v e r s a l i s ti c c u lt s a s I si s a n d S a r a p i s , o f M i t h r a s , a n d o f t h e

U n c o n q u e r e d S u n .

I n s u p p o r t o f t h e i m p e r i a l id e a l w a s a n i m p o r t a n t r e l i g io u s p h i

l o s o p h y o f a P l a t o n i s m t h a t w a s t o d e v e l o p i n t o t h e N e o - P l a t o n i s m

o f P l o t i n u s , t h a t s tr e s s e d a g a i n s t G n o s t i c i n d i v i d u a l i s m t h e u n i t y o f

M a n , t h e C o s m o s , a n d so c i et y , a n d t h e d e r i v e d b e i n g o f e a c h f r o m

a n u l t i m a t e p r i n c i p l e o f u n i t y t h a t w a s t h e h i g h e s t g o o d . T h e i d e n

t if i ca ti o n o f su c h d e i t ie s w i th t h e S u n wa s r e in f o rc ed b y a N eo p l a t o n i c

u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e u l t i m a t e p r i n c i p l e o f r e a l i t y i n t h e O n e r e f l e c te d

i n d i v e r s e a p p e a r a n c e s . T h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g p o l i t i c a l e x p r e s s i o n o f t h a t

c o s m i c u n i t y w a s i n t h e e m p e r o r ' s p e r s o n a n d t h a t o f h is c o n s o r t .

T h u s th e i c o n o g r a p h y o f p o w e r a n d a u t h o r i t y w a s d u l y a s s i m i la t e d

t o a r e li g io u s i c o n o g r a p h y e v o c a t i v e o f s u c h u n d e r l y i n g p h i l o s o p h i

c a l a s s u m p t i o n s . I t is w i t h t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f s u c h s y n c r e t is t ic t h e m e s

i n t h e p r a c t i c e o f t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t t h a t w e sh a ll b e c o n c e r n e d i n

P a r t A , w h i c h w i ll l e a d u s , i n P a r t B , t o c o n s i d e r t h e u n d e r l y i n g

p a g a n , p h i l o s o p h i c a l o n t o l o g y .

W e s ha ll t r a c e t h e c o r r e s p o n d e n c e b e t w e e n t h e p o l it ic a l s e n s e o f

uovccpxioc a n d th e o n to lo g ica l s i g n i f i can ce o f t h i s t e rm . G n o s t i c i sm

w a s r e f u te d b y l a t e r N e o - P l a t o n i s m b y m e a n s o f a n o n t o l o g y w h i c h

r e d u c e d t h e c o s m i c c h a o s o f G n o s t i c i s m t o a n o r d e r g e n e r a t e d b y

a n u l t i m a t e a n d f i n a l g o o d f i r s t p r i n c i p l e . T h e r e w a s a c o u n t e r p a r t t o

t h is o n t o l o g i c a l r e f u t a t i o n i n p o l i t i c a l i d e o l o g y a c c o r d i n g t o w h i c h t h e

c h a o s of i n d i v i d u a l k i n g d o m s w a s r e d u c e d t o a s in g le u n i t e d e m p i r e .

I n t h e c o n t e x t o f a so c i o l o g y o f k n o w l e d g e , w e sh a l l a r g u e t h a t

6

RIC 5 , 2 , p . 1 0 8 n o . 8 2 9 a n d W . C . H . F r e n d , The Rise of Christianity, ( L o n d o n :

D a r t o n , L o n g m a n a n d T o d d 1 9 84 ) , p . 4 4 0 .



P A G A N A N D C H R I S T I A N M O N A R C H I A N IS M 2 5 3

t h e r e w a s a r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t h e c u l t u r a l p e r s p e c t i v e i n w h i c h

th e p h i lo so p h y o f P lo t in u s w as t o flou rish , a n d th e im p e r i a l i d ea l

t h a t f o u n d e x p r e s s i o n i n t h e S e v e r a n d y n a s t y . H e r e w e w i l l i d e n t i f y

a r e l i g i o u s s y n c r e t i s m t h a t w a s a b l e t o a s s o c i a t e u n i v e r s a l i z a b l e c u l t s

o f t h e e m p i r e w i t h t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t . T h u s E g y p t a n d S y r i a w i t h

A s i a M i n o r o f t h e E a s t , a n d R o m e o f t h e W e s t , w e r e u n i t e d in t h e

e x p r e s s i o n o f a c o m m o n i m p e r i a l u n i t y o f a ll c u l t u r e s a n d r e l ig i o n s .

W e sh a ll p u r s u e a p a r a l l e l i s m b e t w e e n s u c h p a g a n s o c i al d e v e l o p

m e n t s a n d t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f C h r i s t i a n o r t h o d o x y a n d O r d e r i n

P a r t C .

T h e w r i t e r s a n d w r i t i n g s t h a t w e h a v e d i s c u s s e d (Luke, Apocalypse,

C l e m e n t , a n d I g n a t iu s ) b e t w e e n t h e l a t e first a n d e a r l y s e c o n d c e n

t u r y a n d t h e a g e o f C y p r i a n e x h i b i t e d t w o s et s o f c h a n g e s i n b o t h

t h e c o n c e p t i o n s o f C h u r c h O r d e r a n d I m p e r i a l O r d e r t h a t c le a r ly

r a n p a r a l l e l w i t h e a c h o t h e r . T h o s e c h a n g e s w e r e to d e v e l o p f u r t h e r

b e t w e en t h e en d o f t h e s ec o n d ce n t u ry an d th e f ir st fifty y ea r s o f

t h e t h i r d . I n t h e c a s e o f C h u r c h O r d e r , w e w i ll f in d t h e d e v e l o p

m e n t o f o n t o l o g i c a l i d e a s a b o u t t h e t r i u n e G o d h e a d , p a r a l l e l i n g p o l i t

i c al i d e a s o f a p o s t o l i c s u c c e s s io n a n d e p i s c o p a l O r d e r , a s g u a r a n t e e i n g

t h e v al i d it y a n d u l t i m a t e u n i t y o f t h e C h u r c h . I n t h e c a s e o f I m p e r i a l

O r d e r , uo vo cp xic t, o r t h e o n to lo g ic a l i d ea t h a t a l l p o w e r w i th in t h e

u n iv e r se is d e r iv ed f ro m a s in g l e u l t im a t e so u r ce o r o r ig in , w i ll b e

es sen t i a l t o t h e p o l i t i ca l u o v o cp x ia o f t h e im p er i a l i d ea l . Bo th s e t s o f

i d e a s a r e r e l a t e d , w e s h al l a r g u e , in t h e c o n t e x t o f t h e s o c i o l o g y o f

k n o w l e d g e . 7 T h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f a s o c io l o g y o f k n o w l e d g e b y s u c h

w r i t e r s a s B e r g e r a n d L u c k m a n n 8 h a v e s t r e n g t h e n e d a n d c o n f i rm e d ,

in a v a r i e ty o f a reas , t h e i n s ig h t s o f Pe t e r so n , wh ich we wi l l s eek to

d e v e l o p .9

W i t h i n a s o c io l o g y o f k n o w l e d g e p a r a d i g m , t h e e s s e n ti a l

p h i l o s o p h i c a l p r i n c i p l e o f t h e monorchia or u l t imate s ing le f i r s t p r inc ip le

f r o m w h i c h a l l r e a l i t y m u s t b e d e r i v e d is , d e s p i t e t h e o b j e c t i o n s o f

7 I w o u l d n o t d e n y in e m p l o y i n g a s o c i o l o g y o f k n o w l e d g e a n y u l t i m a t e c l a i m s

t o t r u t h t h a t t h e o l o g i c a l d i s c o u r s e m i g h t a d d i t i o n a l l y m a k e . T h i s w a s a d i s t i n c t i o n

w e l l m a d e b y P . B e r g e r , The Social Reality of Religion, ( L o n d o n : P e n g u i n 1 9 7 3 ) ,

A p p e n d i x 2 . I w o u l d t h e r e fo r e s u p p o r t E . O s b o r n , The Beginning of Christian Philosophy,

( C a m b r i d g e : U . P . 1 9 8 1 ) , c h a p t e r 2 i n s e e i n g a t e n s i o n b e t w e e n N e o - P l a t o n i s m a n d

C h r i s t i a n r e v e l a t i o n w h i c h b o t h u s e d a n d r e d e f i n e d t h i s p h i l o s o p h y .8 P . B e r g e r a n d T . L u c k m a n n , The Social Construction of Reality, ( L o n d o n : P e n g u i n

1 9 6 7 ) , a n d B e r g e r ( 1 9 7 3 ) .9 E . P e t e r s o n , Der Monotheismus als politisches Problem. E in Betrag zur Geschichte der

politischen Theologie im Imperium R omanu m, (Leipz ig: 1935) = Theologische Traktate, ( M i i n c h e n

1 9 5 1 ) .




S c h i n d l e r a n d o t h e r s , r e l a t e d t o t h e p o l i t i c a l c l a i m s o f m o n a r c h i c a l ,

i m p e r i a l r u l e .1 0

W e sh all a r g u e t h a t b o t h p s e u d o - H i p p o l y t u s a n d t h e Clementines

a r e i n f l u e n c e d a l s o b y a m e t a p h y s i c s o f u n i t y t h a t r e g a r d s w h a t is

r e a l a n d t r u e a s d e r i v e d f r o m s o m e u l t i m a t e h i st o r i c a l o r i g i n . N e o -

p l a t o n i s m r e p r e s e n t e d s u c h a m e t a p h y s i c s t o w h i c h A m m o n i u s S a c c a s

a n d P l o t i n u s g a v e e x p r e s s i o n , a n d w a s q u i t e d i s t i n c t f r o m t h e S t o i c

m o n i s m t h a t p r e c e d e d i t. I t w a s th i s m e t a p h y s i c t h a t al so i n c r e a s

i n g l y u n d e r l a y s u c h e x p r e s s i o n s o f i m p e r i a l u n i t y t h a t a r e f o u n d i n

t h e S e v e r a n i c o n o g r a p h y a n d t h e w r i t e r s o f t h e ci rc l e o f J u l i a D o m n a .

H e r e w e f in d o n c e a g a i n a r e f l e c ti o n o f i m p e r i a l o r d e r i n e c c le s i a s

t ic a l o r d e r s u c h a s w e w i t n e s s e d in I g n a t i u s , a n d i n t h e S t o i c i s m o f

C l e m e n t Corinthians. W e s ha ll c o n s i d e r t h e c o r r e s p o n d e n c e b e t w e e n

p a g a n p o l it ic a l i d e o lo g y a n d t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f C h u r c h O r d e r .

I n C w e sh a ll c o n s i d e r t h e d e v e l o p i n g M o n a r c h i a n i s m o f t h e

A p o l o g is t s r e g a r d i n g t h e G o d h e a d , a n d t h e i r d e n i a l o f t h e c o n c e p t

o f uovocp% {a t o p a g a n i s m , a n d h e n c e t o t h e p o l i t ic a l m o n a r c h y t h a t

s u c h a n o n t o l o g i c a l c o n c e p t w a s i n t e n d e d t o l e g i t i m a t e .

T h e f inal f o c u s o f t h i s d e v e l o p m e n t w i ll b e t h e c o n t r o v e r s y b e t w e e n

C a l l i st u s a n d t h e a u t h o r o f t h e Elenchos, w h i c h w i ll b e m y n e x t a n d

final c h a p t e r ( C h a p t e r 8 ). T h e r e I w ill d r a w u p o n t h e v a l u a b l e i n si g h ts

o f D a l C o v o l o .1 1

T h e e v e n t s o f A . D . 2 1 7 w e r e t o w i t n e s s t h e a c c u

s a t i o n a g a i n s t C a l l i st u s b o t h o f M o n a r c h i a n i s m i n t h e T r i n i t y a n d

t h e t r a n s g r e s s i o n o f e c c l e s ia s t ic a l b o u n d a r i e s in h i s a t t e m p t t o c o n

s t ru c t a m o n a r c h i c a l e p i sc o p a c y . T h e d e v e l o p m e n t in o n t o l o g y w a s

i n d e e d p a r a l l e l w i t h d e v e l o p m e n t s in p o l i ti c a l i d e o l o g y a n d r e f le c t e d

t h e m . T h u s t h e c o n t r a - c u l t u r e t h a t is d e v e l o p i n g C h r i s t i a n O r d e r

c o n t i n u e s as i t b e g a n t o re f le c t t h e i m a g e s o f t h e p a g a n c u l t u r e o n

w h i c h i t i s p a r a s i t i c .

L e t u s b e g i n , t h e r e f o r e , b y c o n s i d e r i n g h o w , i n t h e c o u r s e o f t h e

s e c o n d c e n t u r y , E g y p t a n d S y r i a w e r e to m a k e t h e i r c o n t r i b u t i o n t o

t h e i c o n o g r a p h y a n d t h e t h e o l o g y o f t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t , a s A s i a M i n o r

a n d t h e G r e e k c i ty s t a t e s h a d m a d e t h e i r s i n t h e first c e n t u r y .

1 0 A . S c h i n d l e r ( E d . ) , Mon otheismus als politisches Problem? Eric P eterson und die K ritik

der politischen Theologie, ( G u t e r s lo h : G e r d M o h n 1 9 7 8 ) .

1 1 E . D a l C o v o l o , I S e v e r i e il c r i s t i a n e s i m o : R i c e r c h e s u l l ' a m b i e n t e s t o r ic o - i st i -t u z i o n a l e d e l l e o r i g i n i c r i s t i a n e t r a i l s e c o n d o e i l t e r z o s e c o l o , i n Biblioteca di Scienze

Religiose, 8 7 (L i b re r ia A t h e n o S a l e s ia n o : R o m e 1 9 8 9 ) .



P A G A N A N D C H R IS T IA N M O N A R C H I A N IS M 2 5 5

P A R T A . A N T E C E D E N T S O F T H E S E V E R A N R E F O R M A T I O N

E a s t e r n i d e a s o f m o n a r c h y w e r e t o p r e v a i l i n c o n s e q u e n c e o f t h e

g r a d u a l d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e i m p e r i a l i d e o lo g y t h r o u g h o u t t h e s e c o n d

c e n t u r y . T h e i r f o r m a l a d o p t i o n i n t h e W e s t u n d e r D i o c l e t i a n r e p l a c e d

t h e c o n t i n u i n g s h a m r e p u b l i c a n f o r m s a n d i m a g e r y t h a t u n t i l h i s

r e i g n m a s k e d a m i l i t a r y d e s p o t i s m . B u t w h a t w a s t o t r i u m p h w i t h

A u r e l i a n , D i o c l e t i a n , a n d C o n s t a n t i n e , th e l a t t e r o f w h o m a t o n e

p o i n t f o u n d t h e c u l t o f Sol Invictus a t t r a c t i v e ,1 2

h a d a l o n g g e s t a t i o n

i n t h e d e v e l o p i n g s y n c r e t i s m o f t h e s e c o n d c e n t u r y . T h e d e v e l o p

m e n t o f t h o s e p o l i ti c a l i d e a s w a s a c c o m p a n i e d b y t h e k i n d o f p h i l o

so p h ica l p i c t u re o f a m o n ar ch i ca l co sm o s th a t a l so h a d a l o n g g es t a t i o n

b e fo re P lo t in u s , a s w e sh a l l s ee i n P a r t B .

T h e d e v e l o p m e n t i n t h e s e c o n d c e n t u r y o f a n i c o n o g r a p h y o f

a d o p t e d E a s t e r n d e i t ie s s u c h a s I si s a n d Sol Invictus e x p r e s s e d t h e

s y n c r e t i s m t h a t w a s j u s t if i e d b y s u c h a n e w v e r s i o n o f A r i s t o t l e ' s p h i

l o s o p h y r e a d t h r o u g h P l a t o n i s t e y e s . B u t w e c a n g o f u r t h e r . I t w a s

n o t s i m p l y a g e n e r a l , p e r s o n a l i n t e r e s t i n s u c h E a s t e r n r e l i g i o n s , a s

w e m i g h t i n f e r f r o m A p u l e i u s , Metamorphoses, o r P l u t a r c h , De hide et

Osiride. S u c h d e v e l o p m e n t s w e r e o r g a n i s e d in t e r m s o f t h e i c o n o

g r a p h y o f t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t th a t i n c o r p o r a t e d t h e p r o d u c t s o f s u c h

s y n c r e t i s m , a n d its p h i l o s o p h i c j u s t i f i c a t i o n , i n t o it s o w n s t r u c t u r e

a n d r a t i o n a l e .

L e t u s n o w l o o k a t t h e e p i g r a p h i c a l e v i d e n c e f o r t h e a p p r o p r i a

t i o n b y t h e E m p e r o r a n d hi s f a m i ly o f s u c h d e v e l o p i n g t h e m e s b o t h

i n r e l i g io u s p r a c t i c e a n d t h e p h i l o s o p h y of r e l i g i o n t h a t g a v e t h e m

r a t i o n a l j u s t i f i c a t i o n .

7 A 1. The recognition of E astern cults before the Severan s

T h e o n to l o g i c a l u n i t y , t r a n s m i t t e d t h r o u g h h i e r a r c h i c a l g r a d a t i o n , t o

w h i c h P l o t i n u s w a s t o g i v e e x p r e s s i o n , w a s p a r a l l e l e d b y t h o s e c u l t ss u c h a s I s i s , M i t h r a s , o r Dea Caelestis t h a t u n i t e d t h e p a n t h e o n a r o u n d

a s in g l e d iv in i ty i n c reas in g ly i d en t i f i ed wi th Sol Invictus. T h e a n a l o g y

o f t h e s u n , s o u se fu l to P l o t i n u s i n e x p o u n d i n g t h e c o m m u n i c a t i o n

o f r e a l i t y f r o m t h e O n e t o t h e m a n y , p r o v e d a l s o u s ef u l t h e o l o g i

c a l l y i n p o i n t i n g t o t h a t w i t h w h i c h t h e s u p r e m e d e i t y w a s t o b e

1 2

A . H . M . J o n e s , Constantine and the Conversion of Europe, ( H a r m o n d s w o r t h : P e n g u i n

1 9 7 2 ) , p p . 9 6 - 9 9 .



256 C H A P T E R S E V E N

identified and from whic h the subo rd in at e relations of ot he r deities

introduced into the pantheon could be duly drawn.

Let us now examine how, before the radical development that was

the Severan Reformation, these universalistic Eastern cults came to

c omme nd themselves to the ico nog rap hy of the Imperi al Cult .

7 A 1.1. Isis and Sarapis

Isis was originally an Egyptian deity, but, like the Syrian Dea Caelestis,

Cybele, or the Persian Mithras was, as Takacs points out, integrated

into an existing Graeco-Roman model derived from the basic struc

tur e of the Eleusini an an d Dionys iac mysteries. The y wer e to receive

an interpretatio Romana, and Plutarch at least was to show how a dev

eloping Neo pla ton ism pro vid ed the framework of tha t interpretation

But let us see first of all how an Isis theology established the parallel

ism that we are to claim with Neoplatonic ontology and the political

ideology of imper ial unity.

T h e claims ma de by he r wors hippers for Isis within the p an th eo n

of divinities ar e truly imperi al. In her hymn, insc ribed in the Iseum

in Cyrene (103 B.C.) on a marble tablet, she reveals herself as "Isis

only ru le r of the age (xupocvvoq Eiaiq aiSvoq udvu) . . . who ho lds the

sceptre (oicf|7cxp' e'xouaa)." She continues: "All call me Goddess most

High (KOCAOUGI 5T| ue rcdvxeq u\|/{axrjv Geov), the grea test of all gods who

are in heaven (rcdvxcov M x y i o x r i v xcov ev oupctvco Gecov)."14

In a first cen

tury hy mn from Egypt she is add res sed as "Q u e e n of the God s,

endowed with wealth (TIAOUXO86XI paaiA,eia Gecov), La dy Thermouthi s

('EpuouGi avocaoa), Mistress of the world (rcavxoKpdxepia), Go od Fo rtune

(Tuxrj 'AyaGri), Isis of great n ame (ueycctaovuue?

Iai ), Most Hi gh god

dess (Ar|oi u \ | / ( a x r | ) , discoverer of all life ( cofjq eupexpia rcdariq)."15

T h e

inscription continues:

All kinds of works were your care (rcavxoicov epycov eueXxiae aoi), so that

you grant to men life and good order (6<pp' dva8oui<; dvGpamoioi |3iovxe Kai euvouinv xe drcaai), and have discovered and made known the

laws (Kai Geauxnx; Kaxe8ei£a<;) in order that righteousness might endure

(iv' eu6iKir| xi<; i m a p x i i ) . . . For your sake ( G O V xe xdpw ) the celestial sphere

and the whole earth are brought together (avveaxTix' 6 noXoc, Kai y a i a

arcaoa), and the rushing winds and the sun with its sweet rays (Kai

1 3 S.A. T a k a c s , Isis and S a r a p i s in the R o m a n w o r l d , in EPRO 124 ( 1 9 9 5 ) , p. 2.14

SEG 9,1, 192 /. 4-8 .15

SEG 8,1, 548 /. 1-4.



P A G A N A N D C H R I S T I A N M O N A R C H I A N I S M 2 5 7

rcvoia i dv epc ov K ai r(kio(; 6 yA /uicucp£ yyr|< ; ), b y y o u r p o w e r (a p 5 i )v d | i e i ) a l l

t h e r i v e r s o f t h e N i l e r u n fu l l (N e (X o \ ) rc ox ap oi 7 iA .r jp oi )v xa i a r c a v x e q ) . . , "1 6

Is is n o w e m b r a c e s o t h e r d e i ti e s w h o s e n a m e s a r e r e c o r d e d a s e q u i v

a l e n t t o h e r o w n . B o t h P l u t a r c h a n d P s e u d o - H i p p o l y t u s w e r e t o

c l a i m t h a t P l a t o l e a r n e d h is p h i l o s o p h y f r o m E g y p t i a n p r ie s t s , s o t h a t

t h e t r u e o r ig i n of t h a t p h i l o s o p h y w a s E g y p t i a n , e v e n t h o u g h , a s w e

s h a ll s e e , b o t h D i o g e n e s L a e r t i u s a n d P h i l o s t r a t u s , w i t h i n t h e c i r c l e

o f Ju l i a D o m n a , w er e t o c l a im a d i ff e ren t o r ig in o r ocp%r|. W e see

in t h i s an d o th e r i n sc r ip t i o n s t h e c l a im th a t a l l r e l i g io n h as i t s u l t i

m a t e l y r e a l h i s t o r i c a l o r i g i n i n E g y p t a n d Is is w o r s h i p , o f w h i c h a ll

o t h e r r e l i g i o n s a r e b u t le ss p e r f e c t r e f le c t i o n s o r e v e n c o r r u p t i o n s .

T h e n a m e o f Isis is " g r e a d y h o n o u r e d b y all (TIOAA)X{UT|XOV rcapa jcaai) ,"

w h e t h e r b y G r e e k o r b y B a r b a r i a n s , b u t e a c h u s e t h e i r o w n e x p r e s

sions (ipcovaioi i8iai<;). T h e S y r i a n s c a ll h e r A s t a r t e o r A r t e m i s , t h e

G r e e k s H e r a , A p h r o d i t e , H e s t i a , R h e a a n d D e m e t e r . T h e E g y p t i a n s

c a l l h e r T h e r m o u t h i s .1 7

" G r e a t I s i s (v

Ioi p ey io x r) )" c l ea r ly m er i t s h e r

t i tl e " m a n y n a m e d ( rcoAu cb vu pe )."18

H e r p o w e r s , i n d e e d t h e p o w e r s o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l g o d d e s s e s t h a t

s h e u n i t e s i n h e r p e r s o n , a r e n o t s i m p l y o v e r t h e n a t u r a l b u t a l s o

o v e r t h e so c i a l o r d e r . " G r e a t I s i s " a l s o is " s h e w h o d e l i v e r s f r o m

w a r b o t h c i t i e s a n d c i t i z e n s (EK rcoAiuou puuivn xe noXeiq navxaq xe

noXiiaq), t h e m s e l v e s a n d t h e i r w i v e s a n d p o s s e ss i o ns a n d d e a r c h i l d r e n

(auxoix; Kai aXoxovq Kai Kxripaxa Kai <p{Xa xeicva)."1 9

S i m i l a r l y w e h a v e

f r o m t h e A u g u s t a n a g e a n a r e t o l o g i a o f Isis f r o m C u m a e , i n s c r i b e do n a s t e l e , w h ic h li st s t h e u n iv e r s a l i t y o f I s i s, a n d h e r ru l e o v e r

n a t u r e , soc iety , a n d i n di v id u al l i fe , in s o m e f if ty s ix eyco o r eyco eip i

c l a im s , b eg in n in g E ia iq eyco e ip i TI xt>pavvo<; nac^q x cb paq, a n d w h ic h

i n c l u d e t h e g i v i n g o f l a w s2 0

a n d h e r p r e s e n c e i n t h e r a y s o f t h e s u n .2 1

W e m u s t t h e r e f o r e n o w l o o k a t h o w s u c h a c u l t c a m e f irs t t o b e

v i e w e d w i t h s u s p i c io n a t R o m e , a n d t h e n t o b e a c c e p t e d in t o t h e

p a n t h e o n .

16 SEG 8 , 1 , 5 4 8 /. 4 - 1 0 .17 SEG 8 , 1 , 5 4 8 /. 1 4 - 2 4 .18 SEG 8 ,1 , 548 / . 26 c f . a l so 549 / . 1 .19 SEG 8 , 1 , 5 4 8 /. 2 7 - 2 8 .

20 I.G. 1 2 suppl. p . 9 8 : 1 4 A = EG 4 p . 1 38 : 4 eyco vouo\><; dv9pcbrcoi<; eGe unv K ai

e v o u o B e i T i o a d oi> 0ei< ; 5 i ) v a x a i u e x a 9 e i v a i a n d p . 1 3 9 : 5 2 eyco e i u i r\ S e o u o c p o p o q

KaAxxuuevTi.21 I.G. 12 suppl. p . 9 8 : 1 4 A = EG \ p. 13 9: 4 4 eyco ev xa lq xoft r\h\ox> at)ya i< ; e iu i .

4 5 eyco 7tape8p e\)co xf\ TOV r\Xio\) rcopeux.




7 A 1 .1 .1 . The reception of Isis as political iconography

I n l a t e R e p u b l i c a n t i m e s , I s i a c r e l i g i o u s s y m b o l s b e g a n t o p e n e t r a t e

i n t o t h e p r i v a t e s p a c e o f t h e v il la s o f t h e w e a l t h y s e n a t o r i a l a r i s t o c

r a c y . F r o m t h e t i m e o f t h e S o c i a l W a r , d u r i n g t h e 8 0 s B . C . , v a r i

o u s c o i n s w e r e m i n t e d s h o w i n g I s ia c s y m b o l s . 2 2 B u t i n 5 8 , 5 3 a n d

4 8 B . C . s e n a t o r i a l a c t i o n w a s t a k e n a g a i n s t t h e c u l t .2 3

T i b e r i u s ' r e i g n

m a r k e d t h e r e p r e s s i o n o f t h e c u l t o f I s i s .2 4

B u t n e v e r th e l e s s w e fin d

an in sc r ip t i o n f ro m E g y p t (A .D. 2 3 ) i n w h i ch Ju l i a Se b as t e is d esc r ib e d

as vecc "Iaiq (IGRR 1, 11 5 0 ) . H e r e c l e a r l y t h e G r e e k E a s t t h a t o r i g

i n a l l y p e t i t i o n e d A u g u s t u s t o b e a l l o w e d t o o f f e r h i m a d i v i n e c u l t

c o n t i n u e s a p o l i c y w h i c h t h e E m p e r o r h i m s e l f a s y e t o n l y p a r t i a l l y

a c c e p t s . B u t f r o m C a l i g u l a ' s t i m e t h e p o l i c y o f a v e r s i o n t o w a r d s t h e

c u l t o f I sis h a d b e e n c o n s i d e r a b l y s o f t e n e d . C a l i g u l a a p p e a r s t o h a v e

e i t h e r r e f u r b is h e d a n e x is t in g T e m p l e o r c o m m e n c e d t h e b u i l d i n g

o f a n e w o n e .

T h e V e s p a s i a n m y t h r e c o r d e d t h e h e a l i n g o f a b l i n d a n d l a m e

m a n s e n t b y O s i r i s t o V e s p a s i a n a s t h e i n c a r n a t i o n o f H o r u s , t o

w h o m I sis h a d g i v e n b i r t h . 2 5 H e r e w e a r e o b s e r v i n g a s l o w a s s i m i

l a t i o n o f t h e e a s t e r n c u l t o f I sis a n d O s i r i s i n t o t h e i m p e r i a l i d e o

lo g y , i n wh ich to b e divifilius d o e s n o t i n v o l v e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w i t h t h e

p r o g e n y o f V e n u s a l o n e . T h e d e v o t e e s o f I si s, i n t o w h o s e m y s t e r i e s

n e i t h e r C a l i g u l a n o r V e s p a s i a n w e r e e v e r f o r m a l l y a d m i t t e d , c o u l d

rea d i ly a s s u re t h e E m p e r o r t h a t I si s w as rco Xu cbv uuo q a n d th a t i d en

t if i c at io n w i t h t h e s o n o f o n e g o d d e s s d i d n o t p r e c l u d e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n

w i t h t h e s o n o f a n o t h e r .

F u r t h e r m o r e , s u c h a n a s s i m i l a t io n c o u l d a l so b e j u s ti f ie d w i t h i n

t h e p e r s p e c t i v e o f t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t a n d i ts f u n d a m e n t a l a s s u m p

t i o n s .

7 A 1.1.2. The reception of Isis and the p a x d e o r u m

O n t h e o n e h a n d o n e c a n r e g a r d I s ia c r i te s a s a prava religio, n o t

c o n d u c t e d more Romano, a n d non patrio sed externo ritu. A s s u c h t h o s er i t e s b e a r t h e m a r k s o f a superstitio s u c h a s T a c i t u s h e l d C h r i s t i a n i t y

t o b e ( 3 C 2 . 3 ). T h u s o n e c o u l d r e g a r d t h e w o r s h i p o f I sis a n d O s i r i s

a s a t h rea t t o t h e pax deorum t h a t t h e P r i n c i p a t e w a s t o c l a i m , t h r o u g h

2 2 T a k a c s ( 1 9 9 5 ), p p . 3 3 - 4 0 .2 3 F o r a t h o r o u g h d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e s e a c t i o n s a n d t h e i r p r e c i s e h i s to r i c a l l o c a t i o n ,

w i t h a n a n a ly s i s o f t h e s o u r c e s , s e e T a k a c s ( 1 9 9 5 ) , p p . 5 6 - 7 0 .2 4 J o s e p h u s , Antiqu., 1 8, 6 6 - 8 0 ; T a k a c s (1 9 9 5 ), p p . 8 2 - 8 6 .2 5 T a c i t u s , Hist. 4 , 8 1 ; S u e t o n i u s Titus 5 , 3 a n d T a k a c s ( 1 9 9 5 ) , p p . 9 6 9 8 .




its r e f o r m o f r e p u b l i c a n r e l ig i o n , t o h a v e s e c u r e d . T h i s h a d b e e n

p r e v i o u s l y t h e p o s i t i o n o f t h e S e n a t e r e g a r d i n g Is is i n 5 8 , 5 3 a n d

4 8 B . C . , a s w a s to b e t h e p o s i t i o n o f T i b e r i u s . B u t o n t h e o t h e r

h a n d , a n d w i t h i n t h e s a m e se t o f a s s u m p t i o n s , it c a n e q u a l l y b e

a r g u e d t h a t t h e s u p p r e s s i o n o f l es s e x t r e m e r e li g i o u s g r o u p s s u c h a s

Is iacs wi l l i t se l f upse t the pax deorum. T h e e x t e n s i o n o f t h e pax Romana

t o E g y p t a n d S y r i a t h r o u g h i m p e r i a l r u l e r e q u i r e s a l s o t h e e x t e n

s ion o f the pax deorum t o t h e g o d s w h o r u l e s u c h p l a c e s .

T h e i n c o r p o r a t i o n o f k i n g s i n t o t h e e m p i r e a s s u b j e c t s a n d c l i e n t s

t h u s r e q u i r e s a s its c o u n t e r p a r t t h e i n c o r p o r a t i o n o f s u c h d e i ti e s a s

Isis i n t o t h e R o m a n p a n t h e o n . T h e p r o c e s s w a s b o t h g r a d u a l a n d

d y n a m i c , a n d n o d o u b t a s s i s t e d b y s u c h a n e m p e r o r a s V e s p a s i a n

w h o c o n s i d e r e d t h a t t h e p e a c e t h a t h e p e r s o n a l l y h a d s e c u r e d o u t

o f t h e r e v o l u t i o n a r y c h a o s w a s a p e a c e in w h i c h Is is h a d p l a y e d a

c r it ic a l a n d s u p p o r t i v e r o l e . A s T a k a c s , t o w h o s e p e r c e p t i v e a c c o u n t

I a m h e r e i n d e b t e d , p u t i t :

. . . the R o m a n abili ty an d re adine ss to acc ept a nd in tegr ate foreignideas and cults was l inked with the all-encompassing notion of the pax

deorum. R om an con t ro l of geograph ica l a reas en ta i led accep tance o f

the area ' s dei t ies . Since inclus iveness marked Roman paganism, the

R o m a n pa nth eo n co ntain ed indigenou s as well as foreign dei ties . T he y

could co-exist or fuse. The belief in the pax deorum and the resul t ing

pax hominum encouraged th is inclus iveness or openness .2 6

D o m i t i a n r e b u i l t C a l i g u l a ' s t e m p l e o n t h e C a m p u s M a r t i u s .2 7

I n c o m

m e m o r a t i o n o f t hi s r e s t o r a t i o n , D o m i t i a n h a d e r e c t e d a n O b e l i s k ,

w h i c h s t a n d s t o d a y in t h e P i a z z a N a v o n a , w i t h a p i c t u r e o f h i m s e l f

b e i n g c r o w n e d b y I sis . A s T a k a c s p o i n t s o u t , t h e i c o n o g r a p h y w a s

s ig n i fi can t i n t h a t i t r ev e r s ed th e t r a d i t i o n t h a t A u g u s t u s h a d fo l lo wed .

A c c o r d i n g t o t h a t t r a d i t i o n , t h e r u l e r , w h e t h e r P h a r a o h o r E m p e r o r ,

s t o o d b e f o r e O s i r i s a n d Is is a n d g a v e t h e m g i f t s .2 8

H e r e t h e r e f o r e

w e h a v e a n a d o p t i o n b y D o m i t i a n o f t h e I s ia c i c o n o g r a p h y , a n d its

s ig n i f i can ce fo r t h e w o r sh ip o f t h e ru l e r cu l t , fo r r e a s o n s t h a t a r i s e

f r om t h e l og ic a n d d e v e l o p i n g l e g i t i m a t i o n o f R o m a n i m p e r i a l p o w e r .

2 6 T a k a c s ( 1 9 9 5 ) , p . 1 0 7 .2 7 R . M . K r il l, R o m a n P a g a n i s m u n d e r t h e A n t o n i n e s a n d S e v e r a n s , i n ANRW

2 , 1 6 , 1 , ( 1 9 7 8 ) , p . 3 3 f o l l o w i n g S u e t o n i u s , DomiL, 1 ,2 : " . . . I s iac i c e l a tu s ha bi tu

i n t e r q u e s a c r i f i cu l o s v a r i a e s u p e r s t i t i o n i s . . . ," m e n t i o n s t h a t D o m i t i a n d r e s s e d a s a n

I s ia c . T a k a c s ( 1 9 9 5 ) , p p . 9 9 - 1 0 0 d i s p u t e s S u e t o n i u s a c c o u n t as " n o t h i n g m o r e t h a na cl ev er fiction."

2 8 T a k a c s ( 1 9 9 5 ) , p . 1 0 0 .




Prev io u sly , i n t h e ex a m p le o f V esp a s i an , t h e ad o p t i o n o f t h ese E g y p t i a n

r it e s h a d b e e n fo r p e r s o n a l r e a s o n s a l o n e , n a m e l y p e r s o n a l g r a t i t u d e

f or I s is ' d e l i v e r a n c e . N o w t h e y h a d b e c o m e fo r D o m i t i a n p a r t o f t h e

g e n e r a l l o g i c o f t h e c u l t f o r s e c u r i n g t h e g e n e r a l pax deorum in po l i t

i c a l m a t t e r s .

I t w a s w i t h H a d r i a n t h a t t h e a c c e p t a n c e o r ig i n a l ly r e f us e d b y

T ib e r iu s was f i n a l l y g iv en to Sa rap i s an d I s i s .

7 A 1.1.3. Isis and the official iconography of imperial divinity

T h e i m p l i c a t i o n s w e r e a c c e p t e d w i t h t h e i r a s s o c i a t e d p o l i t i c a l i d e o

l o g y t h a t T i b e r i u s , i n h i s a n x i e t y to p r e s e r v e t h e a p p e a r a n c e s o fR e p u b l i c a n f o r m s , h a d o ri g i n a ll y d e n i e d . It w a s n o t s i m p l y t h a t

H a d r i a n a ls o h o n o u r e d S a r a p i s , c o n s o r t o f I sis , w i t h a S a r a p e u m i n

h is V i l l a. C o i n ty p e s n o w a p p e a r t o w a r d s t h e e n d o f H a d r i a n ' s r e i g n

( A . D . 1 3 2 - 1 3 4 ) w i t h I si s i m p o s e d o n t h e s t a r S o t h i s .2 9

W e h a v e

" A d v e n t u s " ty p e s f r o m A l e x a n d r i a in w h i c h S a r a p i s a p p e a r s w i t h

modius o n h i s h e a d , a n d Is is w i t h l o t u s o n h e r h e a d s t a n d i n g o n

t h e r i g h t . O n t h e left s t a n d H a d r i a n a n d S a b i n a fa c i n g t h e m . S a r a p i sa n d H a d r i a n c l a s p t h e i r r i g h t h a n d s o v e r a n a l t a r , w h i l s t I s i s h o l d s

u p a sistrum i n h e r r i g h t h a n d , w i t h S a b i n a h o l d i n g a n u n c e r t a i n

o b j e c t .3 0

T h e I m p e r i a l C u l t w a s t h u s a p p r o p r i a t i n g th e i c o n o g r a p h y

of a u n i ve rsa l re l i g io n , o f Is i s rcoA,ucbvuuo<;, w i th a d i re c t re le va nc e

t o a n i d e o l o g y t h a t s a w d i v i n e p o w e r d i r e c d y i n c a r n a t e d i n t h e p e r

s o n o f e a r t h l y r u l e rs . H a d r i a n a n d S a b i n a w e r e Turcot o f S a r a p i s a n d

Is is ju s t as th e e m p e r o r E la g ab al us in h i s eiiccov (A .D . 218) w as tob e a ss oc ia t ed w i th th e xurcoq xou ercixcopiou Geou (H e ro d ia n V , 5 , 6 - 7 ) ,

a n d I g na t i us ' b i sh o p h a d b e e n xurcoq rcocxpoq .

T h i s t y p o l o g y o f a u n i v e r s a l i m p e r i a l i s m e x p r e s s e d i n t e r m s o f a

u n i v e r s a l c u l t w a s t o b e c o n t i n u e d i n t h e n e x t r e i g n . W e h a v e a

c o i n f ro m t h e m i n t o f R o m e l a t e i n t h e r e i g n o f A n t o n i n u s P i u s ,

i n s c r i b e d D I V A F A U S T I N A , o n t h e r e v e r s e s id e o f w h i c h I sis is

s e a t e d o n a d o g h o l d i n g a sistrum.^ L i k e w i s e w i t h M a r c u s A u r e l i u s ,w e find t w o c o i n s o f h i s e m p r e s s F a u s t i n a I I w h e r e o n t h e r e v e r s e

o f c o i n s d e p i c t i n g h e r b u s t d u l y d r a p e d a n d i n s c r i b e d F A U S T I N A

A U G U S T A , w e f ind I sis w i t h a l o t u s o n h e r h e a d , h o l d i n g a sistrum

w ith p e ac o ck a n d l ion a t h er fee t , o r a l t e rn a t i ve ly w i th a ve i l f loating

RIC 2 , p . 4 4 4 n o . 8 2 6 a n d T a k a c s ( 1 9 9 5 ) , p . 1 0 6 .BMC 3 , p p . 3 3 9 a n d 4 8 9 , cf. p . 4 8 5 f o r I s is a l o n e .

BMC 4 , p . 2 5 5 .



P A G A N AND C H R I S T I A N M O N A R C H I A N I S M 2 6 1

a b o v e h e r h e a d a n d w i t h a s h i p w i t h m a s t a n d s a i l s p r e a d .3 2

F u r

t h e r m o r e c o in s w h o s e r e v e r s e s p a c e s h o w b o t h F a u s t i n a a n d Isis

t o g e t h e r m a k e the i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of F a u s t i n a I I w i t h I sis m o r e s e c u r e .

T h e r e is no e v i d e n c e t h a t A n t o n i n u s a n d M a r c u s a n d t h e i r c o n s o r t s

a c c e p t e d i n i t i a t i o n i n t o the I s i s m y s t e r i e s as H a d r i a n h a d i n t o the

D i o n y s i a c . W e h a v e h e r e r a t h e r an e x a m p l e of a n interpretatio R oma na

a p p l i e d to the i c o n o g r a p h y of the I m p e r i a l C u l t .3 3

T h e a p p r o p r i a t i o n of t h i s i c o n o g r a p h y was s u g g e s t e d by the g e n e r a l

c u l t u r a l b a c k g r o u n d , and no t i n i t i a t e d by an i n t e n t i o n a l p o l i c y of

u n i v e r a l i m p e r i a l i s m b a c k e d by a s u p p o r t i n g p h i l o s o p h i c a l o n t o l o g y .

C o m m o d u s did not c o n t i n u e his p r e d e c e s s o r s ' i c o n o g r a p h y on his

c o i n a g e as s u c h , b u t r a t h e r r e v e r t e d to s u c h l e g e n d s as S E R A P I D I

C O N S E R V A T O R I .3 4

T h e r e is c l e a r l y n o i d e n t i f i c a t i o n h e r e w i t h the

d e i t y w h o s e g e n e r a l p r o t e c t i o n is i n v o k e d . A s i m i l a r a c c o u n t can a l so

b e g i v e n of the i n t r o d u c t i o n of the c u l t of C y b e l e , a t f i rs t experi

en c in g in i t i a l h o s t i l i t y , b u t dest ined f inal ly to be i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o

t h e R o m a n p a n t h e o n . C y b e l e too was i d en t i f i ed wi th the e m p e r o r

t h r o u g h his c o n s o r t w e l l b e f o r e the age of the S e v e r a n s w h e n D e a

C a e l e s t i s a n d A r t a g a t i s b e c a m e finally p a r t of th e i m p e r i a l p a n t h e o n .

T o the p r e - S e v e r a n p e r i o d we can a l s o a s s i g n r e c o g n i t i o n of M i t h r a s

b y the I m p e r i a l C u l t u n d e r the t i t le of Sol Invictus.

7 A 1.2. Cybele and Magna Mater

A s e a r l y as 2 04 B .C . th e r i t e s of C y b e l e a n d At t i s h a d b e e n i n t r o

d u c e d i n t o R o m e w i t h the f o u n d a t i o n of th e t e m p l e on the P a l a t i n e

t o Magna Mater. Bu t the c u l t was c o n f i n e d to t h i s t e m p l e a l o n e , si n c e

a t t h a t t i m e o r g i a s t i c r i t e s w e r e n o t c o n s i d e r e d p a r t of n o r m a t i v e

R o m a n r el ig io n . H o w e v e r , e v e n at t h a t t i m e t h e r e was an a m b i g u

i t y a b o u t s u c h a r e l i g io u s p o l i cy . T h e b r i n g i n g of a c o p y of C y b e l e ' s

image (d (p{8pupa) in r e s p o n s e to a S i b y l l i n e o r a c l e w as p a r t of an

i d e o l o g i c a l s t r a t e g y m a r k i n g a n d l e g i t i m i s i n g th e e x t e n s i o n of R o m a n

p o w e r a n d i n f l u e n c e in the G r e e k E a s t . 3 5

32

BMC 4, p. 545 n. 1006 (= H. C o h e n , Description Historique desMonnaies, (Par i s :

R o l l i n and F e u a r d e n t 1 8 8 4 ) , nos C. 298 , C. 299 and C. 304).3 3 T a k a c s ( 1 9 9 5 ) , p. 112.34

Ibid. ( 1 9 9 5 ) , p. 113.3 5 S t r a b o 12, 567 (= EPRO 50 (1987) 1 ,55): ercupaveq 8' inoir\aav T c o u a i o i xo

i epov , d (p {8p \ )ua ev9ev8e x f jq Geou uexa7 ieu \ | /auevo i K a x a xoix; xfjq ItfK>M,Ti<; x p T i a p o \ > < ; ,

m O a r c e p K a l x o v 'AOKAJITIIOV x o v ev 'E7ti8ai)pcp. See a l so E.S. G r u e n , S t u d i e s in G r e e k

C u l t u r e and R o m a n P o l i c y , in Cincinnati Classical Studies, VII ( L e i d e n : EJ . Bri l l 1990) ,




F r o m t h e b e g i n n i n g , t h e r e f o r e , w e w i t n e s s E a s t e r n de i ti e s b e i n g

a c c e p t e d b u t w i t h i n t h e id e o l o g i c a l f r a m e w o r k o f a n interpretatio romana.

A s w i t h Is is , t h e r e w a s a n i m a g e r y in C y b e l e ' s c u l t t h a t w e l l - s u i te d

Magna Mater i n t h e ro l e o f a u n iv e r s a l g o d d es s f ro m w h i ch a l l d e i t y

a n d t h u s all p o w e r a n d o r d e r c o u l d b e d e r i v e d , a n d , a s it w e r e ,

w a i t i n g f or t h e e m e r g e n c e o f a n a g e t h a t r e q u i r e d s u c h a s y s t e m

a t i c l eg i t im a t io n o f i ts im p e r i a l i sm . D io d o r u s S i cu lu s (3 ,5 7 ,3 ) d esc r ib e s

h e r a s Q u e e n (PotoiX eicc) a n d e ld e s t d a u g h t e r o f U r a n u s w h o b e c o m e s

ueydAri ur |xr |p and uT|TT|p Gecov (3,59,8).

C e r t a i n l y t h e s e t i d e s c a n b e s e e n e x t e n s i v e l y i n i n s c r i p t i o n s , a s t h e

i n d i c e s t o V e r m a s e r e n EPRO 5 0 H V ( 1 9 7 8 - 1 9 8 7 ) w ill s h o w . T o

t a k e s o m e e x a m p l e s , w e find, d a t i n g f r o m t h e R o m a n p e r i o d a t

P e r g a m o n , a d e d i c a t i o n t o P h i l a , d a u g h t e r o f M e n a n d e r , w h o is

"p ri es te ss (xnv iepeiccv) of th e M o t h e r th e Q u e e n (xf)<; M uxpoq xfjq

pocoiXeicxq)."36

I n P e s s i n u s i n G a l a t i a , i n t h e s e c o n d h a l f o f t h e s e c

o n d ce n t u r y , w e h a v e a r e fe r en ce t o C y b e l e a s urixrjp Gecov .37

M o r e

r e l e v a n t l y f or o u r p u r p o s e w e f ind m e n t i o n o f s o m e o n e w h o is " li fe

lo n g p r ie s t (8 id p iou iepec t) o f th e M o t h e r o f the G o d s (Muxpoq Gecov)

i n a n i n s c r i p t i o n t o b e d a t e d e i t h e r A . D . 7 0 o r i n t h e s e c o n d h a l f

o f t h e s e c o n d c e n t u r y . T h e p r i e s t m e n t i o n e d i s a l s o " s ix t i m e s h i g h -

p r i e s t o f t h e Augusti i n t h e K o i n o n o f t h e G a l a t i a n Sebastenoi (xcov xe

I e ( 3 a a x S v e^ a K iq d p x i e p e a x o u KOIVOU Lepaoxr ivcov TaXaxcov) ,"3 8

a n d

aePao xo (p dv xr |< ; o f t h e im p e r i a l t e m p l e (xou v a o u ) . T h e s a m e is t ru e

f or T i b e r i u s C l a u d i u s A t t i u s w h o , a t t h e e n d o f t h e f irst c e n t u r y A . D . ,

is a d d re ss e d as 8 iq dpxiepeoc xcov lep ao xc bv xou KOIVOU xcov Tataxxcov K a i

o ePao x o cp d v x r iv .3 9

p. 1 0 w h o a r g u e s t h a t t h e s e n d i n g f o r t h e i m a g e of Magna Mater i s a d i r e c t p a r a l

l el w i t h t h e o b t a i n i n g o f t h e S i b y l l i n e B o o k s f r o m t h e D e l p h i c O r a c l e a n d t h e i r

t r a n s l a t i o n i n t o L a t i n b y Q . F a b i u s P i c t o r i n 2 1 6 a f te r t h e d e f e a t o f H a n n i b a l a t

C a n n a e . " T h i s s e q u e n c e o f a d o p t i o n s a n d a d a p t a t i o n s o f G r e e k r i tu a l s, d i v i n i t i e s,

a n d o r a c u l a r a u t h o r i t y s u p p l i e s t h e p r o p e r s e tt i n g f o r t h e a c q u i s i t i o n o f t h e M a g n aM a t e r . I t is n o t i n c i d e n t a l t h a t b o t h t h e S i b y l l i n e B o o k s a n d P y t h i a n A p o l l o a t

D e l p h i p l a y a r o l e i n e m p o w e r i n g R o m a n o f fi ci a ls t o f e t c h h e r fr o m A s i a a n d i n st i

t u t e h e r c u l t a t h o m e . T h e e v e n t h a d i t s p r e c e d e n t s a n d i ts p a r a l l e ls . I t b e l o n g s t o

a g r o w i n g s e r ie s o f th r u s ts b y t h e R o m a n p o l i t i c a l a n d r e l i g i o u s e l i te to e x p a n d a n d

e x p l o i t c o n n e c t i o n s w i t h t h e c u l tu r a l w o r l d o f t h e G r e e k E a s t . "36 EPRO 5 0 ( 1 9 8 7 ) I , 3 5 2 ; cf. a l so 3 5 3 - 3 5 5 . S e e a ls o EPRO ( 1 9 7 7 ) I I I , 2 4 4

(= CIL 6 , 5 1 2 ) ( A . D . 3 9 0 R o m e ) : " M a t r i d e u m m a g n a e I d a e a e e t A t t i d i m e n o -

t y r a n n o d i s m a g n i s . " I l l , 4 7 6 ( A . D . 2 4 1 F o r m i a e ) : " s a c e r d o s M a t r i s M a g n a e I d a e a e

t a u r o b o l i u m . "37 EPRO 50 (1987) I , 57 , / . 6 .38 EPRO 5 0 ( 1 9 8 7 ) I , 5 9 , / . 5 - 9 .39 EPRO 5 0 ( 1 9 8 7 ) I , 6 0 /. 4 - 7 .



