The Impact of Economic Change on Employment Outcomes ......2016/07/21 · I love you, Dad. To my...

The Impact of Economic Change on Employment

Outcomes and Career Choice of Doctoral Graduates in

Education from Louisiana Universities

A dissertation submitted

by

Kathleen Mary Holloway

to

Benedictine University

in partial fulfillment

of the requirements for the degree of

Doctor of Education

in

Higher Education and Organizational Change

This dissertation has been accepted for the faculty

of Benedictine University

____________________________ James E. Barr, Ed.D. __________

Dissertation Committee Director Date

____________________________ Nancy W. Bentley, Ph.D. __________

Dissertation Committee Chair Date

____________________________ Nancy Zdarko Svoboda, Ed.D. __________

Dissertation Committee Reader Date

____________________________ Sunil Chand, Ph.D. __________

Program Director, Faculty Date

____________________________ Eileen Kolich, Ph.D. __________

Faculty Date

____________________________ Ethel Ragland, Ed.D., M.N.,R.N. __________

Dean, College of Education and Health Services Date

Copyright by Kathleen Holloway, 2016

All rights reserved.

iii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

First, I must give God, the Father, the honor and praise for giving me courage.

Through Him, all things are possible. I am infinitely grateful for my family and their

unwavering, uncritical, and enthusiastic support. I would never have survived without

your encouragement, vent listening, dog-sitting, and countless other contributions (i.e.,

food and drink) to my completion of the doctoral program, not to mention the completion

of this dissertation. The support you have provided can never be recognized enough or

ever be fully repaid.

Next, I want to thank my spiritual and professional mentors, Dr. James Barr and

Mr. Saderrick Johnson, for their unwavering belief in my abilities and their many prayers

that upheld me when I was at my lowest. I also want to thank Aline Barr for her patience

and insight and for lending her husband time and time again for the completion of this

dissertation.

To my cohort and now new friends, thank you for staying true to the end. The

support and time you invested in listening, laughing, crying, and venting over the last

four years have elevated my appreciation of camaraderie. This journey would have not

been as rewarding and entertaining without you.

I am so fortunate to have worked with a wonderful committee that epitomizes the

very type of professional I want to become. To Dr. Nancy Bentley, my dissertation chair,

thank you for agreeing to work with me and for giving me insight into qualitative

research. Your gentle spirit and guiding voice softened the difficulties of the dissertation

iv

process. You offered the best advice and editing skills I could have ever expected. To

Dr. Nancy Svoboda, my dissertation reader and co-editor, it was an honor having you on

my committee and having you as part of my journey. Thank you for seeing this to

fruition. To Dr. James Barr, my dissertation director, I can never express enough

appreciation for what you do. You unwearyingly offered your time and research

knowledge when I needed it most.

Additionally, I would like to thank all those hidden individuals who have helped

without even knowing: the University of Louisiana System office, especially Dr. Karla

Hughes, for providing the context for the study and diplomatically making available the

institutional support I needed; and the wonderful staff at Benedictine who graciously

coordinated time schedules and provided technical support, thank you. Finally, I am

forever indebted to my incredible friend who provided an outlet when my coursework,

my life, and the writing of this dissertation were the toughest.

v

DEDICATIONS

To my father, George

It is with your passing that I dedicate this dissertation. You were never far from my

thoughts as I sat at my computer and wondered if you were watching my struggles. You

taught me work ethic and determination, and I used both to finish this goal.

I love you, Dad.

To my sister, Julene

You have always been an inspiration. The way you lived your life gave me the drive to

finish this degree. Even though you are no longer here, I felt your spirit nudging me

when I was procrastinating.