P A G A N A N D C H R I S T IA N M O N A R C H I A N I SM 2 6 3

T h e l a s t n a m e d p e r s o n b e a r s t h e gentilicium o f t h e e m p e r o r C l a u d i u s

w h o h a d p l a c e d t h e c u l t u n d e r t h e c o n t r o l o f t h e quindecimviri a n d

o ffic ia lly s a n c t i o n e d a d m i s s i o n s o f m o r e R o m a n c i t iz e n s i n t o t h e r a n k s

o f i t s p r i e s t s . 4 0 C l e a r l y b e i n g a p r i e s t o f t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t d i d n o t

e x c l u d e o n e b e i n g a p r i e s t o f C y b e l e a s w e l l .

B u t i n t h e r e i g n o f H a d r i a n , C y b e l e a s s u m e s a s u r e p l a c e i n t h e

i c o n o g r a p h y o f d i v i n e i m p e r i a l p o w e r .

7 A 1 .2 .1 . Imperial adoption of Cy tele's iconography

W e f in d fo r t h e fi rs t t im e six ex am p l es o n th e co i n a g e i ts e lf o f C y b e l e

t o w e r e d a n d s e a t e d ( s o m e t i m e s o n a t h r o n e ) , h o l d i n g a patera a n dr e s t i n g h e r a r m o n a d r u m w i t h a l i o n a t h e r f e e t ( P l a t e 2 8 ) . T h e

first five h a v e H A D R I A N V S A V G V S T V S i n t h e l e g e n d b u t t h e

s ix th h a s S A B I N A A V G V S T A u n d e r h e r i m a g e t h a t h a s a d o u b l e

d i a d e m . ( P l a t e 2 6 ) .4 1

I n t h e f o l l o w i n g r e i g n , w e f i n d a n a l m o s t p a r

a ll e l p r o c e s s w i t h t h a t o f I si s. F a u s t i n a I , a d d r e s s e d i n t h e l e g e n d o n

h e r c o i n s a s A V G V S T A , al so h a s o n th e o b v e r s e C y b e l e t o w e r e d

a n d d r a p e d , s e a t e d o n a t h r o n e w i t h t w o l i o n s a t h e r s i d e ( P l a t e 2 9 ) .T h e l e g e n d r ea d s M A T R I D E V M S A L V T A R I S C . 4 2 F o r F a u s t i n a

I I , w e h a v e o n t h e o b v e r s e o f a c o i n h e r o w n p o r t r a i t , d r a p e d w i t h

h e r h a i r e l a b o r a te l y w a v e d a n d k n o t t e d , w i t h t h e l e g e n d F A V S T I N A

A V G V S T A ( P la te 3 0 ). O n t h e r e v e r s e w e f in d C y b e l e t o w e r e d a n d

d r a p e d , w i t h a l i o n a t h e r r i g h t s id e a n d w i t h t h e l e g e n d M A T R I

M A G N A E (P la te 3 1 ) .4 3

L u c i u s V e r u s , a d o p t e d b r o t h e r o f M a r c u s

A u r e l i u s , h a s a c o i n b e a r i n g h i s h e a d o n t h e o b v e r s e , w i t h t h e r e v e r s es h o w i n g C y b e l e w i t h t h e l e g en d M A T R I [ M A G N A E ] S C .

4 4

His wi fe

L u c i l l a a l s o h a s s i m i l a r c o i n s .4 5

F i n a ll y C o m m o d u s h a s c o i n s t h a t , a s

in t h e case o f I s is , s ee m to r e t r e a t f ro m f ina l i d en t i f i ca t i o n o f t h e

g o d d es s w i t h t h e i m p e r i al p e r s o n a n d r e ve r ts t o M A T R I D E V C O N -

S E R V A V G . o r M A T R I D E V M C O N S E R V A V G (P la te 3 2 ) .4 6

W e s e e , t h e r e f o r e , t h a t , i n t h e c a s e o f t w o u n i v e r s a l i s t ic c u l ts , t h a t

4 0 K r i l l ( 1 9 7 8 ) , p . 3 1 .41

BMC 3 , p . 3 8 2 n o . f; P- 3 8 5 n o . 1 0 5 9 ; p . 3 8 6 n o . 1 0 6 0 ( P l a te 7 2 , 6 ) , p . 3 9 6

n o . 1 0 9 5 ( P l a t e 7 5 , 7 ) .42

BMC 4 , p p . 2 3 2 - 2 3 3 n o s 1 4 3 6 - 1 4 4 0 (P la te 3 4 ,4 ) .4 3

BMC 4 , p . 5 1 5 n o . 8 3 6 . S e e a l s o p . 4 0 2 n o . 1 3 2 a n d p . 4 0 3 n o . 1 3 4 ; p . 5 3 4

n o s 9 3 2 - 9 3 4 ( P la t e 7 3 , 1 1 ) ; p . 5 4 2 n o . 9 8 9 ( P la t e 7 4 , 9 ) . F o r puellae o f F a u s t i n a I s e e

p . 2 4 5 § .44

BMC 4 , p . 6 1 0 n o . * .45

BMC 4 , p . 57 1 n o . *; p . 57 7 n o . * .4(1

BMC 4 , p . 7 5 5 n o . 3 5 4 a n d p . 8 3 4 n o . 6 8 0 (P l a te 1 0 9 , 1 5 ) .




o f I si s a n d S a r a p i s , a n d o f C y b e l e , t h e s y n c r e t i s m o f b o t h w i t h o n e

a n o th e r is e f fec ted t h r o u g h th e a s so c i a t i o n o f b o th wi th t h e divi Augusti.

B u t n e i t h e r I si s n o r C y b e l e w e r e d e s t i n e d t o a c h i e v e t h e i r u n i v e r s a l

h e g e m o n y i n t h e i r o w n n a m e w i t h i n w h i c h o t h e r s m i g h t t h e n b e

in c lu d ed . N e i th e r Is is n o r C y b e le w er e t o p r o v e th e fo rce t h a t e f fec ted

t h e fi na l s y n c r e t i s m i n t o a p a g a n u n i v e r s a l r e l i g i o n . I t w a s a t h i r d

fo rce in the fo rm of th e cu l t o f Sol Invictus tha t was to be f ina l ly

v i c t o r i o u s .

7A 1.3. The cult ofSo\ I n v i c t u s

T h e t h i r d s y n c r e t i s i n g f o r c e w a s t h e w o r s h i p o f Sol Invictus, w h i c h

w a s e v e n t u a l l y t o s u c c e e d i n p r o d u c i n g , u n d e r A u r e l i a n , t h e s y n c r e

t i sm th a t t h e Se v e ra n s , a s w e sh a l l s ee , w e re t o s e a r ch fo r so i n t e n

t i o n a ll y a n d s y s t e m a t ic a l l y . W e w i t n e s s t h e g r a d u a l a p p e a r a n c e o f

t h is g o d w h i c h H a l s b e r g h e h a s i d e n ti f ie d , fr o m t h e t i m e o f H a d r i a n ,

spec i f ica l ly wi th Sol Invictus Elagab w h i c h E l a g a b a l u s w a s t o e n d e a

v o u r to i m p o s e u p o n t h e e m p i r e in A . D . 2 1 8 .4 7 W h e t h e r a t t h e e a r

l ie r s t a g e s o f i ts a p p e a r a n c e i t s h o u l d b e r e g a r d e d a s a r i s i n g o u t o f

M i t h r a i s m , o r w h e t h e r it w a s i d e n ti f ie d w i t h t h e S y r i a n E l a g a b f r o m

i ts first a p p e a ra n c e , is n o t o u r co n ce rn h e re . Su ff ice i t t o s ay t h a t i t

w a s t h i s i n g r e d i e n t i n a d y n a m i c , s y n c r e t i s t i c p r o c e s s t h a t w a s t o

p r e v a i l , i n c o r p o r a t i n g t h e a s p e c t s o f I sis a n d C y b e l e a l o n g w i t h t h e

o t h e r d ei tie s o f t h e G r a e c o - R o m a n p a n t h e o n w i th w h i c h t h e y h a d

b e e n i d e n ti f ie d . B u t u n l i k e I si s, S a r a p i s , a n d C y b e l e , n o a t t e m p t

b e f o r e t h e S e v e r a n s w a s m a d e t o e x p r e s s i c o n o g r a p h i c a l l y u n i v e r s a l

d i v i n e p o l i t i c a l p o w e r i n t e r m s o f Sol Invictus. R a t h e r H a d r i a n , f ro m

A . D . 1 2 9 o n w a r d s , a f t e r h is v i c t o r i e s i n t h e E a s t , " c e a s e d t o h a v e

h i m s e l f p o r t r a y e d w i t h a n a u r e o l e , w h i c h h e n o w a s s ig n e d e x c l u

s iv e ly t o t h e su n g o d . "4 8

H a l s b e r g h e h y p o th e s i s e s t h a t it w a s H a d r i a n ' s

d e f e r e n c e t o t h e n e w c u l t f r o m S y r i a t h a t l e a d t o h i s a t t r i b u t i o n t o

it o f t h e i c o n o g r a p h y o f t h e a n c i e n t R o m a n c u l t o f Sol I t was th i s

d e f e r e n c e t h a t l e a d t o h is d i s s o c i a ti o n o f n u m i s m a t i c i c o n o g r a p h y

f r o m h i s o w n p e r s o n . P . A e l i u s A m a n d u s ( A . D . 1 58 ) p r e s e n t s u s w i t h

t h e e a rl ie s t e v i d e n c e w h e n h e d e d i c a t e s h is s m a l l m a r b l e a l t a r Soli

Invicto Deo.49

B u t i n t h i s , a s i n a n u m b e r o f o t h e r in s c r i p t i o n s u n t i l

t h e r e ig n o f C o m m o d u s , Sol Invictus w a s n o t a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e

G . H a l s b e r g h e , T h e C u l t o f S o l I n v i c t u s , i n EPRO ( 1 9 7 2 ) .

Ibid. ( 1 9 7 2 ) , p . 4 6 .

CIL 6 , 7 1 5 .




e m p e r o r ' s p e r s o n o r w i t h t h a t o f h i s c o n s o r t , a s S a r a p i s , I si s, a n d

C y b e l e h a d b e e n .5 0

I t is o n l y C o m m o d u s , b e f o re S e p t i m i u s S e v e r u s ,

w h o m a k e s invictus a c o m p o n e n t o f t h e i m p e r i a l t i d e , a n d w h o h a d

t h e s u n g o d p o r t r a y e d u p o n h i s c o i n s . 5 1

W i t h t h e S e v e r a n s , w e w i t n e s s a m a j o r s hif t i n p e r s p e c t i v e i n t h e

c o n s t r u c t i o n o f a s y n c r e t i c u n i v e r s a l i s m , i n t e n t i o n a l l y p r o p a g a t e d a s

a n id e o l o g y o f i m p e r i a l p o w e r a n d s u p p o r t e d b y a p h i l o s o p h i c a l

o n t o l o g y .

7 A 2 . The Severan Reformation

W e c a n m a r k s u c h a c o n c e p t u a l sh ift b y r e f e r e n c e s t o a n a n a c h r o

n i st ic i n t e r p r e t a t i o n i n t h e s e c o n d c e n t u r y , r e p r e s e n t e d b y D i o C a s s i u s

w h o i n t e r p r e t e d t h e I s ia c r it e s i n a w a y t h a t w o u l d h a v e a p p e a r e d

a l i e n i n t h e p a s t p e r i o d o f t i m e t h a t h e a t t e m p t s t o d e s c r i b e . H i s

a n a c h r o n i s t i c e r r o r g iv e s u s a p o s i ti v e i n d i c a t i o n t h a t a c o n c e p t u a l

s h i f t h a s t a k e n p l a c e i n h i s o w n t i m e . D i o c a n o n l y i n t e r p r e t p a s t

ev en t s i n t e rm s o f a p r e s en t t h a t c l ea r ly is q u i t e d i f f e ren t f ro m th ep a s t t h a t h e s e e k s b u t f a i l s a c c u r a t e l y t o d e s c r i b e .

D i o C a s s i u s c l a i m e d t h a t i l l - o m e n s f o l l o w e d t h e d e c r e e o f t h e

S e n a t e in 5 3 B . C . t h a t c a u s e d t h e d e s t r u c t i o n o f p r i v a t e l y b u i l t t e m

p l e s o f I si s a n d S a r a p i s . N o d o u b t t h e S e n a t e a t t h e t i m e h a d s e e n

s u c h o m e n s a s i n d i c a t i v e o f natura discors re f lec ted in the soc ia l d i s

o r d e r , a n d t h a t t h e pax deorum r e q u i r e d t h e r e m o v a l o f t h e s e f o r e ig n

g o d s f r o m w i t h i n t h e pomerium. S i m i l a r l y s u c h p o r t e n t s o c c u r r e d i n4 8 B . C . f o ll o w i n g t h e m u r d e r of P o m p e y i n E g y p t . B u t , a s T a k a c s

p o i n t s o u t , " f o r D i o t h e s e a c t i o n s w e r e d r e a d f u l p o r t e n t s ; i n h i s w o r l d

Isis a n d S a r a p i s h a d n o t o n l y a p l a c e in t h e R o m a n p a n t h e o n b u t

w e r e c l o s e l y l i n k e d w i t h t h e i m p e r i a l c o u p l e . "5 2

D i o b e g a n h i s c a r e e r

w i t h hi s n o m i n a t i o n b y P e r t i n a x fo r t h e p r a e t o r s h i p ( A . D . 1 9 3) . H e

w a s f inally t o t a k e u p t h i s a p p o i n t m e n t u n d e r S e p t i m i u s S e v e r u s in

w h o s e r e i g n hi s l i t e r a r y a c t iv i ty c o m m e n c e d . H e t h u s m a r k s a c o n c e p t u a l s h i f t t h a t w e c a n a s s o c i a t e w i t h t h e i m p e r i a l i d e o l o g y a s i t

d e v e l o p e d w i t h i n t h a t r e i g n . S i m i l a r l y S u e t o n i u s , e a r l i e r t h a n D i o

( A . D . 1 1 9) , h o l d i n g o ffice u n d e r H a d r i a n , m a k e s D o m i t i a n i n t o a n

5 0 F o r a f ul l lis t a n d d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e e p i g r a p h i c e v i d e n c e , s e e H a l s b e r g h e ( 1 9 7 2 ) ,

p p . 4 5 - 4 9 .5 1 H a l s b e r g h e ( 1 9 7 2 ) , p . 4 9 a n d f o o t n o t e 2 .5 2 D i o C a s s i u s 4 0 , 4 7 a n d 4 2 , 2 6 a n d T a k a c s (1 9 9 5 ) , p . 6 7 .



2 6 6 CHAPTER SEVEN

i n i t i a t e i n t o t h e I s ia c c u l t w h e r e a s , a s w e h a v e n o t e d , h e s i m p l y

m a d e u se o f E g y p t i a n i c o n o g r a p h y .5 3

H e is n o t a s p o s i t iv e a b o u t t h a t

c u l t a s is D i o , b u t c l e a r l y c a n r e g a r d i m p e r i a l a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h it a s

p o s s i b le , a s w a s t h e c a s e w i t h t h e n u m i s m a t i c e v i d e n c e t h a t w e g a v e

r e g a r d i n g t h e i c o n o g r a p h i c i d e n ti f ic a t io n o f H a d r i a n w i t h S a r a p i s

a n d S a b i n a w i t h I s i s .

B u t g i v e n t h e c o n c e p t u a l s hi ft, h o w is t h i s t o b e c h a r a c t e r i s e d ? I

wi ll a r g u e t h a t t h e i n t e g ra t i v e fo rce o f t h e cu l t o f Sol Invictus, i n p r o

d u c i n g a u n i v e r s a l s o l a r m o n o t h e i s m e m b r a c i n g a ll o t h e r d e i t i e s ,

e n a b l e d a l so d i v i n e p o w e r t o b e fo c u s e d o n th e e m p e r o r ' s p e r s o n i n

w h i c h a m u l t i c u l t u r a l e m p i r e w a s t o f i n d i t s u n i t y .

7 A 2 . 1 . Unity in diversity as a comprehensive imperial ideal

T h e a t t e m p t o f E l a g a b a l u s t o f o c us t o o e x c lu s i v e ly o n t h e r it e s a n d

c u l t u s o f h is o w n , S y r i a n s u n g o d w a s a f u n d a m e n t a l i s t a b e r r a t i o n

f r o m a g e n e r a l S e v e r a n p o li c y t h a t r e m a i n e d in t a c t a n d w a s t o g r a d

u a l l y d e v e l o p i n t o i ts final t r i u m p h u n d e r A u r e l i a n .

S e v e r u s A l e x a n d e r , s uc c e ss o r t o E l a g a b a l u s , m a y h a v e d e m o l i s h e d

t h e l a t t e r ' s a t t e m p t t o f o u n d a u n i v e r s a l m o n o t h e i s m i n a s p e c i f i c a l l y

S y r i a n c u l t u r a l f o r m . T h e fire o f V e s t a a n d t h e g r e a t s t o n e o f M a g n a

M a t e r ( C y b e l e) w e r e r e t u r n e d f ro m t h e t e m p l e o f t h e S u n t o t h e i r

o r i g i n a l l o c a t i o n s , a s w a s a l s o h i s i m a g e (XUTCOC;) t o E m e s a . B u t n e v

e r th e l e s s , a s t h e l e g e n d i f n o t f ac t o f t h e lararium m a k e s c l e a r :

there soon emerged under Alexander a renewed a t tempt towards to l erance of al l cults combined under different aspects of a universal rel i

g ion. U nd er the s t rong influence of N eo- Py thag ore an a nd Ne o-Plato nic

concepts, individual cults came to be regarded as expressions of a truth

proper to all religions. Each was but a different version of a single

S u p r e m e G o d .5 4

B u t t h o u g h K r i l l is u n d o u b t e d l y c o r r e c t i n t h is a s s e r t i o n , I s h a ll a r g u e

t h a t h e w a s q u i t e w r o n g t o s e e t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f Sol Invictus as ana l t e r n a t i v e t o t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t a s t h e c e n t r e a n d fo c u s o f i m p e r i a l

u n i t y .5 5

T h e n u m i s m a t i c i c o n o g r a p h y , inter alia, w i ll m a k e c l e a r t h a t

t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t w a s a s c a p a b l e o f a b s o r b i n g Sol Invictus in to i t s

5 3

Suetonius, Domit. 1 ,4 and Takacs (1995), p . 9 9 .5 4

Krill (1978), p . 4 1 . S e e also J . Ferguson, The Religions of the Roman Empire,

(London: Thames a n d Hudson 1970), p p . 47-56, p p . 2 1 1 - 2 3 3 .

^ Ibid. p. 44 : "In the third century, th e attempts t o identify a single S u n g o d

divinity amid t h e circle o f s o many other gods is seen a s a n e w unifying imperial

goal which emperor deification could n o longer achieve."




t h i r d c e n t u r y . A c o i n o f C o m m o d u s p o r t r a y e d t h e s u n g o d w i t h r a d i

a n t c r o w n i n a s c e n e t h a t i n c l u d e s p a r t o f t h e s ig n s o f t h e Z o d i a c

( S a g i t t a r i u s , C a p r i c o r n , a n d t w o o t h e r s ) .5 9

T h e p r e s e n c e o f t h e s e s ig n s

is i n d i c a t i v e t h a t w e h a v e h e r e , n o t s i m p l y a c o n t i n u i t y o f s o l a r

t h e m e s f o u n d i n e a r l i e r c o i n a g e ,6 0

a s s o c i a te d w i t h t h e o l d e r R o m a n

s u n g o d , b u t w i t h Sol Invictus Elagabal. G e t a w a s p o r t r a y e d o n c o in s

a s t h e S u n a n d a s s o n o f C a e s a r a s S u n .

W e h a v e f r o m R o m e ( A . D . 2 0 0 - 2 0 2 ) a c o i n o f G e t a , t h e r e v e r s e

o f w h i c h d e s c r i b e s h i s r e l a t i o n w i t h h i s f a t h e r i n t h e w o r d s Seven

invicti Augfusti), piifilfii) ( " th e d u t ifu l so n o f t h e u n co n q u e r ed A u g u s tu s " ) .

T h e b u s t of G e t a h i m s e l f is n o t s i m p l y n o r m a l l y r a d i a t e b u t s h o w s

t h e c r o w n o f t h e s u n . 6 1 A s A l f bl di p o i n t e d o u t , t h i s i m a g e w a s m o r e

t h a n m e r e r e p e t i t io n o f t h a t o f C o m m o d u s . G e t a is n o t d e p i c t e d

w i t h th e n o r m a l l u m i n o u s c r o w n o f a n e m p e r o r , w h i c h is f a s te n e d

t o t h e n e c k b y m e a n s o f a n e t . R a t h e r h e w e a r s t h e c i r c le o f r a y s

o f t h e s u n - g o d a n d r a i s e s h i s r i g h t h a n d i n b le s s i n g , n o t a s Sol b u t

as o f fsp r ing o f Sol.62

T h u s t h e d i v i n e p o w e r , b o t h p o l it ic a l a n d o n t o

lo g i ca l , f l o ws f ro m Sep t im iu s a s Sol, t o h i s s o n w h o m h e c r o w n s a n d

t h r o u g h w h o m h i s b l e s s i n g c a n flow . W e a r e t h u s s e e i n g a f u n d a

m e n t a l s hift o f p e r s p e c t i v e t o w a r d s a n o r i e n t a l t h e o r y b o t h o f d i v i n

i ty a n d o f its a s s o c i a t e d m o n a r c h y .

C a r a c a l l a is p o r t r a y e d a s S a r a p i s6 3

o n co in s i n wh ich h e i s a s so

c i a t e d w i t h Sol Invictus a n d w h i c h in d i c a t e t h a t h e is t o b e r e g a r d e d

as KoauoKpdxcop.64 F u r t h e r m o r e , h e h a s l e f t a s t a t u e t h a t p o r t r a y s h i m

5 9

H . C o h e n , Description Historique des Monn aies, ( P ar is : R o l l i n a n d F e u a r d e n t 1 8 8 4 ) ,

V o l . I l l , p . 2 3 6 n o . 7 0 a n d H a l s b e r g h e ( 1 9 7 2 ) , p . 4 9 .6 0

RIC 2 p . 2 6 7 n o . 3 2 6 ( T r a j a n , A . D . 1 1 4 - 1 1 7 ) , b u s t o f s o l r a d i a te ; p . 3 6 0 n o s

1 6 6 a n d 1 6 7 ( H a d r i a n , A . D . 1 2 5 ) , s h o w i n g s ol r a d i a t e i n a q u a d r i g a .6 1 / 2 / C 4 , l p . 3 1 7 n o . 2 1 [ Pla te X I V , 5 ] ( O bv .) : P . S E P T . G E T A C A E S . P O N T .

( B us t, d r a p e d c u i ra s s e d , h e a d b e a r , r., ( R e v .) : S E V E R . I N V I C T I A V G . P I I . F I L .

( B u s t w i t h s u n - c r o w n , le f t, h a l f - l e n g t h , d r a p e d , c u i r a s s e d , w i t h a e g i s , r ig ht h a n d

ra i sed) .6 2 A . A l f o l d i , Die Monarchische Reprdsentation im rbmischen Kaiserreiche, ( D a r m s t a d t :

W i s s e n s c h a f d i c h e B u c h g e s e l l s c h a f t 1 9 7 0 ) , p p . 2 2 5 - 2 2 6 : " G e t a i st d e r e r s t e , d e r a u f

e i n e r s t a a t l i c h e n M u n z p r a g u n g a l s S o l a u s g e s t a t t e t a b g e b i l d e t w u r d e : n i c h t m i t d e r

n o r m a l e n k a i s er l ic h e n S t r a h l e n k r o n e , d i e d u r c h e i n e M a s c h e a m N a c k e n b e f es t ig t

i st , s o n d e r n m i t d e m S t r a h l e n r e i f d e s S o n n e n g o t t e s . . . i s t e r g e k r o n t u n d h e b t s e i n e

r e c h t e H a n d s e g n e n d e m p o r , e i g e n t l i c h n i c h t a l s S o l , s o n d e r n a ls S p r o s s l i n g d e s

S o n n e n k o n i g s . "6 3 F o r S e r a p i s s e e RIC 4 , 1 p . 2 5 6 n o . 2 9 0 ( C a r a c a l l a , A . D . 2 1 7 ) S e r a p i s s t a n d

i n g f r o n t , h e a d l e f t , r a i s i n g r i g h t h a n d a n d h o l d i n g s c e p t r e , a n d a l s o p . 2 5 6 n o .

2 9 1 ( a ) -( c ) . F o r s o l a l o n e , p . 2 5 6 n o . 2 9 3 ( a ) - ( f ) ; n o . 2 9 4 ( a ) - ( c ) S o l r a d i a t e m o u n t

i n g q u a d r i g a , l e f t [ s e e P l a t e X I I , 2 0 ] .6 4

F . C u m o n t a n d L . C a n e t , M i t h r a o u S e r a p i s K O Z M O K P A T Q P , i n CRAIBL,




a s a P h a r a o h .6 5

I n h is v is it t o A l e x a n d r i a i n A . D . 2 1 5 h e b o t h

s a c ri fi c ed t o S a r a p i s a n d p a i d t r i b u t e t o A l e x a n d e r t h e G r e a t . B u t

t h e s y n c r e t i s t i c c o n t e x t i n w h i c h t h e s e t w o e v e n t s t o o k p l a c e i s i n d i

c a t e d b y :

(i) t h e S a r a p e u m w h i c h h e al so b u i l t o n t h e Q u i r i n a l w i t h d i m e n

s i o n s a n d l o c a t i o n t h a t i n d i c a t e d a p a r a l l e l i s m w i t h t h e t e m p l e o f

J u p i t e r C a p i t o l i n u s ,6 6

a n d ,

(ii) t h e a s s o c i a t i o n o f S a r a p i s o n c o i n s b o t h w i t h H e l i o s a n d w i t h

G r a e c o - R o m a n d i v in i ti es s u c h a s Z e u s , A s c l e p i u s , P o s e i d o n , a n d

D i o n y s u s .

6 7

W e h a v e a c o i n f ro m t h e r e i g n o f D o m i t i a n w i t h t h e l e g e n d H A IO C

C AP AFIIC a n d o t h e r e x a m p l e s i n s c r i b e d o n s t o n e a n d o n a m u l e t s .

W e f in d d e d i c a t i o n s to Zevq "HAaoq \izyaq IdparcK;.6 8 But i t i s wi th

C a r a c a l l a , as A b d e l M o h s e n e l K h a c h a b c o r r e c t ly p o i n t s o u t , t h a t

a q u i t e n e w i d e n t i f i c a t io n w i t h t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t t a k e s p l a c e a s p a r t

o f t h e i c o n o g r a p h y o f i m p e r i a l u n i t y . C e r t a i n l y KoapoKpdxcop o c c u r s

fir st i n t h i s r e i g n . T h e o r i g i n o f t h e t e r m w a s u n d o u b t e d l y in M i t h r a -

i s m , b u t h e r e t h e r e f e r e n c e w a s t o a p l u r a l o f Koouoicpdxopeq, s e v e n

i n n u m b e r w h o c o n t r o l l e d t h e s e v e n p l a n e t s . I n c o n s e q u e n c e " H X i o q

b e c a m e t h e KoouoKpdxcop par excellence a n d s u p r e m e . B u t t h e i n s c r i p

t i o n d i s c o v e r e d i n t h e b a t h s o f C a r a c a l l a a n d p u b l i s h e d i n 1 9 1 2 ,

read s i n i t s r e s to red fo rm : eiq Zeuq IdpocTuc; "HAaoq KoauoKpdxcop aveiicn-

x o q .6 9

T h u s w e h a v e a w i t n e s s t o a s y n c r e t i s m t h a t h a s a b s o r b e d n o t

o n l y M i t h r a i s m , b u t b o t h Z e u s a n d S a r a p i s i n t o t h e u n i v e r s a l i s m o f

Sol Invictus t h a t e m b r a c e s a ll d i v in i ti e s . M o r e o v e r t h e i d e n t if i c a ti o n

o f t h i s d i v i n i t y w i t h C a r a c a l l a is o f u t t e r m o s t i m p o r t a n t fo r t h e d e v e l

o p m e n t o f t h e i c o n o g r a p h y o f i m p e r i a l p o w e r b e g u n b y S e p t i m i u s

S e v e r u s a n d re a l i s e d b y C a r a c a l l a .

W e f in d m o r e o v e r , a s w i t h hi s f a t h e r , n o a t t e m p t t o i n v o k e I sis

s p e ci fi c al ly a s t h e c o n s o r t o f S a r a p i s a n d t o i d e n ti f y k i n g a n d q u e e n

( 1 9 1 9 ) , p p . 3 1 3 - 3 2 8 c i t e d i n F r e n d ( 1 9 6 5 ) , p . 3 2 7 a n d p . 3 4 4 ; A b d e l M o h s e n e l

K h a c h a b , 6 KocpdKaA.A£><; K o a p o K p d x c o p , in JJEgArch, 4 7 ( 1 9 61 ) , p p . 1 1 9 - 1 3 3 ; S H A

Caracalla, 9 , 1 0 ; BMC 5 , c x x x i i i a n d CAH x ii 3 5 6 - 3 5 7 ; S e e a l s o J . R e v i l l e, La reli

gion a Rome sous les Severes, (P ar is : L e r o u x 1 8 8 6 ), p p . 3 0 - 3 5 , 2 1 0 - 2 8 3 .6 5 A b d e l M o h s e n el K h a c h a b ( 1 9 6 1 ) , p . 1 2 5 .6 6 T a k a c s ( 1 9 9 5 ) , p . 1 1 7 .

6 7 A b d e l M o h s e n el K h a c h a b ( 1 9 6 1 ) , p . 1 2 7 .H 8 C u m o n t a n d C a n e t ( 1 91 9 ) , p p . 3 1 6 - 3 1 7 .6 9 C u m o n t ( 1 91 9 ), p p . 3 1 3 - 3 1 6 .

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P A G A N A N D C H R I S T IA N M O N A R C H I A N IS M 2 7 1

f or p r o m i n e n t m e n , " b u t s h e still r a t h e r c o n d u c t e d p h i l o s o p h i c a l d i s

c u s s i o n w i t h t h e m (aXk* r\ uev K a i uexa xouxcov exi \ iaXkov ecpiAoaotpei)."73

Certa in ly her ro le in these d i scuss ions was no t a pass ive one . Ph i los t ra tus

d e s c r i b e s h o w h e is i n s t r u c t e d , a s a m e m b e r o f t h e c ir c le a r o u n d

h e r (ue xe^ ovx i 8 e uo i xou rcepi ccuxrjv KUKAOU), to c o rr e c t (uexaypdxj/a i)

th e d o c u m e n t s of m e m o ir s (xdq SeXxouq xSv urcouvrjudxcov) of th e li fe

o f A p o l l o n i us o f T y a n n a .7 4

I t is w i t h a n e v a l u a t i o n o f t h e c u l t u r a l

a n d p h i l o s o p h i c a l life o f t h e S e v e r a n a g e , i n w h i c h J u l i a D o m n a a n d

i n d e e d h e r n i e c e J u l i a M a m a e a a f te r h e r h a d s u c h i n t e r e s t , a n d its

c o n t r i b u t i o n t o t h e i m p e r i a l i d e o l o g y , w i t h w h i c h w e m u s t n o w b e

c o n c e r n e d .

P A R T B . P A G A N O N T O L O G I E S : G N O S T I C IS M A N D N E O P L A T O N I S M

W e m u s t n o w r e t r a c e o u r s t e p s f r o m t h e e a r l y s e c o n d c e n t u r y u n t i l

t h e t h i r d in o r d e r to u n r a v e l t h e r e v o l u t i o n i n p h i l o s o p h i c a l s p e c u

l a t i o n t h a t p a r a l l e l e d t h e S e v e r a n r e v o l u t i o n in t h e i c o n o g r a p h y a n dt h e o l o g y of t h e e m p e r o r ' s d i v in i t y . W e s a w i n C h a p t e r 2 t h e r e l a

t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n S t o i c o n t o l o g y a n d p o l i t i c a l o r d e r a s r e f l e c t e d i n

t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t . S t o i c is m le g i t i m a t e d a u g u r y (2 A 2 ), a n d A u g u s t u s '

a u g u r a l a c t h a d p r o d u c e d t h e pax deorum w h i c h o l d e r, R e p u b l i c a n

r e l i g i o n h a d fa i le d t o s e c u r e ( 2A 3 ) . I m p e r i a l o r d e r , a s L u c a n h a d

ex p r es s ed i t , w as b u t t h e r e s to ra t i o n o f 6p06<; Xoyoq f r o m a natura

discors ( 2 A 4 ). G n o s t i c i s m d e v e l o p e d s o m e o f its c e n t r a l t h e m e s i no p p o s i t i o n t o S t o i c i s m , a n d s o m e o f t h o s e t h e m e s w e r e n e g a t e d b y

N e o p l a t o n i s m . I t is t o t h e a n a l y s is o f t h e s e d e v e l o p m e n t s t h a t w e

n o w t u r n .

7B 1 . Stoic monism, Platonic dualism, and Gnosticism

A s o c i o lo g y o f k n o w l e d g e o f a n y s y s te m o f i d e a s e x a m i n e s h o w s u c h

s y s t em s s h a p e , r ef le c t a n d m a i n t a i n s o c ia l o r d e r . W e n e e d n o t h e r e

e n t e r i n t o t h e c o m p l e x p h i l o s o p h i c a l d i s c u ss i o n o f w h e t h e r a ll r e a l

i ty is s o ci al ly c o n s t r u c t e d i n a w a y t h a t p r e c l u d e s a n y t r a n s c e n d e n

t a l ( i n t h e s en se o f c ro s s cu l tu ra l ) l o g i c g o v e rn in g c l a im s to t ru th . A t

v e r y l e a s t , w e c a n m a i n t a i n t h a t s o c i a l o r d e r reflects e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l

73

Ibid. 7 8 , 3 .7 4 P h i l o s t r a t u s , Vita Apollon., 3 .

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272 CHAPTER SEVEN

order without also maintaining that social order totally conditions epis-

temological order.

T h e social cons truc tion of reality tha t was cre ate d an d ma in ta in ed

by a Stoic world view ordered the ideology of imperial society in

the first and second centuries. Nature and society were one in a Stoic

mon is m in wh ic h t he taSyoq 8V8KX0£TO<; permeated all things which it

bound together into a rational and harmonious whole. Ultimate real

ity was not to be found be yo nd n at ur e or society in some form of

Platonic duali sm. Ult imat e reality, giving pu rpo se a nd design to the

universe, was to be found indissolubly bound up with matter in the

Stoic pan the ism . Th us the metaphysic al coun te rpa rt of the im perial

ideal found expressio n in Stoic mo ni sm . A cos mop oli tan em pi re

embraced all lesser societies in a rational imperial order that gave

them unity and purpose. The individual had no free destiny of his

own, but Fata could determine all things according to the providentia,

eiuapuevr), or rcpovoia of the Xoyoq evSidGeioq. Thus the freedom of

the individual was denied by the rational purpose of the whole, and

individual purpose dissolved into the purpose of the universe as a

whole. The consuls or the emperor, performing their political func

tions on the one hand, would reduce to order a turbulent populace,

and performing their religious ones on the other would through the

auspicia set right a disturbed nature by securing through the state's

religious rites the pax deorum.

Such a collectivist view of h u m a n significance an d destiny ha d

how eve r be en chall enged from Augus tus ' time onwa rd s, as we shall

no w see, by an intens e interest in pe rsona l immor ta lit y. Suc h an

interest itself represented the resistance of the individual against being

assigned an ident ity tha t only had me an ing as pa r t of a collectivist

whole. There is a possible sociological explanation of this interest in

the Principate itself. In a post-Republican age in which all political

alternatives to military autocracy had been ruled out by the per

ceived necessity of Tacitus' pax et princeps, the minds of individuals

sought refuge in the in ne r life. T h e ques t for h u m a n significance

was in the form of th e ques t for per sona l salvation. We t ur n the re

fore firstly to a consideration of some representative expressions of

the quest for personal salvation that initially challenged the collec

tivist imperial idea but which in Plotinus were finally to be recon

ciled with it.



PAGAN AND CHRISTIAN MONARCHIANISM 273

7B 1.1. Individual immortality and the Gnostic quest

T h e belief in pers onal a nd individual immortal ity is pe rh aps the m ost

unambiguous social indicator of the existence of a belief in individ

ual fre edom, an d, indeed, the ult ima te significance of the ind ividual

against the social group. The individual soul, according to both

Cle ant hes and Chrys ipp us, survived dea th, but it wou ld not survive

the eK7it)pcoai(; or universal conflagration.7 5

All matter, which is, accord

ing to the Stoic mo ni sm , simply a modif ication of the refined pn eu

matic substance of the ultimate divine being, would return to its

divine source and therefore cease to exist even in limited indepen

dence .7 6

Personal immortality was therefore relative.

It is interesting to not e that Stoicism's sub ord ina ti on of personal

immortality to the unity of the cosmic whole reflected what we can

deduce about faith in personal immortality at the time of the late

republic and early empire from epigraphic and other evidence. We

can see in the iconography of the Vatican Mausolea expressions of

a religious response to the denial of religious individualism.

7B 1.2. Individual immortality: the art of the Vatican Mausolea

As To yn be e and Perkins poin ted out in .t hei r mo nu me nt al study of

the icon ogr aphy of the excavated Vati can mausole a, the traditional

funerary inscription, Dis Manibus, reflected an earlier view, shared

also by the early Greek mystery religions, that the soul shed at death

its per sonal characteristics to be co me re abs orb ed into the half-divine

(Di), half hu ma n, amor pho us shades (Manes).77

But from abou t the mi dd le of the first cen tu ry B.C. we find clear

definition given to the individual soul after death, as in Cicero's

Somnium Scipionis, where Africanus, dwelling amongst the blessed dead

in the Milky Way, "revealed himself to me (se ostendit mihi) in that

shape (ea forma) bet te r kn ow n to me from his po rt ra it than from his

person (ex imagine eius quam ex ipso erat notior)."78

Along with Vergil's

descript ion of the un der worl d in Aeneid 6, this unconditioned view

of per sonal immorta lit y repla ced tha t expressed in CIL 6, 4, 29609

(cinis sum, cinis terra est, terra dea est, ergo mortua non sum), which was

7 5

Diogenes Laertius, Succ. 7, 1156-157.7 6

Plutarch, De Comm. Motit. 36,5.

7 7 J. Toynbee, and J. Ward Perkins, The Shrine of St. Peter and the Vatican Excavations,

( L o n d o n : Longmans Green 1 9 5 6 ) , pp. 109-117.7 8

Cicero, De Rep. 6,10 quoted Toynbee and Ward Perkins ( 1 9 5 6 ) , p. 110.




f a r c l o s e r t o a m o r p h o u s s u r v i v a l w i t h n o c l e a r l y d e f i n e d p e r s o n h o o d

a m o n g s t t h e Di Manes.

T o y n b e e a n d W a r d P e r k i n s w e r e t h e n a b l e t o i n t e r p r e t su c h i m a g e s

f r o m t h e m y t h s o f D i o n y s i u s o r o f N e p t u n e , r e p r e s e n t e d i n t h e d e c

o r a t i o n s o n s a r c o p h a g i o r i n f r e s c o e s o n t o m b s t h e m s e l v e s , a s e x p r e s

s io n s o f t h e h o p e o f u n q u a l i f i e d p e r s o n a l i m m o r t a l i t y . T h e d e p i c t i o n

o f M a r c i u s H e r m e s o r M a r c i a F e l i c it a s is o f t h e e s s e n t i a l s elf t h a t

s u rv iv e s d e a t h . T h e p r e s e n c e of H e r m e s o n t h e P e r s e p h o n e M o s a i c

s h o w s t h a t t h e m y t h h a s b e c o m e a l l e g o r is e d a s t h e s o ul 's j o u r n e y t o

t h e u n d e r w o r l d a n d i ts r e b i r t h t o e t e r n a l l i f e .7 9

H e r m e s i s d e p i c t e d

h o l d i n g t h e w a n d t h a t r e v e a l s h i m t o b e psychopomos: he ra i ses sou ls

i n H a d e s f r o m t h e i r s l u m b e r .

T h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f G n o s t i c m y t h o l o g y a ls o r ef le c ts t h is p r o c e s s

o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l i s a t i o n o f t h e a m o r p h o u s w o r l d s o u l , t o w h i c h i n d i

v i d u a l s o u l s d o n o t s i m p l y r e t u r n i n o r d e r t o o b l i t e r a t e t h e i r i n d i

v id u a l i t y , b u t r a th e r t o r ea l i ze i t m o re fu l l y .

7B 1.3. Gn osticism a s a rejection of political collectivism

I n G n o s t i c i s m t h e u n i v e r s a l w o r l d s o u l o f S t o i c i s m is f r a g m e n t e d a n d

b e c o m e s e m b o d i e d a n d i m p r i s o n e d i n i n d iv i d u al s . F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e

p r o c e s s b y w h i c h t h i s c o m e s a b o u t is n o t o n e o f t h e d i v i n e o r d e r o f

a c r e a t e d w o r l d i n w h i c h o p G o q Xoyoq finds its e m b o d i m e n t . C r e a t i o n

is a d i s a s t e r . I t is S o p h i a c a s t o u t o f t h e P l e r o m a w h o c r e a t e s

I a l d a b a o t h o r t h e D e m i u r g e , a n d w h o h o l d s t h e so u ls o f t h e pneu-

matikoi i n b o n d a g e t o t h e i r r a t i o n a l a n d p r e v e n t s t h e i r a s c e n s i o n t o

t h e u n i t y o f t h e P l e r o m a . 8 0

I n t e r p r e t e d w i t h i n a s o c io l o g y o f k n o w l e d g e p e r s p e c t i v e , G n o s t i c

m e t a p h y s i c s d e n i e s t h e g o o d n e s s o r r a t i o n a l i t y o f t h e i m p e r i a l i d e a l

a n d o p p o s e s t h e s u b o r d i n a t i o n o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l t o t h e i m p e r i a l w h o l e .

S o u l s a r e i m p r e g n a t e d i n t o m a t t e r b y S o p h i a w h e r e t h e y a r e i m p r i s

o n e d b y t h e D e m i u r g e w h o s e b e l ie f t h a t h e is t h e so le c r e a t o r o f a

r a t i o n a l a n d g o o d o r d e r is i ll u si o n a n d t h e r e f o r e e r r o r . M e t a p h y s i c a l

s t a n c e w a s t r a n s l a t e d i n t o s o c i a l o r g a n i s a t i o n i n t h a t t h e pneumatikoi

e x p e r i e n c e d e c s t a s y s o t h a t a t l e a s t s o m e G n o s t i c a s s e m b l i e s w e r e

c h a r i s m a t i c a n d p r o p h e t i c .8 1

I t w a s a s w e a r g u e d a g a i n s t a n e a r l y

7 9 T o y n b e e a n d W a r d P er k in s ( 1 9 5 6 ) , p p . 1 1 4 - 1 1 7 .8 0 S e e e .g . H y p o s t a s i s o f t h e A r c h o n s , I I, 9 5 - 9 7 , in Nag Hammadi Library in English,

( E d .) J . M . R o b i n s o n , ( L e i d e n : B r il l 1 9 8 8 ) , p . 1 6 8 .8 1 G . F i l o r a m o , A H istory of Gnosticism. ( O x f o r d : B l a c k w e l l 1 9 9 0 ) , c h a p t e r 1 1 .



P A G A N A N D C H R I S T I A N M O N A R C H I A N I SM 2 7 5

c h a r i s m a t i c g r o u p t h a t C l e m e n t o f R o m e a d d r e s s e d his c o n t r a - c u l t u r a l

c o n s t r u c t i o n o f C h u r c h O r d e r as a C h r i s t i a n i s e d v e rs i o n o f i m p e r

i a l O r d e r ( 4 B 3 ) .

W e s h al l n o w se e h o w t h e l a t e s e c o n d c e n t u r y d e v e l o p m e n t s i n

H e l l e n i s t i c p h i l o s o p h y r e p r e s e n t c h a n g e s i n t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e

p o l i t i c a l s t r u c t u r e o f t h e p a g a n e m p i r e . W e s h a l l t h e n b e i n a p o s i

t i o n , i n P a r t C , t o t r a c e h o w s u c h c h a n g e s i n u n d e r s t a n d i n g w e r e

n o t w i t h o u t effect in s h a p i n g t h e c o n t i n u i n g d e v e l o p m e n t o f C h u r c h

O r d e r , a s t h e l a t t e r i n t e r a c t e d in t e r m s o f c o n t r a - c u l t u r a l r e s p o n s e

t o t h e c h a n g e s i n t h e s u r r o u n d i n g p a g a n c u l tu r a l a m b i e n c e .

7 B 2 . Plotinus, the One: imperial unity as S o l I n v i c t u s

T h e n e e d f or R o m a n s o c ie t y t o a d d r e s s t h is a l t e r n a t i v e c o n s t r u c t i o n

o f s o c ia l r e a l i ty t h a t t h r e a t e n e d t o n i h i l a t e its c o n c e p t i o n o f t h e g o o d

n e s s a n d r a t i o n a l i t y o f t h e i m p e r i a l i d e a l , c l e a r l y p r e d a t e d t h e rise

o f N e o p l a t o n i s m , a t l e a s t i n its f in a l d e v e l o p m e n t b y P l o t i n u s ( A . D .

2 0 4 - 2 7 0 ) . I n d e e d b o t h A m m o n i u s S a c c a s , P l o t in u s ' t e a c h e r ,8 2

C l e m e n to f A l e x a n d r i a , I r e n a e u s , a n d P s e u d o - H i p p o l y t u s a ll r e fl ec te d a c o m

m o n i n t e l l e c t u a l s t r a t e g y o f r e d u c i n g t h e c h a o s o f a e o n i c c o n f li c t a n d

s tr if e b y m e a n s o f a m e t a p h y s i c a l o r d e r t h a t w a s t h e c o u n t e r p a r t t o

t h e s o c i a l o r d e r t h a t t h e y s u p p o r t e d w h e t h e r i n C h u r c h o r i n S t a t e .8 3

Plo t in u s w as t o r e p r e s en t t h e fina l n ih i l a t i o n o f a p lu ra l i t y o f o r ig i

n a t o r s (d px ov xe q) a s t h e c r e a t o r o f t h e m a t e r i a l w o r l d w h e n h e i n s is ts

o n o n ly t h re e o r ig in s (dpxoci) o r first p r in c ip l e s , n a m e l y t h e O n e ,M i n d , a n d S o u l :

It is unn ec es sa ry to go in se ar ch for d ifferent origin s (e<p' etepa<; dpx aq

ievai) but ra ther to have es tabl ished th is One, and then af ter the One

(TO " E V ) , T h o u g h t (Nofcv), which the One conceived first by thinking

(UET' a\)To K a i TO voovv Tcparcooq), then af ter Thought , Soul (efra ^ a ^ v

ueTa Nouv), for this is the order of Nature (avTrj y a p xa^iq Kaxa <pt>aiv).

No more than these nor fewer are to be found in the intell igible world(EV TCp VOT|TCp).

Enneads I I , 9 ,1 ,13 -16

8 2

P o r p h y r y , Vit. Plotin., 3 , 1 3 - 1 6 .8 3 A . B r e n t , H i p p o l y t u s a n d t h e R o m a n C h u r c h i n t h e T h i r d C e n t u r y : C o m m u n i t i e s

in T e n s i o n b e fo r e t h e E m e r g e n c e o f a M o n a r c h - B i s h o p , i n Suppl. VCh. 31 ( L e i d e n :E J . Bri l l 1 9 9 5 ) , p p . 4 9 2 - 5 0 1 ; Idem. T h e C i r c l e o f J u l i a D o m n a a n d C h r i s t i a n

H e r e s i o l o g y , StEphAug 5 0 ( 1 9 9 5 ) , p p . 2 3 7 - 2 4 8 .