I miss you, my beloved sister.

vi

TABLE OF CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .............................................................................................. iii

DEDICATIONS ..................................................................................................................v

LISTOF FIGURES ......................................................................................................... xiii

LIST OF TABLES ............................................................................................................xv

ABSTRACT ..................................................................................................................... xvi

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION .....................................................................................17

Statement of the Problem .............................................................................................17

Purpose Statement ........................................................................................................26

Research Questions ......................................................................................................26

Theoretical Framework ................................................................................................26

Significance of Study ...................................................................................................27

Summary ......................................................................................................................29

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW ..........................................................................31

Introduction ..................................................................................................................31

Economic Recessions...................................................................................................33

Labor Market—Employment Outcomes ........................................................................... 35

Graduates—Career Choice ..........................................................................................42

Career Satisfaction .......................................................................................................47

Theoretical Frameworks ..............................................................................................50

vii

Mortensen's Search and Matching Theory .............................................................51

Krumboltz's Happenstance Learning Theory ........................................................53

Fugate's Psycho-Social Model ...............................................................................55

Limitations to the Literature ........................................................................................58

CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY .....................................................................................59

Research Design...........................................................................................................59

Theoretical Triangulation.......................................................................................62

Search and Matching Theory ...........................................................................63

Happenstance Learning Theory .......................................................................63

Psycho-Social Model .......................................................................................64

Investigator Triangulation ......................................................................................64

Methodological Triangulation ...............................................................................65

Data Triangulation .................................................................................................66

Variables in the Quantitative Analysis ........................................................................66

Role of the Researcher .................................................................................................70

Target Population and Sample .....................................................................................70

Sample Design .......................................................................................................70

Background for Sample Design .......................................................................72

Phase I Quantitative - Data Collection.........................................................................74

Data Analysis .........................................................................................................75

viii

Survey Instrument Validity ....................................................................................76

Construct Validity ............................................................................................76

Content Validiy ................................................................................................76

Criterion-Related Validity ...............................................................................77

Concurrent Validity .........................................................................................77

Survey Instrument Reliability ................................................................................77

Phase II Qualitative - Data Collection .........................................................................79

Data Analysis .........................................................................................................80

Validity of Project Design .....................................................................................81

Internal Validity ...............................................................................................81

Historical Threats .......................................................................................82

Maturation ..................................................................................................82

Instrumentation Threat ...............................................................................82

Construct Validity ......................................................................................83

External Validity ..............................................................................................83

Advantages and Limitations to Sequential Explanatory Mixed-Methods Design .......83

CHAPTER 4: PRESENTATION OF DATA .......................................................................... 85

Introduction ..................................................................................................................85

Quantitative Data Findings ..........................................................................................85

Profile of Respondents ...........................................................................................85

ix

General Demographics...........................................................................................87

Gender, Ethnicity, Age, Status, and Region ....................................................87

Income..............................................................................................................87

Degrees and Programs .....................................................................................88

Degrees Awarded .............................................................................................88

Program and Gender ........................................................................................89

Program and Ethnicity .....................................................................................90

Program and Age .............................................................................................90

Research Questions ......................................................................................................90

Research Question 1 ..............................................................................................91

Job Market .......................................................................................................91

Job Market and Program ..................................................................................92

Job Market and Employment ...........................................................................93

Job Market and Recession ...............................................................................94

Education as Career, Program, and Employment ............................................95

Desire for Career in Education and Employment ............................................96

Overeducated or Overqualified and Underemployed ......................................98

Career and Qualification ..................................................................................99

Position and Employment ................................................................................99

Research Question 2 ............................................................................................100

x

Academic Employment ..................................................................................100

Non-Academic Employment .........................................................................100

Position and Expectations ..............................................................................101

Pursue Doctorate ............................................................................................103

Career in Education........................................................................................104


Degree, Program, and the Economy ..............................................................106

Degree, Program, and Position ......................................................................107

Job Search Methods .......................................................................................107

Networking and Recession ............................................................................108

Networking and Job Market...........................................................................109

Meaningfulness, Job Market, and Recession .................................................109

Compensation, Job Market, and Recession ...................................................109