B u t t h e s e dp^ ou a r e li n k e d i n a n u n b r o k e n c h a i n o f b e i n g . T h e i r

d i v e r g e n c e is d u e o n l y t o t h e s e c o n d a r y c h a r a c t e r o f N o uq a n d ^Fu^ri

a s p a r t o f a c h a i n o f b e i n g , d e r i v a t i v e f r o m t h e u l t i m a t e O n e a s it s

f i r s t b e g i n n i n g . T h e i r " g e n e r a t i o n " d o e s n o t r e s u l t i n t h e i r p o s s e s s

i n g d i f fe r e n t n a t u r e s .

W e m a y t h u s r e g a r d t h e r is e o f P l o t i n i a n N e o - P l a t o n i s m a s a

s y m p t o m r a t h e r t h a n a c a u s e o f a f u n d a m e n t a l sh ift i n i n t e ll e c t u a l

p e r s p e c t i v e i n t e r m s o f w h i c h s o c i e t y a s w e l l a s t h e c o s m o s w a s n o w

t o b e u n d e r s t o o d . T h a t p e r s p e c t i v e w a s i n f l u e n c e d b y G n o s t i c i s m i n

th e s en se o f a r ea c t iv e i n f lu en c e . G n o s t i c i sm h a d fed o ff t h e r i s e o f

i n d i v i d u a l i s m t h a t f r a g m e n t e d t h e w o r l d - s o u l o f S t o i c is m a n d t h u s

d e p r i v e d t h a t p h i l o s o h p y o f i ts a b i l i ty t o c r e a t e a s o c i a l r e a l i t y t h a t

l e g i t i m a t e d t h e p o l i t i c a l u n i t y o f t h e i m p e r i a l i d e a l . T h e q u e s t f or

p e r s o n a l i m m o r t a l i t y it se lf c o u l d b e r e a d a s t h e in d i v i d u a l s e e k i n g

re fu g e in t h e i n n e r lif e a n d it s h o p e s an d p o s s ib i li t i e s w h e n a l l so c i a l

a n d p o l i t i c a l a l t e r n a t i v e s w e r e c l o s e d b y a s e e m i n g l y " i n e v i t a b l e " m i l

i t a r y a u t o c r a c y t o w h i c h t h e r e w e r e n o re a l c o n s t i t u t i o n a l a l t e r n a

t ives . N e o p l a t o n i s m , i n its e m p h a s i s o n a n i n n e r e x p e r i e n c e t h a t l e a d

t h e i n d i v i d u a l t o u n i t y w i t h t h e o r i g i n o r dpxf| o f a l l O r d e r , p o l i t i

c a l o r c o s m i c , t h u s s o u g h t t o r e s t o r e a r e c o n s t r u c t e d i m p e r i a l i d e a l .

W e h a v e s e e n t h a t t h e i c o n o g r a p h i c a l e x p r e s s i o n o f t h e p o l i t ic a l

i d e o l o g y o f divi Augusti d e v e l o p e d u n d e r t h e S e v e r a n s i n t o a s y n

c r e t i s t i c r e l i g i o u s u n i v e r s a l i s m e x p r e s s e d i n t e r m s o f Sol Invictus t h a t

e m b r a c e d I s is a n d S a r a p i s a n d t h e i r l e g i t i m a t i o n s o f p o l i ti c a l p o w e r

t h r o u g h t h e i r i n c a r n a t i o n in E g y p t i a n k i ng s a n d q u e e n s . C a r a c a l l a

a s KoauoKpdxcop w a s a r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f Sol Invictus t o w h o m J u p i t e r -

S a r a p i s h a d g i v e n t h e g l o b e o f t h e w o r l d a s a s y m b o l o f Aeternitas.M

T h e r e w e r e g o o d P l a t o n i c r e a s o n s , w h i c h N e o p l a t o n i s m w a s t o

d e v e l o p , f or u s i n g t h e S u n a s a n i c o n o f t h e u l t i m a t e p r i n c i p l e o f

r e a l i t y . A s a s y m b o l o f u n i v e r s a l i s m t h e w o r s h i p o f t h e S u n c o u l d

i n c o r p o r a t e i n t o a s i n gl e s y n c r e t i s ti c p a n t h e o n t h e a t t r i b u t e s a n d

v i r t u e s o f t h e m a j o r d e i t i e s o f t h e E m p i r e b o t h E a s t a n d W e s t , j u s t

a s t h e s u n ' s l ig h t u n i t e s t h e d i s p a r a t e o b j e c t s o f t h e p h e n o m e n a l

w o r l d i n t o a n i n t e l l i g i b l e w h o l e . P l o t i n u s d e v e l o p e d t h e A r i s t o t e l i a n

t h e m e of t h e first u n m o v e d m o v e r t h a t is t h e h i g h e s t G o o d :

The sun too is a model (Kai rcapd8evyua 6 ti^ioq) since it is like a cen

tre in relation to the light (coarcep K a i K e v x p o v oiW rcpoq xo (pcbq) i t comes

A b d el M o h s e n e l K h a c h a b ( 19 6 1 ) , p p . 1 2 8 - 1 2 9 .



P A G A N AND C H R I S T I A N M O N A R C H I A N I S M 277

from and it depends on it ( a v T i p i n u i v o v npbq auxov); for the light is

everywhere with it and is not cut off from it (rcavxaxou youv p.ex' auxou

Kai O U K d7coxexpT|xai); even if you want to cut it off on one side (mv

drcoxeueiv e9eA,fi<xn<; zni 0dxepa), the light remains with the sun (npbq xovr\k\6v eaxi xo cpcbq). And how is everything else directed towards it (xd

6k aXka rcdvxa npbq auxo Tccbq;)? Soulless things are directed towards soul

(il xd pev d\|/uxa 7tp6<; V| /U% TIV) and soul to the Good through the intel

lect (VJ/UXTI 5e 7cp6<; amb 8id vov).

Enneads 1,7,1,25-2,1-3.8 5

We find the social reality of the imperial ideal here reflected in onto

logy, in which the imperial centre moves the whole which depends

on it for its unity and purpose. The development of concepts of

political order, philosophical theology, and religious syncretism are

thus proceeding pari-passu. But Plotinus was not without his second

an d early third cent ury ant ece den ts, some of whom we will now

examine.

7B 3. Plotinus' predecessors: Apuleius and Plutarch

Plotinus was the product of a cultural milieu obsessed with the con

struction of order in any sphere, history, nature, society or philoso

phy, in terms of reality and goodness granted by a process of derivation

from an ultimate origin. We shall examine specifically the Platonising

of Aristode's first un mo ve d M ov er in Apuleius ' De Mundo, written

ar oun d A. D. 140, an d Plutarch' s Platonic justificat ion for the Isis

myth (circ. A. D. 104). In the fo rmer we shall no te specifically an

assimilation of ontologica l structure with political struct ure . Here was

not simply the seed-bed from which the Neoplatonism of Plotinus

was to grow, bu t also the just ification for th e religious syncret ism

unit ed into a solar mo no th ei sm of whic h imperia l po we r was the

political expression.

7B 3.1. Plotinus' predecessors: uovap%{oc and the De Mundo

Pe te rson followed Jaeger in stressing the origins of the ter m uovapxiot

in Aristode's Metaphysics 14. Clearly dpxr| me an s bo th "ru le" and "first

principle," and thus unites political philosophy with ontology. Peterson's

further ex amp le of the relati onship between onto logy and political

ideology came from the pseudepigraphic Aristotelian text De Mundo?6

8 5

See a l s o 11 ,3 ,18: eax; av f) Ti^ioq, i ca v x a xa an ax>xox> (pcbxa.8

" P e t e r s o n ( 1 9 3 5 ) , pp. 1 6 - 1 7 .




T h i s t e x t is o f g r e a t s ig n i f ic a n c e f o r u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e i n t e l l e c t u a l

b a c k g r o u n d i n w h i c h , a s i n P l o t i n u s , A r i s t o t l e 's u n m o v e d m o v e r h a s

b e e n s y n t h e s i s e d w i t h t h e N e o p l a t o n i c O n e . I n d e e d , t h i s p s e u d e p i -

g r a p h i c w o r k h a s a r g u a b l y A p u l e i u s a s i ts t r u e a u t h o r , a n d t h u s its

d a t e w o u l d b e a b o u t A . D . 1 4 0 , A p u l e i u s h a v i n g b e e n b o r n a r o u n d

A . D . 1 2 5 .8 7 I n c h a p t e r 6 t h e a u t h o r as ks h o w G o d as t h e u n m o v e d

f irs t p r i n c i p l e c a n m o v e t h e w o r l d . H e b e g i n s w i t h t h e g o o d P l a t o n i c

p r i n c i p l e t h a t t h e i n d i v i d u a l n a t u r e o f a n y t h i n g is n o t s elf -s uf fi cie nt

(ou8epia 8e cpuaiq ami] KCC6' eauxr |v eaxiv a\)xdpKr|<;) a n d is d e p r i v e d o f

th e m e a n s of i ts o w n p r e s e r v a ti o n (eprjpcoGeioa xfjq eic xouxou acoxrj-

piaq). G o d is t h e r e f o r e " t h e P r e s e r v e r o f a ll t h i n g s t h a t r e a l l y e xi st

(Icoxf |p pev y a p ovxcoq drcdvxcov eaxl) a n d th e B e g e t t e r of a l l th in g s

t h r o u g h o u t t h e w o r l d i n w h a t e v e r w a y t h e y a r e c o m p o s e d (Kal yevexcop

xcov O7ccoa8r|7coxe m x d x o v 8 e xov KOOUOV auvxeAxvopevcov 6 6e6q; De Mundo

6 , 2 0 - 2 2 ) . "

B u t h o w is G o d t o b e u n d e r s t o o d a s m o v i n g t h e w o r l d if m a t t e r

is e t e r n a l ? G o d , a s A r i s t o d e h a d a r g u e d , c o u l d n o t a c t u p o n t h e

w o r l d a s a n ef fi ci en t c a u s e . T h e a u t h o r t h e r e f o r e a s s u r e s u s t h a t G o d

" d o e s n o t e n d u r e w e a r i n e s s l i k e a l i v i n g t h i n g t h a t w o r k s b y i t s o w n

labour and to i l (ou \ri\v auxoupyou Kai eninovov ^coou K apax ov imopevcov)."

G o d r a t h e r " u s e s a n u n f a i l i n g p o t e n c y (aXXa Suvdpei xpcopevoq dxpuxcp)

t h r o u g h w h i c h h e b e c o m e s m a s t e r of e v e n t h o s e t h i n g s w h i c h s e e m

fa r f ro m h i m (8 i' f|<; K al xcov rcoppco SOKOUVXCOV eivai rcepiywexai; 6, 397b

2 3 - 2 4 ) . "

B u t h o w is t h e o p e r a t i o n o f s u c h a p o w e r o r p o t e n c y t o b e u n d e r

s t o o d ? A p u l e i u s h a s a l r e a d y b e g a n t o a n s w e r s u c h a q u e s t i o n b y

m e a n s o f a p o l i t i c a l a n a l o g y a s h i s m i n d c o n c e i v e s t h e o p e r a t i o n i n

te r m s of m a s te r y (xcov jcoppco SOKOVVXCOV e iv a i rcepiyivexai) . G o d oc cu

p i e s " th e h ig h es t an d f i r s t s ea t (xf|V pev ouv dvcoxdxco Kai rcpcoxnv eS pa v

auxoq e Xa ^e v) a n d , a s M o s t H i g h , is e n t h r o n e d o n t h e h i g h e s t s u m

m i t o f a l l h e a v e n (uoxaxoq xe . . . aKpoxaxn. Kopucpp xou ouprcavxoq e y m -

9 i8 p \) pe vo (; o u p a v o u ) . " A c c o r d i n g t o P l a t o , t h e i n a b i l i t y o f m a t t e r

t o r e fl e ct o r p a r t i c i p a t e i n t h e F o r m s l e d to it s a m b i g u i t y a n d t o

i ts i n a b i l i ty t o b e k n o w n . B u t A p u l e i u s w i ll n o w l i k e n t h e d i s t a n c e

b e t w e e n o b je c t s a n d G o d a s t h e c a u s e o f a w e a k n e s s a n d i n c o m -

8 7

F o r a d i s c u s s i o n a n d f u l l b i b l i o g r a p h y , s e e A . M a r c h e t t a , VAutmticita Apuleiana

del D e M u n d o , ( R o m e : J a p a d r e E d i t o r e L ' A q u i l a 1 9 9 1 ) cf. G . R e a l e a n d A . P . B o s ,II t r a t t a t o s ul C o s m o p e r A l e s s a n d r o a t t r i b u i t o a d A r i s t o t e l e , i n T e m i m e t a f is i c i e

p r o b l e m i d e l p e n s i e r o , i n Set 4 2 ( 1 9 9 5 ) , p p . 2 9 - 5 7 .

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280 CHAPTER SEVEN

The sharpest analogy used by Apuleius is of the sentinels with

light-signals:

So great is the order, (xoao\)xo<; 8e rjv 6 Koopoq) and most of all of the

signal lights (Kai pdA,iaxa xcov cppvKxcopicov) which are set alight in suc

cession (mxd 8ia5oxd<; Trupoevovxcov) by each other (aKk^Xoiq) from the

borders of the empire (EK rcepdxcov xf|<; dpxfj<;) to Susa and Ecbatana,

(pexpi XOTLKJCOV Kai 'EKpaxdvcov) so that the Great King gets to know the

same day every new occurence in Asia (coaxe xov PaaiAia yvyvcboKew

avOrjpepov Tidvxa xd ev xp' Aaia Kawovpyovpeva) .

De Mundo 6, 398a 31-35

God does not have need of others and so in this respect Apuleius

adm its tha t his anal ogy breaks do wn . But like a Mo n a r ch causi ng

his commands to be obeyed, his power executed his will because the

be in g wh o is pu re act can realise the po te nc y of all things in a ccord

ance with his design:

It is of greater awe and more fitting in dignity (aepvoxepov 8e Kai

rcperccoSeaxepov auxov pev) that God should have his throne in the high

est place (en! zr\q dvcoxdxco x«>Pa

$ !8p\)G0ai), but that his power, pene

trating throughout the whole universe (xrjv 8e Svvapw 8id xov o-uprcavxoq

Koapoi) 8ir |K0\)aav), should move the sun and moon (riA,iov xe Kiveiv Kai

ceA,f|vr|v) and rotate the whole heaven (mixov rcdvxa ovpavov rcepidyeiv),

and become the cause of preservation for the things on earth (ai'xiov

xe y(vea6ai xoiq erci xfjq yr\q acoxrjp(aq). God has no need of intervention

and aid which comes from others (ovSev ydp eTuxexvrioeax; 8ei Ka! bmr\pEGia<;

xfjq nap' exepcov) as with those who rule us require many hands (coarcep

zoiq Ttap' rjpiv dpxouai xf|<; rcoXuxeipiac;) because of their weakness (8id

xr|v doGeveiav), but this is the most divine property (aXXaxovxo fjv xo

Beioxaxov), to realise all kinds of Forms with ease and with simple

movement (xo pexd paaxcbvriq Ka! anXr\<; KWT|aeco<; rcavxoSarcdq drcoxeA,eiv

iSeaq). . .

De Mundo 6, 398b 6-14

We see, therefore, in the mid-second century, a clear reflection in

Apuleius ' De Mundo of an Aristotelian cosmology that produces a

theology that is highly an th ro po mo rp hi c. T h e result of the an th ro

pomorphism is to make Aristotle service a political philosophy that

ungesehen und verhullt wie der Spieler des Marionettentheaters. Sichtbar ist nur

d ie Macht (Svvapiq), die in der Welt wirksam ist, doch die Gewalt, die dahinter-

s t e h t , ist unsichtbar. Diese eben angedeuteten Verschiedenheiten sind nicht nur

darum lehrreich, weil sie Ausdruck einer anderen Zeit und einer anderen politi-

schen Situation sind, sondern weil sie zugleich zeigen, dass die letzte Formulierung

d e r Einheit eines metaphysischen Weltbildes von der Entscheidung fur eine der poli-

tischen Einheits-Moglichkeiten immer mit- und vorbestimmt ist."




celebrates an eastern imperial ideal. That ideal involves uovap%(a

justified in te rms of an ulti mate pri nciple in na tu re that gives cohe r

ence, movement, and finally, when suitably Platonised, reality to the

Wh ol e. Apule ius finds himself ma ki ng such Plato nisin g c om me nt s

when he envisages, as a result of the signal given by the unseen Ruler

and Progenitor, all nature "revealing one thousand Forms (p /upiaq

i8eaq dvacpaivouod) an d agai n con ceal ing th em (XE Kai naXw d r c o K p u r c -

xouaa) from the one first principle (EK \iiaq d p % f j < ; ) . "8 9 Such a Platonis

ing we find in Plotinus wh er e Plato 's ultimate ly real O n e in whi ch

the Forms are found has become identified with Aristode's first prin

ciple. Clearly the cultural background in which Plotinus and Neo-

Pl at on is m flourished was on e th at loo ked for an ep is temologica l

justifica tion of imper ial un ity.

W e shall take Plutar ch 's tr ea tm ent of the Isis my th as ou r s econd

ex ample of Hellenistic phil osop hy legitimat ing religious universalism.

7B 3.2. Plutarch's Platonism in De Iside et Osiride

There are no analogies between a Platonic ontology in the cosmos

and divine rulers on earth in this treatise. Indeed Plutarch was a

great sceptic regarding ruler-worship in his Life of Demetrius.90

Most

significantly, in his Romulus, he denied the literal truth of Romulus'

ass umpt ion into hea ven . How ev er , he was pr ep ar ed to conceive

that virtue could make the emperor divine so that the good ruler,

as the Living Logos (EUA|/UXO<; Xoyoq), wou ld incar na te vouoq on ea rth .

As he says:

For God punishes (vepeoa yap 6 0e6<;) those who imitate (xoiq drcoui-

uouuevoK;) thunders (ppovxdq) and lightning bolts (Kai Kepauvoix;) and

rays of the sun (Kai aKXwopoXia<;), but he is pleased with those who are

zealous for his virtue and make themselves like the good and humane

(xoix; 8e xqv dpexriv ^rjXouvxaq auxou Kai npbq xo KaXov Kai (piAdvGpamov

d<po|ioiouvxa<; eauxoix; Ti86|ievo<;).

Ad principem ineruditum 781 A, 3

"T h e ru ler is the imag e of Go d wh o orders the world (dp%cov 8 ' EIKWV

0EOU xou rcdvxa K o o u o u v x o q ) , " bu t only because "law is th e function of

89

De Mundo, 6, 3 9 9 a 3 0 - 3 5 : o x a v ouv 6 rcavxcov fyyen-cov xe K a i yevexcop , aopaxoq

GO V akXto nXr\v Xoyiouep , O T | | I T | V T I rcaofl (puoei uexa^i) oi )pavo\) xe Kai yr\<; (pepoueVp,

K i v e t x a i rcaaa ev8eA,excb<; ev K U K X O K ; Kai rcepaoiv i8 (oi< ;, rcoxe |iev a(pavi£ouevr | , rcoxe

8e (pa ivouevr i , \ivpiac, ibeaq & v a ( p a i v o \ ) a a xe K a i naXiv arcoKp\mxo'UGa E K ui&q dpxfj<;.9 0

P l u t a r c h , Demetrius, 1 0 , 2 - 4 ; 11,1; 12,1; and 1 3 , 1 - 2 cf. G. C h e s n u t , The R u l e r

a n d the L o g o s , in ANRW 1 1 , 1 6 , 2 , pp. 1 3 2 1 - 1 3 2 4 .

http://iiaq/

http://iiaq/

http://ivpiac/

http://ivpiac/

http://iiaq/




the ru ler (vopoq 8 ' dpxovxoq epyov)," and in turn "just ice is th e end of

law (8{KT| . . . vopou xekoq eox()."9 1

But in giving a cosmic significance

to Isis and Osiris in terms of a Platonic ontology he was unwittingly

participating in the movement that, some ninety years later, was to

lead to the place of Isis and Osiris in Severan universalism. His modi

fication of th e theology of ru le r-worship was no t to be successful.

Plutarch identifies Osiris with Sarapis as the consort of Isis. He

reads their na me s "bot h as belongi ng to one Go d an d to one p ower

(dpcpco 8' evoq 0eou K a i piaq Suvdpecoc;)."92

Plutarch however firmly held

that both Osiris and Isis had been originally purely mortal rulers,

albeit heroic ones, whom legend had exalted after their deaths. Yet

he will attribute significance to the Isis myth and cult as an allegory

of Platonist philos ophica l tru th.

The end of the religion of Isis is "the knowledge of the first and

sovere ign and intell igible god (f| xou rcpcoxorj K a i K u p i o u K a i VOTJXOU

yv&oxq) which the goddess (Isis) beseeches us to seek since he exists

beside her and associates with her (ov i\ 0e6<; rcapaKaA,ei i^nxeiv rcap'

avxf\ K a i pex' auxfjq ovxa K a i ouvovxa)." Her shrine, the Iseion, by its

very name, "promises both knowledge and understanding of what

exists (ercayyeA,A,exai K a i yvcbaiv K a i ei8r |aiv xov ovxoq)" since it is the

shrine of "thos e wh o know the real (eioopevcov xo 8v )."9 3

T h e creat ion and consti tut ion of the world for Plutarch is a mix

ture of opposing forces (pepeiypevn. ydp f| xou8e xot> KOGUOD yeveciq K a i

Gvcxaaiq e£ evavxicov). Fo r proper Platon ic rea sons however , all pow

ers ar e not equal , bu t final cont rol is with the bet te r (ov prjv ioooGevcov

8uvdpecov, aXka xr\q fiekxiovoq xo K p d x o q eaxiv). T h e bad (xr\v yavXr\v

8uvdpiv) "is always fighting agains t the be tt er ( K a i npbq xf|V peXxiova

dei 8uo|iaxot>oav)." T he r e is however a princip le of order , bo th in

the soul and in Nature when in harmony, and this is Intelligence

(vovq) and Reason (Xoyoq) as the Ruler (fiyepcov) and Sovereign (lc&pioq)

of all that is Good (xcov dpioxcov rcavxcov). T h a t pr incipl e of un iver

sal Order Plutarch identifies with Osiris as the soul of the world.

The order of the world is therefore "the efflux of Osiris (drcoppori)

and his reflected image ( K a i eiKcbv) ."9 4

91

Ad princip. inerudit. 780 E, 3.92

De Is. et Osir. 376 A, 61.9 3

Ibid. 352 A, 2.

94 Ibid. 371 A, 49: ev pev cuv ir\ \|ruxfi vo\)<; mi Xoyoq 6 xcov dp { ox( ov rcdvxcov Tjyepawm i i cupioq "Oaipiq eax iv , ev 8e yr\ mi 7ive\)uaxi mi \S8axi mi c u p a v c p mi ocoxpoi<; xo

x e x a y u e v o v mi m 0 ea x r | K6 < ; mi v y i a i v o v cSpaic; mi K p d o e o i mi rcepioSoic; 'Oa{pi8o<;

arcoppofi K

« i eikodv epcpa ivopevr | .

http://s8axi/

http://s8axi/

http://s8axi/




I f O s i r i s is v o u q in y u x r i , f ro m w h e re h a s t h e b o d y o f t h e w o r ld

c o m e ? F o l l o w i n g t h e m y t h , w e c o u l d sa y t h a t i t c o m e s f r o m H o r u s

w h o is t h e o f f s p ri n g o f O s i r i s a n d I s is , a l t h o u g h o f t en P l u t a r c h s p e a k s

as i f th i s co u l d b e O s i r i s himself. 9 5

T y p h o n f r e qu e n d y d i s m e m b e r s

t h e b o d y o f O s i r i s , t h o u g h h i s s o u l , a n d t h e r e f o r e t h e s o u l o f t h e

w o r l d , r e m a i n s in d e s t r u c t i b l e . I t is Is is w h o p u t s t h e d i s m e m b e r e d

b o d y b a c k t o g e t h e r a g a i n . P l u t a r c h a l l e g o r i s e s a s f o l l o w s :

Isis is in fact the female power of nature (r\ y d p?Iai<; eaxi pev T O xfjq

(puaecoq Qr\kv) and is receptive of every form of generation ( K a l 8£KTIK6V

drcdc?T)<; yeveaecoq), in accord with what she is called by Plato the gen-

de nurse and the all-receptive ( K a 9 6 xi8r|vr| K a i navdexftq vnb xou ntaxxcovoq),

and by most people she has been cal led coundess names (hub 8e xcov

rcoAAxov pupicovupoq KeK^xa i ) , since, because of the force of Reason,

she turns herself into this thing or that and is receptive of al l manner

of shape s an d forms (8id xo naoaq vnb xou Adyou xpErcopevii uopcpdq SexeoGai

Kai i8ea<;).

De hide et Osiride 372 E, 53

T h e w o r l d h e r e , s e e n u n d e r t h e a s p e c t o f I si s, r e c e i v e s t h e F o r m sfrom vouq o r Aoyoq th a t is L o r d O s i r i s .

A t a n o t h e r p o i n t , i n a m e t h o d t h a t p r o c e e d s b y a v a r i e t y o f a n a l o

g ie s a n d n o t b y a h e r m e n e u t i c t h a t is s y s t e m a t i c t h e o l o g y , Is is is

s een a s t h e m e a n s b y w h i ch th e v o u q o r Aoyoq is r e s to re d to a w o r ld

t h a t h a s b e c o m e d i s m e m b e r e d a n d c h a o t i c . I t is H o r u s , t h e i r m u t u a l

o f f sp r i ng , o n w h o m s h e i m p r e s s e d t h e e t e r n a l f o r m s o f t h i n g s a s h e

r e p r e s e n t s i n t h e a l l e g o r y m a t t e r t h a t c a n n o t m a i n t a i n i t s e t e r n i t y .

A s P l u t a r c h s a y s i n e x p l a n a t i o n o f I sis w a n d e r i n g to c o l le c t a n d

r e a s s e m b l e t h e d i s m e m b e r e d b o d y o f O s i r is :

. . . for that which real ly is an d is percep t ib le an d good (xo yd p ov K ai

vor|xov Kai dya06v) is far s tron ger th an d estruc tion a nd c ha ng e (cpGopaq

K a i pexapoATJq K p e tx x o v eaxiv). The images from it with which the sen

sible a n d co rp or ea l is im pre sse d (&<; 8 ' an avxov xo aiaOnxriv K a i a c o u a x i K o v

e i K o v a q e K p d x x e x a i ) , and the relations, forms and l ikenesses which this

9 5

I n 3 7 3 A , 5 4 w e a r e i n f o r m e d t h a t t h e w o r l d o r H o r u s OVK ai 'S ioq ot>8' anc&r\<;

ov>8' acpBapxoq , aXXy

ae iye vr iq cov b ut a ls o th at , in 3 7 4 E , 5 7 , |Lru9oA.oyoi)Oi TTJV

'Oa(pi8o<; \|/\)x?iv d( 8 io v e iv a i K ai dcpBapxov , xo 8e acoua noTCkaKiq S i a o j i a v K a i dcpavi^eiv

x o v T ix p cb v a . . . H o r u s w o u l d th e r e fo r e b e f r o m a P l a to n i c p o i n t o f v i e w , a far b e t

t e r r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f t h e w o r l d o f m a t t e r b e a r i n g t h e F o r m s b u t d i s m e m b e r e d b y

T y p h o n . B u t P l u t a r c h c o u l d n o t c h a n g e t o o a r b i t ra r i ly t h e m y t h i n f a v o u r o f h is

p h i l o s o p h i c a l t h e o l o g y , a n d w a s e x p l o r i n g a n a l o g i e s r a t h e r t h a n e n g a g i n g i n sys t e m a t i c t h e o l o g y . S e e a l s o C . P a n a g o p o u l o s , V o c a b u l a i r e et m e n t a l i t e d a n s l e s

M o r a l i a d e P l u t a r q u e , i n Dialogues d'histoire ancienne 3 (= Annates Litteraires de I'Un iversite

de Besancon, 1 9 7 7 ), p p . 1 9 7 - 2 3 5 .



P A G A N A N D C H R IS T IA N M O N A R C H I A N IS M 2 8 5

in g o r d e r , li ke A r i s to d e ' s first p r in c ip l e , t h an P l a to o r ig in a l ly co n ce iv e d

h is t r a n s c e n d e n t w o r l d to b e . T h u s P l u t a r c h ' s r e fl e ct io n s i n t e r c o n n e c t

w i t h a r e li g io u s a n d p h i l o s o p h i c a l c u l t u r e o u t o f w h i c h N e o p l a t o n i s m

w a s t o d e v e l o p , a n d w h i c h w a s t o r e p r e s e n t a l s o t h e p h i l o s o p h i c a l

b a s is f or t h e S e v e r a n i c o n o g r a p h y o f d i v i n e i m p e r i a l o r d e r .

B u t h o w w a s t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f b o t h C h u r c h O r d e r , a n d t h e

C h r i s t i a n t h e o l o g y t h a t w a s l i k e w i s e t o r e f l e c t s o c i a l o r d e r n o w t o

p r o c e e d ? W e s h a ll s ee t h a t t h e c o u n t e r - c u l t u r e d e v e l o p e d h e r e t o o

a s t h e r e v e r s e d i m a g e o f t h e p a g a n c u l t u r e t h a t i t c o n f r o n t e d .

P A R T C . S O C I A L O R D E R A N D TH E

D O C T R I N E O F T H E T R I N I T Y

P l u t a r c h h a d c l a i m e d t h e w i s e m e n o r aocpoi o f t h e h i s t o r y o f G r e e k

p h i lo so p h y a s wi tn es ses t o t h e r e l i g io n o f I s is , a n d i ts j u s t i fy in g o n to

l o g y . " T h e m o s t w i s e m e n o f t h e G r e e k s b e a r w i t n e s s ( u t t p x u p o u o w

8 e K a i xcov 'EXXr\v(ov o i a o(p cb xax oi), S o l o n , T h a l e s , P l a t o , E u d o x u s ,P y t h a g o r a s ( l o t a o v QaXr\c, IlAxxxcov EuS o^oq r i u B ay o p a q ). . . w h o c a m e

to E gy p t a n d c o n so r t ed w i t h t he i r p r ie s t s (e iq Aiyujcxov dqu icouevo i Kai

a u y y e v 6 | i e v o i x o i q i e p e u a w ) . "9 7

T h e r e w a s m o r e t o t h is c l a i m t h a n

s i m p l y a n a p p e a l t o t h e a u t h o r i t y o f t h e p a s t i n o r d e r t o s u b s t a n t i

a t e a r e l i g io u s c l a im .

T h e wo r ld o f t h e l a te s eco n d cen tu ry , o f I r en aeu s an d th e H ip p o ly t an

s c h o o l n o le ss t h a n H e l l e n i s t i c h i s t o r i o g r a p h e r s s u c h a s D i o g e n e sL a e r t i u s o r P h i l o s t r a t u s i n h i s Vita Apollonii, w a s c o n c e r n e d e v e n

b e f o r e P l o t i n u s c a m e t o R o m e ( c. 2 4 4 A . D . ) w i t h t h e q u e s t f o r a

s in g l e h i s to r i ca l dpxf| f o r t h e t r u e p h i l o s o p h y o r t h e t r u e r e l i g i o n .

P l o t i n u s a n d e v e n A m m o n i u s S a c c a s c a n t h u s b e s e e n a s p r o d u c t s

o f t h e q u es t for a s in g l e dp%r| o rd e r i n g n o t o n l y t h e c o s m o s , b u t

h u m a n h i s to r y a n d h u m a n s oc ie ty . T h e m o s t v a li d p h i l o s o p h y o r

r e l i g i o n w i l l n o t s i m p l y b e t h e m o s t a n c i e n t , b u t t h e o n e f r o m w h i c ha ll o t h e r p h i l o s o p h i e s o r r e l i g io n s a r e d e r i v e d w h e t h e r a s lo g i c a l

d e v e l o p m e n t s o r a s l o gi c a l c o r r u p t i o n s .

B o t h D i o g e n e s L a e r t i u s a n d P h i l o s t r a t u s w e r e to d e n y P l u t a r c h ' s

c l a i m f o r E g y p t a s p r o v i d i n g i n I si s w o r s h i p , o r r a t h e r i n t h e o n t o

lo g y o f w h i ch i t w as an a l l eg o ry , t h e u l t im a t e h i s to r i ca l dp%r| o f p h i

l o s o p h y a s t h e c r i t e r i o n o f it s t r u t h . F o r D i o g e n e s p h i l o s o p h y h a d

1,7 Ibid. 3 5 4 E 1 0 .




to be a w h o l l y G r e e k p h e n o m e n o n and the oocpoi q u i t e i n d e p e n d e n t

o f s u c h n o n - G r e e k i n f l u e n ce . For A p o l l o n i u s the E g y p t i a n s w e r e to

b e q u i t e u n w o r t h y and the t r u e dpxri was to be f o u n d in the I n d i a n

g y m n o s o p h i s t s . W e sh a l l sh o w a s i m i l a r c o n c e r n for the dpxri of the

C h r i s t i a n c o m m u n i t y and its t h e o l o g y in e x p r e s s i o n s of the t h e o r y

o f the a p o s t o l i c s u c c e s s i o n t h a t c h a r a c t e r i s e d the l a t e r s e c o n d an d

e a r l y t h i r d c e n t u r y (7C 1).

W e sh a ll s eek (7C 2) to p l a c e the t h e o l o g i c a l d e v e l o p m e n t of the

T r i n i t y , as f i n a l l y d e r iv ed f ro m a povapxioc or f i r s t p r in c ip l e , in the

c o n t r a - c u l t u r a l c o n t e x t of the g r o w t h of a p a g a n , N e o p l a t o n i c o n t o

l o g y t h a t r e s t o r e d c o s m i c o r d e r in the f ace of the c h a o s of a G n o s t i c

w o r l d v i e w . T h e g r o w t h of C h r i s t i a n t h e o l o g y , we s h a l l a r g u e , no

l ess re f lec ted the s o c i a l o r d e r of the C h r i s t i a n c o m m u n i t y as had the

g r o w t h of a t h e o l o g i c a l j u s t i f i c a t i o n of i m p e r i a l o r d e r .

7 C 1. I r e n a e u s a n d Pseudo-Hippolytus: 8 ia8oxou drcooToAxov

I r e n a e u s p r o d u c e d his ep i s co p a l su cces s io n l i s t for R o m e , a n d a r g u e d ,f ro m th i s one e x a m p l e , t h a t all v a l i d c h u r c h e s h a d v a l i d d o c t r i n e

t h a t u l t i m a t e l y was d e r i v e d f r o m the a p o s t l e or ap o s t l e s t h a t i n i t i

a t e d the s u c c e s s i o n . All h e r e s y was d e r i v e d f r o m the d o c t r i n e of

S i m o n M a g u s and his s u c c e s s o r s .9 8

T h e s e h a d 8 i a 8 o x a i or successiones

i n t e a c h i n g o f f i c e t h a t , d e s p i t e a p p a r e n t v a r i e t y a n d c o n f l i c t , m a d e

t h e m d e p e n d e n t u p o n a n d d e r i v e d fr o m t h is c o m m o n o r i g in . It was

insuff ic ient to s i m p l y a t t r i b u t e t h e i r o r i g i n to d i s t i n c t H e l l e n i s t i c p h i l o s o p h i c a l s c h o o l s , t h o u g h t h i s was m o r e h i s t o r i c a l l y a c c u r a t e . A s in

g l e o r i g i n t h a t was not a p o s t o l i c was e s s e n t i a l for the i n t e l l e c t u a l

c r e d i b i l i t y of an a r g u m e n t in the c o n t e x t of a c u l t u r e o b s e s s e d w i t h

so c i a l , cu l tu ra l , p o l i t i ca l an d o n t o l o g i c a l u n i t y .

P s e u d o - H i p p o l y t u s and his g r o u p w i t h i n t h a t c o l l e c t i o n of g r o u p s

t h a t f o r m e d the R o m a n EKKX^GIOL of the l a t e s e c o n d an d e a r l y t h i r d

c e n t u r y p u r s u e d an a r g u m e n t f o r m a l l y s i m i l a r to t h a t of I r e n a e u s . 9 9

B u t P s e u d o - H i p p o l y t u s p e r f e c t e d the m o r e e m b r y o n i c N e o - P l a to n i c

9 8 I r e n a e u s , Adv. Haer., 1,23, 1-2; II, Praef. 1: " . . . et p r o g e n i t o r i s i p s o r u m doc-

t r i n a m , S i m o n i s M a g i S a m a r i t a n i , et o m n i u m e o r u m , qui s u c c e s s e r u n t ei, m a n i f e s -

t a v i m u s . . . o m n e s a S i m o n e h a e r e ti c i i n i ti a s u m e n t e s . . . et d i f f e r e n t i a s i p s o r u m et

d o c t r i n a s et s u c c e s s i o n e s a d n o t a v i m u s . . ." Ill , Praef.: " A g r e s s i s u m u s a u t e m nos,

a r g u e n t e s eos a S i m o n e , p a t re o m n i u m h a e r e t i c o r u m , et d o c t r i n a s et s u c c e s s i o n e sm a n i f e s t a r e . . . "

9 9 B r e n t ( 1 9 9 5 ) , Hippolytus, c h a p t e r s 6 7.




ar gu me nt of the latter tha t justified or refuted ideas in te rms of tr ac

ing their ultimate historical origin. Contrary to Irenaeus, the heretical

schools do not go back to Greek philosophy, as Simon Magus applied

it to Christianity, but to the Greek philosophers themselves, whose

ult ima te origin is in the snake wor sh ip of the Naasenes .

Plato erred when, according to Timaeus 22 b 4, he derived Solon's

teaching from an Egyptian priest. He did not inquire further for the

true dpxr| which he would have found to be the serpent-worship

characterising all pa ga n religion. Fu rt he rm or e the Hip pol yta n school,

in its ch ro no gr ap hi c concerns shar ed by Jul ius Africanus a nd des

tined to be continued by Eusebius, reflected the quest for an ulti

ma te origin by me an s of which the tea ching of Moses and Ab ra ha m

could be shown to be older than either Greek philosophy or pagan

religion and thus more real. This was the conclusion that the par

allel lists of Olympiads, Roman Consuls, Patriarchs etc. were intended

to establish.1 0 0

As such , the concerns of Chr is ti an writers such as Ir enaeus and

those of the Hi ppol yt an school reflected a hi sto riogr aph y that they

held in common with such imperial writers as Philostratus or even

Diog enes Laert ius, wh o formed p ar t of the circle of Ju li a Do mn a ,

to w ho m the former de dicat ed the Vita Apollonii shortly after her

de at h (A.D. 217). Philostratus is de te rm in ed to show tha t the ulti

ma te orig in of ph ilosophy is no t in Egypti an religion bu t in the

Indian gymnosophists. Laertius will deny such an extraneous origin,

and will argue instead that philosophy was a purely Greek phe

nomenon whose origin was in the golden age when the twelve wise

men lived.1 0 1

7C 1.1. Diogenes Laertius and philosophical origins

Laertius uses the concept of 8icc8oxf| to dem ons tr ate the cultural

puri ty of Hellenistic philo sophy, as does Pse udo-Hippo lytus regard

ing pur ity of or th od ox doctr ine ha nd ed do wn by those wh o s hare

in the teach ing and hie rocrat ic 8ioc8o%r| of bishops. In orde r to demon

strate the validity of conflicting schools of Gr ee k phi losophy, Laer tiu s

has to come to terms with the existence of basically four 8icc8o%a{,

1 0 0

A. Brent, Diogenes Laertius and the Apostolic Succession, in JEH 44,3 ( 1 9 9 3 ) ,

p p . 3 6 7 - 3 7 1 ; idem. ( 1 9 9 5 ) , Historiography, p. 343; idem. ( 1 9 9 5 ) , Hippolytus, pp. 262-265;

4 9 3 - 4 9 5 .1 0 1

Brent ( 1 9 9 5 ) , Historiography, pp. 238-240.




P l a t o n i s m , S t o i c is m , A r i s t o t e l i a n i sm , a n d E p i c u r e a n i s m . N o L a t i n

e x p o n e n t o f t h e s e w r i t e r s s u c h as S e n e c a , C i c e r o , o r L u c r e t i u s a r e

m e n t i o n e d o r s u m m a r i s e d . T h e f o u r 8 i a 8 o x o u e f f e c t i v e l y c o m e t o a n

e n d i n t h e m i d - s e c o n d c e n t u r y B . C . H e l l e n i s t i c p h i l o s o p h y f r o m t h a t

t i m e u n t i l D i o g e n e s ' o w n is t r e a t e d b y h i m a s a f in i sh e d p r o d u c t

t h a t c a n b e t a u g h t a n d a d m i r e d in a ll i ts u n c o n t a m i n a t e d H e l l e n i c

p u r i t y . B u t i n t h e i n t e l l e c t u a l c u l t u r e t h a t w a s t o n u r t u r e a n a s c e n t

N e o - P l a t o n i s m , s u c h d i v e r s i t y a s f o u r 8 i a8 o % a { , w i t h n o a c c o u n t o f

th e i r e s s en t i a l u n i ty f ro m wh ich th ey co u ld b e h i s to r i ca l l y o r l o g i ca l l y

d e r i v e d , w a s h i g h l y u n s a t i s f a c to r y . A n d s o L a e r t i u s w a s t o m a k e a n

a l r e a d y h i g h l y a r t i f i c i a l a n d s c h e m a t i s e d a c c o u n t e v e n m o r e s o . 1 0 2

H e r e d u c e d t h e f o u r 8ioc8o% ai t o t w o d p ^ o u t h a t b e g a n t h e m , a n d

t h e s e t w o w e r e re s p e c t iv e l y t h e w o r k o f T h a l e s a n d P h e r e k y d e s . B u t

t h e n h e u s e s t h e l i t e r a r y d e v i c e o f e p i s t o l a r y p s e u d o n y m i t y t o u n if y

t h e v a r i o u s s e v e n , e l e v e n o r t w e l v e w i s e m e n , i n h a b i t i n g t h e Urzeit

o f G r e e k ci v il is a ti o n a n d r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e c o m b i n e d w i s d o m o f t h e

oocpoi of w h i c h th e cpiAxSaocpoi a r e cl ea rl y th e cpiAoi. T h a l e s w ri te s to

P h e r e k y d e s a n d vice versa.103 P h e r e k y d e s o n hi s d e a t h - b e d w r i t e s to

T h a l e s t h a t h e is s e n d i n g h i s w r i t i n g f o r t h e l a t t e r t o p u b l i s h i t " p r o

v i d e d t h a t y o u t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e o t h e r w i s e m e n a p p r o v e o f i t (o u

8e r\v 8oici|LicboT|<; GUV xoiq aAAoiq oocpoiq) a n d n o t ot he rw is e (Succ. 1,122)."

T h e r e is t h u s s u g ge s te d a c o m m o n a g r e e m e n t b e t w e e n T h a l e s a n d

P h e r e k y d e s a b o u t t h e i r w o r k t o w h i c h a ll t h e oocpoi c o n s e n t a s a n

e x p r e s s i o n o f t h e o n e t r u e p h i l o s o p h y . T h u s t h e p s e u d o n y m o u s lit

e r a r y d e v i c e s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e t w o &p% ai a r e in a g r e e m e n t , a n d t h a t

a g r e e m e n t h a s it s u l t i m a t e h i s t o r i c a l o r i g i n in t h e u n i t y e s t a b l i s h e d

b y t h e e x c h a n g e o f l e t t e r s b e t w e e n a l l t h e oocpoi i n t h e Urzeit o f

H e l l e n i s t i c c i v i l i s a t i o n .1 0 4

W e t h u s s ee a m o n g s t t h e i m m e d i a t e p r e c u r s o r s t o P l o t i n u s t h e

d e v e l o p m e n t o f a f ir m o n t o l o g i c a l p r e s u p p o s i t i o n t h a t a m o n g s t t h e

d i v e rs i ty o f p h e n o m e n a r e a l i ty m u s t b e , c o n t r a r y to S t o i c i s m , n o t a n

i m m a n e n t b u t a t r a n s c e n d e n t a l O n e . T h i s g e n e r a l a s s u m p t i o n , w h ils t

n o t a r t i c u l a t e d in t e r m s o f t h e p r e c i s e m e t a p h y s i c s o f N e o - P l a t o n i s m

b e f o r e P l o t i n u s , w a s n e v e r t h e l e s s re f l e c te d i n t h e h i s t o r i o g r a p h y o f

i d e a s a t t h e e n d o f t h e s e c o n d c e n t u r y .

1 0 2 B r e n t ( 1 9 9 3 ) , p p . 3 7 2 - 3 7 5 ; B r e n t ( 1 9 9 5 ) , Historiography, p p . 2 4 0 - 2 4 3 .103

Succ. 1, 4 3 - 4 4 a n d 1 2 2 .1 0 4 B r e n t ( 1 9 9 3 ) , p p . 2 4 0 - 2 4 3 ; B r e n t ( 1 9 9 5 ) , Historiography, p p . 3 7 2 3 7 6 .




7 C 1 . 2 . Historiography w ithin the circle of Julia Dom na

W e saw (7 A 2 .3) t h a t Ju l i a D o m n a , a s fj (piXooocpoq, fo u n d e d a p h i lo

s o p h i c c ir c le t h a t p r o d u c e d a n i d e o l o g y t h a t j u s ti f ie d t h e S e v e r a n

R e f o r m a t i o n . S u c h a n i d e o l o g y w a s p r o p a g a t e d b y t h e i c o n o g r a p h y

o f Sol Invictus a n d KoouoicpaTCGp, i n w h i c h a u n i v e r s a l r e l i g i o u s s y n

c r e t i s m c o u l d j u s ti f y t h e g o a l o f i m p e r i a l u n i t y e m b r a c i n g t h e d i v e r s e

c u l t u r e s o f t h e e m p i r e .

W e n o w s e e t h a t h e r s c h o o l w a s i n t e r e s t e d n o t s i m p l y i n a c o s

m ic u o v ccpx ia b u t a h i s to r i ca l uovocpxicc t o o . D i o g en es L ae r t i u s a n d

P h i l o s t r a t u s , o n t h e p a g a n s i d e , t h e f o r m e r a m e m b e r o f t h e c i r c le

o f J u l i a D o m n a a l m o s t a s c e r t a i n l y a s t h e l a t t e r , p r o d u c e d i ff e re n t

a n s w e r s t o t h e i r c o m m o n q u e s t f or t h e t r u e p h i l o s o p h y a s t h e h i s

t o r i c a l ly o r i g i n a l p h i l o s o p h y f r o m w h i c h al l o t h e r s a r e d e r i v a t i v e

r e f l e c t i o n s . T h e i r d i f f e r e n c e s a r e n o t a b o u t t h e m e t h o d o f d e t e r

m i n i n g w h a t is o f u l t i m a t e v a l u e b u t s i m p l y a n d s u b s t a n t i v e l y w h a t

is t h e p a r t i c u l a r o r ig i n o f u l t i m a t e p h i l o s o p h y u n d i l u t e d b y d i m i n

i s h i n g r e f le c t io n a n d d e r i v a t i o n .1 0 5

D i o g e n e s a n s w e r e d t h a t p h i l o s o p h y d e r i v e s f r o m t h e oocpoi o f t h e

g o l d e n a g e o f H e l l e n i s t ic c u l t u r e , w h o s e t e s t i m o n y w a s o f o n e p h e n o

m e n o n v o u c h s a f e d b y t h e i r e p i st o la r y e x c h a n g e s a n d a g r e e m e n t s .