Graduates' Opinions and the Recession .........................................................110

Unexpected Events.........................................................................................113


Employment ...................................................................................................115

Number of Positions ......................................................................................115

Qualitative Data Findings ..........................................................................................116

Profile of Respondents .........................................................................................117

xi

Study Findings .....................................................................................................119

Theme 1. Perceptions of Career Goals and Motivation for Doctorate ................120

Theme 2. Perceptions of the Economy Related to Their Career..........................125

Theme 3. Perceptions of Alignment of Expectations and Meaningfulness .........128

Theme 4. Participants' Resourcefulness and Networking ....................................131

Theme 5. Participants' Advise to Graduates, Institutions, and Others .................136

Flexibility .......................................................................................................136

Planning .........................................................................................................137

Advice to Institutions .....................................................................................139

Counsel to Others ...........................................................................................143

Concluding Remarks ..................................................................................................144

Summary of Data Results ..........................................................................................144

CHAPTER 5: SUMMARY, RECOMMENDATIONS, AND CONCLUSIONS ...........149

Summary ....................................................................................................................149

Applicable Literature .................................................................................................153

Theoretical Implications ............................................................................................154

Recommendations ......................................................................................................154

Future Research ...................................................................................................155

Graduates .............................................................................................................156

Institutions............................................................................................................158

xii

Conclusions ................................................................................................................159

References….. ..................................................................................................................160

Appendix A. Quantitative Survey Instrument .................................................................171

Appendix B. Qualitative Questions for Interviews ..........................................................183

Appendix C. Table for an Explanatory Design ................................................................184

Appendix D. Informed Consent Form—Quantitative ....................................................185

Appendix E. Informed Consent Form—Qualitative .......................................................187

Appendix F. Diagram for a Study that uses an Explanatory Design ...............................189

Appendix G. Distribution of Graduates by Gender .........................................................190

Appendix H. Tables H1-H5 Graduates' Opinions and Expectations ...............................191

Appendix I. Tables I1- I5 Program Graduates' Opinions and Expectations ...................193

Appendix J. Interview Participants and Selection Variables ...........................................198

Appendix K. Baseline of Doctorate Recipients by Sex and Subfield ..............................199

xiii

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1. Comparison of Unemployment Rates and Recessions ......................................35

Figure 2. Job Flow and Interdependency Between Graduates and Labor Demands ........51

Figure 3. Model Interpretation of Krumboltz’s Happenstance Learning Theory ............53

Figure 4. Model Interpretation of Fugate’s Psycho-Social Model ...................................55

Figure 5. Venn Diagram of Theories for Research Design .............................................63

Figure 6. Variable Affecting Expectations of Graduates .................................................67

Figure 7. Contextual Differences in Career Choice and Data Analysis by Program ........68

Figure 8. Link Between Data and Subsequent Triangulation ...........................................69

Figure 9. Graduates by Degree Program...........................................................................88

Figure 10. Graduates by Gender and Degree Program .....................................................89

Figure 11. Percent of Graduate Responses to Job Markets ..............................................92

Figure 12. Graduate Opinions of Career and Program Choice .........................................96

Figure 13. Curriculum and Instruction Graduates’ Satisfaction with Employment ......102

Figure 14. Developmental Education Graduates’ Satisfaction with Employment ........102

Figure 15. Educational Leadership Graduates’ Satisfaction with Employment ............103

Figure 16. Perceptions of Importance of Degree and Program for Position ..................107

Figure 17. Graduates’ Rating Importance of Networking for Gaining Employment ....108

Figure 18. Graduates’ Opinions of Compensation ........................................................110

xiv

Figure 19. Graduates’ Perceptions of Position as Related to Field of Study ..................111

Figure 20. Graduates’ Perceptions of Position as Commensurate with Education .........111

Figure 21. Graduates’ Perceptions of Position as Commensurate with Experience .......112

Figure 22. Graduates’ Perceptions of Position as Expectation .......................................112

Figure 23. Graduates’ Perceptions of Position as Professionally Challenging ...............113

Figure 24. Diagram Showing Importance of Qualitative Phase for Triangulation ..........117

Figure 25. Figure Showing Embedded and Sequential Research Design ........................149

xv

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1. University of Louisiana System Universities, Degrees, and Programs ..............73

Table 2. Number of Accessible Graduates .......................................................................86

Table 3. Number of Degrees Awarded by Academic Year ..............................................89

Table 4. Rating of Graduates’ Program Choice and Job Market ......................................93

Table 5. Rating of Current Job Market within Recession and Recovery..........................94

Table 6. Rating of Job Market at Graduation within Recession and Recovery ................95

Table 7. Crosstabulation of “Desire for a Career” and Employment Status .....................97

Table 8. Selected Samples of Varied Statements to “Desire for Career” .........................98

Table 9. Graduate Responses to “Desire for a Career” and Qualification ........................99

Table 10. Selected Samples of Varied Statements to “Pursue Doctorate” .....................104

Table 11. Selected Statemenst from Program Graduates to “Pursue Doctorate” ...........105

Table 12. Job Search Methods Used and Most Successful .............................................108

Table 13. Graduate Responses to Unexpected Events and Current Job Market .............114

Table 14. Graduate Responses to Unexpected Events and Job Market at Graduation ....114

Table 15. Assimilation of Quantitative and Qualitative Findings within Theory ............150

xvi

ABSTRACT

The goal of this study was to examine employment options and career choice of

doctoral graduates to determine their employment status at the start of the economic

downturn in 2007 and through the period of economic recovery until 2014. This two-

phase, sequential mixed-methods study identified graduates’ knowledge of employment

options and their opinions of career choice based on those options. Findings from this

study suggest that doctoral graduates in education secure employment in academic fields

based on contextual factors such as a desire for career progression. Those that work in

non-academic careers do so based on choice, not for lack of academic positions. Further,

the findings suggest that graduates are driven to degree attainment for intrinsic reasons

and reasons related to advancement, goals, and opportunities. The results produced from

this study enhance existing literature on employment choice and career options for

doctoral graduates in education during economic change. The study concludes with a

discussion of the theoretical and practical implications of the findings and

recommendations for future study.

17

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

Statement of the Problem

Doctoral programs are key components of higher education in the United States

because future professors, researchers, leaders, administrators, innovators, and

entrepreneurs are educated and enter the workforce. Doctoral degrees are the highest

degrees awarded by universities that end in unique research projects that make significant

contributions to academic fields and leads to employment and higher incomes for

graduates. Generally, the reason EdD/PhD graduates enroll in higher education programs

and complete their degree is to secure employment in their field. While employment is

foremost, many other factors influence EdD/PhD students to pursue their doctorate.

Some students pursue their doctorate because they have a desire for career

progression in academia while others view their degree in a broader context to include

non-academic careers. Some students may have a personal interest in the subject area

that forms the basis of their decision, and others may be encouraged by family, friends,

advisors, or mentors while the opportunity exists. There is both a professional and a

personal benefit to a doctoral degree. Doctoral qualification can bring a sense of

achievement, provide financial security, fulfill lifelong aspirations, and offer an

opportunity to polish skills, boost self-confidence, and afford the pursuit of recognition.

Professional and personal motivations become the drive for graduates to achieve their

doctorate and select a career.

Education has been paramount in advancing our society and providing economic

and social benefits to individuals, to our country, and to the world. Our economy is

18

always in a state of flux, which causes shifts in employment opportunities and can alter

an individual’s effort to secure and maintain a career. Americans have lived and worked

in a healthy economy and struggled through periods of recession over the decades.

During fragile economic conditions, acquiring gainful employment becomes more

difficult. The availability of jobs in a graduate’s field of study parallels with

unemployment rates (U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics [BLS], 2015).