P h i l o s t r a t u s h a s , a l s o f r o m w i t h i n i n t h e c i rc l e o f J u l i a D o m n a , r e p l i e d

t h a t t h e t r u e p h i l o s o p h y w a s f r o m t h e I n d i a n g y m n o s o p h i s t s a n d

n o t f r o m t h e E g y p t i a n p r i e s t t o w h o m P l a t o a t t r i b u t e s h is p h i l o s o

p h y i n t h e Timaeus. P s e u d o - H i p p o l y t u s , w h o a d d r e s s e d o n e w o r k o n

t h e R e s u r r e c t i o n t o J u l i a M a m a e a a n d a n o t h e r to a c e r t a i n S e v e r i n a ,

m a y a l s o h a v e b e e n , l i k e t h e C h r i s t i a n w r i t e r a n d a r c h i t e c t o f t h e

P a n t h e o n , J u l i u s A f r i c a n u s , a C h r i s t i a n m e m b e r o f t h a t c i r c l e .1 0 6

P s e u d o - H i p p o l y t u s t o o is a w a r e t h a t P l a t o i n Timaeus d e r iv es h i s

p h i l o s o p h y f r om a n E g y p t i a n p r i e st w h i c h i n t u r n h e h a s n o w d e r i v e d

f r o m t h e u n i v e r s a l p a g a n r e l i g i o n , r e f l e c t e d i n e v e r y p a g a n c u l t , t h e

s n a k e w o r s h i p o f t h e N a a s e n e s .1 0 7

T h e t ru e te s t fo r v a l i d i t y o f d o c t r i n e

is its u l t i m a t e d e r i v a t i o n f r o m t h e a p o s tl e s t h r o u g h a n u n c o r r u p t e d

s u c c e s s i o n o f t e a c h e r s . I n t h is r e s p e c t P s e u d o - H i p p o l y t u s is c l o s e r t o

D i o g e n e s L a e r t i u s t h a n t o P h i l o s t r a t u s . B o t h a g r e e o n a g o l d e n a g e

o f u n c o n t a m i n a t e d t r u t h b y t w e l v e oocpoi o r tw e l v e a p o s t l e s , b e f o r e

1 0 5 B r e n t ( 1 9 9 5 ) , Historiography, p p . 2 3 7 - 2 4 8 .1 0 6 M . S o r d i , II C r i s t i a n e s i m o e R o m a , in Storia di Roma X I X , I s t it u t o d i S t u d i

R o m a n i , (B o l o g n a : C a p p e l l i 1 9 6 5 ) , p . 2 4 0 .1 0 7 P l a t o , Timaeus, 1 9 E 8 - 2 2 B 4 a n d B r e n t ( 1 9 9 5 ) Hippolytus, p p . 2 6 2 - 2 6 5 .




e x t r a n e o u s a n d f or e ig n a c c r e t i o n s h a d s e t u p t h e i r c o u n t e r c l a i m s in

th e fo rm o f e i t h e r H e l l en i s t i c r e l i g io n ( fo r L a e r t i u s ) o r h e re sy (fo r

P s e u d o - H i p p o l y t u s ) . S u c h a q u e s t to l o c a t e t h e t r u e fa i th in a n u l t i

m a t e h i s to r i c a l o r i g i n a l s o , I h a v e a r g u e d e l s e w h e r e , l a y b e h i n d t h e

e p is tl e o f P e t e r t o C l e m e n t a n d C l e m e n t to J a m e s in t h e C l e m e n t i n e

Homilies. T h e p u r p o s e o f t h e i r e x c h a n g e o f l e t t e r s is f o r m a l l y s i m i

l a r t o t h a t o f T h a l e s a n d P h e r e k y d e s in D i o g e n e s L a e r t i u s . T h e

P e t r i n e a n d J a c o b e a n t r a d i t i o n s a r e s h o w n b y t h is u s e o f t h e d e v i c e

o f p s e u d o n y m i t y t o c o n s t i tu t e a c o m m o n o r i g i n o r &p%f|.108

A M o n a r c h i a n h i s t o r i o g r a p h y a s w e ll a s a M o n a r c h i a n o n t o l o g y

w e r e b o t h p r e s e n t i n t h e c u l t u r a l s oil f r o m w h i c h N e o p l a t o n i s m w a s

t o g r o w a n d flourish. H i s t o r i o g r a p h y a n d o n t o l o g y b o t h c o n t r i b u t e d

f u n d a m e n t a l l y t o t h e l e g i t i m a t i o n o f a p r o c e s s o f r e l i g i o u s s y n c r e t i s m

t h a t w a s s e e k i n g t o o r d e r t h e c h a o s o f c u l t u r a l d i v e r s i t y b y m e a n s

o f t h e r e l ig i o u s c u l t o f a d i v i n e e m p e r o r . A c o h e r e n t s y n c r e t i s m c o u l d

b e a c h i e v e d b y c h a r t i n g t h e o r i g i n o f t h e d i v e r s i t y o f c u l t u r e s in a n

u l t i m a t e s o u r c e o r ocpxn f r o m w h i c h t h a t d i v e r s i t y w a s d e r i v e d . T h i s

w a s t h e h i s to r i c a l M o n a r c h i a n i s m j u s ti f yi n g S e v e r a n u n i v e r s a l i s m .

H e r e w e h a v e f o u n d a d i r e c t r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t h e p o l i t i c a l i c o n o

g r a p h y o f t h e e m p e r o r ' s p e r s o n a n d t h e l a t e r N e o p l a t o n i s t o n t o l o g y .

B u t o n t h e C h r i s t i a n s i d e , t h e d o c t r i n e o f t h e T r i n i t y , a n d t h e

q u e s t f or a n e x p r e s s i o n o f t h e u n i t y o f t h e G o d h e a d i n t e r m s o f

uovccpxicc a g a i n s t G n o s t i c i s m , a c c o m p a n i e d t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f C h u r c h

O r d e r t h a t w a s t o r e s u l t i n a m o n a r c h - b i s h o p . T o t h e d e t a i l s o f t h i s

c a s e w e m u s t n o w t u r n .

7 C 2 . M onarchian theology, Gnosticism and Im perial Order

W e e m p h a s i s e d th e g r o w t h o f M i d d l e P l a t o n i s m a n d N e o p l a t o n i s m

a s a r e s p o n s e t o t h e d i s m e m b e r m e n t o f S t o i c h o li st ic h y l o m o r p h i s m

b y G n o s t i c d u a l i s m . J u s t as t h e f o r m e r w a s t h e o n t o l o g i c a l r e f l e c ti o n

o f i m p e r i a l u n i t y , so t h e l a t t e r , in its e m p h a s i s o n t h e d i s o r d e r o fc r e a t i o n a n d t h e i n d i v i d u a l c h a r a c t e r o f r e d e m p t i o n , w a s , i n its p o r

t r a y a l o f c o s m i c c h a o s , t h e o n t o l o g i c a l r e f le c t i o n o f t h e d e n i a l o f t h e

i m p e r i a l i s t s o c i a l c o n s t r u c t i o n o f r e a l i t y .

T h e g r o w t h o f t h e t h r e e f o ld O r d e r , o r i g in a l ly w i t h I g n a t i u s a t y p o

l o g y b u t , i n t h e s e c o n d a n d e a r l y t h i r d c e n t u r y t o d e v e l o p i n t o a

h i e r a r c h y w i t h a m o n a r c h b i s h o p a t i t s a p e x , l i k e w i s e w a s a d e n i a l

B r e n t ( 1 9 9 3 ) p p . 3 7 7 - 3 8 0 ; B r e n t ( 1 9 9 5 ) , Hippolytus, p p . 4 9 2 - 5 0 0 .




o f G n o s t i c i n d i v i d u a l i s m . I t is n o t w i t h o u t s i g n if i c a n ce t h a t t h e e x a m

p l e o f a G n o s d c l it u r g y t h a t w e h a v e is i n d e e d a c h a r i s m a t i c l i t u r g y .1 0 9

W e h a v e a r g u e d t h a t C l e m e n t d ir e c t e d h is v i ew o f C h u r c h O r d e r

a g a i n s t s u c h a c h a r i s m a t i c c o m m u n i t y ( 4 B 3 ).

F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e c l a i m e d o r t h o d o x y t h a t c r e a t e d a g a i n s t G n o s t i c i s m

a s y s te m r u l e d b y m o n a r c h b i s h o p s w a s i ts elf M o n a r c h i a n i n t h e o

l o g y. A l t h o u g h I g n a t i u s d i d n o t b e l i e v e i n m o n a r c h b i s h o p s a s s u c h ,

h i s n a s c e n t T r i n i t a r i a n i s m d o e s e x h i b i t t e n d e n c i e s s u gg e s ti v e o f t h e

l a t e r M o n a r c h i a n s . W e h a v e , f u r t h e r m o r e , a r g u e d t h a t h is v i ew o f

t h e s ig n i f ic a n c e o f t h e p r o c e s s i o n o f t h e m a r t y r b i s h o p d o e s s h o w

e c c l e s ia s t i c a l o r d e r a s a r e v e r s e d , c o n t r a - c u l t u r a l r e f l e c ti o n o f i m p e

r i al o r d e r i n t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t (6 A 2 ). T h e a d m i t t e d l y f o u r t h c e n

t u r y Apostolic Constitutions, c e l e b r a t i n g t h e b i s h o p a s s o l e r u l e r , a l s o

c l a i m e d a s u b o r d i n a t i o n i s m i n t h e G o d h e a d t h a t r e q u i r e d o n e s o u r c e

an d o r ig in fo r i t s f i r s t p r in c ip l e , i n o th e r wo rd s a d y n am ic fo rm o f

uovotpxicc.1 1 0

B e t w e e n t h e c l a i m s o f I g n a t i u s a n d t h e Apostolic Constitutions

w e h a v e C a l l i s t u s ' r e v o l u t i o n i n e c c l e s i a s t i c a l o r d e r t h a t w e s h a l l

a r g u e m i r r o r s t h a t o f t h e c o n t e m p o r a r y S e v e r a n e m p e r o r , E l a g a b a l u s

i n i m p e r i a l o r d e r ( C h a p t e r 8 ) .

L e t u s f or t h e m o m e n t b e g i n b y e x a m i n i n g I r e n a e u s ' a t t a c k o n

t h e p l u r a l i t y o f c r e a t o r s , a n d it s i m p l i c a t i o n f o r a u n i v e r s e o f o r d e r

t h a t is e s s e n t ia l l y g o o d . H e r e w e s h a l l find a p a r a l l e l d e v e l o p m e n t

t o t h e p a g a n p r e c u r s o r s o f P l o t i n u s , i n w h i c h a p l u r a l i t y o f p o w e r s ,

w h e th e r i n n a tu re o r i n so c i e ty , is s ee n fo r t h e s ak e o f o rd e r t o b e

r e d u c i b l e t o th e o n e . P l o t i n u s , a s w e h a v e a l r e a d y s e e n , w a s to a r g u e

t h is c a s e a g a i n s t t h e f u n d a m e n t a l G n o s t i c o n t o l o g y in Enneads I I ,

9 , 1 , 1 3 - 1 6 ( 7 B 2 ).

7 C 2 . 1 . Irenaeus and the KoouoKpdxopeq

I t w a s , a s w e s a w , t h e i m a g e o f C a r a c a l l a a s KoauoKpdxcop, t h r o u g h

w h o m s h o n e t h e d i v i n i t y o f Sol Invictus, w h i c h , i n p h i l o s o p h i c a l t e r m s ,

w as n o w id en t i f i ed a s v o u q o r Aoyoq, t h e u l t i m a t e a n d first p r in c ip l e

o f o r d e r w h i c h w a s t h e O n e a n d t h e G o o d . B u t i n a s s e r t i n g t h e

1 0 9 K . K o s c h o r k e , D i e P o l e m i k d e r G n o s t i k e r g e g e n d a s k i r ch l i ch e C h r i s t e n t u m ,

in Nag Hamm adi Studies X I I , ( B ri ll : L e i d e n 1 9 7 8 ) , p p . 6 7 - 7 1 ; idem., E i n e n e u g e f u n -

d e n e g n o s t i s c h e G e m e i n d e o r d n u n g , i n %ThK 7 6 ( 1 9 7 9 ), p p . 3 0 - 6 0 .1 1 0 F . X . F u n k , Die Apostolischen Konstitutionen: Eine litterarhistorische Untersuchung, ( M i n e r v a

G m b H . , F r a n k f u r t / M a i n 1 9 7 0) ( R o t t e n b e r g 1 8 9 1 ); G . S t r e ck e r , D a s J u d e n c h r i s t e n t u mi n d e n P s e u d o c l e m e n t i n e n , in TU 7 0 ( 1 9 5 8 a n d 1 9 8 1 ) , c f. B r e n t ( 1 9 9 5 ) , Hippolytus,

p p . 4 6 1 - 4 6 2 f f .



292 CHAPTER SEVEN

image of the rcavxoKpdxcop in these terms, th e imperial ideology was

negating Gnosticism in which, as Irenaeus in his Christian response

makes plain, there were a plurality of 7r.avxoKpdxope<; responsible for

the created order of evil darkness, chaos, a n d enslavement.

The au thor of the pseudo Pauline letter to the Ephesians h ad re

ferred to such a Gnostic mythology when he spoke about the Christian

struggle "against dominions (rcpoq y a p dpxdq), against authorities (npbq

xdq e^ouaiaq), against th e cosmic rulers of this darkness (npbq xouq

K O o p o K p d x o p a q xou OK6XOU<; xouxou)."1 1 1

Clement of Alexandria attrib

uted such a sentiment also to Plato when h e said: IlAdxcov ev xcp

epSopcp xf|<; IIoAaxeiaq xfjv evxauGa fipepav vuicxepivnv KeicA ,T|Kev 8id xoix;

K o a p o K p d x o p a q o lpa i xou OKOXOIX; xouxou.1 1 2

Irenaeus witnesses th e

Valentinian conception of the Demiurge as one such K o o p o i c p d x c o p

who believes that h e alone is the creator: "I a m Go d an d beside

me there is no other ( 'Ey© Geoq, nXr\v e p o u ou8ei<;)" as in Isaiah 45,5

and 4 6 , 9 . T h e Demiurge creates the I lavxoKpdxcop ( . . . Aiyouai xov

8e KoapoKpdxopa Kxiapa xou Anpioupyou).

O n e m a y note that th e Valentinians made the KoopoKpdxopeq into

a single power, as did the iconography of Caracalla. But the Valentinian

K o a p o K p d x c o p has his origin as one of the spirits of evil (xd rcveupaxiKa

xfjq T c o v n p i a q ) from the sorrow (EK TT\<; X\)Ky)<;) that causes th e cosmic

catastrophe that is the creation of the world. H is substance is the

same "spiritual substance of evil (xrjv 7rveupaxucf |v xr\q rcovripiag imo-

o x a a v v ) " as the daemons , a n d is identified b y Irenaeus with th e devil

(xov SidpoXov . . . ov Kai K o a p o K p d x o p a K a A x n x n ) .1 1 3

Fur thermore , he is

the inherent spirit of evil in the material world (xov 8e K o o p o i c p d x o p a

ev xcp Ka 0' f jpaq K oap cp) .1 1 4

Cerdo, likewise, in succession to Marcion ,

called the lesser g o d K o o p o i c p d x c o p .1 1 5

Caracal la 's iconography has

cleansed t h e p o wer of the KoapoKpdxcop , flowing throughout th e

world as the Sun, from all associations of grief a n d evil, and of

111

Eph. 6,12. I am i n d e b t e d form a n y of these re ferences and the ir d iscuss ion to

C u m o n t andC a n e t ( 1 9 1 9 ) , pp. 2 3 4 - 2 3 5 .112

Strom. 5,14.1 1 3

Ir e n ae u s , Adv. Haer. 1,5,4 (= Frag, graec. 1, 5 3 6 -5 4 3 ) : 'Eyo) Oeoq, nXr)v epov

o v Se i q , E K 8e xfjq X\)nr\<; xd jwevpaxim xfj<; 7tovr|pia<; S i S d o K o u a i yeyovevai- o0e v Kai

xov 8idpoAx>v XTJV yeveaiv eaxilKevai, ov Kai KoapoKpdxopa icaAouoi , Kai xd 8 a i p 6 v i a

Kai rcaaav xfjv rcvevpaxiicriv xfjq TcovripCaq VTtoaxaaw.... Xeyovai xov 8e KoapoKpdxopa

Kxiapa xo\)AT|pio\)pyo\).1 . 4

1,5,4 (= Frag, graec. 1,549) .1 . 5

1,27 ,2 .




uncontrolled subordination. T h e power of the emperor as Sol Invictus

is a benign a nd good ordering of the imperial whole.

Later Neoplatonism was to order the seven planets, called the

KoouoKpdTopeq, within the monarchy of Sol Invictus as Plotinus had, in

Enneads II , 9,1,13-16, reduced all other powers to the status of deri

vative being of the One. Pursuing the same project with the same

ontological purpose, Proclus will later admit the seven cosmocrators

as the seven planets into his Neoplatonist scheme. " T h e planets are

called 'cosmocrators' (01 y d p KaAouuevoi rcXdvrixec; KoouoKpdxopeq)" bu t

they are no longer rebellious aeons fragmenting the pleroma through

their ignorance. Rather, "each of the cosm oc rator s (eraoxoc; xcov K O O -

uoKpaxopcov), being a m on a d (uovdq cov), is arranged together as par t

of a common assembly (xcp 7iA ,f|9ei auvxexayuivn)."1 1 6

The arrangement is the work of King Helios. As Proclus says:

The k i n g of all vis ib le th ings (6 pev ydp xcov opaxcov ndvxcov pcxoiXeix;

[ T I A , I O < ; ] ) , i m i t a t i n g the c r e a t i v e p o w e r s t h r o u g h r a y s of the l ight (Kai

xd<; 6*Tipio\)pYiKd<; 5\)vdpei<; 5id xcov xou cpcoxo<; dKXivcov drcouauouuevoq), is

a c c o m p a n i e d as his b o d y g u a r d by the c o s m o c r a t o r s (imo rcdvxcov 8opu-

cpopeixai xcov KoapoKpaxopcov).11 7

And behind King Helios stands the Demiurge from whom his pow

ers in imitating noumenal order are derived a n d subordinate. It is

quite clear that Helios is considered one of the cosmocrators, bu t

the supreme one , since "for the sake of the genesis of this (phe

nomenal) world (evem xfjq xouxou yeveaecoq), he begat (drcoyevva) bothsun (Kai fjtaov) and the other cosmocratores ( K a i xoix; aXXoxx; Koou oKp d -

xopa<;)."11 8

Thus clearly the KoouoKpdxopeq are assigned by the demiurge

their subordinate role in the operat ion of the whole, through a due

gradation. T h e Demiurge as King Helios is the noumenal Sun, and

supreme cosmocrator. T h e phenomena l sun reflects the noumenal

Sun through which the other cosmocrators mediate movement a n d

being to the phenomenal world. T h e Demiurge is one (6 Srjuroupyoc;...cov eiq) but he endows with assimilative power (xf|v dcpouoicoxncriv

Suvapiv evxiGeiq) the new creators with him (xoiq p.ex' auxov veoiq

Srjpioupyoiq). These are therefore but the means of reflecting power

l l b

E. Diehl, (Ed.), Prodi Diadochi, In Platonis Timaeum Commentaria, (Teubner: Leipzig

1903/Amsterdam: Hakkert 1965), III p. 58, 8 and 18.

1 1 7 W. Kroll, (Ed.), Prodi Diadochi, In Platonis Rem Publicam Commentarii I (Teubner:

Leipzig 1899/Amsterdam: Hakkert 1965), pp. 220, 25-28.1 , 8

Proclus, Comm. in Platonis Timaeum III, pp. 95, 31-33.



294 CHAPTER SEVEN

deriv ed from him. H e com mand s th em to imita te his own p ow er

(pipeio0ai xf j v eauT ou 8uvapiv) with rega rd to thei r own creative activ

ity (nepi zr\v cruicov y e v e o i v ) . "Hence (oruxoGev) he appoints the cosmo-

crators as guards (xovq KoouoKpdxopocq cp\>A,aKa<; ucpiornoi) over the

intervals of time (TCOV dpiGpcov TOU % p o v o u ) and as the guard of night

and day (Kai TTVV cputaxKa vuKioq Kai r i p e p a q ) . "1 1 9 The Demiurge being

o n e , he injects the assimilative power similarly into those new demi

urges with hi m, wh en he com mand s th em to imita te his ow n pow er.

Thus the cosmocrators (oi KoouoKpdiopec; ) are those who are moved

( T pe r copevo i ) by the no um en al De mi ur ge who is "exceedingly Ki ng

Helios (8iacpepovTco<; 6 paai ta ix; "HAaoq)."1 2 0

As Proclus says:

. . . it is also clear (<p Kai8fjA,ov), that indeed time is not, since it has

numerical property, the sole participant in movement (&q dpa 6 xpbvoc,

OX>K eaxiv 6 pexexopevoq povov Kai dpiBpoq wv xfj<; Kwr |aeco<;), even though

the cosmocrators maintain the order appropriate to it [npbc, avxov xd£w

oi KoapoKpdxopeq), but the unseen God and eternal in essence (aXka

Qebq d<pavr|<; Kai Kax' ovaiav aicovioq) is the source of power (evepycov)

for all their movements (rcepi rcdoa<; xdq K IV TJ O EI^ ) and the entire rotation of the universe (Kai xr|v oXrjv xov Koapoi) rcepioSov), and he uses as

his own individual means these gods themselves (6pydvoi<; 8e xpcbpevoq

d>q pepiKcoxepoi(; pexpoiq eavxoi) xomoiq xoiq Oeoiq).121

T hu s the disor dere d universe of bot h polythei sm an d Gnostici sm

is finally orde re d, a nd its analogi cal mo na rc hi ca l political po we r

legitimated.

Both Plotinus and his pagan predecessors can clearly be regarded

as sharing a common cause with Irenaeus in reducing the disordered

world of Gnosticism to a single first principle from which other divine

enti t ies could proceed by ordered emanation or procession. For

Plotinus and his predecessors the process of em an at io n was on e by

wh ich an essentially go od ultima tely reality sh ar ed its be ing with t he

cosmic order without thereby experiencing diminution. For Plotinus

no more than the One (TO "E V ), the tho ug ht (Nouq) tha t proceeds

from the thinking One, and Soul (Vuxfl) are to be found in the intel

ligible world (ev TCO vonrcp). A m o n g the thr ee the re was a direct gra

dat ion of being, a subordination of lower to higher until finally

phenomenal nature could become the phenomenal napdSevypa of

the n o u m e n a l o r v o r r r o v .

119 Ibid. p. 2,10.120

Ibid. p. 227,28.121

Ibid. p. 40,2.




For Ir ena eus an d some of his predecessors ther e was a G o dh e ad

ma d e of two or thr ee per sons , wh o were jo in ed tog eth er with the

c o mm o n tide of Kupioq. Aga inst th e Gnosti cs he asserts at on e po in t

that Scripture knows only two divine beings assigned this name:

Neither the Lord (oike ouv 6 Kupioq) nor the Holy Spirit (oike rcveupa

ayiov), nor apostles (oike drcoaxotan) would have ever expressed with

accurate theology that he was not God (xov OUK ovxa Geov Kupico<; kQzoXo-

ynaev rcoxe) unless he was not truly God (ei \ir\ rjv aXrfiax; Geoq), nor would

they have used the term 'Lord' for someone (oike eKupio^eKxnadv xiva)

on grounds of his own personal nature (e£ i5iou rcpooamou) unless he

was the God and Father of all that exercised sovreignty (aXk' r\ xovKupieuovxa rcdvxcov Oeov rcaxepa) and his Son who received the sover

eignty from the Father of all creation (Kai xov uiov auxou xov xnv Kupieiav

A.a(36vxa rcapd xou rcaxpoq auxou rcdoTiq ir\q Kxiaecoq). . . Since therefore

the Father is truly Lord (&A,T8co<; ouv Kupiou ovxoq xou rcaxpoc;), and the

Son is truly Lord (Kai xou uiou dA.r|0cbq ovxo<; Kupiou), the Holy Spirit

naturally indicated them by the tide of 'Lord.' (eiKoxcoq xo rcveupa xo

ayiov xii xou Kupiou 7cpocrnyopia eor|pT|vev auxotx;).

Irenaeus, Adv. Haer., 6,1.

Thus Irenaeus reduces the gnostic pleroma to a Godhead of two

persons to which he will add elsewhere the Holy Spirit as a third.1 2 2

If it sho uld be ar gu ed tha t a Go d he a d of two or th ree per son s will

replicate th e chao s of gnostic creati on, clearly he re Ire naeu s claims

a unity of pu rp os e in a divine pl an , elsewher e desc rib ed by hi m as

o i K o v o u i a . But note how this unity is conceived in terms of a polit

ical analogy . Fa th er a nd S on hav e cr ea te d all th at the re is as a well-

ordered and good creation, and not chaotic and evil as was the

creation tha t was the out co me of the ba td e of the aeons over Sop hia 's

expulsion. T h e So n is uni ted in pu rp os e with the Fath er . His sov

ere ignty and ther efore divine tide (ldipioq), sh ar ed wit h the Fa th er

(xov Kupieuovxa rcdvxcov Geov rcaxepa), is by delegation (XTJV K u p e i a v

Axxpovxa 7tapd xou rcaxpoq). Irenaeus' ontology, like that of Plotinus,

is reflecting imperial order against Gnostic d x a c ; ( a .

Elsewhere Irenaeus will follow Jn. 14, 10-11 and assert:

Through the Son who is in the Father (8id xou uiou ouv xou ovxoq ev

xcp rcaxpi), and who has in himself the Father (Kai exovxoq ev eauxco xov

icaxepa), he who is God is manifested (6 cov ecpavepcb&ri Geoq), with the

122 Adv. Haer. Ill, 24,2; IV, 7,4, and 34,3 in w h i c h no c l e a r d i s t i n c t i o n is d r a w n

b e t w e e n the C h r i s t as Verbum and Sapientia, and the H o l y S p i r i t as S a p i e n t i a , cf.

B r e n t ( 1 9 9 5 ) , Hippolytus, pp. 2 1 5 - 2 1 8 .




Father witnessing to the Son (xov 7taxp6<; papxvpfioavxoq xcp via>), and the

Son p roc la iming the Fa ther (Kai xov viov Kaxayyeitaxvxo*; xov rcaxepa).

I r en aeu s , Adv. Haer., I l l , 6 ,2 ,48

Bu t w i th o u t t h e t h e o lo g y o f p e r s o n s i n t h e G o d h e a d (rcpoacorca) w h i ch

T e r t u l l i a n a n d H i p p o l y t u s w e r e t o d e v e l o p ,1 2 3

s u c h a n a c c o u n t o f

t h e u n i t y o f t h e G o d h e a d s e e m s f ar c l o s e r t o t h e M o n a r c h i a n i s m

t h a t b o t h o f t h e m o p p o s e d , a s S i m o n e t t i p o i n t s o u t .1 2 4

I n O c h a g a v i a ' s

t e ll in g p h r a s e , fo r I r e n a e u s t h e Filius w a s visibile patris.125

L e t u s t h e r e f o r e e x a m i n e f u r t h e r t h e t h es is t h a t a M o n a r c h i a n

o n t o l o g y w a s r e f le c t ed i n t h e o r d e r o f t h e C h r i s t i a n c o m m u n i t y t h a t

accep ted su ch a t h eo lo g y , w i th p a r t i cu l a r r e fe ren ce t o so m e o f I r en aeu s '

p r e d e c e s s o r s .

7 C 2 . 2 . Ignatius of Antioch: nascent Monarchianism

W e h a v e a l r e a d y a r g u e d a c o n t r a - c u l t u r a l p a r a l l e li s m b e t w e e n I g n a t i u s '

c o n c e p t i o n o f t h e b i s h o p ' s o ff ic e, a n d h is c o n f r o n t a t i o n w i t h t h e

i m p e r i a l p o w e r f o c u s e d u p o n t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t it se lf ( 6A 2 ) .1 2 6

W e

s h a l l n o w s e e t h a t i n I g n a t i a n t h e o l o g y w e p o s s e s s a n a s c e n t M o n a r

c h i a n i s m i n t h e G o d h e a d t h a t a l s o f lo w s o v e r i n t o h is c o n c e p t i o n o f

C h u r c h O r d e r . H o w e v e r , w e d o w e ll t o e m p h a s i s e t h a t t h e M o n a r

c h i a n i s m is a n a s c e n t o n e .

D a s s m a n n , u s i n g t h e i n s ig h t s h e h a d g a i n e d f r o m w h a t t o d a y

w o u l d b e d e s c r i b e d a s P e t e r s o n ' s s o c io l o g y o f k n o w l e d g e , o r i g in a l l y

c o n n e c t e d I g n a t i u s o f A n t i o c h ' s m o d a l i s t i c t e n d e n c i e s w i t h h i s a r g u

m e n t f o r a n e p i s c o p a l m o n a r c h y .1 2 7

I h a v e a r g u e d e l s e w h e r e a g a i n s t

t h e v i e w t h a t I g n a t i u s e n v i s a g e d a m o n a r c h b i s h o p a s l a t e r e m e r g e d

i n R o m e , a n d i n t h e S y r i a o f t h e Didascalia. I g n a t i u s ' c o n c e p t o f t h e

t h r e e f o l d O r d e r I h a v e a r g u e d e a r l i e r t o b e f ar m o r e i n f l u e n c e d b y

t y p o l o g i c a l a n a l o g i e s s h a r e d w i t h p a g a n w o r s h i p b e t w e e n d i v i n i t i e s

a n d t h e i r s a c r a l r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s r a t h e r t h a n o n a n y d i r e c t r e l a t i o n

s h i p b e t w e e n a d e v e l o p e d d o c t r i n e o f t h e T r i n i t y a n d s u b o r d i n a t i o nw i t h i n e c c l e s i a l O r d e r ( 6 A 2 ) .

1 2 3 T e r t u l l i a n , Adv. Prax., 1 a n d 9 a n d H i p p o l y t u s , CJV. 1 4, 2 - 3 . F o r m y c o m

m e n t s o n t h e s e p a s s a g e s s e e B r e n t ( 1 9 9 5 ) , Hippolytus, p p . 2 5 2 - 2 5 8 a n d p p . 5 3 0 - 5 3 5 .1 2 4 M . S i m o n e t t i , II p r o b l e m a d e l l ' u n i t a d i D i o d a G i u s t i n o a I r e n e o , i n RSLR

2 2 , 2 ( 1 9 8 6) , p p . 2 2 9 - 2 3 7 .1 2 } J . O c h a v g a v i a , V i s i b i l e P a tr is F i l iu s , A S t u d y o f I r e n a e u s ' T e a c h i n g o n R e v e

l a t i o n a n d T r a d i t i o n , i n OrChrA 1 7 1 ( 1 9 6 4 ) , c h a p t e r 3 .1 2 < > S e e a l s o A . B r e n t , I g n a t i u s o f A n t i o c h a n d t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t , i n VCh 5 2 , 1

( 1 9 9 7 ), p p . 3 0 - 5 8 .1 2 7 E . D a s s m a n n , Z u r E n t s t e h u n g d e s M o n e p i s k o p a t s , i n JbAC 1 7 ( 1 9 7 4 ) , p . 7 4 .



P A G A N A N D C H R I S T IA N M O N A R C H I A N I SM 2 9 7

I h a v e a r g u e d in d e t a i l e l s e w h e r e t h a t C h u r c h O r d e r f or I g n a t i u s

is n o t m o n a r c h i c a l , a s a c o m p a r i s o n w i t h t h e Didascalia Apostolorum

w i ll s h o w . H i s t h r e e f o l d O r d e r is a t h r e e - f o l d t y p o l o g y r a t h e r t h a n

a t h r e e - f o l d h i e r a r c h y . 1 2 8 T h e L a i t y a r e i n s t r u c t e d t o s u b m i t , f or t h e

sak e o f r e f l ec t i n g t h e d iv in e o i i co v o u ia o r p l an o f s a lv a t io n , t o B i sh o p s ,

P r e s b y t e r s , a n d D e a c o n s . B u t n e i t h e r t h e P r e s b y t e r s n o r D e a c o n s

r e c e i v e i n s t r u c t i o n s t o s u b m i t t o t h e B i s h o p , b u t a r e r e g a r d e d a s n a t

u r a l l y d o i n g s o , i n t h e s y m p h o n i c c h o r u s t h a t th e y f o r m t o g e t h e r

( 6 B 2 ). T h e O r d e r o f t h e C h u r c h i s a r e s u l t o f t h e li t u r g i c a l i n c a r

n a t i o n , i n t h e life o f t h e c o m m u n i t y , o f t h e w o r d s a n d a c t i o n s o f a ll

t h r e e O r d e r s , a n d th e i r r e - e n a c t m e n t of t h e w a y i n w h i c h t h e F a t h e r

B i s h o p , s e n d s t h e d i a c o n a l S o n , i n t h e c o n t e x t o f t h e P r e s b y t e r a l

sp i ri t- f il led co u n c i l o f t h e A p o sd es .

Y e t u n d o u b t e d l y I g n a t iu s h a s t e n d e n c i e s t o w a r d s a M o n a r c h i a n

v e r s i o n o f t h e T r i n i t y t h a t is n o t c o n s i s t e n t w i t h hi s m o r e T r i n i t a r i a n

v i e w o f O r d e r . I t w a s t h e f o r m e r t h a t w a s b o t h t o d e v e l o p a n d t o

p r e v a i l i n t h e a n t i - G n o s t i c w r i t e r s o f t h e s e c o n d c e n t u r y . F u r t h e r m o r e ,

I s ha ll a r g u e t h a t w h e n T r i n i t a r i a n M o n a r c h i a n i s m d e v e l o p e d i n its

final f o r m , it p r o v i d e d a c o n t r a - c u l t u r a l re f l e c t io n o f d i v i n e i m p e r

i a l o rd e r , a n d i ts co n s i s t en t r e f l ec t i o n i n t h e so c i a l co n s t ru c t io n o f

r e a li ty b y t h e C h r i s t i a n c o n t r a - c u l t u r e p r o d u c e d m o n a r c h - b i s h o p s ,

u n i t e d b y m u t u a l i n t e r - c o m m u n i o n a n d r e c o g n i t i o n . T h e episco-

patus. . . un a, c e n t r e d o n t h e S e e o f R o m e , w a s t h u s t o f o r m t h e

c o n t r a - c u l t u r a l c o u n t e r p a r t t o t h e p e r s o n o f t h e e m p e r o r as s o u r c e

o f i m p e r i a l o r d e r .

I g n a t i u s o f A n t i o c h h a d s p o k e n o f " J e su s C h r i s t w h o p r o c e e d e d

from th e o n e F a th e r (xov a<p' evoq rcaxpoq rcpoeAflovxa) a n d w h o re tu r n e d

t o h i m w h o w a s o n e (Kai eiq ev a o v x a K ai x c o p u a a v x a ) . "1 2 9

I t was c l ea r ly

s u c h t h e m e s t h a t w e r e t o d e v e l o p f u r t h e r i n t h e c u l t u r a l m a t r i x o f

t h e s e c o n d a n d e a r l y t h i r d c e n t u r y f r o m w h i c h , a s w e h a v e a r g u e d ,

N e o p l a t o n i s m w a s t o a r i s e . H e r e t h e r e is c l e a r ly O r d e r in t e r m s o f

1 2 8 A . B r e n t , C u l t u r a l E p i s c o p a c y a n d E c u m e n i s m , R e p r e s e n t a t i v e M i n i s t r y in

C h u r c h H i s t o r y f r o m t h e A g e o f I g n a t i u s o f A n t i o c h t o t h e R e f o r m a t i o n , w i t h s p e

c ia l r e f e re n c e to c o n t e m p o r a r y e c u m e n i s m , in Studies in Christian Mission 6 , ( L e i d e n :

E J . B rill 1 9 9 2 ) , p p . 6 7 - 7 3 ; Idem. H i s t o r y a n d E s c h a t o l o g i c a l M y s t i c i s m i n I g n a t i u s

o f A n t i o c h , i n EThL 6 5 , 4 ( 1 9 8 9 ), p p . 3 1 6 - 3 2 0 ; Idem. T h e R e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n I g n a t i u s

o f A n t i o c h a n d t h e Didascalia Apostolorum, in Second Century, 8 , 3 ( 1 9 9 1 ), p p . 1 3 0 - 1 3 4 ;

Idem. E c u m e n i c a l R e l a t i o n s a n d C u l t u r a l E p i s c o p a t e s , i n AThR 7 2 , 3 ( 1 9 9 0 ) , p p .

2 6 6 - 2 6 9 .1 2 9 I g n a t i u s , Magnes., 7 , 2 . C f a l s o Magnes. 1 ,2 : . . . e v co o iv e u x o u a i . . . ' b i a o u K a i

rcaxpoq.



2 9 8 CHAPTER SEVEN

d e r i v a t i o n f r o m a n u l t i m a t e o r i g i n t h a t w e h a v e w i t n e s s e d a l s o i n

t h e m e t a p h y s i c s a n d i c o n o g r a p h y o f i m p e r i a l o r d e r .

T h e C h u r c h i n I g n a t i u s is p o r t r a y e d a s d e r i v i n g its o r d e r e d life

f r o m t h e o r d e r o f t h e G o d h e a d . T h e risen C h r i s t w a s " u n i t e d w i t h

t h e F a t h e r i n S p i r i t (7ivei)paxiKco<; f|vcopevo<; xcp rcaxpi)" a s h e a p p e a r e d

to " th o se a r o u n d P e te r in th e f lesh (d><; oapKiKoq) ." T h e g r o u p t h a t

f o u n d s h i st o r i c a l ly t h e C h u r c h " i m m e d i a t e l y t o u c h e d h i m (K a i euO ix;

a u x o v f | \ | /avTo) a n d b e l i e v e d ( K ai e rc io x e uo a v ), s i n c e t h e y h a d b e c o m e

m in g le d (KpaGevxeq) wi th h is f lesh a n d sp ir i t (xf| oa pK i au xo u Ka i xcp

rcveupaxi)."130

I g n a t i u s n o w d e s c r i b e s a p r o c e s s i o n i n t h e s t r u c t u r e o f

t h e c o m m u n i t y t h a t m i r r o r s t h e o n t o l o g y o f t h e G o d h e a d .

I g n a t i u s ' l a n g u a g e , i n Rom. 6 ,1 , a s w e h a v e s een (6B) , r e f l ec ts t h e

i m p e r i a l i d e a l , a n d t o t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t hi s o w n m a r t y r o l o g i c a l p r o

c e ss io n r e p r e s e n t s h is c o n t r a - c u l t u r a l c o u n t e r p a r t . F u r t h e r m o r e , a s

c o u n t e r i m a g e o f t h e im p e r i a l i d e a l w e r e a d :

For Jesus Chr i s t (mi yap Tnaovq Xpicxoq), o u r indivisible life (xodSiaKpi-

xov fjpcov £fjv), i s the mind of the Father (xov naxpoq r\ yvcbpri), even asthe bishops w h o are found at the earth ' s ends (ox; Kai oi e7iiGK07ioi, oi

Kaxd xd Ttepaxa opioGevxeq) ar e in th e m in d of Je su s C hr ist (ev 'Incou

Xpiaxov yvcbpri eiaiv) .

Igna t ius , Ephes., 3 ,1 .

Ecc les ias t ica l au thor i ty thus comes f rom the ind iv i s ib le l i fe (xo d8idKpi-

xov fjpcbv £fjv) o f t h e u l t i m a t e O n e F a t h e r f r om w h o m C h r i s t J e s u s

c a m e a n d t o w h o m h e r e t u r n e d . S u c h a u t h o r i t y is t h e r e f o re d e r i v e df r o m d i v i n e , u n i f y i n g p o w e r t h a t g i v es t h e m t h e i r a u t h o r i t y in t h e

c o m m u n i t y , j u s t a s N e o p l a t o n i s t p o l it ic a l t h e o l o g y w a s t o c l a i m f or

C a r a c a l l a t h e KoapoKpdxcop a n d h i s s u c c e s s o r s .

J u s t a s t h e L o r d d i d n o t h i n g w i t h o u t t h e F a t h e r d u e t o t h e i r u n i o n

(riv co pevo qaW), n o r w i th o u t t h e ap o s t l e s w h o sh a r ed t h a t u n io n a s we

s a w w i t h " t h o s e a r o u n d P e t e r , " s o t h e c o m m u n i t y is t o d o n o t h i n g

w i t h o u t t h e b i s h o p w h o r e p r e s e n t s t h e F a t h e r , n o r t h e p r e s b y t e r sw h o r e p r e s e n t t h e a p o s t l e s .

1 3 1

T h e u n i ty o f t h e G o d h e a d m u s t b e

r e f le c t e d in t h e u n i t y o f t h e c o m m u n i t y . S o c i a l s t r u c t u r e r e fl ec ts o n t o

l o g i c a l s t r u c t u r e . T h u s :

1 3 0

Ignatius, Smyr., 2 - 3 .131 Ibid. Magnes. 7,1: coarcep oi>v 6 K v p i o q avev xov rcaxpoq oi)8ev ercouiaev, fivcopevoq

"ov, oi)xe 5i' eavx ov o ike 5 id xcov &7toax6Xcov• ovxox; pn5e upeiq aveu xot> e i c i a K O T c o D K a i

xcov upeapDxepcov pnSev jcpdoaexe.




Be subject to the bishop and each other (urcoxdynxe xcp erciaKOTicp Kai

aXkr\Xoi(;), as Jesus Christ to the Father according to the flesh (cbq

'I TIGOUC; Xpiaxoq xcp rcaxpi Kaxd c dpK a ) , and the aposdes to Jesus Christ,

and to the Father and Spirit (Kaioi d7coaxoXot xcp Xpiaxcp Kaixcp rcaxpiKai 7Tveuuaxi), in order that there may be a unity of flesh and Spirit

( iva evcocu<; f| aapKiicri xe Kai Ttveuuaxucri).

Magnes. 13,1

Ignatius sees in the person of the bishop an expression of divine

order that is euxa^ia:

It is clear that it is necessary to look upon the bishop as the Lord

himself (xov ouv eTuoKorcov Sr\Xov oxi cbq auxov xov Kupiov 8ei Ttpoo-pAirceiv).

Onesimus himself praises strongly your good order in God (auxoq pev

ouv 'Ovr|aipo<; i)7cepe7caivei upcbv X T ^ V ev 0ecp euxa^iav) .

Ephes. 6,2

The good order of society thus reflects the ontology of the Godhead .

Fur thermore , the ontology that legitimates social order must, in

order to justify its assumptions, reject the divided a n d chaotic view

of creation propounded by Gnosticism, with an early version of which

Ignatius clearly deals. T h e star of Bethlehem "was manifested to the

aeons (ecpavepcoOri xoiq aicoaiv)" and "all magic a n d every bond of

evil disa pp ea red (rc&ca uoryeia K a i naq 8eaud<; f|cpavi£exo; Ephes. 19,3)."

The escape from a world of war, division, a n d passion is union with

the threefold typology that mediates the unity of the Godhe a d for

"where there is division a n d wrath (oi) 8e |i£piaud<; eaxiv Kai6pyr|),

God does not abide (Geoq ou Kaxoncei . ) . T h e Lord forgives all that

repent (rcaaiv ouv pxxavoouaw dcpiei 6 Kupioq) if they turn in repentance

to the unity of God and the council of the bishop (edv u£xavor|acocyiv

eiq evoxnxa Geou K ai auveSpiov xou eniGKonov; Philad. 8,1)."

We have seen how, in Ephesians 13, the pax deorum that underlies

the imperial peace is realised instead for Ignatius ev xfi ouovoia upxbv

xf|<; jdaxecoq. "Nothing is better than peace (ouSev eaxiv apxvvov eipnvriq),

in which all war of earthly a n d heavenly things is abolished (ev r\

naq rcoXeuoq Kaxapyeixai ercoupavicov K ai eTuyeicov)." (6B 2.4) W e n ow

see ho w specifically that order is created for Ignatius through the

procession of Son from the Father that continues in the threefold

typology of Bishop, Presbyters a n d Deacons. W e have noted, more

over, h o w that procession from the One Father that returns to the

One Father (7C 2.2) is indicative of a general intellectual culture.

The unity of nature, history, or society is derived from an ultimate

reality in relation to which they are but modes or gradations of the




real, good, and One. It was a yearning that we have argued Plotinus

was to satisfy in a finished ontological system that found its pr io r

express ion in pa ga n an d imper ial as well as Chr ist ian reflections on

the st ructure of reali ty and its reflection in social order .

A consequence for Ignatian doctrine was that the unity of God

needed to be emphasised, with gradations allowed through the per

sons of the Trinity that lead in turn to their legitimating expression

in Church Order. Ignatius often speaks as though Father and Son

wer e bu t gr ad ed mani festations of a single reality. Je su s Chr ist , the

"one physician (eiq iccxpoq)" is y e v v n T O c ; and, pace the Nicen e Cr eed ,

also dyevvnioq.1 3 2

As we have considered in another context (6B 1),

Ignatius speaks of the Ephesians as dva£co7rupr|oavTe<; ev aipa-ci Geou

(Ephes. 1,1). In Rom. 6 he wishes to be a pipr|Tr|<; "of the suffering

of my God (TOU rcdGotx; TOU Geou pou)."1 3 3

T h e au th or of the L onge r

Recension, who may have been himself an Arian, corrected the for

me r, though no t the latter of these expressions in a subo rdi nat ion -

ist direction.1 3 4

W e see, therefore, a Mo na rc hi an t end enc y in Ignati us, not wholly

reconcilab le with his justification of ecclesiastical Orde r , bu t whi ch

ma ny of his successors develo ped in such a directi on. Let us now

turn our attention to three other second century writers who tell us,

before Callistus, nothing directly about Order but clearly participate

in an intellectual culture that seeks an ultimate ontological origin in

its metaphysi cal quest .

7C 2.3. Monarchianism: Athenagoras, Justin and Tatian

As Simonetti has po in ted out, the re was a strongly Mo na rch ia n strand

in the Chris tian apologists of the second ce nt ur y.1 3 5

Aeon specula

tion of Gnostics such as Valent inus an d Basilides was strongly rejected.

T h e emphasi s on the unity of Go d is often at tri but ed to the J ud ai c

132

Ephes. 7,1, cf. J .B. L i g h t f o o t , The Apostolic Fathers. P a r t I S. C l e m e n t of R o m e ,

2, II: S. I g n a t i u s . S. P o l y c a r p , ( L o n d o n : M a c M i l l a n 1 8 8 9 ) , pp. 9 0 - 9 4 .1 3 3

See also Rom. 3,3: &ya7rnv ' I r i a o v X p i o x o v xov Geou \iov cf. S i m o n e t t i ( 1 9 8 6 ) ,

p p . 2 0 2 - 2 0 3 .1 3 4

P s e u d o I g n a t i u s , Rom. 6 r e ta i n s the p h r a s e , but in Rom. 3 it is o m i t t e d a l t o

g e t h e r . In Ephes. t h e r e are e x te n s i v e a l t e r a t i o n s , see Ephes. 1: dva£co7rupr|oavx£<; ev

ai'paxi X p i o x o v and 7: i a x p o q 6e fipcov eaxi 6 povoq dXriGivoc; Geoq, 6 ayevvr|xo<; K a i

drcpoaixoq, 6 xcov otaov Kupioq, xov 8e p o v o y e v o t x ; naxr\p K a i yevvr|xcop. exopev i a x p o v

K a i xov Kt>piov fipcov Geov 'Ir|aovv xov X p i a x o v , xov rcpo aicbvcov vibv povoyevf j K a i

AxSyov.1 3 5

S i m o n e t t i ( 1 9 8 6 ) , pp. 4 4 6 - 4 4 7 .




bac kgr oun d of Mo na rc hi an groups. O n the one ha nd, dyn am ic

Mo na rc hi an s considered Jes us a me re m a n en dow ed with extra

ordinary powers at his baptism, and were characterised later by

Epi phan ius as Ebionites. O n the other, modalistic Mon ar ch ia ni sm

tu rn ed t he persons of the Trin it y into phases or mo des of the divine.

How eve r muc h the Ju da ic backg roun d may have emphasised the

unity of Go d, th at unity, even within Jud a is m, ca me to be expressed,

in the works of Philo and others, in terms of Hellenistic philoso

p h y .1 3 6

By the mid dle of the second cent ury the em br yon ic doct rin e

of the Trini ty begin to assume modali stic features in ot he r wr iters

in addition to Irenaeus.

7C 2 . 3 . 1 . uovocpxia and the Godhead in Justin and Tatian

Ta ti an (A.D. 165), ech oing Ju st in ,1 3 7

expresses the relation of the

Logos to the first principle, which he calls in the following passage

both dpxr| and 6 rcpcoxoq navioq:

By his mere will the Logos sprang forth (6eAr|uaxi 8e xfjq ankox zoq auxou

7ipo7cr|8a Aoyoq) and the Logos, not proceeding in vain (6 8e Aoyo<; ou

Kaxd K E V O U xcoprioaq), he became the firstborn work of the Father (epyov

TcpcoxoxoKov xou rcaxpoq yivexai). The latter we know as the first princi

ple of the world (xouxov i'apev xou K O G U O U XT^V dpxt|v), and he came into

being by part ition (yeyove 8e Kaxd peptapov) and not by section (ou mx'

drcoK07rr|v). For that which is cut off as a section (xo ydp drcoxurjBev) is

separated from its origin (xou rcpcoxou navibq Kexcopiaxai), but what is

divided into parts (xo 8e |iepic0ev), requiring distinction for the sake of

a plan of arrangement (oiKovopiaq xdpiv xf|v Siaipeaiv rcpoataxPov), isnot bereft of the origin from which it came ( O U K ev8ea xov o0ev exkr\n-

xa i 7t£7toir|Kev).

Tatian, Oratio ad Graecos, 5,7-10.

In this passage, as I have argued elsewhere, Tatian is far closer to

the Monarchianism of the later Callistus, to whom Hippolytus in the

Contra Noetum was to ma ke the conciliatory gesture of denyi ng tha t

the Aoyoq d a a p K o q was xzkexoc, uioq before he (it) became taSyoq evoapKoq

through incarnation in the Virgin.1 3 8

In T a t i an the Aoyoq is a cre

ation (epyov TcpcoxoxoKov), albeit inse para ble from its cre at or (ou rax'

1 3 6

P h i l o , De spec, legib I, 13-31 and Peterson ( 1 9 3 5 ) , pp. 23-24 and pp. 107- 108.1 3 7

Justin M a r t y r , Dial., 61,2 where oi) K a i ' arcoxouriv coq eXaxTCoGfjvai xov ev

f|uiv \6yov parallels closely this p a s s a g e . See M. Marcovich (Ed . ) , Tatiani, Oratio

a d G r a e c o s , in PTS 43, ( 1 9 9 5 ) , p. 1.I 3 H

E.g. CJV. 4,8 and 15,7. For other references and a full d i s c u s s i o n , see Brent

( 1 9 9 5 ) , Hippolytus, pp. 210 240.

http://6yov/

http://6yov/

http://6yov/




dt7COK07cf|v) like a burning torch that creates a second one by contact.