Budget shortfalls result in state funding cuts to public higher education have been

at a record high for several years and, subsequently, follow fluctuations in the economy.

In addition, traditional institutions face competition with private for-profit providers,

stringent accountability to stakeholders, and student debt and return on investment. The

business of higher education has taken on new meaning. In order to continue to operate,

institutions are forced to withstand several rounds of layoffs, furloughs, and program

consolidations, and more part-time faculty are being hired. Furthermore, it has become

necessary to shift healthcare costs, minimize benefits, implement spending and travel

freezes, incentivize retirements, and commit to administrative reorganizations in order for

institutions to survive.

Employment options in education have weakened, and the number of jobs in

academia has become more limited due to the types of financial problems that are

associated with shifting economic markets. Budget uncertainties present challenges to

recruiting and retaining top candidates for faculty and administrative positions. Those

seeking employment at colleges and universities have to consider what they may face if

they are able to obtain an appointment. For example, in a presidential search for

Grambling State University in Louisiana, candidates were hesitant to continue pursuing

19

the position until the institution’s precarious budget issues were made clearer and

resolved (University of Louisiana System, n.d.).

Higher education is one of the largest discretionary items in states’ budgets.

Funding for higher education tends to rise when the economy and resulting state revenues

are good and drop during recessions. “During the economic recession of the early 1990s,

states cut higher education appropriations by amounts unequalled in constant dollars

since at least World War II, despite enrollment growth” (Altbach, Berdahl, & Gumport,

2005, p. 117). The recession that began in 2007 radically reduced state revenue and

ended the growth in state and local support. “In response, the American Recovery and

Reinvestment Act (ARRA) provided funding to stabilize state support for education

(among other interventions). These funds were to be used to supplement state and local

funding for education in 2009, 2010, and 2011” (State Higher Education Executive

Officers [SHEEO], 2014, p. 7). Despite this funding support, the long-term outcome for

continued funding has left U.S. higher education institutions hard-pressed for solutions.

Funding shortfalls and the budget situation continue to be major issues for

colleges and universities in Louisiana. The State of Louisiana depends on state and

federal funding to provide a quality educational system. The State also looks to oil

revenue to shore up funding for continued institutional operation. Oil revenue is only one

piece of the funding equation. However, to put it in perspective, the State’s economic

forecast for 2016 shows that oil prices will continue to drop and will continue to alter the

State's economy. With state and federal funding deficits and funding from other sources

waning, “Higher education is facing a possible loss of $383 million. That would equate

anywhere from a 40% to 60% loss of state funding for Grambling and the other eight

20

University of Louisiana System institutions” (Woodley, 2015, para. 4). In addition,

candidates for higher education administrative positions can be reluctant to apply for

positions at institutions that present funding challenges. Many are reluctant to board

what appears to be a sinking ship. Even though administrative positions have opened,

potential candidates may opt to remain in their current positions, or, if in the job market,

choose to seek non-academic employment.

On the other hand, institutional data show that large numbers of senior

administrators and faculty are retiring, which should make conditions optimal for

EdD/PhD graduates to secure employment in education (Altbach et al., 2005;

Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, 2009). This information

raises important questions about where EdD/PhD graduates are securing employment. If

not in academia, where are graduates finding employment? What employment options

are available? Furthermore, what type of careers are they choosing?

At the start of the economic downturn in 2007 and the progression of the job

market through 2014, institutions of higher education have been forced to be selective on

filling administrative and faculty positions. There are increased demands on institutions

to hire administrators and faculty who have additional skills and specific education that

will benefit the institution’s overall mission. Demands such as accreditation principles

and standards, public accountability, and new collaboration among universities and

business and industry require differing levels of skills. These skills are not generally

acquired through doctoral education. Institutions may turn to candidates who have

business degrees with financial expertise in order to fill presidential positions and stay

viable. “Limits in hiring” means roles that were generally held by two or more people

21

are consolidated under one person, which leads to reduction in personnel throughout the

institution.