It is the image of the bu rn in g torch t hat Ta ti an , like Ju st in before

h i m ,1 3 9

now employs:

For even as many fires are lighted from one torch (coarcep y a p anb piaq

dadb<; dvdrcxexai pev Trupd noXXa), but the light of the first torch is not

diminished because it has been lit from many torches, (xfjq 8e 7tpcbxr|<;

babbc, 8id xf v e avjnv xcov noXk&v 8a8cov oi)K eAxxxxovxai xo cpcoq), so also

the Logos proceeding from the power of the Father (oikco Kai6 Aoyoc;

7ipoeA,0o)v C K xfjq xov naxpbq 8\)vdpeco<;), does not deprive the one who

gave him birth of rational speech ( O V K d^oyov ne7toir|Ke xov yeyevvriKoxa).

Tatian, Oratio ad Graecos, 5, 11-15.

No twit hs tandi ng the parallel with Ju st in , we have seen tha t Apulei us

also, in De Mundo 6, 398a 31-35, made use of the image of the

transmiss ion of light signals to explain th e transmis sion of the divine

power that directs the universe C K piaq cxp%fj<;. In the previous pas

sage too ther e is a simil ar pr eo cc up at io n with cosmic unity in t er ms

of der iva tio n from the on e first pri nciple . T h e Logos procee ds from

the Father as xov K o o p o u TTIV dp%r|v without being cut off from xov

rcpcoTou navxbq.

But Tatian shared a quest for a unified cosmos with the follow

ers of Isis, and indeed with Marcus Aurelius who, as we have seen,

identified Faus tina wit h the religious ic on og ra ph y of a unified na tu re

expressed in a unified imperial order (7A 1.1.3). T h e Isis hy mn from

An dr os spoke of "th e sign of yo ur mo na rc hy , O Q u e e n (aapoc xeaq,

Seorcowa, povapxeiaq),"1 4 0

and Tatian sought such a unified order

whic h he found in the Ju da eo -C hr is ti an tradition. In the perplexity

tha t lead to his conve rsion, he read the Ol d Te st am en t Scrip tures ,

though they appeared "barbaric." He claims:

I was persuaded by these (Kai poi 7teio0f|vai xavxaiq a-uvePrj) because of

(Sid xe). . . the easily intelligible account of the creation of the world

(xfj<; xov rcavxoq

7tovr|Geco<; xo ei)Kaxd^r|7rxov), the foreknowledge of the future(Kai xcov peAAovxcov xo rcpoyvcoaxiKov), . . . and the monarchical doctrine

of the universe (Kai xcov oXxov xo povapxiKOv).

Tatian, Oratio ad Graecos, 29, 11-15.

I i 9

J u s t i n M a r t y r , Dialogus, 61,2: Kai orcoTov erci irupoq opcopev OLXXO y i v o p e v o v , OX>K

e X a x x o D p e v o o e K e i v o v e£ oi) f| dva\} / i< ; yeyovev.1 4 0

W. P e e k , Der hishymnus vonAndros und verwandte Texte, (Ber l in : W e i d m a n n 1 9 3 0 ) ,

p . 15,6 (= T o t t i ( 1 9 8 5 ) no. 2, 6), cf. P e t e r s o n ( 1 9 3 5 ) , p. 21 and p. 105.




Indeed, Tadan disregards the strong, pagan currents that were con

tributing to such a pagan doctrine both in the political ideology of

impe rial power, an d in the deve lopin g, justifying meta phy sic tha t

Apuleius and Plutarch exhibit. Tatian proceeds to attack pagan cul

ture for failing to exercise the principle of founding the religious

order of the cosmos on a single first principle from which all is

derived (uovapxia). As he says:

You Greeks are the sort of people (xoiouxoi xiveq eaxe Kai upeiq, co

"EM,r|ve<;) whose words are fluent, (pnpaai pev axcouuAui) whose ideas

are bizarre (yvcopriv 8' exovxe<; CCAAOKOTOV). YOU practice the rule of the

many rather than of one (Kai xfy 7ioA,uKoipavrnv paAAov rfrep xfiv povapxiav

e£uaKT|oaxe), and are used to following the daemons as if they were

strong (raGdrcep ioxupoiq voui^ovxeq aoyaXeq zolq Saipooi KaxaKO^ouGeiv).

Tatian, Oratio ad Graecos, 14,1-3

In adopting a polytheistic framework he argues therefore that the

Gr aec o- Ro man world is, inconsistendy with the imperi al ideal, attack

ing the uovapxia. His claim har dly did justi ce to the work of Apuleius

and Plutarch, let alone those who constructed the iconography of

the imperial coinage and presided over the development of the

Imperial Cult.

7C 2.3.2. Political structure and the Trinity in Athenagoras

Ta ti an does not explore the relat ionshi p of ontological uov apxi a to

political uovapxia, as opposed being simply parasitic upon the broader

culture in whic h the two conce pts were intertwined . At hen ago ras

conver sely does no t use the wo rd uovapx ia , bu t we find the co ncep t

of de riv ed au thor ity from a single dpxr| clearly drawn in ontology by

analogy with political structure.

Athenagoras begins by addressing the emperors Marcus Aurelius

and C om mo du s (A.D. 176-180) as "phi lo soph ers ."1 4 1

But in the

course of his address he attacks the worship of images (etKoveq) on

the gr ou nd tha t the na me s of those wh o sculpted th em an d thus

br ou gh t t he m int o existence ar e kno wn . "If they are gods (ei xoivuv

Geoi), why were they no t so from the beg inni ng (xi OUK r j o a v e£ dpxf|<;)?

Why are they more recent than their makers (xi8e eiaiv vecoxepoi xcov

ne7coir |K6xcov)?"14 2

He then uses an argument to Marcus Aurelius and

1 4 1 M. M a r c o v i c h (Ed.) , A t h e n a g o r a s , L e g a t i o pro Chris t ian is , in PTS 31, (1 9 9 0 ) , insc.1 4 2

A t h e n a g o r a s , Legatio, 17, 3 4 - 3 5 . See a l s o E. O s b o r n , The Emergence of Christian

Theology, ( C a m b r i d g e : U.P. 1 9 9 5 ) , pp. 1 2 5 - 1 2 9 ; pp. 1 7 4 - 1 7 8 .



304 CHAPTER SEVEN

his son Commodus in which he uses an analogy between the grades

of impe ria l po we r and relations bet ween Fa th er and Son:

May you find it possible to examine by your own efforts also the heav

enly kingdom (e'xoixe 8' dv oruioi dip' eauxcbv Kai xfjv enoupdviov PaaiXeiav

e£exd£eiv); for as all things have been subjected to you, a father and

a son (d>q yapi)piv rcaxpi Kaivicp ndvxa Kexeipcoxai), who have received

your kingdom from above (dvcoGev xfjv p a a i^ e i a v eiXr|(p6aiv), for "the

king's life is in God's hands («paaiAico<; yap \|/i)xr| ev xe i

Pl

Geot>»)," as

the prophetic spirit says ((pnai xo rcpocprixiKov rcveupa), so all things are

subordinated to the one God and the Word that issues from him whom

we consider his inseparable Son (omcoq evi xcp Gecp Kai xcp nap' amov

Xoycp, \)icp voovpevcp dpepiaxcp, rcdvxa imoxexaKxai).

Legatio 18,10-14

He nc e it is the insepa rabl e Son pro ce ed in g from th e true an d ulti

ma te dp%r| tha t guar an tees b ot h cosmic and political or de r whi ch

pagan ism, with its varie ty of myt hs in chao tic discorde r, can not . H e

goes thr ough a nu mbe r of pagan my th s1 4 3

of which he gives a Platonic

critique, and on the following principle:

Each of the beings endowed with divinity by them (eraaxov yap xcov

xeGeoXoyrjpevcov), must be perishable on the grounds that it has a begin-

ing (ox; xfjv dpxrjv e'xov, Kai cpGapxov 8eov e ivai ) . For if they, not existing,

have come into existence (ei ydp yey ovaa iv o\)K ovxeq), as those who the

ologize about them say (cbq oi rcepi avxcbv Geo oyoOvxeq ^eyoDGiv), they

do not exist ( O \ > K eia(v). For either something does not begin its exist

ence (fi ydpdyevrixov xi), and is eternal (Kai eaxiv diSiov), or it come

into existence (fi yevrixov), and is perishable (Kai cpGapxov eaxiv).

Athenagoras, Legatio, 19,1.

At henagor as ther efore is able to pre sen t an apologeti c tour de force.

H e can suggest that the true metap hys ics of orde r, reflected in the

deriv ed po we r of C o m m o d u s from his father, Ma rc us Aurelius , can

not find support in the theologoumena of pagani sm . T h e divine unity

of impe rial society reflects ra th er the rela tionship betw een Fa th eran d Son in the Chri sti an Go dh ead . It was a Platonis ing solution tha t

Plo tinus was lat er to find per suasive , tho ug h wi th a different and

pa ga n acco un t of the unity of the cosmos and its der iva tion from

the One.

Our conclusion must be that iconographic expression of universal

m

C h r o n o s , Z e u s , H e r a , R h e a , O s i r i s , and Isis all come under his censure in

chapters 2 0 - 2 3 .




p o w e r f r o m o n e u n i v e r s a l s o u r c e o r o r i g i n , s u c h a s w e h a v e s e e n

w i t h M a r c u s A u r e l i u s a n d F a u s t i n a I I ( 7 A 1.1.3) i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h

th e Sa rap i s - I s i s m o t i f o n t h e i r co in s , h as f a i l ed t o im p res s Ath en ag o ras .

H e c l e a r ly d o e s n o t s h a r e t h e c o n v i c t i o n s o f P l u t a r c h o r A p u l e i u s

o n t h e u o v a p x i a o f I si s, a n d t h e u n i v e r s a l i t y o f t h e o n e g o d d e s s w i t h

m a n y n a m e s . B u t t h e o n t o l o g y o f t h e C h r i s t i a n G o d h e a d w i t h w h i c h

h e r e p l a c e s s u c h a q u e s t f o r a t h e o l o g y o f i m p e r i a l u n i t y e q u a l l y c a n

s e r v i c e a n i m p e r i a l i s t p o l i t i c a l i d e o l o g y . T h e s p i r i t o f t h e a u t h o r o f

Luke-Acts, a n d h is m e s s a g e t o T h e o p h i l u s a n d h is c i r c le c l e a r l y c o n

t i n u e s i n t h e s e c o n d c e n t u r y .

C e r t a i n l y A t h e n a g o r a s ' l a n g u a g e o f d e r i v a t i o n is t o find e c h o e s i n

l a t e r N e o p l a t o n i s m . H e d o e s n o t d i s t i n g u i s h a T r i n i t y o f p e r s o n s ,

a n d in t h e fo l low ing p as sa ge rcveuuo: i s n o t d i s t in gu ish ed f rom Xoyoc;,

v o u q , o r o o cp ia . E a c h is d e sc r i p t i v e o f t h e n a tu re o f t h e So n :

F or as we say, G od , t he So n his Log os a n d H oly Sp irit (coq ydp 9e6v

(papev, Kai inov xov Xoyov auxou, Kai rcveuua dyiov) are u ni ted in po w er

(evoupeva pev Kaxd 8uvap.iv) bu t dist inguished in ran k (Staipoupeva 8e

Kaxd xd^tv) as th e F at he r, th e S on , a n d th e Sp irit (eiq xov rcaxepa, xov

uiov, xo rcveupa) since th e Son of the Fa the r is min d, Logo s, wis dom ,

a n d th e Sp iri t is effluenc e of G o d , as light f rom fire (oxi vouq, Adyoc;,

oocpia 6 uio<; xou rcaxpoq Kai drcoppoia xou Geou cbq cpcoc; anb jcupoq, xo jw eu ua ).

Legatio 24 ,2 .

O n c e a g a i n , t h e a n a l o g y o f d e r i v a t i o n , o f l i g h t f r o m t h e fire, is r e m

i n i s c e n t o f t h e p o l i t ic a l a n a l o g y o f t h e A r i s t o t e l i a n o r d e r o f t h e c o s

m o s a s A p u l e i u s e x p r e s s e d t h i s , i n a P l a t o n i c f o r m , i n De Mundo 6 ,

3 9 8 a 3 1 -3 5 , an d in d eed u sed a l so b y T a t i an (7 C 2 .3 .1 ) . I t i s s i g n i f i can t

h o w ev er t h a t n o t m e re ly t h e co n c ep t o f x d ^iq b u t a l so t h a t o f d rcop p o ia ,

b o t h f o u n d i n t h i s p a s s a g e , a r e u s e d i n a p o l i t i c a l c o n t e x t .1 4 4

I n t h e H e r m e t i c f r a g m e n t e n t i t l e d K o pu K o o u o u , I sis b e g i n s h e r

s a c r e d d i s c o u r s e . T h e e a r t h e n t r e a t s h e r t h a t t o m a i n t a i n o r d e r a n d

g o o d n e s s a m o n g s t t h e e l e m e n t s it c o n t a i n s : " if n o t y o u r s e l f (KOCV ou

o e a u x o v ) . . . a c e r t a i n s a c r e d e f f l u e n c e o f y o u r s e l f ( o a u x o u x w a i e p d v

d r c o p p o i a v ) . "1 4 5

W e le a r n t h e n t h a t H e r m e s is t o c o m e a s " a n o t h e r

1 4 4

F o r a u s e f u l s u m m a r y o f r e f e r e n c e s t o u s e s o f a r c o p p o i a a n d c o g n a t e s , s e e

J . A m a n n , D i e Z e u s r e d e d e s A i l i o s A r i s t e i d e s, i n TBA 1 2 ( 1 9 3 1 ) , p . 7 5 a n d P e t e r s o n

( 1 9 3 5 ) , p p . 2 3 - 2 5 ; 1 1 0 - 1 1 1 .1 4 5

A . D . N o c k a n d A . J . F e s t u g i e r e , C o r p u s H e r m e t i c u m I V : F r a g m e n t s e x t r a i t s

d e S t o b e e , I V , i n Collection des U niversites de France, Association Guillaume Bude, (Paris :S o c i e t e d ' E d i t i o n « L e s B e l l e s L e t t r e s » 1 9 5 4 ) , F r a g m e n t X X I I I (= S t o b a e u s , I , 4 1 ,

44) , 6 2 , 1 9 - 2 0 .

http://8uvap.iv/

http://8uvap.iv/



306 CHAPTER SEVEN

effluence from my n a ture (exepa ydp ev uuiv xi<; r\5r\ xr\q eufjq drcoppoia

(puaecoq) who shall also be the holy examiner of all that is done (oq

5f| Kai ocioq eoxai xcov rcpaxxouevcov EKOKXJ]^) . . . "1 4 6

But the drcoppoia does not en d with He r mes alone . W h e n Ho ru s

asks his mother by whom the terrestrial sphere is to be ordered, Isis

replies by "the one wh o becom es em pe ro r from ti me to time (6 m i d

mipov yevouevog Paa iêu q.). " She con tinues:

For, my child, the gods give birth to emperors (yevvcooi ydp, cb xeicvov,

paaiêiq) who are worthy of their earthly progeny (oi 0eoi enafyoxx; xr\q

eTiiyeio-u yovfiq). And rulers are emanations of the emperor (Kai eiaiv oi

ap%ovxe<; xot> PaaiAicoc; dnoppoiai), and the ruler amongst whom is near

est to him (G OV 6 udAAov eKeivco nXr\oiov) is also more royal than the

others (ot>xo<; K ai xcov dMcov paaiXiKcoxepoq). For the sun, as it is nearer

to God (6 uev ydp TIXIOQ , Ka06 eyyiov eaxi xov 0eo\>), is greater and more

powerful than the moon (xfjq oekr\vr\q erciuei cov K a i 8\)vauiKcbxepo<;) . . .

Corpus Hermeticum, Fragment 2 4 , 1 - 2

T h u s we find th e divine ord er of wh at is elsewhe re descr ibed as Isis'

uovapx ia pervades thr ough existence to divine mo na rc hy in the earthly

political sphere. The emperor here, like Caracalla as Koojioicpdxcop,

is the source from wh ic h all ot he r divine political po we r ema na te s

to the dpxovxeq. A view of the worl d as ord erl y em ana ti on der ived

from a Platonised Aristotelianism once again presupposes a refuta

tion of a Gnos ti ci sm th at ma d e th e ae on ic dpxovxeq xou K O O U O U the

source of cosmi c disorde r an d imper fecti on.

At he na go ra s finally de scribes the Ho ly Spirit, w h o m he identifies

with the Son who is vouq, oocpia, and Aoyoq, as we have seen, in

the following terms:

The same Holy Spirit that empowers (mixoi K a i avxb xo evepyovv) those

who proclaim prophetically (xoiq eKcpcovouoi 7tpoq>rixiKcb<;) we say is the

effluence of God (dyiov Ttvevuxx drcoppoiav eivai (pauev xov 0eov) which

flows forth from him (drcoppeov) and returns (K a i eTcavacpepojievov) like

the rays of the sun (ox; dKxiva f|A,(o\)). Who then would not be amazed

(x(q ovv o\)K dv drcopricai) if he heard of men called atheists (aKovoaq

d0eov<; Katayouevouc;) who bring forward God the Father, God the Son

and the Holy Spirit (xoix; dyovxaq 0e6v rcaxepa Kai mov 0e6v Kai KVEVLIOL

dyiov), and who proclaim both their power in their unity (5eiKv\>vxa<;

avxcbv K a i xf)v ev xfi evcoaei 8\)vauiv) and their diversity in rank (Kai xfjv

xfi xdêi Sia(peaiv).

Athenagoras, Legatio 1 0 , 4 - 5 .

Corp. Herm., F r a g . XXIII (= S t o b a e u s , I, 41, 44), 62, 19 21.




Certainly Athenagoras' language here can be paralleled in pagan

Mo na rc hi an is m as it sought to expl ain all divinity as der ived from

a single dcp%r|. Aelius Aristides, his pagan contemporary, speaks of

Zeus as the dpxu. and the divinity of the other gods as derivation

(dTtoppofi).1 4 7

Thus though Athenagoras does not use the term uovapxia,

he is nevertheless involved in the same conceptual world as Tatian

and, as we shall see, Theophilus, who clearly did. Political power

an d der ive d authori ty is clearly seen by ana log y with the rays of the

sun, ju st as in the Corpus Hermeticum and in the coinage of Caracalla.

'Arcoppoicc as a ter m for emanat ion or deriva tion in na ture is app lied

to the pagan political structure in explication of the concept of an

empire of unity in diversity.

Clearly therefore Athenagoras' analogy between the derivation of

auth ori ty by em an at io n or effluence within the Godh e a d and the

derivative relationship bet ween his son Co mm o du s and the em pe ro r

Marcus Aurelius was sustained by both the pagan religious back

ground and the supportive Platonism that gave that background its

intellectual credibility. There was also a pagan uovapxia in accord

ance with which divine political power overflowed from the one

Em pe ro r an d th ro ug h the one Em pi re , just as in na tu re all was sub

ordinate to the uia dpxu..

Let us finally look at the concept of uovapxia as it frequently

appears in Theophilus, who might well have been employing the

concept of uovapxia in an argument similar to that of Athenagoras

who strongly implies the term even though he does not use it.

7C 2 . 3 . 3 . Theophilus and the pagan quest for the uovapxia

We have seen how Tatian used the term uovapxia against pagans

on the grounds that in their polytheism they were denying a con

cept, bo th ontological an d imperial , to which they wer e otherwise

com mi tt ed . The ophi lu s will now challenge the ability of pa ga n reli

gion to be able to use philosophy to produce its required ontologi

cal uovapxia.

1 4 7 A e l i u s A r i s t i d e s , Eiq Aia, 7,9: Z e i x ; . . . rcpoxepov auxoq eavxov e£ eauxoi) ercoi-

r|G£v K a i o u S e v rcpoae8ef|U> | ex ep o u eiq xo e i v a i , aXX' a u x o x o v v a v x i o v r c d v x a e i v a i arc'

eKeivou r jp^axo . K a i O U K e a x i X p o v o v eiTteiv • o u 8 e yap xpovoq r\v TWO rcoxe, oxi uTjSe aXXo

u r | 8 e v S n u i o v p y o i ) yap epy ov ou Se v ea xi rcpeapvxepov. ouxco 5f| dpxrj uev drcavxcov Zevq

xe K a i £ K Aibq rcdvxa; 7,15: coaxe mi 0ecov oaa (puXa drcoppofiv xf|<; Aioq TOX> rcdvxcovT t a x p o q 8\)vdueco<; e m a x a e'xei. (= B. K e i l , Aelii Aristidis Smyrnaei, opera quae supersunt

omnia, (Ber l in : W e i d m a n n 1 8 9 7 ) , II, pp. 339 347).



308 CHAPTER SEVEN

Justin Martyr had claimed that the basic philosophical agenda in

the second century consisted in inquiries (£nxr|G£i<;) about the ulti

mat e first principle (rcepi uovapxia<;) and abou t the divine foreknowledge

(rcpovoiaq).14 8

Certainly Theophilus (A.D. 180) is con ce rned with the

uovapx ia as such . But thou gh he is co mm it te d to the basic que st for

the uia dpxu., both religious and philosophical, which he shares with

his pa ga n contempora ries , he nevertheless denies their par tic ula r solu

tion to the quest, c om mo n in the late secon d century, to bo th Pa ga n

and Christian.

It is in the light of his failure to fulfil the second cent ur y agenda

of discove ring an ul tima te first princip le th at Plato, ac co rd in g to

The oph ilus, is to be ju dg ed . By denyin g the creat ion of ma tt er tha t

exists therefore eternally alongside an uncreated God, Plato presents

an account that fails to demonstrate the uovapxia:

But if God is uncreated (ei 8e 6 9e6<; dyevrixo<;) and matter is uncreated

(Kai V X T \ dyeVnxcx;), then, according to the Platonists God is not the

Maker of the Universe ( O U K exi 6 9e6<; rcovnxr)*; xcov 6X,cov eaxiv Kaxd xoix;

nXaxcoviKouq), and, as far as they are concerned, the unique sover

eignty of God is not demonstrated (ou5e pr|v povapxia 0eou 5eiicvuxai,

oaov xo Kax' auxouq).

Theophilus, Ad Autolycum, 2,4-6.

It was not however simply the secondary, philosophy of religion that

had failed but the primary religious discourses themselves. He labours

to de mo ns tr at e the contrad ict ions of the poets , since "nevertheless

they introduce a multitude of gods (KXT\V Kai rcA,r|9uv 0ecov eioriyayov)

or else spoke of one single ultimate origin (r\ K a i uovapxiav eutov)."1 4 9

But why sho uld the first cause of the univer se be clea r to p agan

poets without divine revelation such as the prophets possessed as

they were moved by the prophetic spirit? Theophilus' explanation is

that sometimes the poe ts, shakin g off the dae mon possession t ha t

pe rs ua de d th em otherwise, "ma de stat emen ts (eiitov) in a gr ee me nt

with those of the prophets (aKoAouGa xoi<; Tcpocprixaiq) in order to bear

witness to themselves (ox; eiq uapxupiov eauxoiq) a nd all me n (x e K a i

rcaaiv dvOpamou;) concerning the monarchia of God (rcepi x e Geou uovap-

Xiaq) . . ."1 5

°

Theophilus does not bring out any explicit political analogies with

1 4 8

Justin Dial. 1,3: xi ydp; ox>x oi cpiXoaocpoi rcept Geov xov drcavxa rcoiovvxai taSyov,

e K e i v o q e'Xeye, K a i rcepi uovapxia*; ai>xoi<; K a i rcpovoiaq ai £ r i x T | a e i < ; yivovxai emaxoxe;

TI oi) xorno epyov eaxi <piA.oao(p(a<;, e^exd^eiv 7cepi xov Beicu.I 4 < )

Theophilus of Antioch, Ad Autolyc, 2,8,6.130

Ad Autolyc, 2,8.



P A G A N A N D C H R I S T I A N M O N A R C H I AN I SM 3 0 9

th e o n to l o g y o f povccpxioc. B u t we h a v e s een th a t T a t i a n d o e s so ,

w h i l s t s h a r i n g t h e g e n e r a l p e r s p e c t i v e o f t h e s e a r c h f o r t h e o n e u l t i

m a t e o r i g i n . T h a t q u e s t , w e h a v e e m p h a s i s e d , i n t h e Weltanschauung

o f t h e s e c o n d a n d e a r l y t h i r d c e n t u r y , w a s n o t s i m p l y to d o w i t h

p h y s i c a l n a t u r e b u t w i t h h u m a n s o c i e ty a n d h i s to r y a s w e l l . B e t w e e n

T a t i a n a n d T h e o p h i l u s , a n d c l ea r ly s h a r i n g t h e i r c o m m o n o n t o l o g

i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e , c a m e A t h e n a g o r a s , w h o w h i l s t n o t u s i n g p o v o c p % { a

e x p l ic i tl y , is w e l l a w a r e o f t h e p o l i t ic a l a n a l o g y d r a w n f r o m t h e o n t o

l o g y o f t h e u l t i m a t e c a u s e o r firs t p r i n c i p l e .1 5 1

I h a v e a r g u e d t h a t

t h e i r c o m m o n a p o l o g e t i c p r o j e c t c a n n o t b e d i v o r c e d f r o m t h e i r s y n c r e -

t is ti c, p a g a n re l ig i o u s a n d p h i l o s o p h i c a l b a c k g r o u n d s . T h e a n a l o g i e s

o f l i g h t, t h e s u n ' s r a y s , o f e m a n a t i o n a n d d e r i v a t i o n , a r e e x e m p l i f i e d

b o t h b y g e n e r a l r e l i g i o u s p h i l o s o p h y a n d b y t h e s p e c i f i c i c o n o g r a

p h y a n d c la i m s o f t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t .

N e i t h e r J u s t i n , n o r T a t i a n , n o r A t h e n a g o r a s , n o r T h e o p h i l u s , d e

s c r ib e i n a n y d e t a i l t h e o r g a n i s a t i o n o f t h e i r c o m m u n i t i e s . T h e o p h i l u s ,

w r i t i n g in t h e la t e s e c o n d c e n t u r y , w a s o n e o f t h e e p i s c o p a l s u c c e s

s o rs o f I g n a t i u s o f A n t i o c h . H o w e v e r , t h e r e is n o d i s c u s si o n o f C h u r c h

O r d e r a n d its r e l a t i o n t o a w i d e r t h e o l o g y o f t h e G o d h e a d , as w a s

t h e c a s e i n I g n a t i u s o f A n t i o c h . W e h a v e b e e n a b l e t o s t u d y t h e i r

v ie w s o n t h e C h r i s t i a n G o d h e a d a n d its m o n a r c h i c a l o r d e r a s a

r e fl e c ti o n b o t h o f p a g a n o n t o l o g y a n d o f i m p e r i a l o r d e r . W e h a v e

n o t h o w e v e r b e e n a b l e t o e x a m i n e h o w i m p e r i a l o r d e r , a n d s p e c i f i c a l l y

i m p e r i a l o r d e r e x p r e s s e d i n t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t , w a s a l s o e x p r e s s e d i n

C h u r c h O r d e r , a s w e w e r e a b l e t o d o in t h e c a s e o f I g n a t i u s .

B u t c o n c u r r e n t w i t h t h e S e v e r a n r e f o r m a t i o n , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t h e

fo rm in to wh ich E lag ab a lu s was t o t ry u n su cces s fu l ly t o p re s s i t , we

w i t ne s s a ls o a n a t t e m p t e d r e v o l u t i o n i n C h u r c h O r d e r in w h i c h

C a l l is t u s w a s i n v o l v e d a s p r i m e m o v e r . W e w i t n e s s a l so a M o n a r c h i a n

t h eo lo g y i n C h u r c h O r d e r p r o p o u n d e d b y t h e a d v o c a t e o f a m o n a r c h -

b i s h o p o v e r a ll t h e h o u s e - c h u r c h e s o f t h e f r a c t io n a l i s e d R o m a n c o m

m u n i t y . W e a r e , c o m e t h e s e e v e n t s , i n a b e t t e r p o s i t i o n t o s t u d y t h e

r e l a t io n s h i p b e t w e e n a M o n a r c h i a n t h e o l o g y a n d a M o n a r c h i a n

C h u r c h O r d e r , a n d its c o n t r a - c u l t u r a l r e la t i o n s h i p w i t h a n i m p e r i a l

o r d e r t h a t h a s d e v e l o p e d i n a f o r m a l l y s i m i l a r w a y .

I t is t o a c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f t h is r e l a t i o n s h i p t h a t w e n o w t u r n f or

o u r f in al a n d c o n c l u d i n g c h a p t e r .

1 , 1 J . B a d e w i e n , D i e A p o l o g e t e n u n d T e r t u l l i a n , i n S c h i n d l e r ( 1 9 7 8 ) , p p . 3 2 - 3 3 ,

f ai ls t o g r a s p t h e r e l a t i o n o f a ll t h r e e A p o l o g i s t s t o a c o n c e p t u a l b a c k c l o t h t h a t t h e y

c l e a r l y s h a r e d .



C H A P T E R E I G H T

T H E E M E R G E N C E O F I M P E R I A L A N D

C A T H O L I C O R D E R

Elagabalus and Callistus:

A M onarchian Episcopate for an Imperial Monarchy

I n A . D . 2 1 8 , f o l lo w i n g t h e a s s a s s i n a t i o n o f C a r a c a l l a t h e y e a r b e f o r e ,

V a r i u s A v i t u s B a s s i a n u s as e m p e r o r a s s u m e d t h e ti tl e o f M a r c u s

A u r e l i u s A n t o n i n u s . H e t o o k t h e a d d i t i o n a l tit le o f E l a g a b a l u s , t h e

n a m e o f h is f a v o u r e d d e i t y , a n d a t t e m p t e d t o i n t r o d u c e i n t o R o m e

th e cu l t o f Sol Invictus Elagabal, tha t i s to say the cu l t o f Sol Invictus

i n i ts sp ec if i cal ly S y r i an fo rm , a s t h e u n iv e r s a l r e l i g io n o f t h e E m p i r e .

T h a t a t t e m p t , c h a r a c t e r i s e d b y t h e i m p o s i t i o n o f t h e sp ec if ic r i t u a la n d p r ie s t l y d r e s s o f t h e f o r m o f a c u l t t h a t w a s a l ie n t o R o m a n

c u l t u r e , f ail ed f or t h a t r e a s o n . It is i m p o r t a n t h o w e v e r t o e m p h a s i s e

th a t i t was n o t a f a i l u re o f t h e p ro ces s o f sy n c re t i sm itself, h o w e v e r

m u c h t h i s m i g h t b e s u g g e s t e d b y t h e damnatio memoriae o f E l a g a b a l u s

himself, b u t t h e fa i lu r e o f a k i n d o f f u n d a m e n t a l i s m i n it s o w n w a y

i n i m i c a l t o s u c h a s y n c r e t i s m .

P a r a l l e l w i t h t h e s e e v e n t s , w e h a v e , d e s c r i b e d in P s e u d o - H i p p o l y t u s ,Refutatio, I X , 6 - 1 3 , 2 , a n a t t e m p t e d r e li gi o us r e f o r m a t i o n o f t h e R o m a n

c o m m u n i t y b y C a l l i s tu s , in w h i c h w e h a v e a m o v e m e n t t o w a r d s

m o n a r c h i c a l e p i s c o p a te a c c o m p a n i e d b y a n a d v o c a c y of u o v a p x i a

i n t h e g o d h e a d . C a l li s tu s a p p e a r e d t o T e r t u l l i a n a s b e h a v i n g lik e a

p a g a n Pontifex Maximus i n t r y i n g t o b e c o m e episcopus episcoporum} I n

d o i n g so h e , a s p u t a t i v e b i s h o p o f R o m e , w a s b u t m a k i n g s i m i l a r

c l a i m s t o t h o s e o f t h e e m p e r o r E l a g a b a l u s , as Pontifex Maximus o f asy n c re t i sm t h a t fo u n d i t s fin al ex p re s s io n in t h e Ba a l o f E m e sa a s

Sol Invictus. A s a M o n a r c h i a n t h e o l o g i a n , h e w a s l o o k i n g f o r t h e u l t i

m a t e p r i n c i p l e in t h e g o d h e a d f r o m w h i c h al l l e ss e r b e i n g s o r p e r s o n s

w er e d e r iv ed , j u s t a s E l a g a b a lu s co u ld f in d t h a t p r in c ip l e i n Sol Invictus.

B o t h e m p e r o r a n d p u t a t i v e p o p e w e r e r e f le c t in g , i n t h e i r o w n w a y ,

1 A . B r en t , H i p p o l y t u s a n d t h e R o m a n C h u r c h in t h e T h i r d C e n t u r y : C o m m u n i t i e s

i n T e n s i o n b e f o r e t he E m e r g e n c e o f a M o n a r c h - B i s h o p , i n Suppl.VCh. 3 1 ( 1 9 9 5 ) ,

p p . 5 1 1 5 1 2 .



T H E E M E R G E N C E O F IM P E R IA L A N D C A T H O L I C O R D E R 3 1 1

2

H e r o d i a n , V , 5 , 1 - V I , 1 ,3 ; D i o C a s si u s , 7 8 , 3 1 , 2 - 7 9 , 2 1 , 2 ; S H A , Heliogab.; cf.

G . H . H a l s b e r g h e , T h e C u l t o f S o l I n v i c t u s , i n EPRO 2 3 (1 9 7 2 ) , p p . 6 2 - 7 8 .

< CIL 8 , 8 2 0 3 .

i d e a l s o f i m p e r i a l u n i t y i n t h e s o c i e ti e s o v e r w h i c h t h e y c l a i m e d t o

h a v e t h e right t o r u l e a b s o l u t e l y . W e m u s t n o w e x a m i n e t h e r e l a

t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t h e s e p a r a l l e l e v e n t s i n t h e l ig h t o f m y th e s i s t h a t

t h e d y n a m i c a n d p a r a l l e l d e v e l o p m e n t o f I m p e r i a l a n d C h r i s t i a n

O r d e r b e u n d e r s t o o d d i a le c t ic a l ly a n d i n t e r a c ti v e l y i n t e r m s o f a s o c i o

l o g i c a l t h e o r y o f c o u n t e r - c u l t u r e .

L e t u s b e g i n w i t h E l a g a b a l u s a n d h is p l a c e i n t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f

t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t .

P A R T A . E L A G A B A L U S A N D U N I V E R S A L M O N O T H E I S M

W e h a v e s e e n i n t h e c a s e o f I sis a n d S a r a p i s , a n d o f t h e i m a g e o f

Sol Invictus w i t h w h i c h t h a t w o r s h i p h a d b e e n a s s o c i a t e d a n d w h o s e

i c o n o g r a p h y S e p t i m i u s a n d C a r a c a l l a h a d a l so e m p l o y e d , a c l e a r c o n

f lu e n ce a n d a b s o r p t i o n o f a p o l y t h e i s m i n t o a n o r d e r e d m o n o t h e i s m

( 7 A 2 . 1 - 2 . 2 ) . T h e w o r s h i p o f C y b e l e t o o h a d r e f le c t e d s i m i l a rl y t h e

d i v i n e i m p e r i a l p o w e r (7 A 1 .2). E l a g a b a l u s , w h o s e re l i g i o u s p r a c t i c e sc a n n o t b e c o n s i d e r e d n o r m a t i v e , d i d h im s e l f j o i n t h e r a n k s o f t h a t

p r i e s t h o o d , w a s c a s t r a t e d a n d i n f i b u l a t e d , a n d p l a c e d t h e s t a t u e o f

Magna Mater i n h i s o w n f a v o u r e d s a n c t u a r y o f t h e B a a l o f E m e s a .2

B u t A n t o n i n u s P i u s b e f o r e h i m h a d i n t r o d u c e d t h e taurobolium i n t o

h e r c u l t t h a t w a s p e r f o r m e d e x p r e s s l y pro salute imperatoris as wel l as

o n o c c a s i o n s pro salute totius domus divinae? W e h a v e a l r e a d y w i t n e s se d ,

e v e n b e f o r e t h e S e v e r a n s , e x a m p l e s o f t h e a s s i m i l a t i o n o f c u l t s f or m e r l y s a n i t i s e d i n t o t h e i m m e d i a t e c i r c l e o f c u l t s o f f er e d o n b e h a l f

o f t h e e m p e r o r (7 A 1.2-1.2.1).

W e wi tn es se d a sy n c re t is t ic p ro c es s o n th e p a r t o f t h e ea r ly Im p e r i a l

C u l t i n w h i c h o t h e r h i t h e r t o i n d e p e n d e n t d e i ti e s w e r e a s s i m i l a t e d

w i t h t h e w o r s h i p o f t h e e m p e r o r a n d r e l a t e d t o t h is i n a n e w w a y .

O n e e x a m p l e o f t h a t p r o c e s s w a s t o d e s c r i b e t h e v a r i o u s d e if ie d

V i r t u e s b y t h e a d d i t i o n o f v a r i a n t s o f augustus, s o t h a t t h e d i v i n eV i r t u e s b e c a m e p a r t o f t h e c o ll e ct iv e p e r s o n a l i t y o f t h e e m p e r o r

( 2B 3 ). A n o t h e r e x a m p l e w a s th e r e c e p t i o n o f a n e m p e r o r s u c h a s

H a d r i a n i n to t h e cu l t o f D io n y su s so t h a t h e b e co m es a v eo q Aio v u a io q

( 6 B 2 ) , b u t m o r e t h a n s i m p l y a n o r d i n a r y in i t i a t e . B u t w h a t is n e w



3 1 2 C H A P T E R E I G H T

i n t h e s e c o n d c e n t u r y is c l e a r ly b o t h t h e a d o p t i o n o f u n i v e r s a l e a s t e r n

d e i t ie s a n d t h e i r c u l t s , a n d t h e i r a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h t h e i m p e r i a l i m a g e

i n o r d e r t o e x p r e s s i m p e r i a l u n i t y m o r e c o m p r e h e n s i v e l y .

I n s u p p o r t o f E l a g a b a l u s ' r e f o r m s , t h e r e h a d b e e n a r e c o g n i t i o n

o f t h e S y r i a n A r t a g a t i s , a g o d d e s s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a n u m b e r o f S y r i a n

B a a ls s u c h a s H a d a d . F u r t h e r m o r e t h e r e w a s a ls o M i t h r a i s m , w h o s e

sy n th es i s w i th t h e cu l t o f Sol Invictus s h o u l d n o t , a s H a l s b e r g h e h a s

a r g u e d , b l i n d u s t o t h e s e p a r a t e e x i s t e n c e o f t h is c u l t w i t h c l a i m s t o

o n e p e d i g r e e i n t r a d i t i o n a l R o m a n r e l i g i o n .4

T h e a m b i g u i t y a l s o c o n

t i n u e d w h e n t h e e m p e r o r w a s b o t h h i g h p r i e s t a n d o b j e c t o f h i g h -

p r i e s t l y a c t i o n o f c u l t o f f er e d b y a n d t o t h e s a m e p e r s o n . T h u s t h e

e v e n t s o f t h e r e i g n o f E l a g a b a l u s w e r e t o w i t n e s s , n o t a d e f e a t , b u t

a s e t b a c k t o t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e s o l ar m o n o t h e i s m t o w a r d s w h i c h

t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t w a s m o v i n g , i n c o m b i n a t i o n w i t h o t h e r m a j o r r e l i

g i o u s m o v e m e n t s w i t h w h i c h i t h a d a s s o c i a t e d itself.

A l t h o u g h a m a r r i a g e t o a V e s t a l V i r g i n l e a d t o g r e a t o u t r a g e i n

a R o m a n c u l t u r a l c o n t e x t i n w h i c h t h e r e w a s c l ea r ly n o c o m p r e

h e n s i o n o f s u c h E a s t e r n a n d S y r i a n j u s t if i c a ti o n s , h is t h i r d m a r r i a g e

d i d n o t . H i s m a r r i a g e t o A n n i a F a u s t i n a w a s m a r k e d b y t h e t r a n s

l a t i o n o f t h e i m a g e o f t h e g o d d e s s Dea Caelestis f ro m C a r t h a g e a n d

N o r t h A f r i c a i n o r d e r t o e n t e r h i s Elagabalium, a n d b e c o m e p a r t o f

the cu l t o f Sol Invictus. H o w e v e r , a t e m p l e t o t h a t c u l t h a d e x i s te d

o n t h e P a l a t i n e s i n c e 2 0 4 B . C . , w i t h s o m e o f t h e c o n s t r a i n t s c o n

n e c t e d w i t h its w o r s h i p h a v i n g b e e n r e m o v e d b y C l a u d i u s . E l a g a b a l u s

c l e a r l y h a d t r i e d t o o h a r d t o e x p e d i t e a p r o c e s s o f s y n c r e t i s m t h a t

w a s a l r e a d y p r o g r e s s i n g , a l b e i t w i t h o u t t h e a c c o m p a n i m e n t o f c h i l d

s a c r i f i c e s a n d c a s t r a t e d p r i e s t s .5

T h e r e w a s c l e a r ly a w i d e s p r e a d u s e o f s y n c r e ti s ti c i c o n o g r a p h y t o

r e i n f o r c e i m p e r i a l i d e o l o g y . S e p t i m i u s a n d C a r a c a l l a h a d u s e d a v a r i

e t y o f i m a g e s f r o m v a r i o u s c u l ts d u l y s y n c r e t i s e d . E l a g a b a l u s ' m i s t a k e

h a d b e e n p a r a d o x i c a l l y t o d e n y t h a t s y n c r e t i s m in p r a c t i c e t h r o u g h

t h e i m p o s i t i o n o f t h e r i t u a l o f h i s o n e , f a v o u r e d c u l t , a n d b y s u b o r

d i n a t i n g o t h e r d e it ie s t o h is o w n r a t h e r t h a n a c k n o w l e d g i n g t h a t a ll

w e r e , a s it w e r e , c o n s u b s t a n t i a l a n d c o - e t e r n a l w i t h e a c h o t h e r . I n

th i s r e s p e c t h i s m i s t ak e m a y h av e b e en th eo lo g ica l a s we l l a s p o l i t i

c a l . H e s i m p l y h a d n o t r e a l i s e d t h a t t h e B a a l o f E m e s a w a s s i m p l y

4 V a r r o , De Re Rustica, 1 , 1 , 5 ; D i o n y s i o s o f H a l i c a r n a s s u s , Antiqu. Rom., 1 1 , 5 0 , 3 ;T a c i t u s , Annal. X V , 4 1 , 1 ; 7 4 , 1 a n d H a l s b e r g h e ( 1 9 7 2 ) , c h a p . 2 .

s H a l s b e r g e ( 1 9 7 2 ) , p p . 8 4 8 8 .



T H E E M E R G E N C E O F I M P E RI A L A N D C A T H O L I C O R D E R 3 1 3

6 Ibid. C h a p t e r 5 .7

B r e n t ( 1 9 9 5 ) , p p . 3 8 8 - 4 5 7 .8 Ibid. p p . 4 2 4 - 4 3 1 .

o n e m o r e i m a g e o r a s p e c t o f t h e o n e li g h t b e y o n d t h e m a l l, j u s t a s

d e a d a n d d e i f i e d e m p e r o r s s t o o d f o r t h e c o l l e c t i v e a n d n o t i n d i v i d u a l

i m p e r i a l v i r t u e s . T h e c o n s p i r a c y t h a t s w e p t h i m a w a y i n A . D . 2 2 2 ,

l a u n c h e d b y J u l i a M a m a e a h is a u n t a n d h e r s o n S e v e r u s A l e x a n d e r ,

h i s c o u s i n , w a s n o t t o h a l t t h e s y n c r e t i s t i c d e v e l o p m e n t t h a t w a s t o

l e a d t o a s o l a r m o n o t h e i s m r e f le c t e d i n a u n i v e r s a l m o n a r c h y .6

O u r th e s is h a s b e e n t h a t t h e a u t h o r i t y s t r u c t u r e o f C h r i s t i a n c o m

m u n i t i e s t h a t w e r e to f o r m t h e G r e a t C h u r c h d e v e l o p e d , a s c o n t r a -

c u l t u r e s d e v e l o p , i n d i a l e c t i c a l r e l a t i o n s h i p t o t h e a u t h o r i t y s t r u c t u r e

o f t h e w i d e r c u l t u r e in w h i c h t h e y a r i se . W e m u s t n o w a s k h o w t h e

d e v e l o p m e n t s i n t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t w i t n e s s e d i n E l a g a b a l u s 5 p a g a n

e m p i r e f o u n d t h e i r r e fl ec ti on i n t h e C h r i s t i a n R o m a n C o m m u n i t y

o f C a l l is t u s a n d h is a n o n y m o u s o p p o n e n t , t h e a u t h o r o f t h e Elenchos.

P A R T B . C A L L I S T U S , M O N A R C H B I SH O P S A N D M O N A R C H I A N I S M

W e h a v e a l r e a d y e m p h a s i s e d h o w t h e p r o c e s s o f t h e o l o g i c a l r e f le c t io nw i t h i n e a r l y C h r i s t i a n c o m m u n i t i e s a t t h e e n d o f t h e s e c o n d c e n

t u r y p a r a l l e l e d s u c h p a g a n d e v e l o p m e n t s (7 C ) . A s i m i l a r , p a r a l l e l

p r o c e s s o f s y n c r e t i s m r e fl e c te d in C h u r c h O r d e r w a s a l so p r o c e e d

i n g . I h a v e a l r e a d y m e n t i o n e d t h e C l e m e n t i n e Homilies, i n w h i c h

J a c o b e a n a n d P e t r i n e t r a d i t i o n s flow t o g e t h e r i n t o a u n i t y e x p r e s s e d

c r y p t o g r a m i c a l l y in t h e p s e u d o n y m o u s l e t te r s w i t h w h i c h t h is w o r k

b e g i n s ( 7 C 1). B u t w i t h t h e d o c u m e n t s in w h i c h C a l l i s tu s p r e f i g u r e s ,w e a r e i n a p o s i t i o n t o e v a l u a t e s p e ci f ic a l ly d e v e l o p m e n t s in t h e

a u t h o r i t y s t r u c t u r e o f t h e C h r i s t i a n c o m m u n i t y t h a t d i r e c t l y p a r a l l e l

t h e E l a g a b a l a n r e f o r m a t i o n .

8B 1 . Callistus' revolution in Church Order

C a l l i s t u s , a s I h a v e a r g u e d i n d e t a i l e l s e w h e r e , w a s n o t a P o p e i n

t h e la t e r se n s e b u t p r e s i d e d o v e r a g r o u p o f h o u s e c h u r c h e s w i t h

l oo se b o n d s o f i n t e r c o m m u n i o n b e t w e e n t h e p r e s i d i n g e7UGK07to< ; -

7tpeaPuT£po<; o f e a c h i n d i v i d u a l c o m m u n i t y .7

T h e p r e s b y t e r s , l i k e t h e i r

c o u n t e r p a r t s i n t h e J e w i s h s y n a g o g u e , d id m e e t f o r m a l l y fo r d is c u s

s i o n s , a h e a t e d e x a m p l e o f w h i c h is f o u n d i n El. I X , 1 2 , 1 5 - 1 6 .8



314 C H A P T E R E I G H T

They did have at their head a chairman-secretary, who, as Lampe

also argued,9

supervised the distribution of letters from ext ern al

Churches amongst the house-churches, and w ho was responsible for

writing replies where necessary on behalf of all the groups. Clement

of Rome had be en such a figure, an d, if n o t identical with him, also

the Clement of Hermas Vis. II, 4 , 2 ~ 3 , w ho had such a function

entrusted to him ( e T U T e T p o m a i ) as his ministry.1 0

T h e pu rp os e of Callistus' refo rmat ion was to re duc e the semi-

autonomous congregations to a monarchical whole with himself as

monarch-bishop at the centre. His method in executing the revolu

tion was to exercise a policy of leniency in matters of discipline.

Callistus was prepared to admit to his house-church those w ho had

been ex com mun ica ted f o r various sins from ot her house-c hurche s in

Rome. Those house-churches had always, as Ignatius' Romans, insc.

(TT\ e K K ^ n o i o c . . . r i n g K a i 7 ipoKd0r | xa i ev xon& xcopiou Tcopaicov), or fo r

that matter Paul's Romans 16, ma ke clear, regarded themselves together

n o t as separate churches but constituting the one church of Rome.

A ma rk of this unity was in te rc om mu ni on m ar ke d by the exc han ge

of the fermentum between themselves.

A gro up such as the Qua rt od ec im an s had been exc omm uni cat ed,

and the means was presumably that the other congregations ceased

to exchange the fermentum with them.1 1

Marcion and Valentinus had

left, with their followers, of their own accord .1 2

It is against such a

backcloth that we must understand Callistus' strategy. His offence,

in the eyes of the author of the Elenchos, was not t h a t Callistus was

an anti-Pope erected against his ow n lawful papacy. This author

never claims to possess himself what Callistus had only thought,

according to him, that he now possessed as the object of his ambi

tions and the reforms which he initiated.1 3

Callistus had rather b r o

ken the disciplinary conve ntion of n o t co mm un ic at in g with those

wh om anoth er presiding presbyter of another house-church has excom-

9

P. L a m p e , Die s t a d t r o m i s c h e n C h r i s t e n in den e r s te n b e i d e n J a h r h u n d e r t e n ,

in WUKT 2,18 ( 1 9 8 9 ) , cf. B r e n t ( 1 9 9 5 ) , pp. 3 8 8 - 4 1 2 .1 0

H e r m a s Vis. II, 4,2-3 and L a m p e (1 9 8 9 ) , pp. 3 3 5 - 3 3 7 cf. A. B ren t , Ps eu d o n y m i t y

a n d C h a r i s m a in the M i n i s t r y of the E a r l y C h u r c h , in Aug 27,3 ( 1 9 8 7 ) , pp. 3 4 7 - 3 7 6

w h i c h a p p e a r e d at the s a m e t i m e as the f irst edi t ion of his b o o k . See a l s o B ren t

( 1 9 9 5 ) , pp. 4 1 0 - 4 3 4 .1 1

E u s e b i u s , H.E. V, 24,15 and B r e n t ( 1 9 9 5 ) , pp. 4 1 2 - 4 1 5 .1 2 B r e n t ( 1 9 9 5 ) , pp. 4 1 8 - 4 2 1 ; L a m p e ( 1 9 8 9 ) , pp. 3 3 1 - 3 3 2 .11

El. IX, 1 2 , 1 5 : vop(^(ov TeiDxriKevai oi) eQr |p a xo w i t h o u t h ere s p ec i f y i n g xov xfjc;

e7ucnco7rii<; B p o vo v as in IX, 11,1. See a l s o B ren t ( 1 9 9 5 ) , p. 419 and p. 427.



T H E EMERGENCE OF IMPERIAL AND CATHOLIC ORDER 315

14

EL IX , 12,20-21 and 25, cf. Brent ( 1 9 9 5 ) , pp. 4 1 7 - 4 1 8 ; pp. 4 3 2 - 4 3 6 .15

Ibid. 12,21-22 and 1 Tim. 3,2, cf. Brent ( 1 9 9 5 ) , p. 518.16

Ibid. 12,24-25 cf. Brent ( 1 9 9 5 ) , pp. 5 2 0 - 5 2 3 .1 7

U l p i a n , Dig., I, 9,8, cf Brent ( 1 9 9 5 ) , p. 521, particularly references in footnote

1 0 1 .18

El. IX , 12,6 and 13, 1-4.

municated. It was this convention that clearly constituted the "cus

to ma ry bou nd ar y (opoq)" tha t Callistus was ove rs teppi ng.1 4

8B 1.1. The charges against Callistus

The once or twice widowed clergy that Callistus allowed to remarry

twice or three times had previously clearly communicated with the

house-group of the author of EL Callistus clearly asserted they suffered

no im pe di me nt such as tha t imp ose d by wh at was to be co me the

New Testament demand that a bishop or deacon be "husband of

on e wife (uiaq yuvancoq av8pa ) ."1 5

Unions between patrician ladies

and househol d slaves or freedmen we re allowed by him . So me wh at

casuistically, Pseudo-Hippolytus claims that this lead to the commit

ting of mo rt al sin after bapt ism.

T h e mor ta l sins of adul ter y an d mur de r we re , he claims, enc our

aged. "Adul te ry (uoi%eia)" he app arend y claims is co mm it te d by a

wi dow ed cler gyman whe n he rem arr ies , or is ind eed an apt desc rip

tion of "fornicat ion (rcopveiot)" whe n com mi tt ed con tr ar y to R o m a n

law with a slave.1 6

M u r d e r (cpoveia) results from abort io ns wh ic h

som e pat ri ci an wo m e n sou ght in view of capit al legal sa ncti ons

following the conception of a child from such a union.1 7

Callistus

was also apparendy to be held responsible for Elkasite second bap

tism in that he had created the climate in which mortal sins could

be absolved after baptism, and thus even second baptism itself be

justified.1 8

Call istu s' stra tegy of rel axi ng discipline pr ov ed a very successful

o n e . It ach iev ed his ma in objective of centralising ecclesiastical p ow er

on himself and his successors, such as his predecessors, including

Clement, had never wielded in their secretary general's office over

oth er house -ch urc hes . It is of course paradox ical th at the looseni ng

of disc ipline sh oul d ha ve ha d this en d bu t, vis a vis the other

e7UGKorcoi-7tpeapUT £poi, it undoubtedly did. Callistus was making no

threa ts. His we re simply acts of forgiveness and reconc ilia tion. Like

Tertullian's adversary, whom we believe was in fact Callistus him

self, he could quote often Romans 14,14, and add that "the sons of



T H E E M E R G E N C E O F I M P E R IA L A N D C A T H O L I C O R D E R 3 1 7

8 B 1 .1 .1 . Callistus' broader justification

W e a r e d e p e n d e n t p r i m a r i l y o n C a l l i s t u s ' o p p o n e n t , t h e a u t h o r o f

t h e Elenchos, w h o m , a s w e h a v e s e e n , u s e s e x t r e m e c a s u i st r y t o p r o

d u c e a b i a s e d a c c o u n t o f h i s c l a i m s . B u t w e c a n a l s o , I b e l i e v e , u s e

T e r t u l l i a n w h o b o t h i n t h e Adversus Praxeam, a n d in h i s a t t ac k o n th e

" e d i c t " o f t h e episcopus episcoporum a n d pontifex maximus, i s in fact a t ta ck

i n g C a l l i s tu s . T h e m a i n g r o u n d s a g a i n s t s u c h a n i d e n t if i c a ti o n w e r e

a l w a y s t h a t a n e a r l y t h i r d c e n t u r y p o p e c o u l d n o t i s s u e u n i v e r s a l

e d i c t s s o t h a t T e r t u l l i a n ' s a t t a c k h a d t o b e u p o n a p u r e l y l o c a l b i s h o p .

B u t , a s I h a v e a r g u e d i n d e t a i l e l s e w h e r e , m y i d e n t i f i c a t i o n d o e s n o t

d e p e n d o n C a l li s tu s h a v i n g f u n c t i o n e d a s a p o p e in t h e l a t e r se n s e .

A f a c t io n a l is e d c o m m u n i t y a t R o m e in t e n s i o n b e t w e e n its v a r i o u s

h o u s e c h u r c h e s , a n d r a i si n g s u c h q u e s t i o n s a s a b s o l u t i o n fo r m o r t a l

s i n a f t e r b a p t i s m a n d c l e r i c a l r e m a r r i a g e , c o u l d n o t f a i l t o d r a w i t

s elf t o t h e a t t e n t i o n o f a s i m i l a r c h u r c h i n N o r t h A f r i c a d i v i d e d b y

a M o n t a n i s m t h a t h a d n o t y e t b r o k e n c o m p l e t e l y f r o m t h e g r e a t

C h u r c h .2 0

T e r t u l l i a n h i m s e l f d o e s m e n t i o n t h e contesseratio hospitalitatis

b r o u g h t b y a C h r i s t i a n tr a v e l li n g f r o m o n e C h r i s t i a n c o m m u n i t y t o

a n o t h e r s u c h a s f r e q u e n d y o c c u r r e d b e t w e e n R o m e a n d N o r t h A f ric a.

T h e c o n d i t i o n s of a b s o l u t i o n a s o f o r d i n a t i o n w o u l d i m p a c t u p o n

s u c h si gn s o f i n t e r c o m m u n i o n p r e s e n t a t t h is e a r l y p e r i o d .2 1

L e t u s l o o k t h e r e f o r e a t w h a t C a l l is t u s w a s c l a i m i n g . H e w a s c l a i m

i n g t h a t t h e C h u r c h w o u l d b e a m i x e d c o n g r e g a t i o n s u c h a s t h e a r k

o f N o a h i n w h i c h c l e a n a n d u n c l e a n a n i m a l s w e r e c o m b i n e d t o g e t h e r .

A n o t h e r p r o o f - t e x t fo r h i s p o l i c y w a s t h e P a r a b l e o f t h e W h e a t a n d

t h e T a r e s .2 2

F r o m t h e a u t h o r o f £ 7 .'s m o r e p u r i t a n i c a l p o s i t i o n ,

C a l l i s t u s c a n b e m a d e t o s a y t h a t t h e c l e a n a n d u n c l e a n s h o u l d e x i s t

b o t h t o g e t h e r i n t h e C h u r c h . B u t n o d o u b t C a l l i s t u s w o u l d h a v e

h a d a n o t h e r r e a s o n . H i s w a s a p o l ic y o f c o m p r e h e n d i n g a w i d e d i v e r

s it y o f v i e w s a n d p o s i t i o n s w i t h i n a c o m m o n u n i t y . I n t h a t r e s p e c t

h e r e f l e c t e d t h e g e n e r a l S e v e r a n p o l i t i c a l p o l i c y t h a t w e h a v e o u d i n e d ,

2 0 S e e D . R a n k i n , Tertullian and the Church, ( C a m b r i d g e : U . P . 1 9 9 5 ) , p p . 3 5 - 3 6 ff.

f or a c o g e n t r e s t a t e m e n t o f t h e a r g u m e n t t h a t i n De Anima, 9 , 4 T e r t u l l i a n i s d e s c r i b

i n g a M o n t a n i s t p r o p h e t e s s h a v i n g p r i v a t e v i s i o n s d u r i n g t h e n o r m a l , c a t h o l i c

E u c h a r i s t a n d o n l y r e h e a r s i n g t h e s e w h e n t h e M o n t a n i s t g r o u p w i t h i n t h e c a t h o l i c

c o n g r e g a t i o n m e e t s a f t e r w a r d s b y itself. C f. U . N e y m e y r , D i e c h r i s t l i c h e n L e h r e r

i m z w e i t e n J a h r h u n d e r t : I h r L e h r t a t ig k e i t , i h r S e l b s t v e r s t a n d n i s , u n d i h r e G e s c h i c h t e ,

in Suppl. VCh 4 ( 1 9 8 9 ) , p p . 1 2 9 - 1 3 1 . S e e a l s o B r e n t ( 1 9 9 5 ) , p p . 5 3 8 - 5 3 9 .2 1 T e r t u l l i a n , De Praesc. Haer. 2 0 , 7 - 9 cf. B r e n t ( 1 9 9 5 ) , p p . 5 0 5 - 5 0 9 .22

El. I X , 1 2 , 2 2 - 2 3 .



318 CHAPTER EIGHT

if no t the more radical an d forced imposi tion of that policy rep re

sented by his co nt em po ra ry em pe ro r Elagabalus .

8B 1.1.2. Callistus and Elagabalus' reformationWe have argued that contemporary imperial policy was reflected in

an ontology of uov apx ia. Callistus def en ded a Chr is ti an form of

Monarchianism that we have seen to be present in the apologists,

an d em plo yed by th em in conscious awaren ess of the relati onship

between politics and ontology. Consequently they could imply that,

if a justificat ion of ontolo gical uov apx ia was inco he re nt , th en so

would be the princip le of political uovapx ia. Callistus ar gued , acco rding to his opponent:

Of that he says the Son himself is also the Father (on 8e Kai xov auxov

uiov eivai Aiyei Kai rcaxepa), no one is ignorant (ouSeiq dyvoei). For he

speaks as follows (Aiyei yap ouxcoq): when then the Father has not been

born (oxe pev ouv pri yeyevrixo 6 rcaxnp), he is jusdy called "Father" (8iKaico(;

rcaxriprcpocrriyopeuxo).But when he is pleased to experience birth from

the virgin (oxe 8e t|u86icnae yeveaiv E K rcapGevou upopeivai), the Father,

being begotten (yevvr|0ei<; 6 rcaxTip), becomes himself Son of himself, and

not of someone different (mbq eyevexo auxoq eauxou, oux exepou). Thus

he thinks (ouxcoq youv 8oKei) he has established the monarchia (povapxiav

auviaxav), asserting that Father and Son subsist as one and the same

being (ev Kai xo auxo (pdaKcov urcdpxeiv Ttaxepa Kai uiov), becoming not

different the one from the other (yivopevov oux exepov e£ exepou), but

the same from himself (aXX auxov e£ eauxou).

Elenchos IX, 10, 1 0 - 1 1 .

We see here what was no doubt Callistus' own expression of his aim,

nam el y uovapxia v auv iaxav . It is impossible tha t such an expression

could be or ought to be dissociated from the conceptual web that,

by the end of the second century, formed the backcloth to the dis

cussion of cosmic an d social ord er , Pag an or Chris tian, imperi al or

apologist. Such a term came already value-laden, and we have seen

ho w Ta ti an c an accuse the Greeks of den yin g uova pxi a in an im pe

rial and political sense because their polytheism cannot support their

ontological case for a single origin (7C 2.3.1). We have seen how

for At he nago ra s the eart hly kin gdo m of father Mar cu s Aurelius an d

his son C o m m o d u s is a reflection of the heavenl y ki ng do m of Fat he r

and Son (7C 2.3.2). In establishing the uovapxia against the alleged

ditheism of the au th or of El. and his group, Callistus was following

the pattern set by writers such as Tatian against polytheism.2 3

23

El. IX, 1 2 , 1 5 - 1 6 .



T H E E M E R G E N C E OF I M P E R I A L AND C A T H O L I C O R D E R 319

T h e r e are , h o w e v e r , s e v e r a l p o i n t s to be m a d e in d e m o n s t r a t i o n

o f the m o r e t h a n a c c i d e n t a l r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n C a l l i s t u s ' r e f o r

m a t i o n a n d t h a t of E l a g a b a l u s . W e see in the f o l l o w i n g e x a m p l e s

c l ea r r e f l ec t i o n s of the l a t t e r in the f o r m e r .

8 B 1 . 3. 1 . P o n t i f e x M a x i m u s and e p i s c o p u s e p i s c o p o r u m

W h e n T e r t u l l i a n a t ta c k s C a l li s tu s in t h e s e t e r m s , he is c l e a r l y c o m

p a r i n g th e l a t t e r ' s a c t i v i t y a n d c l a i m s w i t h t h o s e of the r e i g n i n g

R o m a n E m p e r o r . Pontifex Maximus is c l e a r l y a p a g a n t i t l e for the

E m p e r o r as H i g h P r i e s t of the R o m a n P a n t h e o n in w h i c h the I m p e r i a l

C u l t was i n c r e a s i n g l y e m e r g i n g as c e n t r a l . T h e b i s h o p of R o m e wasn o t as yet g i ve n t h is t i d e . F u r t h e r m o r e , T e r t u l l i a n m e n t i o n s an e d i c t

o f t h i s b i s h o p w h i c h c l e a r l y the b i s h o p of R o m e w o u l d not be a b l e

t o d e l i v e r in C a r t h a g e . It wil l not do, h o w e v e r , on t h i s a c c o u n t to

s u b s t i t u t e a s h a d o w y A g r i p p i n u s as l o c a l b i s h o p of C a r t h a g e in o r d e r

to f i l l t h i s ro l e . T e r tu l l i an wi sh es to r e p r e s e n t at all co s t s the R o m a n

b i s h o p as b e h a v i n g l i k e the c o n t e m p o r a r y e m p e r o r , and so he u s e s

h i g h l y m e t a p h o r i c a l l a n g u a g e in w h i c h C a l l i s t u s is r e p r e s e n t e d as ifh e w e r e an e m p e r o r d o i n g s u c h t h i n g s .

2 4

W e e m p h a s i s e d in c o n n e c t i o n w i t h the t h e o l o g y of I g n a t i u s of

A n t i o c h the e s s e n t i a l l y p a g a n b a c k g r o u n d of his r e g a r d i n g b i s h o p s ,

p r i e s t s , a n d d e a c o n s as eiKove<; of the s a v i n g m y s t e r y of the i n c a r

n a t e g o d h e a d (6A 2.1). In t h i s r e s p e c t he r e f l e c t e d the p o s i t i o n in

t h e E a s t w h e r e " p r i e s t s a n d p r i e s t e s s e s p e r s o n i f i e d the d e i t y w h o m

t h e y s e r v e d . "2 5

It is in s u c h a c o n t e x t t h a t H a l s b e r g h e l o c a t e s them a r r i a g e of E l a g a b a l u s w i t h the V e s t a l V i r g i n A q u i l i a S e v e r a . She

r e p r e s e n t e d V e s t a as he r e p r e s e n t e d E l a g a b a l .

T h e palladium of M i n e r v a - A t h e n a , t a k e n out of the t e m p l e of the

f o r m e r , was t r a n s p o r t e d to Elagabalium on the P a l a t i n e . V e s t a ' s s h r i n e

c o n t a i n e d n o i m a g e of herself. T h u s the m a r r i a g e of p r i e s t a n d p r i e s t

ess was in f a c t r e g a r d e d by him as a t h e o g a m y . T h e i r c h i l d r e n w o u l d

b e the r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s of c o m b i n e d d i v i n i t i e s , a n d Sol Invictus w o u l dt h u s e x h i b i t the d i v i n e e s s e n c e a l s o of V e s t a - M i n e r v a . "I did th i s

(TOUT' eTcoinaa) in o r d e r t h a t , of c o u r s e (iva 8f| K a i ) g o d l i k e c h i l d r e n

(Georcperceiq 7tai8e<;) m i g h t be b o r n f r o m me the h i g h - p r i e s t a n d f r o m

t h i s h i g h - p r i e s t e s s (EK xe epou xou apxiepecoq E K xe xauxnq xf|<; dpxiepeiaq

yevvcovxai)."26

His j u s t i f i c a t i o n for t h i s act to the S e n a t e was t h a t "a

2 4

T e r t u l l i a n , De Pudic. 1,1-2 cf. B r e n t ( 1 9 9 5 ) , pp. 5 0 4 - 5 0 5 .2 5

H a l s b e r g h e ( 1 9 7 2 ) , p. 90.2 h

Dio ( X i p h i l i n u s ) 80, 9,3.



320 CHAPTER EIGHT

ma rr ia ge of a priest and a priestess was a th ing of reverence (oePda-

uiov eivai yduov iepecoq xe K a i iepeiaq)."2 7

T h u s Elaga balu s justified his

marriage to the Vestal Virgin Aquilia Severa as a theogamy that

united through their sacred and divine offspring the combined divini

ties of Sol Invictus and Vest a-M ine rva . A line of divine priests incar

nating the essences of the male and female divinities into a unity or

povap%ia wo ul d thus result. In th at just ification, the claim for bo th

to be dp%i£p£t><; and dp^iep ei a now co mbined was clearly pr esen t.

Suc h a cont rove rsy is mi rr or ed too in the dispute betwe en Callistus

and the author of EL Callistus is cl ai mi ng the ulti mat e right t o

absolve over presbyte rs of the ot he r house grou ps . And for the first

time in the history of the apostolic ministry images of dpxiepaxeia

now become important. I have argued elsewhere that the notion that

James' authority was sacerdotal, and that the episcopal succession

lists we re mod el led on those of Je wi sh H ig h Priests is m isconcei ved.2 8

But in the lite ratur e of the Hi ppo ly ta n com mu ni ty , in part icu lar ,

that composite work published under the tide of the Apostolic Tradition,

Aa roni c an d sacerd ota l images of the bis hop 's office beg in to fuse

with Mosaic images that had characterised that office as essential

one of a te ac hi ng succession. Th a t fusion is one of the consequences

of the Callistan ref orm ati on.2 9

Certainly the author of EL insists on a plurality of successors to

the apostles. As he says, refe rring to himself as on e amon gs t others

in the Ro m a n c om mu ni ty by use of the collective "we ":

We have become their successors (cbv ripeiq 5 i d 8 o x o i xuyxdvovxeq), and

we participate in the same grace of both high priesthood and teach

ing, (xnq xe auxfjq xdpixoq pexe ovxeq dpxiepaxeiaq xe Kai 8i8aoKaA,ia<;), and,

being reckoned as guardians of the Church (Kai.cppoupoi xfjc; eKK^r|cria<;

A.eta>ytGpevoi), we neither let our eye slumber ( O U K ocpGa^pfjq vuoxd-

£opev), nor do we keep silence about or thodox discourse (ou8e Xoyov

6p06v aiconcopev). . . .

Elenchos I, prooem. 6

In the confluent curre nts of imagery , Mos ai c an d Aar oni c, Callistus

is cla imi ng th at at the he ad of the tradit ion mus t stand no t s imply

a single Moses who could have been Christ, but a sacerdotal rep-

2 7

Herodian V , 6 , 2 .2 8 A. Brent, Diogenes Laertius and the Apostolic S u c c e s s i o n , in JEH 44,3 ( 1 9 9 3 ) ,

p p . 3 6 7 - 3 8 9 ; Brent ( 1 9 9 5 ) , pp. 4 7 7 - 4 8 1 .29

Ap. Trad. 3 and 7 cf. Brent ( 1 9 9 5 ) , pp. 471 492.



THE E M E R G E N C E OF I M P E R I A L AND C A T H O L I C O R D E R 321

B r e n t ( 1 9 9 5 ) , p. 473.

Petr. ad lac. i n s c . cf. B r e n t ( 1 9 9 5 ) , pp. 5 1 2 5 1 3 .

resentat ive of Mos es (Christ), wh o, like an Igna ti an bis hop or i ndee d

like Elagabalus stood as an icon of the divine being that he repre

sented. But according to Pseudo-Hippolytus, all the presiding £7C{OKO7COI-

rcpeoPuxepoi could be said not simply to participate in the priesthood

but in the high priesthood (xr\<; xe am?[q %dpixo<; pexe^ovxec; dpxiep-

axeiaq xe Kai 8i8aoKaA , ia<;) . Callistus could not simply make himself

the supreme teacher by claiming that such an office needed to be

consecrated in the person of a single dp^iepeix;.

But Elagabalus was clearly claiming the indivisibility of the dp%-

tepaxeia . T h e povapxi a requ ir ed th e drcoppoia from a single dp%f|,

Sol Invictus. To secure a single hierocratic iconography, children must

be pr oduced (Georcperceic; 7cai8eq) who were icons of Sol Invictus incor

po ra ti ng Vesta-Minerva. Callistus likewise is co nc er ne d with povap%ia

in whi ch one source of po we r withi n the go dh ea d corr espon ds to

one source of autho rity over the fractionalized R o m a n co mm uni ty.

H e will secure this, as ha d Cara ca lla , by poi nti ng to the dp /i ep ax ei a

as flowing through him as his high-priest, as opposed to existing as

an abstract principle in which all could generally and without gra

dation participate. For him, as for Ignatius, there could be only one

Hi gh Priest an d therefo re, wh en the sacerdot al is imp ose d up on the

Mosaic, one leader emerges over the rcpeopuxepoi from whose spirit

their authority was derived.3 0

The title episcopus episcoporum, which goes with the title Pontifex

Maximus, reflects clearly Ter tul lia n's criticism of wh at was ha pp en

ing specifically wit hin the ch an gi ng pa tt er n of au thor it y within the

Roman Church. But that such a title can be seen to be part of the

c om m on P aga n an d Christi an pr og ra m of the early third centur y,

in whi ch the real ch ar ac te r of historical mo ve me nt s an d ideas could

be established with reference to their ultimate historical origin, can

be seen from its use in the Cl em en ti ne lit erat ure. He r e J a m e s in

called episcopus episcoporum in the ps eu do ny mo us lette r of Pe ter to

h im.3 1

But, as we hav e ar gue d, in Di oge nes ' hist orio grap hy, the two

successions are fused in to on e by means of a fictional epis tola ry

exchange. A fictional exchange of letters is also the literary device

which the Clem enti nes share with Diogene s Laertios. T h e exc han ge

of letters express the validity, whether of Christianity or of Greek



322 CHAPTER EIGHT

philosophy, by reference to an ultimate historical dpxu., an Urzeit in

wh ic h the ex ch an ge took place and such a uni ty arose (7C 1.1).

Onc e mo re we find ourselves at the cent re of discour se abo ut ulti

ma te origins tha t is clearly contro lling bo th Chr ist ian an d Pa ga n

ontol ogy an d the co rr es po nd in g ideology of bo th Imp eri al an d

Christian Order.

Callistus therefore appeared to Tertullian as behaving like a pagan

Pontifex Maximus in trying to become episcopus episcoporum. In so doing

h e , as putative bishop of Rome, was but making similar claims to

those of the em pe ro r Elaga balus, as Pontifex Maximus, of a syncretism

that found its final expression in the Baal of Emesa as Sol Invictus?2

As a Monarchian theologian, Callistus was looking for the ultimate

principle in the godhead from which all lesser beings or persons were

der ived jus t as Ela gabalu s could find t ha t princip le in the cult of Sol

Invictus. Both emperor and putative pope were reflecting, in their

own way, ideals of imperial unity in the societies over which they

claimed to have the right to rule absolutely.

Let us now turn to the second way in which Callistus is seen to

be associated with the events of his time, and to reflect imperial pol

icy in his ecclesiastical policy.

8B 1.1.2.3. Social values of Callistus and Pseudo- Hippolytus

T h e highly cont rived piece of casuistry by me an s of which the au th or

of El. convicts Callistus of absolv ing the mor ta l sin of murder rea ds

as follows:

For he even allowed women (Kai yap Kai yuvai^ iv ercexpevj/ev), if they

should be without husbands (ei dvav8poi elev) and they burned due to

their youthful age for a man (Kai TjXtKia ye xe eiq av8pa eKKaioivxo), they

[being] of noble rank (a! ev dîa), if they were unwilling to degrade

their rank (ei XT^V eauxcov dîav r\v pfj poutanvxo KaGaipeiv) through legal

marr iage (8id xou vopipcoq yapr|8Tivai), to take someone whom they

should choose as a bed partner (e'xeiv eva, ov av aipf |acovxai, ouyKoixov),

whether household slave or free (eixe oiKexnv eixe etauGepov), to treat

this person (Kai xouxov Kpiveiv) as in place of a husband (dvxi dv5po<;)

even though she was not married by law (xf|v \n\ vopcp yeyaprjpevriv). In

consequence (ev6ev) women who were so called believers began to try

(ripâvxo ercixeipeiv ai rciaxai Xeyopevai) even to bind themselves round

with medicines against conception (dxoKioic; (pappaKoi<; Kai xa> rcepiSeo-

•*2

For the use of these terms in the cult of Sol Invictus, and their association with

the Emperor, see Halsberghe ( 1 9 7 2 ) , p. 77.



T H E EMERGENCE OF IMPERIAL AND CATHOLIC ORDER 323

peioGai) in order to abort what they had conceived (itpbq xo xd ovX-

taxpPavopeva KaxaPdMeiv) because they were unwilling either to have

a child from a slave (8id xo pr|xe E K bo\)Xo\) fiovXzoQai e'xetv xeicvov) or

from a social inferior (pr|xe e£ evxeXotx;), because of their noble andsuperior birth (6id xrjv oruxcov euyeveiav Kai vrcepoyKov ouaiav).

Elenchos IX, 12,24-25

As Preysing pointed out, the author here reveals a clash of social

values between Callistus' group and his own. His critique assumes

a senatorial and patrician perspective on Callistus' activity.3 3

For the

leader of one group of what is an illegal sect to accuse the other of

not following pagan law on matrimony seems bizarre, but that isprecisely to what the criticism amounts: Callistus had sanctioned a

union involving a woman xf|V pr| vopcp yeyapnpevr|v, that is to say

pagan marriage law. No doubt, as Dollinger pointed out, Callistus

would have replied that there were no distinctions after baptism

between "male and female, bond nor free."3 4

The writer clearly attributes the quest for dxoKioc cpdppam to the

proper repugnance of "ladies of noble rank (ai ev d ^ i a ) " not to dilute

their "noble and superior birth ( T X \ V auxcov euyeveiav K a i urcepoyKov

ouaiav)" with progeny "from someone socially inferior (e£ euxeXouq)."

Undoubtedly this represents the patrician repugnance that he feels

and which he attributes to the ladies in question. But for them child

birth in this situation was not necessary a question of repugnance

towards offspring from a partner who was euxeAriq, which means lit

erally "of depleted value", nor indeed a desire to avoid degrading

their rank (XTJV . . . d ^ i a v . . . KaGaip e iv ) . Rather the quest for abor

t i o n s , a nd henc e the cpoveia of the ir un born chi ldr en, was because

they as women of senatorial rank lived under the threat of capital

punishment for cohabitation with a slave (oiKexriq). 35 Certainly mar

riage with a freedman was illegal, as the author claims.3 6

3 3 K. von Preysing, Der Leserkreis der Philosophoumena Hippolyts, in %KTh 38

( 1 9 1 4 ) , pp. 4 2 1 - 4 4 5 .34 Gal. 3,28 cf. I. von Dollinger, Hippolytus und Kallistus, oder Die romische Kirche in

der ersten Halfte des dritten Jahrhunderts, (Regensburg: Jos eph Ma nz 1 8 5 3 ) , p. 254.3 5 In Justinian, Dig. I, 9,8, Ulpian, the contemporary of the author of EL, states

t h a t a matrona was subject to the death penalty for sexual relations with s l a v e s .3 6 Justinian, Dig. X X II I, 2,4 2: "Mo des tin us, Bk 1 D e ritu nup tiar um: Si senatoris

filia n e p t i s proneptis libertino vel qui artem ludicram exercuit cuiusue pater materue

id fecerit nupserit, nuptiae non erunt," which clearly denies the validity of the marr i a g e of ai ev a£(a (= senatoris filia) to an etavGepoq (= libertinus) or even a free ei)xeA,f|<;

(vel qui artem ludicram).




C e r t a i n l y E l a g a b a l u s w o u l d h a v e n o c l a i m t o s h a r e t h e v a l u e -

s y s te m o f R o m a n p a t r i c i a n s o c ie ty . I n d e e d , t h e S e v e r a n d y n a s t y i ts elf

w a s f o u n d e d o n t h e p e r f i d y o f t h e m u r d e r o f P e r t i n a x , w h o s e n a m e

S e p t i m i u s S e v e r u s b o r n w i t h o s t e n t a t i o u s p r i d e a s h i s o w n , b y D i d i u s

J u l i a n u s w h o l e a d a s e n a t o r i a l r e a c t i o n t h a t c l e a r l y f a i l e d ( A . D . 1 9 3 ) .

J u l i a n u s ' c r e d e n t i a l s w i t h t h e S e n a t e w e r e h i g h d u e t o h i s h a v i n g

b e e n p r o s e c u t e d s ev e r al t im e s d u r i n g t h e r e i g n o f C o m m o d u s .3 7

B u t

t h e n o t i o n t h a t , w i t h a p p r o p r i a t e t h e o l o g i c a l j u s t if i c a ti o n , s e n a t o r i a l

l a d i e s s h o u l d m a r r y t h e i r s l a v e s o r f r e e d m e n , d e s p i t e p a t r i c i a n h o s

t il it y, w o u l d n o t h a v e a p p e a r e d a s s c a n d a l o u s a s b e f o r e , in t h e s o c i al

e n v i r o n m e n t o f t h e i m p o s i t i o n o f Sol Invictus Elagab as th e final fo rm

a n d d e f in i ti o n o f t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t . C e r t a i n l y s u c h m a r r i a g e s w o u l d

n o t b e m o r e s c a n d a l o u s t h a n t h e a c t i o n of t h e E m p e r o r a s Pontifex

Maximus o f t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t o f Sol Invictus m a r r y i n g a V e s t a l V i r g i n

a l so w i t h a n e w a n d r a d i c a l t h e o l o g i c a l j u s t i f i c a t i o n .

C e r t a i n l y t h e senaculum mulierum, e s t a b l i s h e d b y E l a g a b a l u s , m e n

t i o n e d i n a n o t h e r w i s e d u b i o u s s o u r c e b u t c o n f i r m e d b y e x c a v a t i o n s ,

w as i n d i ca t i v e o f a so c i a l p o l i cy i n w h i ch so c i a l ro l e s a n d s t a tu s w er e

b e c o m i n g f l u i d .38 T h e w r i t e r o f t h e S H A m e n t i o n s , m o r e o v e r , t h e

p r e d e c e s s o r o f t h i s senaculum b e in g h e ld o n ce r t a in f e s t i v a l s (sollem-

nibus. . . diebus). I ts p r i o r f u n c t io n w a s t o p r o v i d e k i n s w o m e n o f t h e

e m p e r o r s w h o h a d m a r r i e d h u s b a n d s w h o w e r e n o t nobilitati w i t h

" o r n a m e n t s o f c o n s u l a r m a r r i a g e (consularis coniugii ornamenta)" T h e

p u r p o s e w a s t h a t " t h e y s h o u l d n o t l o s e t h e i r c o n s u l a r r a n k (ne inno-

bilitatae remanereni)" i n c o n s e q u e n c e o f s u c h m a r r i a g e s . T h e a u t h o r o f

EL w o u l d c l e a r l y h a v e u p h e l d t h i s p r e v i o u s f u n c t i o n i n h i s d e s i r e

th a t cd ev oc^toc d i d n o t d e g ra d e th e i r r a n k (xfw d ^ ia v K a 0 a i p e i v ) . B u t

c l ea r ly n e w ru l e s , t h e p u rp o se o f w h i ch i t is d if fi cul t t o d i s ce rn , w er e

n o w b e i n g d e v e l o p e d . U p h o l d e r s of t r a d i t i o n a l s e n a t o r ia l v a l u e s m i g h t

w e l l c r i t i c i s e E l a g a b a l u s f o r t r a n s g r e s s i n g e s t a b l i s h e d n o r m s ( o p o i ) o f

R o m a n , p a g a n s o c ie t y , j u s t a s w e h a v e s e e n t h e a u t h o r o f EL to

h a v e d o n e i n t h e c a s e o f C a l l i s t u s a n d C h r i s t i a n s o c i e t y .

W e m u s t n o w c o n s i d e r a t h i r d p i e c e o f e v i d e n c e fo r h o w , i n t h e

m i n d s o f c o n t e m p o r a r y o b s e r v e r s , t h e e v e n t s o f C a l l i s t u s ' c a r e e r p a r

a l l e l e d t h o s e o f E l a g a b a l u s .

3 7 A . B i r l e y , Septimius Severus, the African Emperor, ( L o n d o n : E y r e a n d S p o t t i s w o o d e

1 9 7 1 ) , p . 1 5 4 .

3 8 S H A , Elagab., 4 , 3 c f . A . P a s q u i , R e g i o n e V I . A n t i c o e d i f i c i o r i c o n s c i u t o p e r l a

s e d e d e l s e n a c u l u m m u l i e r u m , i n NScavAnt, A n n . 3 1 1 , 5 , 1 1 ( 1 9 1 4 ) , p p . 1 4 1 - 1 4 6 .

S e e a l s o H a l s b e r g h e ( 1 9 7 2 ) , p . 7 0 .



THE EMERGENCE OF IMPERIAL AND CATHOLIC ORDER 325

3 9

SHA, Elagab., 3,4 cf. M. Sordi, II Cristianesimo e Roma, in Storia di Roma

X I X , Istituto di Studi Romani, (Bologna: Cappelli 1 9 6 5 ) , p. 2384 0

For the identification of this with a work mentioned in Theodoret, and in

Anastasius Sinaitica, see Brent ( 1 9 9 5 ) , pp. 84- 85 and p. 331. For Julia Mamaea' s

role in the downful of Elagabalus, see Halsberghe ( 1 9 7 2 ) , pp. 1 0 1 - 1 0 3 .4 1

P. Allard, Histoire des Persecutions pendant la premiere moitie du troisieme siecle (Septime

Severe, Maximin, Dece), d'apres les documents archeologiques, (Paris: LeCoffre 1 8 8 6 ) , pp.

1 8 8 - 1 9 0 cf. H. Dal Covolo, I Severi e il cristianesimo: Ricerche sull'ambiente

storico-istituzionale delle origini cristiane tra il secondo e il terzo secolo, in Biblioteca

di Scienze Religiose, 87 (Libreria Atheneo Salesiano: Rome 1 9 8 9 ) , p. 16 and pp. 6 4 - 6 5 .

8B 1 . 1 . 2 . 4 . Callistus' martyrdom and the fall of Elagabalus

Both the mar ty rd om of Callistus an d the violent en d of Elagabalus

took place in the same year (A.D. 222). There is no need to see

Ela gabalu s as a definite sup port er of Chr ist ian ity , on the shallow

basis of the SHA, and on the very dubious notion that his consort

and former Vestal Virgin, Aquilia Severa, was in fact the Severina

to which one work on the Statue of the Hippolytan community was

ded ica ted .3 9

Mos t of the references to dedi cati ons poi nt to Ju li a

M a m a e a a nd her circle, in the next reign , that of he r son Severus

Alexander, after Elagabalus' downfall in which she was direcdy instru

mental. Certainly the Hippoly tan commu nit y addressed Jul ia M am a e a

with respect.4 0

But it was otherwise with the reforms of Elagabalus,

and with what Callistus partially against the background of those

reforms proposed for the Christian community.

T h a t a later martyrology will desc ribe the events of the la tter 's

death in similar terms to those of Elagabalus show that the general

impres sion on the min ds of con tem por ar ies a nd later was tha t t he

two figures were in some way associated. It is my argument that the

sociological thesis that I have pursued and invoked throughout this

monograph can explain the association without any conscious and

intentional links on the part of the individuals participating in the

action. Christian communities form contra-cultures to the pagan host

culture, in part imitating both its social and its ontological con

struction of reality. But in part they also reconstruct the host cul

ture, so that their de pe nd en ce on tha t culture is conceal ed but no ne

the less necessary.

There was, according to Allard, a historical core to the late Acta

Martyrii Sancti Callisti.*1

The r e is at all events clearly a relationsh ip

bet ween the descriptions of the ma nne r of their death s, suggesting

a clear folk mem ory that these were the prod uc ts of similar hi sto

rical events at a similar moment which were in some way related to



326 C H A P T E R E I G H T

each other. Callistus is martyred by being "thrown through the win

dow of a house (per fenestram domus praecipitari) a n d with a stone tied

to his neck (ligatoque ad collum ems saxo), submerged in a well (in puteum

demergi), a n d rubbish piled upon him (et in eo rudera cumulari)."*2

After Elagabalus is slain by the praetor ian guard on Alexander

and Mamaea's instruction, his mutilated body is dragged through

the streets.4 3

This, one source informs us, is:

in order that the soldiers might throw it into the sewer (ut id in cloa-

cam (- cloaca maxima) milites mitterent). But when the cloaca by chance

failed to take it (sed cum non cepisset cloaca fortuito), they attached a weight

that it should not float (adnexo pondere ne fluitaret), and threw it into the

Tiber from the Aurelian bridge (perpontem Aemilium . . . in Tiberim abiec-

tum est), so that it could never be buried (neumquam sepeliri posset). His

body had also been dragged around the Circus (tractum est cadaver eius

etiam per Circi spatid) before thrown into the Tiber (priusquam in Tiberim

praecipitaretur).

SHA, Elagabalus, 17, 1-3.

The idea that the cloaca maxima could not take his body seems strange,

but clearly required the second stage of throwing the body into the

Tiber direct. T h e Epitomist to Cassius D io claims that the body was

thrown direcdy into the Tiber (eq xov rcoxctuov evepXr|0r|), b u t men

tions the unsuccessful attempt to escape by hiding in a chest (epeXXev

xvXXov e|xpA,T0ei<; eicSpavai ).4 4

It is Herodian, however , w h o gives

us the simplest a n d most likely original account, namely that, after

Elagabalus a n d Soaemias were drawn a n d mutilated: "he was thrown

into the sewers (eq xoix; 6%exouq &7t£ppi(p9r|) which run down into the

river Tiber (xouq xov Guppiv rcoxapov peovxaq)."4 5

In at tempting to reconstruct the true relationship between the

accounts of the m a r t y r d o m of Callistus and the assassination of

Elagabalus, we can be certain only of equivalences or near equiva

lences in both descriptions. Both Callistus a n d Elagabalus are "thrown

(praecipitari/praecipitaretur/drceppicpOri)" into a well or sewer (in puteum/

4 2

A c t a S. C a l l i s t i P a p a e M a r t y r i s R o m a e , 8, in M i g n e P.L. 10, col. 120.4 3

SHA, Elagab., 17, 1-3: "Pos t hoc in eum i m p e t u s f a c t u s est a t q u e in la tr ina

a d q u a m c o n f u g e r a t o c c i s u s . t r a c t a t u s d e i n d e per p u b l i c u m ; a d d i t a i n i u r i a c a d a v -

eri est. . ." cf. Dio C a s s i u s L X X X , 20,2: mi oci xe K e c p o c t a x i d7t£K07tT|oav, m i xd

acbuaxa yuuvGoOevxa TO |iev T t p a k o v 8id 7idor|<; xfjq rcoXeox; ec \ >pT | . . and H e r o d i a n V,

8 , 9 : i d 5e o a > | i a x a xou xe 'Avxcoviou K a i xfj<; I o a i | i ( 8 o < ; 7 i a p e 8 o a a v a v p e i v xe m i

e v o p p i ^ e i v x o iq p o i A o u e v o K ; • a rc ep in\ KQ\X> 5id T c d a r i q xr\<; TioXeax; avpevxa . . .4 4

Dio C a s s i u s , 80, 20,2.4 f )

H e r o d i a n , V, 8,9.




o c c u r s i n t h e s t r u c t u r e o f t h e h o s t c u l t u r e , t h a t c h a n g e , h o w e v e r

t e m p o r a r y , is a re v e r s a l o f a n e v o l v i n g g o a l . I n c o n s e q u e n c e , t h e

c o n t r a - c u l t u r e t h a t is r e l a t e d d i a l e c t i c a ll y w i t h t h e h o s t c u l t u r e w i ll

f in d i ts e lf s u b j e c t t o t h e s a m e r e v o l u t i o n a r y f o r c e s e n d e a v o u r i n g t o

c h a n g e t h e h o s t c u l t u r e . T h i s h a s c l e a r l y h a p p e n e d i n t h e c a s e o f

C a l l i s t u s . N o d o u b t h e a n d h is f o ll o w e r s w o u l d n o t h a v e i d e n t if i e d

t h e m s e l v e s w i t h t h e h o s t c u l t u r e , y e t , i n o r d e r t o m a k e t h e i r c a s e

a g a i n s t it p l a u s i b l e w i t h a l e g i t i m a t i o n o f t h e i r e x i s t e n c e t o t h e m

s e lv e s a s w e l l a s t o o t h e r s , t h e y n e e d e d t h e b a c k c l o t h o f b o t h o n t o

l o g y a n d p o l i t i c a l i d e o l o g y d e r i v e d f r o m t h e h o s t c u l t u r e o n w h i c h

t h e y w e r e p a r a s i t i c . B u t h a v i n g p u r s u e d a n d c o n s t r u c t e d s u c h a l e g i t

i m a t i o n , t h a t l e g i t i m a t i o n w a s b o u n d t o fa il i n t h e e y e s o f t h o s e s e e k

in g to ch an g e rad i ca l l y t h e d i r ec t i o n o f t h e h o s t - c u l tu re . T h u s Ca l l i s t u s

fell, o r ap p e a r e d in t h e ey es o f h i s c o n te m p o ra r i e s t o f all , fo r s im i

l a r r e a s o n s a n d i n a s i m i l a r w a y t o E l a g a b a l u s .

T h e a u t h o r o f EL a n d hi s g r o u p , w h o s o u g h t to c o n s t r u c t t h e i r

l e g i t i m a c y i n a d i f fe r e n t w a y r e g a r d i n g t h e h o s t c u l t u r e , w o u l d n o t

h a v e l a m e n t e d C a l l i s tu s ' f a te . A s I h a v e a l r e a d y p o i n t e d o u t , t h o s e

w h o s e t h i n k i n g w a s c l e a r ly a t h o m e i n t h e c ir c le o f J u l i a D o m n a

( 7 C 1.2) d i d n o t s h r i n k f r o m d e d i c a t i n g w o r k s o f t h e o l o g i c a l p h i l o

s o p h y to J u l i a M a m a e a , m o t h e r o f S e v e r u s A l e x a n d e r , w h o l e a d t h e

r e v o l u t i o n .

P A R T C . I N C O N C L U S I O N :

T H E L E G A C Y F O R D E C I U S A N D C Y P R I A N

T h e r e w a s n o c o n c e r t e d p e r s e c u t i o n o f t h e C h r i s t i a n C h u r c h b e f o r e

t h e fall o f t h e S e v e r a n d y n a s t y a n d t h e a c c e s s io n o f M a x i m u s w h o ,

a c c o r d i n g t o E u s e b i u s , p e r s e c u t e d t h e l e a d e r s o f t h e C h u r c h w h o

h a d b e f r i e n d e d t h e f o r m e r r e g i m e .4 8

C a l l i s tu s d i e d , a s w e h a v e s e e n ,

a s t h e r e su l t o f a p e r c e i v e d a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h i m p e r i a l p o l i c i e s t h a tw e r e o v e r t h r o w n b y r e v o l u t i o n w i t h i n t h e S e v e r a n d y n a s t y itself, a n d

i n t h e g e n e r a l c h a o s t h a t s w e p t E l a g a b a l u s a w a y . T h e g e n e r a l p e r

s e c u t i o n , w h e n it c a m e , w a s t h a t o f D e c i u s T r a j a n i n A . D . 2 5 1 , w i t h

w h i c h w e b e g a n o u r d i s c u ss i o n i n C h a p t e r 1.

B u t a s F r e n d h a s c o g e n t l y a r g u e d , t h e p o l i t i c a l s t r u c t u r e s i n w h i c h

t h a t p e r s e c u t i o n o c c u r r e d , a n d t h e l e g i t i m a t i o n o f t h o s e s t r u c t u r e s

E u s e b i u s , H.E. V I , 2 8 , 1 2 , c f B r e n t ( 1 9 9 5 ) , p . 8 1 ; p . 2 9 1 ; p p . 3 7 8 3 7 9 .



T H E E M E R G E N C E O F IM P E R I A L A N D C A T H O L I C O R D E R 3 2 9

4 9 W . C . H . F r e n d , Martyrdom and Persecution in the Early Church, ( O x f o r d : B l a c k w e l l1 9 6 5 ) , p . 3 1 2 ; idem. The Rise of Christianity, ( L o n d o n : D a r t o n , L o n g m a n a n d T o d d

1 9 8 6 ) , p . 4 4 0 . S e e a l s o D a l C o v o l o ( 1 9 8 9 ) , p p . 5 4 - 5 5 .

w e r e t h e c r e a t i o n o f t h e S e v e r a n d y n a s t y .4 9

T h e s e r e l ig i o u s a n d p o l i t

i c a l o b j e c t i v e s E l a g a b a l u s s h a r e d . H e s i m p l y f a il e d i n t h e m e a n s t o

s e c u r e t h e m b e c a u s e o f a r e l i g i o u s f u n d a m e n t a l i s m t h a t i d e n t i fi e d h i s

o w n l o ca l B a a l o f E m e s a w i t h Sol Invictus, a n d t h u s o b s c u r e d t h e

s y n c r e t i s m o f a g r a d u a l i s t p o l i c y . C a r a c a l l a ' s c i t i z e n s h i p la w i n A . D .

2 1 2 , a n d h is i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f h i s s a c r e d r o l e a s E m p e r o r a s t h e

s o u r c e o f d i v i n e p o w e r a s KOOuoKpdxcop t h r o u g h w h i c h t h e u n i f y in g

a r c h e t y p a l li g h t f l ow e d , m a d e p o ss i b le t h e D e c i a n p e r s e c u t i o n . I f t h e

m a j o r i ty of t h e p o p u l a t i o n t h r o u g h o u t t h e R o m a n E m p i r e w e r e

i n s c r i b e d o n r o ll s o f c i t i z e n s , t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i v e m a c h i n e r y w a s i n

p l a ce t o s ec u r e t h e i r ac t o f s ac r i f i c in g in c en se a t t h e i r l o ca l a l t a r o f

t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t . If t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t w a s n o w t h e m e a n s o f s y m

b o l i s i n g i m p e r i a l u n i t y , a n d i n d e e d e f fe c ti n g w h a t it s y m b o l i s e d b y

th e p a r t i c i p a t io n o f a l l c i t i zen s , t h e n th e l o g i c o f w h a t w as in e ffec t

t h e s a c r a m e n t o f i m p e r i a l u n i t y c l e a r ly r e q u i r e d t h a t p a r t i c i p a t i o n t o

b e l e g a ll y e n f o r c e d .

O v e r a g a i n s t t h a t c u lt , a s w e s a w al so i n C h a p t e r 1, C y p r i a n

p l a c e d h i s v i e w o f t h e C h r i s t i a n episcopatus, i n w h i c h e v e r y l o c a l

b i s h o p s t o o d f o r t h e w h o l e , l i k e t h e s u n ' s r a y s e m a n a t i n g f r o m a

c o m m o n s o u r c e a n d g iv i n g u n i t y a n d l ig h t t o t h e n a t u r a l o r d e r .

T h e i r m u t u a l r e c o g n i t i o n a n d i n t e r c o m m u n i o n c o n s t i t u t e d t h e u n i t y

o f t h e B o d y of C h r i s t . A t t h e c e n t r e o f t h e n e x u s o f i n t e r c o m m u

n i o n s t o o d t h e b i s h o p o f R o m e . T h e s u c c e s s o r s o f C a l l i st u s t r u l y

w e r e a c o n v e r s e r e f le c t io n o f t h e d iv i n e E m p e r o r a s Pontifex Maximus,

a n d m e d i a t i n g a u n i f y i n g o n t o l o g i c a l r e a l i t y j u s t a s finally C a r a c a l l a

a n d E l a g a b a l u s h a d c l a i m e d . T h u s E p i s c o p a l O r d e r r e f l e c t e d I m p e r i a l

O r d e r , n o t a s a d e r i v a t i o n o r e x p r e s s i o n o f i t, b u t a s i ts r e v e r s e

i m a g e in a n o p p o s i n g c o u n t e r - c u l t u r e . T r u e C h r i s t i a n s w e r e n o t t o

p a r t i c i p a t e in t h e s a c r a m e n t o f i m p e r i a l u n i t y b u t i n t h e s a c r a m e n t

o f t h e B o d y o f C h r i s t .