Because most EdD/PhD graduates anticipate that their career will be in their field

of study, they are not always prepared to search for employment outside of education.

Due to the economic recession, graduates planning to secure a career in their field need to

plan their job search prior to receiving their degree. However, given significant

economic challenges, it is not always realistic for EdD/PhD graduates to pursue an

occupation based on their training, but may be forced to choose careers seemingly

unrelated. Furthermore, without knowledge of how to market their skills for non-

academic employment, many may find they are underemployed or unemployed.

Being underemployed or unemployed encompasses the concept of overeducation,

which can have an impact on obtaining employment at the start of a graduate’s career.

Overeducation can be defined as accepting jobs below one’s level of education or having

a level of education that is better or beyond what the job requires (Baert, Cockx, &

Verhaest, 2013). In addition, by accepting jobs that require less than a doctoral degree,

graduates delay transition into their chosen career paths.

Discovering the contextual factors that form employment options helps to answer

the question about why graduates choose particular career paths. The literature addresses

undergraduates and career selection as well as doctoral graduates in education,

psychology, and the science, technology, engineering and math (STEM) fields.

However, in Louisiana, research on doctorates in education remains marginal. This study

brought together evidence on employment options and the career choices of EdD/PhD

22

graduates from six Louisiana universities under the University of Louisiana System

office. These six institutions are:

• Grambling State University;

• Louisiana Tech University;

• Southeastern Louisiana University;

• University of Louisiana at Lafayette;

• University of Louisiana at Monroe; and

• University of New Orleans

This study included three doctoral programs: curriculum and instruction, developmental

education, and educational leadership.

Studies on specific programs, such as those in the STEM fields and those in

psychology, provided an important framework for the study. This study examined

employment options and career pathways that were evident in a number of studies in the

United States and abroad.

For instance, Neumann and Tan (2011) studied Australian doctoral employment

from 2000-2007 and found that there are increasing numbers of students undertaking a

doctorate and larger proportions of doctoral graduates taking up non-academic

employment. Neumann and Tan (2011) state that there is often “an implicit assumption

that the doctorate in education is in preparation for an academic career” (p. 601). To

compound securing academic careers, the economic downturn that began in 2007 has

altered the employment landscape and academic appointments may not be feasible.

Employment opportunities for EdD/PhD graduates, as well as graduates in other fields of

study, have stalled.

23

While our nation’s economic and employment problems have been covered

heavily in the media, other drivers affect employment trajectories for doctoral graduates

seeking jobs in academia. Drivers that affect career choice for graduates in education

include:

higher education expansion and competition for students;

changing intellectual demands in all areas of work;

demand from professionals and employers for higher-level qualifications;

government and international emphasis on knowledge workers and the knowledge

economy;

pressure on higher education to demonstrate its value to society, its relevance, and

links with business and industry;

growing trends for continuing professional development, reflective practice, and

evidence/research-based approaches;

increased levels of accountability and quality measures required in the

professions;

increased recognition of work-based learning; and

qualification inflation, with growing numbers of graduates and postgraduates

(Green & Powell, 2007; Scott, Brown, Lunt, & Thorne, 2004; Wellington, Bathmaker,

Hunt, McCulloch, & Sikes, 2005).

Compounding these drivers are issues about the nature of the doctorate. Scott et

al. point to five issues: (a) the overly-specialized nature of the doctoral degree, (b)

disciplinary narrowness, (c) a need for broader skills development, (d) the focus on

24

individual rather than collaborative work, and (e) a lack of linkage with industry (as cited

in Raddon & Sung, 2009).

Oftentimes, a doctorate in education is perceived as too academic for non-

academic employment. Today’s challenging economic situation means it is no longer

sufficient for a new graduate to have knowledge only in an academic subject.

Increasingly, it is necessary for students to gain those skills that will enhance their

prospects of employment. The academic environment is often very insular, but our

society is not insular. In order to increase their chances at securing a job, graduates ought

to focus on strategies that enhance their opportunities. Graduates who are well prepared

with a multitude of experiences and interactions with people in different sectors are more

successful in securing careers (Raddon & Sung, 2009). Employers may believe that

doctoral graduates in education have insufficient abilities to apply knowledge and skills

in a broader context outside academia. It then becomes the responsibility of EdD/PhD

graduates to use their education and experiences, and to learn how to market their skills.

This is an important factor when considering employment outcomes for graduates.

Altbach et al. (2005) state:

Projecting the labor market for new Ph.D.’s has perhaps never been more difficult

than it is in the current fluid economic, political, and demographic environment…

The job market for new Ph.D.’s appears less secure today than it was

twenty or thirty years ago. More and more Ph.D.’s are finding employment

outside universities and more and more are in types of positions that they had not

expected to occupy. (p. 154)

25

In addition, the Survey of Earned Doctorates (National Science Foundation, 2009) and

Neumann and Tan’s (2011) study on doctoral education show that only half of doctoral

candidates necessarily contemplated moving into an academic career. The question then

becomes, if not in academia, where are graduates securing employment?

In higher education institutions, newly graduated EdD/PhD’s are also faced with

difficulties in obtaining appointments as either faculty or administrators. Jobs in all

sectors have been reduced, and newly graduated EdD/PhD’s are competing against

hundreds of individuals applying for academic and non-academic positions across the

country. To compound this, in order to be considered for faculty or administrative

positions, graduates are oftentimes met with structural barriers. Some of these are

identified from Cryer (2001), who draws on a list of structural barriers intended for

women, but has wider relevance to other audiences. The structural barriers include: (a)

training and work experience, (b) employer biases, (c) people staying in positions longer,

(d) job seeking knowledge and preparedness, (e) less mentoring, (f) lack of confidence,

(g) dislike of playing politics, and (h) false assumption that competence and ability are

enough (Cryer, 2001).

Because of the economic, political, and demographic environment, graduates are

finding that they have to make compromises in selecting employment (Tsaousides &

Jome, 2008). Employment uncertainties exist in the labor market for all graduates;

however, where Louisiana doctoral graduates in education are employed during

economic instability and the reasons they select academic or non-academic careers are

unknown.

26

Purpose Statement

The purpose of this explanatory mixed-methods study lies in obtaining a deeper

understanding of how Louisiana EdD/PhD graduates’ employment options and career

choices are affected during economic instability.

Research Questions

For the quantitative phase of the study, the guiding research questions were:

1. What is the extent to which employment options and career choice meet the

expectations of EdD/PhD graduates?

2. What are the contextual differences in academic and non-academic career choice

between curriculum and instruction, developmental education, and educational

leadership doctoral graduates?

3. How do motivations and background affect career choice and outcomes

(satisfaction, meet needs, etc.) during economic recession?

4. How does the availability of academic or non-academic jobs affect career choice

among EdD/PhD graduates?

For the qualitative phase of the study, the overarching research questions were:

1. How do the selected factors identified in the quantitative phase contribute or

impede graduate employment during economic recession?

2. How can the statistical results obtained in the quantitative phase be explained?

Theoretical Framework

When reviewing theoretical frameworks for the study, three theoretical

frameworks were selected to address the variables covered in the study. The variables in

the study focus on EdD/PhD graduates, employment options, career choice, and job

27

satisfaction in relation to economic recession. The first theoretical framework established

by Mortenson (1986) is the search and matching theory (SMT) which matches

individuals with available jobs, in a general perspective. Labor markets are never static:

“Employment in the labor market is the effect of an interplay between labor demand and

supply” (Melink & Pavlin, 2012, p. 25). The second theoretical framework is based on