T h i s m o n o g r a p h h a s d e m o n s t r a t e d t h a t C y p r i a n ' s t h e o l o g y o f

O r d e r w a s n o t s i m p l y a n ad hoc r e a c t i o n to I m p e r i a l p o w e r as m a n

i f e s te d i n t h e D e c i a n p e r s e c u t i o n . C y p r i a n finished a n e d i fi c e o f

C h u r c h O r d e r th a t d e v e lo p e d , pari passu, w i t h I m p e r i a l O r d e r , a s

t h e p r i e s t h o o d o f t h e C h r i s t i a n C u l t h a d d e v e l o p e d , pari passu, w i t h

t h e I m p e r i a l C u l t , w h e t h e r i n S t . L u k e o r S t . C l e m e n t , t h e S e e r




o f t h e Apocalypse o r S t . I g n a t i u s , o r i n d e e d i n S t . I r e n a e u s o r S t .

H i p p o l y t u s .

T h e d y n a m i c o f t h e d e v e l o p m e n t a n d its d i a l e c ti c h a s a l so b e e n

a t l e a st p a r d y e x p l a i n e d b y a s o c io l o g ic a l m o d e l o f c o u n t e r - c u l t u r e .

B u t I a m a w a r e t h a t t h e e m e r g e n c e o f C h u r c h O r d e r s u p p o r t e d b y

a M o n a r c h i a n t h e o l o g y o f t h e g o d h e a d t h a t a r o s e a s a c o n t r a - c u l t u r a l

r e a c t i o n w a s a n h e r e t i c a l a n d n o t a n o r t h o d o x t h e o l o g y . A n d , t o t h e

e x t e n t t h a t m o d e r n f o r m s o f e p i s c o p a c y , o f t h e k i n d t h a t I h a v e

a t t a c k e d i n a p r e v i o u s w o r k , r e f l e c t s u c h a M o n a r c h i a n b a s i s , t h e y

c l e a r l y r e f l e c t , i n b o t h t h e o l o g y a n d p r a c t i c e , h e r e t i c a l r o o t s .5 0

T h e e m e r g i n g o r t h o d o x d o c t r i n e o f t h e T r i n i t y a s t h r e e p e r s o n s ,

e a c h c o n s u b s t a n t i a l a n d c o - e t e r n a l , c a n n o t fit i n t o th e m o u l d o f a

s u c h a s o c i a l l y a n d c u l t u r a l l y c o n d i t i o n e d d e v e l o p m e n t . I n c o n s e

q u e n c e t h e r e m a y h e r e b e t h e p o s s ib i li ty o f a n a r g u m e n t f or t h e t r a n

s c e n d e n t g r o u n d s o f d i v i n e r e v e l a t i o n b r e a k i n g i n t o , b u t n o t a b s o r b e d

b y , its s u r r o u n d i n g c u l t u r e .

B u t t h a t m u s t b e a n o t h e r a r g u m e n t a n d a n o t h e r s t o r y .

1 0 A . B r e n t , E c u m e n i c a l R e l a t i o n s a n d C u l t u r a l E p i s c o p a t e s , i n AThR 7 2 , 3 ( 1 9 9 0 ) ,

p p . 2 5 5 - 2 7 9 ; Idem. C u l t u r a l E p i s c o p a c y a n d E c u m e n i s m , R e p r e s e n t a t i v e M i n i st r y

i n C h u r c h H i s t o r y f r o m t h e A g e o f I g n a t i u s o f A n t i o c h t o t h e R e f o r m a t i o n , w i t hs p e c ia l r e f e re n c e to c o n t e m p o r a r y e c u m e n i s m , i n Studies in Christian Mission 6 , ( L e i d e n :

EJ . Br i l l 1992) .



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1 1 9 - 1 3 3 .

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A l e x a n d e r L . , T h e P r e f a c e t o L u k e ' s G o s p e l . L it e ra r y C o n v e n t i o n a n d S o c i a l C o n t e x t

i n L u k e 1 . 1 -4 a n d A c t s 1 . 1 , i n SNTS m o n o g r a p h s e r i e s 7 8 ( 1 9 9 3 ) .

A l fb l d i A . , Die monarchische Representation im rbmischen Kaiserreiche, ( D a r m s t a d t : W i s -

s e n s c h a f t l i c h e B u c h g e s e l l s c h a f t 1 9 7 0 ) .

A l f b l dy G . , S u b j e c t a n d R u l e r , S u b j e c t s a n d M e t h o d s : a n A t t e m p t a t a C o n c l u s i o n ,i n A . S m a l l (E d . ) , S u b je c t a n d R u l e r : T h e C u l t o f t h e R u l i n g P o w e r i n C l a s s i c a l

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A r n i m J . v o n , Stoicorum veterum Jragmenta ( L ei pz ig : T e u b n e r 1 9 0 2 - 1 9 0 3 ) .

A u b r e t o n R . a n d B u f f i e r e F . , Anthologie grecque: deuxieme partie: anthologie de Planude,T o m . X I I I , ( C o l l e c t i o n d e s U n i v e r s i t e s d e F r a n c e : A s s o c i a t i o n G u i l l a u m e B u d e :

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, G n o s t i s c h e s G u t u n d G e m e i n d e t r a d i t i o n b e i I g n a t iu s v o n A n t i o c h i e n , i n

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A n t o n i n s , (S o c i e t e d ' E d i t i o n " L e s B e l l e s L e t t r e s " : P a r i s 1 9 5 5 ) .

B e h r C . A . a n d L e n z F . W . , P. Aelii Aristidis opera quae exstant omnia, (L e i d e n : E J . B r il l1 9 7 6 ) .

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S c h m i d J . , S t u d i e n z u r G e s c h i c h t e d e s g r i e c h i s c h e n A p o c a l y p s e - T e x t e s , 1. D e r

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( C a m b r i d g e : U . P . 1 9 6 6 ).




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S o u t h e r n P . , Dom itian, Tragic Tyrant, ( L o n d o n a n d N e w Y o rk : R o u d e d g e 1 9 9 7) .

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S t a a ts R . , D i e m a r t y r o l o g i s c h e B e g r i i n d u n g d e s R o m p r i m a t s b e i I g n a t iu s v o n A n t i o

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S t r e e t e r B . H . , The Four Gospels: A Study of Origins, ( L o n d o n : M a c M i l l a n 1 9 5 1) .

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1 9 8 1 ) .

S t r o u x J . , D i e C o n s t i t u t i o A n t o n i a n a , i n Phil 8 8 (4 2 ) ( 1 9 3 3 ) , p p . 2 7 2 - 2 9 5 .

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p p . 8 1 - 1 0 3 .

S w e t e H . B . , The Apocalypse of St. John, ( L o n d o n : M a c M i l l a n 1 9 1 1) .

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T a k a c s S . A . , Is is a n d S a r a p i s i n t h e R o m a n w o r l d , in EPRO 1 2 4 ( 1 9 9 5 ) .

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SBLMS 2 0 ( 1 9 7 4 ) .

T a y l o r V . , The Historical Evidence for the Virgin Birth, ( O x f o r d : C l a r e n d o n 1 9 2 0 ) .

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F o r t r e ss 1 9 8 2 ) , p p . 7 - 3 0 .

T h u r i a n M . , L ' O r g a n i s a t i o n d u m i n i s t e r e d a n s l ' eg l is e p r i m i t i v e s e l o n S a i n t I g n a c e

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( L o n d o n : L o n g m a n s G r e e n 1 9 5 6 ), p p . 1 0 9 - 1 1 6 .

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T r e v e t t C , P r o p h e c y a n d A n t i - E p i s c o p a l A c ti v it y : A T h i r d E r ro r C o m b a t t e d b y

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V o l . I ( 1 9 8 7 ) A s i a M i n o r ; I I ( 1 9 8 2 ) G r a e c i a a t q u e I n s u l a e ; I II ( 1 9 7 7 ) I t a l i a -

L a t i u m ; I V ( 1 9 7 8 ) I t a l ia - A l i a e P r o v i n c i a e .

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( 1 9 8 1 ) .

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Die Inschrifien von Ephesus.

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U n i v e r s i t y o f M i c h i g a n P re s s 1 9 9 0 ) .



I N D I C E S



1 . B I BL I C AL C I T A T I O N S

G e n e s i s

2 , 9 1 7 8

3 1 , 3 1 - 3 5 2 4 1

E x o d u s

3 0 , 1 a n d 7 8 8

L e v i t i c u s

2 9 2

N u m b e r s

2 4 , 1 7 1 8 6

1 S a m u e l

2 ,7 155

2 S a m u e l

2 2 , 3 9 2

1 C h r o n i c l e s

1 3 , 1 0 - 1 1 8 8

2 3 , 1 6 8 8

P s a l m s

2 , 7 9 6

2 , 7 - 9 1 8 6

1 7 , 1 8 - 1 9 9 2

4 0 , 3 1 5 6

7 8 , 2 5 1 8 2

1 1 8 1 1 5

P r o v e r b s

2 0 , 2 7 1 5 3

I s a i a h

2 , 1 - 4 1 0 0

7 , 1 4 5 7 , 9 6

1 0 , 3 3 1 5 51 1 , 1 - 1 1 1 0 0

O L D TESTAMENT

1 3 , 2 2 1 5 6

4 5 . 5 2 9 2

4 6 , 9 2 9 2

5 8 . 6 1 0 5

6 0 , 1 7 1 4 86 1 , 1 - 2 1 0 5

D a n i e l

2 , 3 3 - 4 5 5 5

9 , 2 7 7 9

1 0 , 1 0 - 2 1 2 1 9

1 2 , 1 2 1 9

H o s e a

1 1 , 1 9 6

J o e l

2 , 2 7 9

M i c a h

5 , 2 8 3

M a l a c h i

3 1 5 6

3 , 2 - 6 1 0 0

3 , 2 2 - 2 3 1 0 0

W i s d o m

3 , 1 - 9 1 9 7

2 B a r u c h

6,7-10 1 8 2

2 9 , 8 1 8 2

2 M a c c a b e e s

2 , 4 - 7 1 8 2

1 E n o c h6 , 1 1 1 9 7

N E W TESTAMENT

M a t t h e w

1,18-25 9 5 , 9 6

1,22-23 9 6

2 , 1 8 3

2 , 1 - 2 9 6

2 , 5 - 6 9 6

2 , 1 5 9 6

3 , 7 - 1 2 1 0 0

3 , 1 7 9 6

7 , 1 3 1 6

9 , 2 8 1 3 1

1 0 , 1 - 2 3 8 0



3 4 8 INDICES

10 ,2 132 1,5 75

1 0 , 1 3 114 1 , 5 - 2 5 8 8 , 9 1

1 0 , 3 4 114 1 , 8 - 1 1 88

1 2 , 3 3 80 1,9 114

1 9 , 1 6 - 2 1 132 1,11 102

1 9 , 2 3 - 3 0 132 1,14 113

1 9 , 2 8 116, 131 1 , 1 5 - 1 7 100

2 0 96 1,20 96

2 0 , 2 0 - 2 8 116 1 , 2 6 - 5 6 91

2 0 , 2 3 116 1,32 96

2 0 , 2 5 117 1 , 3 2 - 3 3 99

2 0 , 2 6 - 2 7 117 1,34 97

21 96 1,35 97, 98

2 1 , 9 115 1 , 4 1 - 5 2 912 4 - 2 5 80 1 , 4 6 - 5 5 98

2 4 , 1 5 81 1 , 4 8 - 5 99

2 4 , 3 2 - 3 5 157 1,51 156

2 4 , 3 7 - 4 2 81 1 , 5 2 - 5 3 101, 102, 103, 117, 155

2 4 , 4 3 - 5 1 81 1 , 5 5 , 7 1 , 7 7 , 7 9 105

2 5 , 1 - 1 3 81 1 , 5 7 - 8 0 91

2 5 , 1 4 - 3 0 1,68 94

2 5 , 3 1 - 4 6 81 1,69 92

M a r k

L u k e

1 - 2 7 5 , 105, 115

1 -3 7 7 , 100

1,1 1 1 9

1 , 1 - 4 9 3

1,3 9 3

1 , 3 - 4 10 61,4 112 , 124, 138

1 , 6 9 - 7 0 99

1,79 94, 95, 113, 114, 156

2 ,1 124

2 , 1 - 2 83

2 , 1 - 2 1 91

1 , 6 - 8 1 0 0 I'nVSf1 11 96 '' ' ' * 1,72-73 119

5 3 4 14 > >77 9 2

' 1 77-7Q Q48,27-30 72, 100

1 , 7 7

^

9,1 78

10,4 116

10,35-45 116

10,42 117

10,43-44 117 V 95 115

11,10 115 ' '

13 9-13 792

'2 4 7 7

i s ! 12 158 2,26-3 9513 14 81 14^ '

O L , 1* 0 O Q C _ Q Q Q1

13 20-28 79 ^'

1582

'4 6

"4 8 1 0 4

13^28-31 157 ^ ^ '1 0 4

13,37 80A J 1 U U

13 78 94

3

'

7

"

1 5 1 0 0

, OO % Q 3 , 1 0 - 1 4 100, 101

5 39 984

'1 6

~3 0 1 0 4

' Y T 5

4,18 91, 122, 155

4 , 1 9 105

6 , 1 3 132

6 , 1 5 115

6 , 3 7 316

7 , 5 0 114

8 , 4 8 114

9 , 1 8 - 2 0 10011,21 115



B I B L I C A L C I T A T I O N S 3 4 9

1 2 , 5 1 1 1 4 6 , 1 - 6 1 3 3 , 1 3 4

1 3 , 1 3 9 4 6 , 6 1 3 3

1 4 , 3 2 1 1 5 1 0 , 3 6 1 1 9

1 9 , 3 7 - 3 8 1 1 5 1 1 ,1 1 3 4

1 9 , 4 2 1 1 5 1 1 , 2 7 1 3 42 1 , 7 - 2 8 9 4 1 1 , 2 8 - 3 0 1 3 2

2 1 , 2 0 - 2 4 8 1 1 1 , 3 0 1 3 3

2 1 , 2 4 7 4 1 2 , 1 - 5 1 3 7

2 1 , 2 5 - 2 6 9 4 1 2 , 2 1 3 3

2 1 , 2 5 - 2 7 8 1 1 2 , 2 1 - 2 2 1 2 2 , 1 2 3

2 1 , 2 8 9 4 1 3 , 1 - 3 1 3 2

2 1 , 2 9 - 3 3 1 5 7 1 3 , 3 1 3 3

2 2 , 1 9 b - 2 0 1 1 6 13 ,5 107

2 2 , 2 4 1 1 6 1 4 , 2 1 0 7 , 1 3 32 2 , 2 4 - 2 7 1 1 6 1 4 , 4 1 3 2

2 2 , 2 5 1 1 7 1 4 , 1 1 - 1 8 1 2 3

2 2 , 2 6 - 2 7 1 1 7 1 4 , 1 9 1 0 7

2 2 , 2 7 1 1 7 1 4 , 2 1 1 3 4

2 2 , 2 8 - 3 0 1 1 6 1 5 , 1 - 3 5 1 3 4

2 2 , 3 0 1 3 1 1 5 , 2 , 4 , 6 , 2 2 - 2 3 1 3 3

2 2 , 3 5 - 3 8 1 1 5 1 5 , 2 0 1 8 1

2 4 , 3 6 1 1 4 1 6 , 2 0 - 2 1 1 2 5 , 1 2 6 ,

J o h n6,48-50 1 8 2

1 7 , 5 - 9 1 0 7

1 7 , 6 1 2 4

1 2 4

1 7 , 8 - 9 1 2 5

18 ,1 107

1 2 , 1 3 1 1 5

1 4 , 1 0 - 1 1 2 9 5

1 4 , 2 7 1 1 4 1 8 2 g 2

J c S 2 1 / 2 6 1 1 4 ; ^ - 1 7

1 0 7

1 0 6

2 0 1 9 - 2 2 2 2 2 , 2 3 9 ° ' '

2 0 , 2 2 2 2 2 >jg

A c t s 1 8 , 1 3 1 2 4 , 1 2 61.1 9 3 1 8 , 1 6 - 1 7 1 0 7

1 .6 115 18 ,25 11 9

1 , 6 - 8 8 2 1 9 , 2 1 - 4 0 1 2 0

1 .7 7 4 19 ,23 12 0

1 ,9 81 19 ,27 12 4

1,9-11 82 19 ,31 121

1,12-26 1 3 5 1 9 , 3 5 1 6 8 , 1 2 0

1 . 1 3 1 1 5 2 0 , 1 7 1 3 3

1 . 14 1 3 3 2 0 , 2 8 1 3 3

1,15-26 8 2 , 1 3 2 2 2 - 2 3 1 1 4

1 .2 2 1 3 3 2 3 , 2 5 9 3

1,24-26 1 37 2 3 , 2 5 - 2 7 8 2

1 ,2 5 1 3 7 2 2 , 3 0 - 2 3 , 1 0 1 1 4

2 . 2 9 4 2 4 , 1 - 9 1 0 7 , 1 1 2

2 . 2 3 9 4 , 1 1 3 2 4 , 2 - 3 1 1 3

2 , 4 2 7 7 , 1 1 8 2 4 , 5 - 6 1 1 4

2,44-45 1 17 2 4 , 2 4 - 2 5 1 07

2 , 4 6 1 1 6 , 1 1 7 , 1 1 8 2 4 , 2 6 1 0 8

5 , 1 2 1 1 8 2 4 , 2 7 1 1 85 , 3 0 1 7 8 2 5 , 1 - 1 1 1 0 8



3 5 0 I N D I C E S

2 5 , 1 3 - 2 6 - 3 2 1 18

2 6 , 6 - 7 1 1 9

2 6 , 2 4 1 2 2

2 6 , 3 0 1 0 8

R o m a n s

9 - 1 1 1 2 7 , 1 3 8

9 - 1 2 7 4

1 1 , 5 1 3 2

1 1 , 1 3 1 3 2

1 1 , 1 7 - 2 4 1 2 7

1 2 , 1 1 1 3 2

1 4 , 1 4 3 1 5 , 3 1 6

1 6 3 1 4

1 6 , 7 1 3 2

1 C o r i n t h i a n s

8 , 1 - 6 1 8 1

1 5 , 6 - 7 1 3 2

2 C o r i n t h i a n s

8 , 2 3 1 3 2

8 - 1 0 1 3 5

E p h e s i a n s

5 , 1 - 2 2 3 2

C o l o s s i a n s

1 ,15 196

G a l a t i a n s

1 - 2 1 3 4

2 , 6 1 3 5

2 , 1 0 1 3 5

3 , 8 3 2 3

3,10-14 1 2 7 , 1 3 83 . 1 3 1 7 8

P h i l i p p i a n s

1 ,2 134

6 , 1 2 2 9 2

1 T i m o t h y

3 , 2 1 3 4 , 3 1 5

3 , 8 a n d 1 2 1 3 4

4 . 6 1 3 4

5 , 1 7 1 3 4

T i t u s

1.7 134

H e b r e w s

9 , 4 1 8 2

1 P e t e r

2 , 2 1 7 8

4 . 1 4 2 4 5

2 P e t e r

2 , 4 1 5 6

3 . 4 1 5 6

3 , 1 0 1 5 7

A p o c a l y p s e

1,12-1 1 9 61 ,20 196

2 , 1 1 6 7 , 2 1 9

2 - 3 2 1 9

2 - 4 1 6 6

2 . 7 1 6 8 , 2 1 3

2 ,9 16 8 , 187

2 . 9 a n d 3 , 9 1 6 9

2,9-3,22 1 7 7

2,10-11 1 7 9

2 . 1 3 1 8 0 , 1 8 1

2 . 1 4 1 8 1 , 1 8 6

2 , 1 7 1 8 3 , 1 8 5

2 , 2 0 1 8 6

2 , 2 0 , 2 6 - 2 7 1 8 6

2 , 2 8 1 6 8 , 1 8 6

2 1 7 8

3 , 4 - 5 1 8 6

3 .5 187

3 . 8 1 8 83 , 1 2 1 8 8

3 . 2 0 1 8 9

3 . 2 1 1 8 9

4 - 5 2 1 4

4 - 1 9 1 9 0

4 2 0 4

4 , 4 1 9 8 , 2 0 1 , 2 0 2

4,4-11 2 0 4

4 . 1 0 1 9 9 , 2 0 5

4 .1 1 2 0 1 , 2 0 1

5 , 1 2 0 6

5 . 6 2 0 0

5 . 8 8 9 , 1 8 0 , 2 1 5

6 a n d 8 1 9 7

6 , 6 1 6 5 , 1 8 8

6 .9 an d 11 197

6 , 1 1 1 9 7

6 , 1 4 2 0 0

7 . 9 1 9 9 , 2 0 0 , 2 3 37 . 1 0 2 0 1 , 2 0 5 , 2 0 6

7,10-12 2 0 6

7 , 1 4 2 0 1

7 , 1 7 2 1 7

8 , 3 2 0 0

8 , 3 - 4 1 9 7

12 ,1 16 6 , 167

1 2 , 1 - 6 1 6 6

1 2 , 5 1 6 7

1 3 - 1 4 1 9 6

1 3 , 1 4 - 1 5 1 9 6

1 3 , 1 5 1 9 6 , 1 9 7



A N C I E N T C H R I S T I A N A N D J E W I S H W R I T E R S 3 5 1

1 4 , 2 - 3 1 9 9 , 2 3 3

1 4 , 9 , 1 5 - 1 6 , 1 9 - 2 0 1 96

1 6 , 2 1 9 3

1 6 , 3 - 2 1 1 9 3

1 7 , 1 - 6 1 6 9

1 7 . 9 1 6 5

1 7 , 9 - 1 1 1 6 5

1 7 . 1 0 1 6 5

1 9 , 9 1 8 2

1 9 , 9 a n d 1 7 1 8 9

2 0 , 2 1 8 0

2 1 , 7 - 8 1 7 9

2 1 , 1 4 a n d 1 9 2 1 32 2 . 1 2 1 7

2 2 . 2 2 1 3

2 . A N C I E N T C H R I S T I A N A N D J E W I S H W R I T E R S

Acta Sancti Justini1 1 4

Acta Sancti Callisti Papae Martyris Rom ae

8 ( M i g n e PL. 1 0 , c o l 1 2 0 ) 3 2 5 ,

3 2 6

A t h e n a g o r a s

Legatio pro Christianis

Insc. 3 0 3

1 7 , 3 4 - 3 5 3 0 3

1 8 , 1 0 - 1 4 3 0 4

1 9 , 1 3 0 4

C l e m e n t o f A l e x a n d r i a

Stromateis

5 , 1 4 2 9 2

C l e m e n t o f R o m e

Ad Corinthios

1,1 1 4 0 , 1 5 9

1 , 1 - 2 1 4 5

2 ,2 6 1

2 ,6 1 6 0

2 ,8 16 1

3 ,2 1 5 9

3 ,3 1 5 9

3 , 4 16 1

7,1 1 4 3

1 4 , 2 1 5 4

2 0 1 5 22 0 , 3 1 4 7

2 1 - 2 2 1 5 6

2 1 , 2 1 5 3

2 1 , 6 - 7 1 5 8

2 1 , 9 1 5 3

2 3 - 2 7 1 5 6

2 3 , 4 - 5 1 57

2 3 , 5 1 5 6

2 4 , 2 1 5 7

3 2 1 5 2

3 7 1 4 6

3 7 , 2 2 4 3

4 0 1 4 74 1 , 1 1 4 7

4 1 , 3 - 4 1 4 7 4

4 2 , 3 1 5 9

4 2 , 4 1 5 9

4 2 , 4 - 5 1 4 8

4 4 1 4 9

4 4 , 1 - 5 1 3 3

4 5 , 3 1 6 1

4 6 , 6 1 5 9

4 6 , 7 1 5 9

5 1 , 2 16 1

5 6 1 6 0

5 7 , 2 1 5 9

5 9 , 3 1 5 2 , 1 5 5

6 0 - 6 1 2 1 6 , 2 3 4

6 0 , 1 1 5 2

6 0 , 2 1 5 6

6 0 , 4 1 5 3

6 0 , 4 - 6 1 , 2 5 26 0 , 4 - 6 1 , 3 1 5 1

6 1 , 1 1 5 3 , 1 5 6

6 1 , 2 1 5 0 , 1 5 6

6 1 , 2 - 3 1 6 3

6 1 , 3 1 5 4

6 2 , 2 1 5 9

6 2 , 3 1 6 0

6 3 , 1 1 5 9

6 3 , 2 - 3 1 6 0

6 4 1 5 9

Constitutiones Apostolicae

2 , 2 6 2 2 2

(= Didasc. Apost.) II , 5 7 , 4 - 5 2 1 7

Constitutiones Apostolicae (Epitome)

5 1 - 7 7 3 8

C y p r i a n

De Lapsis

28 14

Epistulae

3 0 , 6 5



3 5 2 I N D I C E S

4 3 , 5 4

5 5 , 8 4

5 9 , 7 4

5 9 , 1 4 4

7 3 , 7 47 5 , 1 6 4

Zte Catholicae Ecclesiae Unitate

5 3

4 4

Sententiae Episcoporum

19 5

Didache

8 15

9 , 4 1 5 8

1 1 , 3 - 6 1 3 2

1 4 , 3 2 1 8

Didascalia Apostolorum

I I , 5 7 , 4 - 5 2 1 4

E p i p h a n i u s

H a e r . , 6 8 , 2 5

E u s e b i u s o f C a e s a r e a

Historia Ecclesiastica

1 1 1 , 2 0 , 3 - 4 1 1 2

V I , 2 8 , 1 - 2 3 2 8

I I , 1 0 , 3 1 2 3

V , 1,3-63 6

V , 1 ,14 6

V , 1 , 1 9 1 4

V , 1 ,33 6

V , 2 4 , 1 5 3 1 4

III , 18 14 2 , 16 5V , 6 1 4 8

V I , 2 1 , 3 - 4 1 4 2

Martyres Palestinae

1 1 , 3 0 1 2 2

Chronicon

II , p . 1 6 0 1 4 0

C h r o n i c o n A n n . A b r . 2 1 1 2 ,

D o m i t . 1 6 1 4 0

C h r o n i c o n II a n n . A b r . 2 1 1 0

D o m i t . 1 4 1 4 2

H e g e s i p p u s

A p u d E u s e b i u m , Historia Ecclesiastica

III , 2 0 14 0

H e r m a s

Visiones

II , 4 , 2 - 3 3 1 4 , 3 1 6

II , 4 , 3 2 1 5

H I , 9 , 7 2 1 5

( P s e u d o ) H i p p o l y t u s

I proem. 6 3 2 0

V , 8 , 3 9 2 3 5

I X , 6 - 1 3 , 2 3 1 0

I X , 7 , 1 - 3 5

I X , 1 0 , 1 0 - 1 1 3 1 8

I X , 1 1 ,1 3 1 4

I X , 1 2 , 1 5 3 1 4

I X , 1 2 , 1 5 - 1 6 3 1 3 , 3 1 8

I X , 1 2 , 2 0 - 2 1 3 1 5

I X , 1 2 , 2 1 - 2 2 3 1 5

I X , 1 2 , 2 2 3 1 6

I X , 1 2 , 2 2 - 2 3 3 1 7

I X , 1 2 , 2 4 - 2 5 3 2 3

I X , 1 2 , 2 5 3 1 5

I X , 1 2 , 6 3 1 5I X , 1 3 , 1 - 4 3 1 5

Traditio Apostolica

3 1 , 1 2 0 , 3 2 0

4 2 1 4 , 2 1 6

7 3 2 0

H i p p o l y t u s

Contra Noetum

4 , 8 3 0 1

1 4 , 2 - 3 2 9 61 5 , 7 3 0 1

Hypostasis of the Archons ( R o b i n s o n )

II , 9 5 - 9 7 2 7 4

I r e n a e u s o f L y o n s

Adversus Haereseos

I , 5 ,4 (= Frag, graec. 1 , 5 3 6 - 5 4 3 )

2 9 2

I, 5 ,4 (= Frag, graec. 1 , 549 )

2 9 2

I, 2 3 , 1 - 2 2 8 6

I , 2 7 , 2 2 9 2

II , praef 1 2 8 6

III praef. 2 8 6

III , 3 , 3 1

III , 6 , 1 2 9 5

I I I, 6 , 2 , 4 8 2 9 6

III , 2 4 , 2 2 9 5

V , 3 0 , 3 1 6 5V , 3 0 , 3 1 4 0

I g n a t i u s o f A n t i o c h

Epistula ad Ephesios

1.1 2 3 1 , 2 3 8 , 3 0 0

1 ,3 2 1 8 , 2 1 9 , 2 2 8

1 , 5 2 3 4

4 , 1 - 2 2 3 3 , 2 4 0

4 . 2 2 3 4

5 .1 2 1 9 , 2 2 2 , 2 2 85 . 2 2 3 2

6 , 2 2 9 9 , 2 4 3

7 , 1 3 0 0



A N C I E N T C H R I S T I A N A N D J E W I S H W R I T E R S

9 , 2 2 3 8

1 2 , 2 2 3 5

1 3 .1 2 2 1 , 2 3 9 , 2 9 9

1 3 . 2 2 4 0

1 4 . 2 8 0

1 9 , 1 2 3 5

1 9 . 3 2 9 9

2 1 , 1 2 3 1

Epistula ad Magnesios

1 ,2 297

6 .1 2 1 8 , 2 1 9 , 2 2 2 , 2 3 9

6 , 1 - 2 2 2 2

6 . 2 2 4 0

7 . 1 2 9 8 1 3 2 2 77 , 1 - 2 2 2 2

7 . 2 2 3 2

1 3. 1 2 1 7 , 2 2 1 , 2 2 2 , 2 3 4 ,

2 9 9

1 3 . 2 2 2 1

1 5 2 4 0

Epistula ad Philadelphenses

Inscr. 2 4 0

1 .1 212

2 . 2 2 4 7

4 2 3 2

6 .1 168

7 . 2 2 3 5

8 , 1 2 9 9

9 . 1 2 3 5

1 0 .1 2 2 8 , 2 4 4 , 2 4 6

1 0 . 2 2 2 9 , 2 4 4

1 1 2 4 0

Epistula ad Polycarpum2 , 6 2 4 6

7 . 2 2 4 6

8 2 2 8

8 . 1 2 2 8

Epistula ad Romanos

i n s c . 2 2 5 , 3 1 4

1 - 2 1 5

2 . 2 2 2 9 , 2 3 2 , 2 3 3 , 2 3 8

3 3 0 0

3 . 3 3 0 0

4 . 1 2 3 2

4 . 2 2 3 3

6 ,1 2 2 9 , 2 9 8

6 . 3 2 3 3

6 , 3 2 3 5

8 , 3 2 3 2

9 , 3 2 2 9

1 0 , 1 - 2 2 2 8

1 0 , 2 2 2 8Epistula ad Smyrnaeos

i n s c r . 2 3 8

1,1 218

2 - 3 2 9 8

3 , 2 2 2 1

6 ,1 2 2 1 , 2 3 9

8 , 2 2 1 9

1 0 , 2 2 3 1 , 2 4 6

1 1 , 2 - 3 2 2 8

1 1 , 2 2 4 6

Vistula ad Trallianos

1,1 2 2 8

3 ,1 2 1 8 , 2 2 2

3 , 1 - 3 2 2 2

3 ,2 2 1 9

5 , 2 2 3 5

8 ,2 2 1 91 1 , 1 2 1 8

1 1 , 1 - 2 2 1 3

12 ,1 2 2 8

1 2 , 2 2 4 0

P s e u d o I g n a t i u s

Ad Romanos

3 3 0 0

6 3 0 0

J e r o m e

Epistulae

1 0 8 , 7 1 4 0

J o h n C h r y s o s t o m

Hom ilia in Iohannem

2 7 , 1 5

J o s e p h u s

Antiquitates Iudaicae

1 , 3 2 2 2 4 1

1 2 , 2 6 5 8 8

1 5 , 3 3 9 7 2

1 6 , 1 3 6 1 2 2

1 8 , 6 6 - 8 0 2 5 8

1 9 , 3 4 3 - 3 5 1 1 2 3

2 0 , 1 2 9 3

2 0 , 1 0 2 8 3

2 0 , 1 9 7 - 2 0 3 8 2

Bellum Iudaicum1 , 1 5 2 1 2 8

1 , 4 1 4 7 2

2 , 1 6 6 8 2

6,387-391 7 9

7 , 1 6 2 7 9

J o a n n e s M a l a l a s

Chronographia

1 0 1 4 0

J u s t i n M a r t y r

Cohortatio ad Graecos

1 5 2 6 9



3 5 4 I N D I C E S

Dialogus cum Tryphone

1 ,3 308

4 1 2 1 8

6 1 , 2 3 0 1 , 3 0 2

Apologia1 , 9 8 2 2 5

L a c t a n t i u s

De Mortibus Persecutorum

3 1 4 0

M e l i t o o f S a r d i s


I V , 2 6 1 4 0 , 1 4 2

P a p i a s


I I I , 3 9 , 1 5 7 9

Passio Poly carpi ( L i g h t f o o t ( 1 8 9 1 ) )

8 ,2 6 , 14

9 ,2 6

9 , 2 - 3 6

10,1 6

Passio Sanctae Perpetuae ( A r m i t a g eR o b i n s o n ( 1 8 9 1 ) )

1 3 - 1 4 ( p . 1 6) 1 4

3 ,1 ( pp . 6 2 / 6 3 , 2 - 6 4 / 6 5 ) 14

1 8 , 1 ( p . 8 6 , 1 6 ) 1 4

Passio Scillitanorum ( A r m i t a g e R o b i n s o n

( 1 8 9 1 ) )

p . 1 1 2 , 1 8 - 2 2 4

p . 1 1 6 , 2 - 3 5

p . 1 1 2 , 9 - 1 1 5

P h i l o o f A l e x a n d r i a

De specialibus legibus

I , 1 3 - 3 1 3 0 1

T a t i a n

Oratio ad Graecos

5,7-10 3 0 1

5 , 1 1 - 1 5 3 0 2

1 4 , 1 - 3 3 0 32 9 , 1 1 - 1 5 3 0 2

T e r t u l l i a n

Adversus Praxeam

1 2 9 6

9 2 9 6

Apologia

5 1 4 0 , 1 4 2

De Anima

9 , 4 3 1 7De Idolatria

18 ,1 176

De Pallio

2 1 4 0

De Praescriptione Haereticorum

2 0 , 7 - 9 1 8 5 , 3 1 7

De Pudicitia

1 , 1 - 2 3 1 9

2 , 2 3 1 6

T h e o d o r e t

Graec. Affect. Cur.

9 1 4 0

T h e o p h i l u s o f A n t i o c h

Ad Autolycum

2 , 8 3 0 8

2 , 4 - 6 3 0 8

3 . A N C I E N T P A G A N W R I T E R S

Acta Alexandrinorum ( M u s u r i l l o ( 1 9 7 9 ) )1. 1 7 - 1 8 2 4 1

1. 5 1 - 5 5 2 4 2

A e l i u s A r i s t i d e s

Eiq A(cc

7 , 9 3 0 7

Eumenides

7 3 7 - 7 5 6

A e s c h y l e s

1 8 2

A p o l l o n i u s o f T y a n n aEpistolae

6 5 1 6 8 , 1 7 9

6 6 1 6 8

A p u l e i u s

De Mundo

6 , 2 0 - 2 2 2 7 8

6 , 3 9 7 b 2 3 - 2 4 2 7 8

6 , 3 9 7 b 3 0 - 3 5 2 7 9

6 , 3 9 8 a 3 1 - 3 5 2 8 0 , 3 0 5



A N C I E N T P A G A N W R I T E R S 3 5 5

6 , 3 9 8 b 6 - 1 4 2 8 0

6 , 3 9 9 a 3 0 - 3 5 2 8 1 , 2 8 4

Metamorphoses

1 1 , 1 0 2 2 4 , 2 3 7

A r i s t o t l e

Metaphysics

1 2 2 7 9

1 4 2 7 7

Politics

6 , 7 5 5

A u g u s t u s

Res Gestae

3 5 1

4 , 2 5 1

4 ,7 1 3 6

6 , 2 5 3

7 ,2 4 4

7 ,3 5 2 , 5 9

8 ,2 8 4 , 8 6 , 1 2 4

10 3 3

11 5 4

12 5 4 , 6 51 2 - 13 35

13 37

19 4 1

2 1 4 1

2 4 4 1

C i c e r o

De Divinatione

2 . 7 4 2 0

2 . 7 5 2 1

De Legibus

2 ,31 21

De Natura Deorum

2 , 2 2 0 , 2 3

2 , 4 2 0 , 4 8 , 1 4 7

2 . 2 9 2 3

2 . 3 0 2 2

2 , 7 3 2 2

3 , 9 5 2 5De Republica

6 , 1 0 6 3

6 , 1 0 2 7 3

De Oratore

3 , 7 8 1 9

In Pisonem

4 0 2 4 7

Pro Lege Man ilia

1 3 6 5

16 65

Corpus Hermeticum ( N o c k a n d F e s t u g i e r e )

Frag. X X I I I 3 0 5

Frag. X X I I I , 6 2 , 1 9 - 2 1 3 0 6

Frag. X X I V , 1 -2 3 0 6

D i o C a s s i u s

Historia Romana

2 7 , 3 7 3 8

3 7 , 2 4 , 1 3 8 , 3 9

3 7 , 2 4 , 2 4 0

3 7 , 2 5 , 1 4 0

4 0 , 4 7 2 6 5

4 2 , 2 6 2 6 5

4 5 , 6 , 5 2 0 4

4 7 , 4 0 , 1 - 5 4 4

5 1 , 1 9 , 7 6 1

5 1 , 2 0 , 3 4 0

5 1 , 2 0 , 4 3 8 , 4 0

5 1 , 2 0 , 6 1 2 0

5 1 , 2 0 , 7 1 8 0

5 3 , 1 7 - 1 9 3 9

5 4 3 9

5 4 , 3 3 7 0

5 9 , 2 4 , 3 - 4 2 0 45 9 , 2 8 , 5 1 9 3

6 3 , 4 , 2 2 0 1

6 3 , 4 , 2 8 - 2 9 2 0 1

6 5 , 7 , 2 1 2 8

6 7 , 1 4 1 6 4

6 7 , 1 4 , 1 - 2 1 2 9

6 7 , 1 4 , 1 - 3 1 4 1

6 8 , 1 , 2 1 2 9

7 6 , 7 2 7 0

7 8 , 3 2 7 1

7 8 , 2 0 , 1 2 0 0

7 8 , 3 1 , 2 - 7 9 , 2 1 , 2

8 0 , 9 , 3 3 1 9

8 0 , 1 1 3 2 7

8 0 , 2 0 , 2 3 2 6

D i o C h r y s o s t o m

O r . 4 5 , 1 1 7 0

D i o d o r u s S i c u l u s3,57,3 2 6 2

D i o g e n e s L a e r t i u s

Successiones Philosophorum

1, 4 3 - 4 4 2 8 8

I , 1 2 2 2 8 8

7, 1 1 5 6 - 1 1 5 7 2 7 3

D i o n y s i u s o f H a l i c a r n a s s u s

Antiquates Romanae

II , 5 0 , 3 3 1 2



3 5 6 I N D I C E S

G e l l i u s

Nocks Atticae

V I I , 8 , 7 1 3 6

H e r o d i a nII , 2 ,9 187

V , 5 , 1 - V I , 1 ,3 3 1 1

V , 5 , 6 - 7 2 2 7 , 2 6 0

V , 6 , 2 3 2 0

V , 8 , 9 3 2 6

V I I I , 7 , 2 2 0 1 , 2 0 5

H o r a c e

Carmen Saeculare

2 9 - 3 3 6 1Epodes

16 58

Odes

I, 2,29-30 1 7 3

I , 3 ,5 17 3

III , 14 ,1 3 3

I V , 1 4 , 1 3 3

J u s t i n i a n

Digestae ( M o d e s t i n u s )X X I I I , 2 , 4 2 3 2 3

X L V I I I , 1 0 , 2 7 , 2 2 4 7

Digestae ( U l p i a n )

I , 5 , 1 7 2 5 1

I , 9 , 8 3 1 5

X X I I I , 2 , 4 2 3 2 3

J u v e n a l

Satires

X I I I , 4 6 - 4 9 1 67

L i v y

Ab Urbe Condita

1 3 1

1 praef 1 3 2

1 praef 9 a n d 1 2 5 5

1 ,7 ,9 32

1.18.6 3 4

1,18,7-10 3 4

1,19,1-3 3 31.20.7 4 1

1,31,6-8 2 8

1.31.8 3 0

1,44,2 8 4 , 8 5

3 . 6 . 5 2 8

3 . 7 . 6 2 8

3 . 7 . 7 2 8

3 , 8 , 1 2 8

4 31

4,20,7 2 6 , 4 1

4.30.10 3 0

4.30.11 3 0

5,23,4-11 3 2 ,

6,1,12 2 9

6 , 3 7 8 4

8 , 6 , 9 3 2

8,6,11 3 2

8,6,12 3 3 , 6 0

8 , 9 , 1 4 2

1 1 - 2 0 31

2 2 , 2 1 , 7 6 4

2 3 , 3 6 , 9 - 1 0 4 2

2 5 , 1 , 7 3 0

2 5 , 1 , 8 3 0

2 5 , 1 , 1 1 3 0

2 5 , 1 , 1 2 3 02 5 , 1 6 , 1 - 4 4 2

2 7 , 1 6 , 1 5 4 3

2 7 , 2 3 , 1 2 9

2 7 , 2 3 , 4 2 9

2 7 , 2 6 , 1 4 4 3

2 8 , 2 , 2 3 3

2 8 , 1 2 , 1 2 3 7

2 9 , 1 4 , 2 2 8

2 9 , 1 6 , 6 3 0

2 9 , 1 6 , 7 3 0

3 1 , 5 , 7 4 3

3 1 , 2 4 2 4 7

3 6 , 1 , 3 4 3

3 7 - 1 4 2 3 1

3 9 , 8 - 1 9 7

3 9 , 8 , 1 - 1 9 1 5 0

3 9 , 2 2 , 4 - 5 8 5

3 9 , 2 2 , 5 4 7

4 0 , 6 3 , 4 3 84 1 , 1 4 , 7 4 3

4 5 , 1 6 , 6 4 7

4 6 - 1 4 2 3 1

6 7 , 1 2 , 4 3 8

6 9 , 5 1 , 1 3 8

1 4 2 3 2

dius Obsequens

9 4 3

12 47

1 3 8 5

4 4 8 5

4 6 8 5

4 9 8 5

5 2 8 5

6 3 8 5

6 7 4 4

L u c a n

Pharsalia

1 , 5 5 7 4 6

1 , 6 0 4 4 7

1 ,617 47



A N C I E N T P A G A N W R I T E R S

1 , 6 6 4 4 8

1 , 6 7 0 4 8 , 5 0

1 , 6 7 2 4 8

1,248-250 4 6

1,265-330 4 9

1,522-605 4 6

1,559-560 4 6

1,562-563 4 6

1,564-565 4 6

1,572-574 4 6

1,580-583 4 6

1,585-588 4 7

1,589-590 4 7

1,591-595 4 71,593-595 8 5

1,606-610 4 7

1,609-615 4 7

1,617-629 4 7

1,633-634 4 8

1,638-672 4 8

1,641-645 4 8

2 , 4 7 8 - 5 2 5 4 9

4 , 4 9 - 1 3 0 5 1

4 , 1 2 1 - 1 2 6 5 1

L u c i a n

De Dea Syria 1 5 2 3 5

L u c r e t i u s

D e R e r . N a t . 6 , 8 4 8 - 9 0 5 2 4

M a c r o b i u s

Sat. Conv.

I, 18 18III , 5 ,7 13 6

M a r t i a l

Epigrammata

3 1 0 3

4 , 8 , 1 2 1 7 3

5 , 2 , 1 7 6 1 7 2

5 , 3 , 3 1 7 3

5 , 5 1 7 0

5 , 7 , 4 1 7 36 , 2 , 5 1 7 3

6,10,9 1 7 4

6 , 8 7 1 7 0

7 , 2 , 2 1 7 0

7,2,5-6 1 7 0

7 , 5 - 6 1 7 0

7,5,1-6 1 7 0

7 ,21 2 7

7 , 2 3 2 7

7 , 3 4 , 8 - < ) 17(

8,2,6-7 1 7 0

8,80,5 1 7 3

8 , 8 2 , 1 - 5 1 7 0

9 , 8 , 6 1 7 4

9 , 1 6 1 8 0

9,18,1 1 7 3

9 , 6 6 , 3 - 4 1 7 0

9 , 8 6 , 7 - 8 1 7 3

9 , 1 0 1 , 2 2 1 6 7

1 3 , 6 4 1 7 0

1 3 , 7 4 1 7 0

1 4 , 1 , 2 1 7 4

1 4 , 1 2 4 1 6 7

OvidFasti

3 , 5 5 , 5 7 6 2

Metamorphoses

1 5 , 4 1 - 4 1 1 1 8 2

1 5 , 8 5 8 - 8 7 0 1 7 3

1 5 , 8 6 7 - 8 7 0 5 8

Tristia

5 , 2 , 4 7 - 4 8 1 7 3

P a u s a n i u s

Graeciae Descriptio

V I , 1 6 , 5 2 4 7

P l a t o

Respublica

4 1 5 A - C 5 4

Timaeus

2 2 B 4 2 8 7

P h i l o s t r a t u s

Vita Apollonii

4 , 3 4 1 8 0

6 , 4 2 1 6 6

P l i n y t h e E l d e r

Historia Naturalis

X V I I I , 2 , 6 1 3 6

P l i n y t h e Y o u n g e r

Epistulae

X , 9 6 , 1 1 4 3

X , 9 6 , 2 6X , 9 6 , 5 1 1 0 , 1 1 1

Panegyricus

2 , 2 3 1 7 0

5 2 , 6 - 7 1 7 4

8 0 1 7 3

P l o t i n u s

Enneades

I , 7 , 1 , 2 5 - 2 , 1 - 3 2 7 7

I I , 9 , 1 , 1 3 - 1 6 2 7 5 , 2 9 2 ,2 9 3

V I , 9 , 9 3



3 5 8 I N D I C E S

P l u t a r c h

Ad principem ineruditum

7 8 0 E , 3 2 8 2

781 A , 3 2 8 1

Alcibiades2 2 , 2 1 8 2

De Com munibus Notitiis

3 6 , 5 2 7 3

De hide et Osiride

3 5 2 A , 2 2 8 2

3 5 2 B , 3 2 3 6

3 5 4 E , 1 0 2 8 5

3 6 1 D , 2 7 2 3 5 , 2 3 9

3 6 4 E , 3 5 2 3 5

3 7 1 A , 4 9 2 8 2 , 2 8 3

3 7 2 E , 5 3 2 8 3

3 7 3 A , 5 4 2 8 3

3 7 3 A - B , 5 4 2 8 4

3 7 6 A , 6 1 2 8 2

Demetrius

10 , 2 - 4 2 8 1

P o l y b i u s

Historiae6,4,5-10 5 5

6 , 4 , 7 5 5

6,9,10-14 5 5

P o r p h y r y

Vita Plotini

3 , 1 3 - 1 6 2 7 5

P r o c l u s

In Platonis Tim aeum Comm entaria ( D i e h l

( 1 9 0 3 ) )

III p . 2 , 10 2 9 4

I I I p . 5 8 , 8 2 9 3

I I I p . 5 8 , 1 8 2 9 3

I II p . 9 5 , 3 1 - 3 3 2 9 3

In Platonis Rem Publicam Com mentarii

( K r o l l ( 1 8 9 9 ) )

I p . 2 2 0 , 2 5 - 2 8 2 9 3

P r o p e r t i u s

Elegiaca4,6,37 6 0

Q u i n t i l i a n

Institutio Oratoria

4 , proem. 141

S e n e c a

Quaestiones Naturales

2,32,4 4 5

S c r i p t or e s H i s t o r i a e A u g u s t a eElagabalus

3 , 4 3 2 5

4 , 3 3 2 4

1 7 , 1 - 3 3 2 6

Severus Alexander

2 9 , 2 - 3 1 4 2

S i l v i u s S t a t i u s

Punica

3,629 1 6 7

S t a t i u s

Silvae

I , 1 17 4

I, 1 ,62 17 0

I , 2 , 1 7 5 1 7 3

I , 2 , 1 7 8 1 7 4

I , 4 , 9 5 1 7 4

I, 6,83-84 1 71

III , 4,23-24 1 8 0

I V , 3,11-12 1 6 6

I V , 3 , 1 2 8 - 1 2 9 1 7 3

S t r a b o

X I I , 8 , 1 8 1 8 8

X I I , 5 6 7 2 6 1X I V , 1 ,4 1 0 9

X I V , 1 ,2 3 1 6 8

S t o b a e u s

Eclogae

I , 4 1 , 4 4 3 0 5

S u e t o n i u s

Augustus

1 3 8

2 9 , 3 6 0

5 7 , 2 2 0 0

Claudius

2 5 , 4 1 1 0

Domitianus

1,2 2 5 9

1,4 2 6 6

4 2 2 6

4 , 4 1 7 57 ,2 1 6 6

1 2 , 2 1 2 8

1 3 , 1 - 2 16

1 5 , 1 7 141

Tiberius

2 0 6 6

3 7 1 6 8

Titus

5 , 3 2 5 8

Oracula Sibyllina

7,148-149 1 8 2



ANCIENT PAGAN WRITERS 3 5 9

T a c i t u s

Annales

II , 4 7 , 3 - 4 1 8 8

III , 6 0 - 6 3 1 68

I V , 3 7 1 8 0X V , 4 1 , 1 3 1 2

X V , 4 4 , 4 7

X V , 4 4 , 3 1 1 0

X V , 4 4 , 4 1 11

X V , 4 4 , 5 1 1 0

X V , 5 5 - 5 6 1 80

Historiae

2 , 5 5 1 9 9

4 , 8 1 2 5 8

V a r r o

De Re Rustica

I , 1 ,5 3 1 2

V e r g i l

Aeneid

1,257-296 1 7 3

1 , 2 8 7 5 8

1 ,291 581,617-620 9 7

6 6 3

6 2 7 3

6 , 7 9 1 - 7 9 4 9 5

6 , 7 9 1 - 8 0 7 1 7 3

8 , 7 0 4 6 0

6 , 7 9 1 - 7 9 4 5 8

Eclogae

4 5 4

4 6 04 , 6 9 7

4 , 8 5 6

4 , 1 1 5 7

4 , 1 5 9 5

4 , 1 7 5 8

4 , 2 6 - 3 6 5 6

5 , 5 4 5 7

4 , 4 - 1 0 5 4

4 , 1 5 - 1 7 5 64 , 1 8 - 2 5 5 6

4 , 3 7 - 4 5 5 6

Georgics

1,24-30 5 8

1,24-42 5 7

1 . 2 6 5 8

1 .27 58

1,500-501 5 8

1,502-503 5 8

3 , 1 3 - 4 4 5 8

X e n o p h o n

Cyropaedia

1,3 64

4 . I N S CR I P T I O N S A N D C O I N S

INSCRIPTIONS

A u b r e t o n a n d F . B u f f i e r e

3 5 0 , 8 2 2 4

3 6 1 , 1 - 2 2 2 4

3 6 7 , 5 2 2 4

CIG

9 4 9 1 8 9

3 1 7 3 , 1 5 1 8 3

3 1 7 6 a . 1 8 3

3 1 7 6 b . 1 8 3

3 6 4 2 2 0 3

IG

5 , 1 , 1 3 6 8 1 8 4

1 1 , 4 , 1 2 9 9 1 5 0

1 2 , 2 , 5 8 2 0 31 2 , 5 , 2 9 1 2 3 6

1 2 s u p p l . p . 9 8 : 1 4 A 2 5 7

CIL

2 , 1 7 2 1 7 5

2 , 1 9 6 3 1 7 5

3 , 1 4 3 3 1 7 6

3 , 7 1 1 8 1 2 0

4 s u p p l . I I ( 1 9 0 9 ) , 4 3 2 (1 9 8 2 ) ,

1 1 4 2 1 8 4

4 s u p p l . I I ( 1 9 0 9 ) , 4 8 3 1 8 4

4 s u p p l . I I ( 1 9 0 9 ) , 4 8 6 1 1 8 4

6 , 5 1 2 2 6 2

6 , 7 1 5 2 6 4

6 , 2 0 8 0 , 2 2 1 3 7

6 , 4 , 2 9 6 0 9 2 7 3

8 , 8 2 0 3 3 1 1

8 , 1 7 8 9 6 1 7 6

9 , 3 1 8 4 6 31 0 , 1 6 2 4 1 8 8

1 2 , 6 0 3 8 1 8 7 , 2 0 2



3 6 0 I N D I C E S

E h r e n b e r g a n d J o n e s ( 1 9 55 )

9 8 6 8 , 6 9

9 8 , 3 7 - 3 8 1 0 5

9 8 a 7 0

9 8 a . 709 8 a.,6 9 4

9 8 a . , 8 , 1 0 - 1 1 9 5

9 8 b . , 3 5 - 4 1 7 0

9 9 7 2 , 2 4 4

1 0 0 a . , 2 0 - 2 7 7 1

1 0 2 , 2 5 2 0 4

1 0 2 a . 2 0 1 , 2 3 2

1 2 8 6 9 , 7 0

EPRO 5 0 ( V e r m a s e r e n )

I , 5 5 26 1

I , 57 26 2

I, 5 9 , 5 - 9 2 6 2

I, 6 0 , 4 - 7 2 6 2

I , 3 5 2 2 6 2

III , 2 4 4 2 6 2

I I I, 4 7 6 2 6 2

H o r s l e y New Documents

III , p . 13 10 5

I V , p . 4 6 - 5 5 1 0 9

/. Ephesus

l a , 2 2 , 1 - 8 1 9 4

l a , 2 7 , 2 9 2 - 2 9 7 1 9 4

l a , 4 5 A , l - 8 1 9 4

l a , 4 7 , 7 3 1 9 4

I I , 2 3 1 9 2

I I , 2 8 6 2 2 3

I I , 5 9 9 2 0 6

I II , 6 4 5 , 3 - 7 1 9 4

I I I , 9 0 2 1 2 0

I V , 1 2 7 9 1 9 4

V I I , 1 3 0 1 5 , 2 1 9 4

V I I , 1 3 0 7 4 1 9 4

V I I , 2 4 1 3 3 , 9 1 9 4

V I I , 2 4 3 1 1 ( a ) 1 9 4

V I I , 2 4 3 1 4 1 9 4

V I I , 2 4 3 1 8 (a ) 1 9 4

I. Pergamon

3 3 6 2 3 6

/. Sardis

7, 1,8,12 7 2

7 , 1 , 8 , 1 2 - 1 4 2 4 4

IGRR

1, 1 1 5 0 2 5 8

3 , 2 0 9 2 3 43 , 2 0 9 , 1 - 5 2 3 4

3 , 1 2 8 7 , 4 2 0 6

1 2 8 8 , 5 2 0 6

3 9 a , 1 0 2 0 3

3 9 b . , 6 2 0 6

3 9 b . , 3 0 - 3 1 2 0 5 , 2 0 6

3 9 b . , 2 4 2 0 6

3 9 b . , 3 4 2 0 6

1 0 5 1 8 0

1 4 5 2 0 3

1 4 5 , 5 2 0 6

1 8 0 7 0

3 0 9 1 5 2

3 5 3 1 8 2 , 1 9 4 , 1 9 8 , 1 9 9

3 5 3 a . , 4 - 5 a 1 9 4

3 5 3 a . , 5 b . 1 9 43 5 3 a . , 1 7 - 1 8 1 9 4

3 5 3 a . , 3 0 - 3 1 1 9 4

3 5 3 a . , 3 1 1 9 8

3 5 3 b . , 5 1 9 4

3 5 3 b . , 1 2 - 1 9 1 9 5 , 2 3 4

3 5 3 b . , 1 5 - 1 6 2 0 3

3 5 3 b . , 1 8 - 1 9 2 3 4

3 5 3 b . , 2 0 1 9 6 , 1 9 7 , 2 3 2

3 5 3 c . , 1 0 1 9 9

3 5 3 c . , 1 0 - 1 1 1 9 5 , 1 9 6 ,

2 3 7

3 5 3 c.,4-7 1 8 2 , 1 9 5 , 1 9 6 ,

2 2 4

3 5 3 d . , 1 4 1 8 3 , 1 8 5

3 5 3 d . , 1 4 - 1 5 1 9 9

5 2 2 1 9 2

5 2 2 1 9 9

5 2 2 2 3 4

6 6 1 , 2 2 - 2 3 2 2 67 7 8 , 1 a n d 1 5 2 0 2

8 4 7 2 0 3

1 1 6 7 . 4 2 0 2

1 3 0 4 . 5 2 0 4

1 3 9 3 1 8 3

1 3 9 9 , 5 - 6 1 8 3

1 4 0 0 , 9 - 1 0 1 8 3

1 5 5 8 , 2 7 - 3 0 2 0 2

1 6 0 8 1 9 9

1 6 0 8 a . , 1 0 2 3 4

1 6 0 8 b . , 5 1 9 9 , 2 3 4

1 6 0 8 c . 1 0 3

16 08 c . 181

1 7 0 8 . 1 0 5

1 7 5 6 7 1 , 2 4 4

1 7 5 6 1,10-23 2 4 3

1 7 5 6 I I 2 4 4

1 7 5 6 1 1 , 3 2 - 3 3 2 4 6

1 7 5 6 X , 1 0 4 2 4 51 7 5 6 , 1 4 1 0 5

1 8 0 6 9



INSCRIPTIONS AND COINS 3 6 1

IGUR, M o r e t t i 8 , 1 , 5 4 8 , 2 6 2 5 7

1 ,3 3 2 2 5 8 , 1 , 5 4 8 , 2 7 - 2 8 2 5 7

1 ,6 7 2 2 3 8 , 1 , 5 4 9 2 5 7

1 ,7 8 2 2 5 9 , 1 , 1 9 2 , 4 - 8 2 5 6

1 , 8 0 2 2 5 1 1 , 9 2 2 , 2 5 f f . 2 0 1

n r r Q 1 1 , 9 2 2 - 9 2 3 2 0 4U (

Y 2 i 2 07 1 1 , 9 2 2 - 9 3 3 8 9 , 2 3 2

3 3 2 , 2 7 — 2 9 1 8 7 2y' 7 58 3 2 2 5

3 3 2 , 2 9 1 8 7 29' 1527 2 2 5

III'38

i « 72 3 8 3 1

'1 7 0 3 2 2 3

Hi I N ' 3 5 , 8 2 6 , 9 - 1 0 2 2 5

T J O D O NR 1 9 9 ^

4 7 9 1 9 2 , 1 9 2 , 1 9 9 , 2 2 5 , 2 3 4 ? ; £

1 6 8

7 19 3 3 9

' > 1 8 4 0 - 1 8 4 1 1 2 9

A 0 0 4 2 , 1 7 4 5 2 4 76 o 7 , 4 9 . 3 4 3 7 4 6 n o

6 6 9 2 0 7 ^

6 6 9 , 8 - 9 2 0 7 Syll?

7 3 0 2 0 4 3 0 2 4 7

SEG

4 , 5 1 7 1 9 4

6 , 5 9 2 3 4

6 9 5 , 3 3 - 3 4 2 0 4

6 9 5 , 3 5 1 8 7

6 9 5 , 5 0 - 5 4 2 2 57 3 6 2 3 6

8,1, 5 4 8 , 1 4 2 5 6 7 3 6 vi 30-31 2 3 6

8 , 1 , 5 4 8 , 4 - 1 0 2 5 7 7 6 1 A 2 - 5 2 4 4

8 1 <S48 1 4 - 2 4 9«S7 '

1 * 9 8 9 1 6 8

C O I N S

£ A f C , M a t t i n g l y

1, p. 10 0 no s 61 I ff . 167

1, p . 1 4 2 n o 1 5 5 , p l a t e 2 6 , 3

167 (P lates 16 a n d 17)

2 , p . 8 n o . 4 7 , p l a t e 1 , 1 5 1 6 7

2 , p . 7 7 n o . 3 8 1 1 7 3

2 , p . 2 1 2 n o . 8 5 6 , p l a t e 4 1 , 9

2 0 8

2 , p . 2 5 5 n o . 1 5 6 2 0 8

2 , p . 2 8 0 2 0 82 , p . 2 8 2 - 2 8 3 n o s 2 6 6 , 2 6 7 ,

a n d 2 7 1 , p l a te 5 4 , 3

18 6 (P lates 18 a nd 19)

2 , p . 3 1 1 n o . 6 2 , p l a t e 6 1 , 6

1 6 7 (P l a te s 2 2 a n d 2 3 )

2 , p . 3 1 1 n o s 6 3 - 6 5 ,

p l a t e s 6 1 , 7 - 9

1 6 7 (P l a te s 2 0 a n d 2 1 )

2 , p . 3 6 0 n o . * 2 0 7

2 , p . 3 6 4 n o 3 0 3 , p l a t e 7 1 , 6 [ 6 1 , 6 ? ]

1 6 7

2 , p . 3 6 5 n o . 3 0 4 , p l a t e 7 1 , 5 , a n d

p . 3 7 3 , n o . 3 4 7 , p l a t e 7 3 , 6

2 0 7

2 , p . 3 6 7 n o . 3 1 4 2 0 8

2 , p . 3 7 2 n o . 3 4 6 , p l a t e 7 3 , 4

1 6 7 (P l a te s 2 4 a n d 2 5 )

2 , p . 3 7 8 n o . 3 6 5 , p l a t e 7 4 , 8 2 0 8

2 , p . 4 1 3 n o . 5 0 1 , p l a t e 8 2 , 8

1 6 7

2 , p . 4 1 4 n o . 5 0 4 a n d 5 0 5 ,

p l a t e 8 2 , 8 1 6 72 , p . 4 1 4 n o s 5 0 4 a n d 5 0 5 ,

p l a t e 8 2 , 8 1 6 7

3 , p p . 2 3 2 - 2 3 3 n o s 1 4 3 6 - 1 4 4 0 ,

p l a t e 3 4 , 4 2 6 3 ( P l a te s 2 8

a n d 2 9 )

3 , p . 3 3 9 a n d p . 4 8 9 2 6 0

3 , p . 3 8 2 n o . f 2 6 3

3 , p . 3 8 5 n o . 1 0 5 9 2 6 3

3 , p . 3 8 6 n o . 1 0 6 0 , p l a t e 7 2 , 6

2 6 3

3 , p . 3 9 6 n o . 1 0 9 5 , p l a t e 7 5 , 7

2 6 3 (P l a te s 2 6 a n d 2 7 )



3 6 2 I N D I C E S

3 , p . 4 8 5 2 6 0

4 , p . 4 0 2 n o . 1 3 2 2 6 2

4 , p . 4 0 3 n o . 1 3 4 2 6 3

4 , p . 5 1 5 n o . 8 3 6 2 6 2

4 , p . 5 3 4 n o s 9 3 2 - 9 3 4 , p l a t e 7 3 , 1 12 6 3 (P l a te s 3 0 a n d 3 1 )

4 , p . 5 4 5 n o . 1 0 0 6 2 6 1

4 , p . 5 7 1 n o . * 2 6 3

4 , p . 6 1 0 n o . * 2 6 3

4 , p . 7 5 5 n o . 3 5 4 a n d p . 8 3 4

n o . 6 8 0 , p l a t e 1 0 9 , 1 5

2 6 3 (P l a te 3 2 )

5 , p p . 1 6 6 - 1 6 7 , n o s 7 5 , 7 6 , 7 7 ,

p l a te 2 8 , 1 8 , n o s 7 8 - 8 2 2 7 0

(P lates 33 and 34)

Ionia

p . 2 6 8 n o s 2 6 6 - 2 6 8 1 9 3

Phrygia

p . 3 0 7 n o s 1 8 1 - 1 8 2 , 1 8 5 1 8 9

RIC, M a t t i n g ly a n d S y d e n h a m

2 , p . 2 6 7 n o 3 2 6 n o s 1 6 6 a n d 1 6 7

2 6 8

2 , p . 4 4 4 n o . 8 2 6 2 6 0

4 , 1 p . 1 7 0 n o . 5 7 7 , p l a t e 9 , 92 7 0

4 , 1 p . 2 5 6 n o . 2 9 0 2 6 8

4 ,1 p . 256 no . 291 (a ) - (c )

2 6 8

4 , 1 p . 2 5 6 n o . 2 9 3 (a ) - ( f )

2 6 8

4 .1 p . 317 no . 21

[ P la t e X I V , 5 ] 2 6 8

5 . 2 p . 1 0 8 n o . 8 2 9 2 5 2

C o h e n , Description Historique des

Monnaies

III , p . 2 3 6 n o . 7 0 2 6 8

I I I, C . 2 9 8 , C . 2 9 9 a n d C . 3 0 4

2 6 1

5 . G R E E K V O C A B U L A R Y

d y d ^ p a x c c 2 0 1

d y a A , p d x i a 2 4 1

dydjcTi 158

dyiocpopoi 240

d y i o c p o po i 2 3 0 , 2 3 8

dycovoGexf iaa i 234

dGepixoq 6pyr| 15 4 , 16 0

d 0 e o i 1 2 9dOeoxTiq 1 2 9 , 14 1

d ( 8 i a 3

a i a i o i q o ic o vo i q 5 1

a K a x a o x a o i a 1 6 0

dicpf| 7 0

d i c p o d p a x a 8 9

d ^ i G e i a 1 2 2

d t a y o q

O \ ) K dA.oyov 7cejcoiT|Ke 3 0 2

d pc op oq S i d v o i a 2 1 9

dva£co7rupt |oavxe<;

e v a i p a x i G eo u 2 4 5

dvdAji\j/i<; 14

d v a j i a u o p e v o i

d v a r c a u o p e v o K ; e iq Ai f tavov

7tpoxpT | ae i 6 dpxcov 19 6,

1 97

dvd7toa)Gi<; 14

dvarccxvaovxai 197dv8pa7to8ioxT|<; 1 7 9

dv8pocpovoi 6

d v o a i o i 1 6 1

d v o a i o q 2 4 8

d v x u r o o v 2 3 0 , 2 3 1

dvcopGcbGn 9 4

dvcbpGcoaev 6 9 , 9 4 , 11 3

d i c a p x a i 1 4 8

djrriyyeAji 245

drcoPdAAeaOaixr\q X e i x o D p y i a ^ 1 4 9

d7to8e8e iypevo< ; 94

d r c o y e v v a 2 9 3

d n o y p d c p e c G a i 8 3 , 8 8

dTcoXvxpcoaiq 9 4

drcovoCa 159

drcoTcpeaPeCa 245

d jc o v o i a 1 5 9

drcoppeov 306

drcoppori 282

Gecbv o a a cpvtax drcoppori

3 0 7

d r c o p p o ia 3 0 5 , 3 0 6 , 3 0 7

d y i o v jr v e v p a d i r o p p o i a v . . . x o v

Geou 3 0 6xov Geovox; cpcoq 3 0 5cpvaecoq 3 0 6

d r c o p p o i a i

dpxovx£<; xov |3aaiAico<; drc op po iai3 0 6

d icoxexpr ixa i 277



G R E E K V O C A B U L A R Y 3 6 3

drcoTOur|

oi) m x ' d7ioxouT|v, cb<; eX aixco Qf| vai

3 0 1

drcoxporcri 241

d p £ X T |

' H A A O - U peydA.01) l a p d r c i S o q 267

d p i a x o K p a x i a 55

d p x o q 182, 195

d p x a i 275, 276

dpxri 3, 95, 285, 287, 290, 321,

3 2 2

E K p ia < ; d p x i k 284, 302

eâwcn? , 303

ecp' exepaq dp%d<; 275u i a dpxf| 279, 307, 308

xfi xcov rcdvxcov dpxfi 68, 84

d p x i e p a x e C a 320, 321

d p x i e p e v q 109, 110, 154, 203, 262,

3 2 0 , 321

dpxiepei peyCaxcp 189

dpxio"ovdycoyo<; 1 0 7

d p x o v x e q 275

o x p a r n y o t 1 2 6

xov Koopoft 3 0 6

xcov eOvcov 1 1 7

daePeia 1 2 9 , 11 , 1

daxf|p npmvoq 1 8 6

d a c p d X e i a 124, 1 3 8

d x a £ ( a 295

d x o i d o i 9 a p u d i c o i 322

dx\>xe<; 69, 160

a \ ) 6 d 8 e i a 159

avxoKpdxcop 5d(peX6xri<; 118

a<peai<; 94

d(p(8p\)pa 261

acppove<; 159

PotTtxCauct 5

paaiXeia 9 6 , 9 9 , 1 1 6erco-opdviov paaiA,e(av e £ e x d £ e i v

3 0 4

Paaitaiouxov aicovoq xovxou 229

paaitaix; 1 1 5 , 1 1 7 , 1 2 4 , 1 6 3P<xoiA,ei 8o\)Xet)oêv 4

PaaiXe\)£iv

xcov jcepdxcov xr\c, ynq 229

paoxdêw 241P8eAA)icx6<; 145

pSekuyua xr\q epTi cooeax; 7 9 , 8 1 ,

1 4 5PipAxx; 186

£K Tfjq p{pA,o\) xfjq £cofj<; 187

po\)Xt| 92xfi cbpiouivfi $o-oXr\ 94, 113

$OVXT\GI<;

9 e (a v P o v X r i a i v 94

xfi i)7cepxdxcp auxov po\)A.r|aei

1 4 7

pcopoq 3 4 , 2 0 2Pcouocpopoi 2 3 0 , 2 3 8Pcopocpopoq 236

yeve0A,io<; n p e p a 84, 94

yevvrixoq 300

yevvcbjievov 97

y £ p o \ ) a ( a 243, 183y p a p p a x e t x ; 195

yuvf| 166

Sacpvncpopoi 201

Sacpvncpopoc; 201

8e8oKipaapevoi a v 8 p e < ; 148, 149

8 e v 8 p o v 178

8ripio\)py6(; 293

Sfipoq 64, 123, 243

8 i a 8 e ^ c o v x a i 148, 149

8 i a 8 o x a i 149, 286, 287

drcooxotaov 286

S i a S o x r i 1, 8, 287

8 i d 8 o x o i 320

8iaKov(ca

i S i a i 147

Tterciaxevpevcov 8iaKoviav . . .

2 2 2

S i d K o v o i 8, 117, 1488iaKovo<; 134Siowteutxov 240

Siaarccopev 159

S i a x a y n 145

8i8aoKaA.(a 320, 321

8tiA,icopev 159

S i e u O v v o v 156

SiriKcuaa 279

8iraioa\)VTi 64

8IOIKT|OI<; 146

xfj 8 i o i ic f | a e i a u x o u a a t a u o p e v o i

1 4 5

5 t o p 6 c b p a x a 113

8icoyn6<; 160

8 o K i p d o a v x e < ;

xcp rcveuuaxi 148

8 6 y u a 88 , 124, 217

8 6 ^ a 151, 152, 1 6 3 , 205, 206, 249

S o f t v a iyvcoaiv acoxnpfac; 92

5p6uo<; 5rm6aio< ; 247



3 6 4 I N D I C E S

8 t > v a u « ; 205 ; 207, 249^

S v v d u e i xpwêvoq dxpvxcp 278

u y i o x o v 98

8(o8eKd<p\)Xov 119

e(38eAA)Y|ievoi 179

eyicpaxeCa 159

eGri 130

ei8coA,a

rcoAAaxoGi dvOpcbrccov ecpavxdaOri

4 0

ei8cota)taxxpai 179

e k o v e q 70, 89, 192, 193, 195, 223,

2 2 6 , 2 3 4 - 2 3 6 , 239, 249

xcov lepaaxcov 1 9 4 , 1 9 5 , 2 2 4eiq eiKovaq xcov ZePaaxco 195

e k c b v 172, 193, 196, 223, 224,

2 2 7 , 230, 236, 238, 281, 282, 284

v o r i x i K o q 28 4

e i K ova ueyiaxTiv ypd\j/aq 227T

Iai<; eiKova xov vor\xox) KOGUOI)

2 8 4

e k o v i xov 9r |p {o \ ) 193, 196,

197

e'uxapixevTi 51, 55, 59, 272

eipr|vet>eiv 244, 245, 246

eipr|VTi 7 0 - 7 2 , 91, 94, 95, 99,

1 0 2 , 110, 1 1 2 - 1 1 5 , 123, 127,

1 3 6 , 145, 1 5 1 - 1 5 4 , 156, 160,

1 6 2 , 243, 248

ev eipf|vfl 115

i ) 7 c o x d a a e a 9 a i 146

\)7ioxdcaovxai 145e v a y y e X i ^ o i i e v o q e i p f | v r | v 119

ev o u p a v c o e i p f | v t | 115

o v S e v . . . dpe ivov e ip f | vr | < ;

2 4 0 , 299

noXXr\q eipr|vr|<; x v y x d v o v x e q

1 1 3

e i o r | t a 6 a i o v 183, 185

e K a x o v x a p x o q 146

eKK^TioCa 240, 286

e K K t a i a i a 6 e o t> . . . d y i o c p o p c o

2 3 8

xfj eKKA.r|o{a xov 9eoa) xr\

7rapoiKot>aTi KopivGov 151

rcpoTiyoDjievoK; xfjq eKKA.r|a[a<;

2 1 5

a \ )U7capo i )aa iq . . . eiacA,r|a{ai<;

2 2 8

eK7ti>pcoGi<; 273

e K x e v e i a 119

ZKxvoiq

nXr\pr\<; nveviiaxoq ayiov 161

eXevQepioq 72

iXniq 70

eXnideq

zXnibaq xcov7tpoA,aP6vxcov

euayyeXia jcdvxcov 105evBeov nXrfioq 219

evcoaiq

aapKiicri 221

eiq evoxrixa 0e o \ ) 299

ev xfi evoxrixi 247

evcoaiv eiSxouai 297

evcoOfivai

evco9t|xe xcpe7tiaK07ccp 239, 240

e eujttaxpiov

xr \<; dydjiriq -bjucbv 219

e^crooid ovxec; 117

eiovaia 292

SeSopevriv eôvaiav 152

empxia 123

ercapxcx; 146

ejciveiiacx; 189

ejucxnuoi

xolq anocxoXoic, 132

eiciaK07if| 149

e7iioKOTcfi<; d7copdA<co|iev 149

enioKOKoc, 225, 226, 313

eiuaKOTcoi 8, 133, 134, 146, 148,

2 4 8 , 315, 316 , 321

Ttpea f toxepo i 146, 315

mi udpxvpa 226

ejcixeêiaGai 147

ejctxexaypevoi optaucn 147

ercupaveCa 70, 72in6nxT]q 306

epyov TipcoxoxoKov 301

epic; 160

evayyeXia 70, 72

evayyeXiov 104, 113

xolq Ttxcoxoiq 122

EvayyeXiGaadax

nxwxolq 105

evayyeXioQr] r\ noXiq 72, 105,

2 4 5

evayyeXia 105

evepyexai 117

evepYernq 117

eikoauoq 195

evXoyia 206, 207, 249

cuvouia 70, 64

evaePeia 64, 145, 204

evoePeiaq ouov SiSaypa

2 3 9jcepi x' euaepelaq 203

evaxdGeia 151, 153



G R E E K V O C A B U L A R Y 3 6 5

evxdicxco<; 1 4 6

E K GeAjinctxoq Geov 1 4 8

evxcîa 1 4 6 , 2 4 3 , 2 9 9

E\>xvxr\\ia 94, 16 0

evxapiaxfjaou 2 0 6

evxapiaxia 2 0 5 , 2 0 6

evepyeaicov 2 0 6

eiq evxapioxiav XT|A,IKOVXOV Geov

2 0 6

âmpoq

xcov 9e{cov eiicovcov

2 3 7 , 2 3 8

^Tvrfiuaxa 1 0 7tfyXoq 1 5 9 , 16 0

On 3 , 17 8

cofjc; evpexpia 7tdcrn<; 2 5 6

E K xov tpkov xr\q £co*k

1 7 8

fiyeuovia 1 5 2

f iyepoviKov 2 2

fiyeucov 8 2 , 2 8 2

Tiyovuevoq 1 1 7

HAIOC C A P A n i C 2 6 9

fiiiepoSpopoq 2 4 4 , 2 4 7

Gdvaxo<; 147

Ged 'Pcbpri 1 9 2 , 1 9 4 , 198

GeoSpouoi 2 4 7

GeoSpouoc; 2 4 4 , 2 4 6 , 2 4 7

GeoAoyot 1 9 9 , 2 3 4

GeoAxSyoc; 1 9 4 , 1 9 6 , 1 9 8 , 2 0 5 ,2 0 8 , 2 3 0

GeorcperceTq icaTSeq 3 2 1

0£orcpeaPt>XTi<; 2 4 4 , 2 4 6

GeocpdvxTK 2 3 0 , 2 3 6

0eocp6poi 2 3 7 , 2 3 8

Geoq>6po<; 2 3 0 , 2 3 6 - 2 3 8 , 2 4 1

6ecop(a 1 2 3

OXiîq 7 9

G6pvpo<; 1 2 4

Gpovoq 99 , 1 8 9 , 1 9 9 , 2 0 0 , 2 0 4 ,

2 0 5 , 2 1 7

xov Geov 1 9 9 , 2 0 4

xovlaxava 1 8 0 , 1 8 1 , 18 5

Gvuidua

xfi copa xov Gvuaduaxog 8 8

Gvuiduaxa 197

Gvuuxaai 8 8

Gvuiaxripiov 8 9

GvaiaGvolav ox; KCXMAGXTIV 2 2 5

Geov Gvaia evpeGco 2 3 3

Ovonai

Gvaiaq xe rcapioxdvai xoiq Geoic;

2 4 3

Gvaiaaxripiov 2 1 6 , 2 3 2

GvaiaaxTjplov xovGvuiduaxoq

8 8

exoiuov 2 3 0 - 2 3 3 , 2 3 8 , 2 5 0

iepaxeveiv 8 8

iepoupopoi 2 3 0 , 2 3 6 , 2 3 7 , 2 3 8

ieped 2 0 2

xr\<; xcov Xe aoxcov Evae(3e(a<;

1 8 1

iepeia 2 6 2Lepevq 7 5 , 195

iepo(pdvxTj

uvoxTipicov 1 9 2

tepocpopoq 2 3 6

iepcbuaxa 2 4 1

i|idxia Aevm 1 8 6

iuaxiov

ev iuxxxioiq XevKoiq 1 8 7

1OV8CUK6<; 1 2 9 , 1 3 0 , 131

ior| Avoia 1 8 4

iaT|A,va{ov

icrn^vaiov rcapeêi 6 mxaoxcxGeiq

1 8 3

iaxv<; 2 0 6 , 2 0 7 , 2 4 9

KaGnpevoc; 2 0 2 , 2 1 5

raGiaxduevoi

e coxiKoC 1 9 5

KaGvuvovvxeq 2 3 4KavTicpopoq 2 3 6

Kaxeôvaidôvoiv 1 1 7

mxevGvvai 94 , 1 1 3 , 1 1 8 , 156

raxTixT |Gn<; AxSycov 1 3 8

KTipvypa 7 8

KTipvâi 9 1

aix|iataoxoi<; dcpeaiv 1 0 5

KiGdpa

e'xovxe<; eicaoxoq KiGdpav

2 1 5

KiGapcp8cov KiGapi ovxcov evxai<;

KiGdpatq 1 9 9

Kiv8vvevouev eyKcxAeiaGai axdoecoq

1 2 0

K(V8VVO<; 147 , 154 , 2 4 8

Kivovvxa

axdaeiq 1 1 3

ldaxai

e i c i K e i u e v a c ; Kioxaq exovoaq iepd2 3 6

Kioxa(p6po<; 2 3 6



366 I N D I C E S

icXdSoi

xou axavpov 2 1 3

KOivcov(a 7 7

Kopri Kooiio-u 3 0 5

KoauoKpdxopeq 2 9 1 - 2 9 4

Koaj ioKpdxcop 4 , 2 6 7 - 2 7 0 , 2 7 6 ,

2 8 9 , 2 9 2 , 2 9 2 , 2 9 8 , 3 0 6 , 3 2 9

KoauoKpdxopa Kx(aua xov

At|uio\)pyov 2 9 2

icoauoicpdxopa M(dpKov)

A\)(f|Xiov)... lejiaaxov 2 7 0

K p d x i a x o q 9 3 , 106 , 1 2 6

Kpdxoq 1 6 3 , 2 0 6 , 2 4 9

ev ppaxiovi avxov 1 5 6KVKkoq

eiaxTKeiaav Kt>ictao X O V Qpovov1 9 9

XaiKoq 1 4 7

A,eixoi)pynaavxe<; duiurcxcoq 1 4 9

taixovpyCa 1 4 7

A,evxeiuovoi)vxe<; 2 0 1

A,iPavo<; 9 5 , 1 9 7

XiPavcoxoq 1 9 7 , 2 0 2A,iKva<popo<; 2 3 6

teyoq 1 8 , 2 2 , 4 5 , 4 7 , 4 9 , 1 5 2 , 1 9 8 ,

2 8 2 , 2 8 3 , 2 9 1 , 3 0 5 , 3 0 6

d a a p K o < ; 3 0 1

euyvxcx; 2 8 1

evSidOexoq 1 5 2 , 2 7 2

evSidGexoq 2 7 2

rcpoeXBcov 3 0 2

7ipo7iTi8a Xoyoq 3 0 17tpo(popiKo<; 1 5 2

Xoycp, vm voouuevco duepiaxco

3 0 4

Mxpcooiq 9 2 , 9 4 , 9 9 , 1 0 2

Xvxviaev ueaco xcov A.DXVICOV 1 9 6

Mxvoi 1 9 5

pav{a 121

udvvaKCKpDupevov 1 8 0 - 1 8 2

uavxiicfi 2 1

u d p x y q 2 2 6

6 nioxoq u o v 18 1pexexovxeq

dpxiepaxeiaq 1uiapd 1 5 9uiapol 6

uiueiaGai 2 9 4| i iur |uaxa 2 2 3 , 2 3 9

u ( u T i a t q 2 3 5

uiur|xa{ 2 3 0

uiuTixriq 2 2 6 , 2 3 3 , 2 3 8 , 3 0 0

uiuovuevoq 2 3 5

uoixeCa 3 1 5

uovapxeia-Tila 2 5 3 , 3 0 8a d u a xedq, 5earcoiva, fiovapxe(a<;

3 0 2

uovapxia 2 5 3 , 2 7 7 , 2 8 1 , 2 8 9 , 2 9 0 ,

3 0 1 , 30 3 , 30 6 , 30 7 , 30 9 , 31 0 , 3 1 8

d K a x a a K e v c o q Kal cpuciKax;

cuvioxaxai uovapxia 5 5

uovapxiav eutov 3 0 8

avviaxdv 3 1 8

jcepi xe Geoa)uovapxicu; 3 0 8

vdo<; 1 2 0

vaocpopoi 2 3 0 , 2 3 8

vea

"Ioi<; 2 5 8

Ar|(XTixpa 2 0 3

veoc;

Aiovvoioq 2 3 9 , 3 1 1

vecoKopoq 1 2 0

xr\c, ueydA.Ti<; 'Apxeuiooq 1 6 8viicr, 6 4 , 7 1 , 7 2 , 9 9 , 1 2 3vor|x6<; 2 9 4

ev xcp voiixcp 2 7 5

vouoq 2 5 , 1 0 7

vovq 3, 2 7 6 , 2 8 3 , 2 9 4 , 3 0 5 , 2 9 1 ,

3 0 5 , 3 0 6

tyXov 1 7 8

TTJ<; ^(or\q 1 7 8

oiKexriq 3 2 2

o i K o v o u ( a 2 9 7

oiKovoufaq xdpiv 3 0 1

okouuevTi 6 7 , 9 8 , 1 1 3 , 1 2 4oi'voi 1 8 2 , 1 9 5

oi'voix; a7cev5ovai 2 2 7

oXiyapxia 5 5

oXedpoq 2 2 1

6uor|0eia

9eo\) 2 4 0

ouovoC 1 4 6

ouovoia 7 , 1 7 , 1 8 , 4 3 , 4 4 , 6 8 , 7 0 ,9 1 , 118 , 15 1, 15 3, 15 4, 156 , 157 ,

1 6 0 , 23 4 , 21 6 , 23 9 , 24 0 , 24 3 , 2 4 8

evouovo(a 2 1 6 , 2 2 1 , 2 3 9 , 2 4 0 ,

2 9 9

8ixa 7tdar|<; 7tapeicpdoeco<;

1 4 5 , 147'Ouovoia lePaaxfi 1 9 2

ovoua Kaivov 1 8 4 , 1 8 5



3 6 8 I N D I C E S

Ttpoxouri

l a p d r c i S c x ; 241

r c p c o T O K o c G e S p C a i 215

TcpcoxoaxaTTiq

xfj<; xcov Na^copa icov a ipe a eo x ;114

r c u p c p o p c x ; 236

po8iapo<; 95

T c o u a fi r c a u p a o & e i a 206

o e ( 3 d C e a 0 a t 3, 9, 126

a e p d a u i o v

e i v a i y d u o v iepecoc; 320l e P a a x o i 181, 191, 203

aepaaxoAxSycx; 230

a e p a a x o c p d v n i ; 192, 196, 197, 199,

230 , 234, 236, 239, 250, 262

Geocpopoq 250

o e p a a x o c p o p o q 230, 236, 237, 239

a e P o u i v a i 107

o e p o u e v o i 129, 130

c r n u e i a 117

xov anooxohov 132

omuuxx

a i c d u p a x i 143

aocp(a 185, 206, 305, 306

aocpoi 285, 289

a7tov5ia6fjvai 232

0eq> 232

c x a a i d £ o u £ v 159

a x d a e i < ; 107

a x d o i q 110-114, 118, 119, 121,123, 128, 131, 145, 148, 152-154,

157, 159-161, 248

d v o a i o q 145

axecpavr |cpopf ioai 187

ev AxxprcpaTq eaGfiaiv

axecpavr icpope iv dnavxaq

238 , 243

axecpavTicpopot 179, 203, 204,

249

oxecpavTicpopoq 202, 204

oxecpavoi 193, 217, 201, 202

XpvooC 201, 202, 249

eaxeupevcov 5dcpvr|<; oxecpdvoiq

2 0 1 , 204

axecpdvovq xoiq i)uvco8oiq 195,

204 , 234

oxecpavoq

X p v a o u q 206

Ccofiq 179d^ io7c A.oKo\) Kve \ ) u a x i K o \ )

oxecpdvoi) 217, 234

ax e c pav c oaa i

Xpvaco oxecpdvco 204

e v e a u n o i v t a x u 7 t p a T < ;

eoxecpavcouevcuq 187, 238

axecpavcooovc iv 207

axoXf) 197

ax pc b an ; 195

a\)yxapfivai 246

a i ) v x a p T | aopevT |v auxcp 243

auyxcope iv 5

avyxcopf|oi<; 5, 6

a\)7xcopf|aeco<; d ^icoOfivai 5

<xoupot>>itov

d y a y e i v 8eo7tpe7tecxaxov 246a v u u \ ) G x a i 230, 235

(XUUCpCOVOl

ovxeq ev o u o v o i a 216

o v v e 5 p i o v 183

xcov drcoaxotaov 222

a \ ) V T |9eia 219, 228

<ruvr| p u o o x a i

xcp e7uaK6rccp 216

cxuvoSoi

ndvxeq 235, 238

GVOXOLGIC, 152

ovaxaaw . . . ecpaveporcovnaaq

152

a v a x r i p a 183

ocppayi8e<;

K a B d j i e p ev icripco ocppayi8e<;

284

a x T | u a

dvcopGcoaev 160ev eipriv iKcp oxr^axi 201

a x i a u a 119, 145

acocppoovvT} 159

acoxflp 71, 72, 91, 92, 97, 113,

180, 181, 159, 194

ueyiaxcp Zcoxfip i 189

acoxfip a x a p i a a u i v T | 105

xox> K oivo i) xcov dvOpamcov

yevoxx; 70

a c o x n p i a 71, 92, 97, 99, 102, 110,

112, 121, 123, 128, 156, 162, 206,

249

xr\<; xcov fiyeud vcov a cox ripiaq 89

acoxTipiav e£ exOpcov 92

acoxT|p (a<; eopxr|v x i v a x a v r n v

erciaxdjievoc; 123

acoxT|p iov 95

acocppcov 145

xanewoi 104

xa7ieivcoai<; 99



GREEK VOCABULARY 369

xdyuoc 146, 162

ev xcp i6{cp xdyuaxi 147

xdfo 146,' 305

xfjc; xd ecoc; 7ipoxexu7tco|ievr|<; 94

xdpaxoq 120x&eioq moq 157, 245, 280, 323,

324xeAexai

xaiq dyicoxdxaiq dvapiâoa

xeAexaiq 235

xejxevri 203

xeuevoq 120, 168, 169

xiuri 152, 205

xojcoqei<; xoTcov 218

ev xoTtcp dyico 81

XcopCou 'PcouocCcov 225

8co8eKdxcp xorcco . . . drco xcov

drcooxotaov 150

xpixcp xoTtcp 150

xpdrceâ 89

xurcoq 222-224, 226, 227, 230, 233,

237, 238, 242, 245, 250, 266

xfjq i)|itcov Geou 'Apxeua8o<;242

xou e7uxcop(o\) Geou 227, 260

eiqxurcov 222, 239

Geou 221, 225

mxpoq 218, 227, 238, 260

ouve8p(ou xcov drcoaxotaov

221xurcov opGiov 223

xurcoi 220, 222, 224, 226, 239,240 , 241, 260

xupavvoq

Eiciq atcovo<; \iovr\ 256

X\)XTI 71, 111, 122

uioq 72, 96, 99

Geou 152

Kaioapoq Geou uiou 71

uyieicx 72, 151, 153, 248

Ar|uoaia 70

uuvco8e(ov

ev xcp uuvcoSeCco 195

uuvcp8oi 194, 195, 198, 199, 204,

205 , 234, 249

'ApxefiiSi auveSpiov xcov ujavcoScov194

uuvcp86<; 199

xfi iepa uuvcoScov auvoSco xaipew' 199,' 234

\)7tojiovf| 59

\)7coxayr| 146, 162

urcoxdyexe

xcp ejciaKOTccp 221, 299

cpayeiv 178

ei5coA6Guxa 181, 185, 186

C K xou £uAou xfjq CO K 168,

213

(papudicoK; 179

(pGopd

riSiaxa dv Seâuevco cpGopdv

69, 95

cpGovo; 159, 160cpidAai 180, 193, 208, 249,

193

cpidAxxq xpucrd(; yeuouoaq

Guuiaudxcov 215

(pidtai 89

xou Guuou xou Geou 193

cpiAx)oe|$aaxo<; 203

cpiAoaocpoi 288

(piAoaocpo; 270, 289

(ptA,ooxopy(a 64(poiviKeq

ev xai<; xepî 200

(pove(a 315

(ppoviuoi 159

(ppoupoi 320

(pt>ai<; 45, 49, 71, 278

(pcovf|

ev 9covfj jiia 216

xapi<; #

Xdptxoq jLiexexovxeq 320

Xeipoxovfiaat 246

5idicovov 244

Xeipoxovt|aavxe<; 133

XiA.(apxoi 146

Xop8a( 216

Xopo(daxepcov 145

Xop6<; 230, 233, 240

ev dydjcTi xop<k 233

Xpiaxocpopoi 230, 238

XP%aGeou Axxpovxeq, ev evoxi 216

\|/eu8o7cpo(pr|XTi<; 215

\|/f|(pioua 199, 234

xjnicpoc; 183-185

A.euKT| 180-182, 185vj/uxri 275-277, 294



PLATES



P l a t e 1 . A r a P a c i s A u g u s t i . D A I N e g . 5 3 . 3 0 7 .



P l a t e 2 . A r a P a c i s : T e l l u s : c e l e b r a t i o n o f Pax i n n a t u r e a n d s o c i et y . D A I N e g . 8 6 . 1 4 4 8 .



P l a t e 3 . A r a P a c i s : T e l l u s a n d h e r c h i l d r e n i n a f r u i t fu l e a r t h .

D A I N e g . 3 2 . 1 7 4 4 .



P l a t e 4 . A r a P a c i s : N y m p h (Hard) o f s e a - r e a l m s e a t e d o n a t a m e d d r a g o n .

D A I N e g . 3 2 . 1 7 4 6 .



P l a t e 5 . A r a P a c i s : C l o s e - u p o f T e l l u s ' ch i ld i n N a t u r e ' s s u p e r a b u n d a n c e .

D A I N e g . 8 6 . 1 4 5 8 .



P l a t e 6 . A r a P a c i s : S a c r i f i c i a l S c e n e (Suovetaurilia). D A I N e g . 6 6 . 1 0 7 .



P l a t e 7. A l t a r o f L a r e s : A u g u s t u s as augurwith lituus. DAI Neg . 7 5 . 2 9 3 .



P l a t e 8. A l t a r of the L a r e s : Vicomagistri a t j o i n t s a c r i f i c e . DAI Neg. 6 0 . 1 4 7 2 .



P l a t e 9. A l t a r o f L a r e s : A u g u s t u s h a n d s s t a t u e t t e s to ministri o f a compitum.

M u s . V a t i c . A r c h . F o t o g . N e g . N. A. 16.6.



Pla te 10 . Ministri with statuet tes o f Lares a n d Genius Augusti. Mus. Vatic. Arch. Fo to g. Neg . N. X X X V . 5 . 9 .



P l a t e 1 1 . A l t a r d e d i c a t e d t o t h e Lares o f A u g u s t u s .

M u s . C a p i t . A r c h . F o t o g . I n v . 8 5 5 / S .



P l a t e 1 2 . A u g u s t u s p r e s e n t s s t a t u e o f M i n e r v a t o magistri o f w o o d w o r k e r s .

M u s . C a p i t . A r c h . F o t o g . I n v. 1 9 0 9 / S .



P l a t e 1 3 . G e m m a A u g u s t e a . V i e n n a , K u n s t h i s t . M u s . I n v . I X . A . 7 9 .



P l a t e 1 4 . P o m p e i : P r i e s t e s s with stola a n d patera.

N a p l e s , M u s . N a z . I n v . 6 0 4 1 .



P l a t e 1 6 . H e a d o f A u g u s t u s with t h u n d e r b o l t a n d s t a r .

B M C ( T i b e r i u s ) 1 5 1 . c 2 1 6 . 2 0 ( P L 2 6 . 3 ) . ( O b v . )

P l a t e 1 7 . L i v i a a s p r i e s t e s s h o l d i n g patera a n d s c e p t r e .

B M C ( T i b e r i u s ) 1 5 1 x . 2 1 6 . 2 0 ( P L 2 6 . 3 ) . ( R e v . )



P l a t e 1 8 . H e a d o f A u g u s t u s with s t a r .

B M C ( T i t u s ) 2 7 1 . c 2 1 9 . 8 6 ( P L 5 4 , 3 ) . ( O b v . )

P l a t e 1 9 . A l t a r t o Providentia.

B M C ( T i t u s ) 2 7 1 . c 2 1 9 . 8 6 ( P L 5 4 , 3 ) . ( R e v . )



P l a t e 2 0 . D o m i t i a A u g u s t a .B M C ( D o m i t i a n ) 6 5 . c l 9 4 . 5 6 ( P L 6 1 , 9 ) . ( O b v . )

P l a t e 2 1 . D o m i t i a ( P i e t a s ) with s c e p t r e , l e ft , e x t e n d i n g r i g h th a n d t o w a r d s h e r c h i l d .

B M C ( D o m i t i a n ) 6 5 . c l 9 4 . 5 6 ( P L 6 1 , 9 ) . ( R e v . )



P l a t e 2 2 . D o m i t i a A u g u s t a .B M C ( D o m i t i a n ) 6 2 ( P L 6 1 , 6 ) . ( O b v . )

P l a t e 2 3 . D i v u s C a e s a r ( D o m i t i a n ' s s o n ) a s b a b y J u p i t e rs e a t e d o n a g l o b e c i r c l e d b y seven s t a r s .

B M C ( D o m i t i a n ) 6 2 ( P L 6 1 , 6 ) . ( R e v . )



P l a t e 2 6 . S a b i n a A u g u s t a .

B M C ( H a d r i a n ) 1 0 9 5 . C . 3 9 1 . 8 ( P L 7 5 , 7 ) . ( O b v . )

P l a t e 2 7 . C y b e l e , towered, d r a p e d a n d s e a t e d .

B M C ( H a d r i a n ) 1 0 9 5 . C . 3 9 1 . 8 ( P L 7 5 , 7 ) . ( R e v . )



P l a t e 28. Fau sti na (I) Augu sta .

B M C (Anton inus P ius) 143 6.c 22 3 . 190 (PL 34 ,4 ) . (Obv. )

P l a t e 29. Cyb ele towered an d en th ro ne d with two lions.

B M C (Ant oni nus Pius) 14 36 .c 22 3. 190 (PL 34, 4) . (Rev.)



P l a t e 3 0 . F a u s t i n a ( I I ) A u g u s t a .

B M C ( M a r c u s A u r e l i u s ) 9 3 4 . C . 2 2 5 . 1 ( P L 7 3 , 1 1 ) . ( O b v . )

P l a t e 3 1 . C y b e l e ( M a t e r M a g n a ) towered.

B M C ( M a r c u s A u r e l i u s ) 9 3 4 . C . 2 2 5 . 1 ( P L 7 3 , 1 1 ) . ( R e v . )



P l a t e 3 2 . M a t r i D e u m S a l u t a r i : C y b e l e t o w e r e d a n d o n a

l i o n ' s b a c k .

B M C ( C o m m o d u s ) 6 8 0 ( P L 1 0 9 , 1 5 ) . ( R e v . )

The Imperial Cult the Development of Church Order 1999

Documents

Transcript of The Imperial Cult the Development of Church Order 1999