John Krumboltz’s (2009) work and his social learning theory of career decision making

called happenstance learning theory (HLT). This theory is a career counseling model that

is action-oriented to help individuals create and benefit from unplanned events. Career

development is seen as a lifelong process, and individuals are often challenged to change

direction to retain or regain employment during times of economic crisis (Krumboltz,

Foley, & Cotter, 2013). The third theoretical framework is the psycho-social model

(PSM) by Fugate, Kinicki, and Ashforth (2004) which addresses how individuals deal

with fluctuations in the job market. Individuals possess a collection of attributes that are

necessary for effective adaptation to changing employment environments. People who

are employable consider and pursue alternatives consistent with their relevant career

identities and are predisposed to personal adaptability (Fugate, et al., 2004). Further

analysis of the three theoretical frameworks is presented in Chapter 2.

Significance of Study

Large-scale research on EdD/PhD graduates’ career experiences and particularly

their ambitions, expectations, and plans for the future and whether career aspirations were

realized is not that prevalent (Raddon & Sung, 2009). By understanding employment

options and career choice during economic flux, stakeholders, such as academic

institutions, business and industry, government, career advisors, and graduate students,

28

have a resource to provide information for decision-making. As such, differences can be

identified in terms of the contextual factors that impact opportunity, choice, and

outcomes for EdD/PhD graduates.

Available research shows that: (a) several studies present disaggregated data on

different types of PhD graduates, (b) EdD/PhD graduates lack awareness about career

planning, and (c) a full examination of the contextual and background factors shaping

employment options and career choice during economic recession needs to be

undertaken. Ultimately, the research reflected the transition from doctoral program

enrollment to employment in both the academic and non-academic sectors for EdD and

PhD education graduates. The context and motivation for this study were to understand

the dynamics of graduate responses regarding their career-related choices when the

economy was not ideal for employment. Ostriker, Holland, Kuh, and Voytuk (2011)

state that data analysis can throw revealing light on the state of doctoral education in the

United States, can help university faculty and administrators to improve their programs,

and can help students find the most appropriate graduate programs to meet their needs.

Conducting the study about doctorates in education from Louisiana universities

allowed for in-depth consideration for stakeholders about academic and non-academic

careers within the broad context of the economy. Ostriker et al. (2011) support this

concept and state the following about their own research:

The data produced from this study will be useful to administrators, faculty, and

students considering doctoral study, and to those concerned with governance and

policy related to doctoral education, as well as to the employers of PhD’s outside

of academia. (p. 10)

29

Program accountability is important for students considering a doctorate because

enrolling in a doctoral program represents an enormous personal and financial

commitment. The selection of a doctorate requires graduates to determine the time to

degree completion, program strengths and weaknesses, financial support, institutional and

program reputation, and career viability.

Summary

This study focuses on graduates from doctoral programs in education and their

employment options and career choice. The goal was to determine the career paths of

graduates and what environment they were working. Reasons for pursuing a career in

education or non-academic employment and the economy were also explored.

Downward shifts in the economy create changes in employment options, increase

unemployment, generate budget challenges, and can delay transition into a graduate’s

career of choice. The study also investigated how graduates develop strategies to

enhance opportunities when the economic environment is not ideal. The purpose of the

study was to capture graduates’ experiences and opinions at the start and during the

recession and through economic recovery. The time period investigated spans eight

years. Quantitative and qualitative data collection helped to answer research questions

and incorporated theoretical frameworks. The study provided information that has not

been previously collected, and the significance will benefit multiple stakeholders.

Chapter Two explores literature on the economic recessions, the labor market,

employment options, EdD/PhD graduates, career choice, career satisfaction, and

theoretical frameworks. Themes in the literature reveal relationships among differing

variables and have an influence on data assimilation and outcomes.

30

Chapter Three describes the methodology and the theoretical frameworks that

underpin the study. The chapter also provides an explanation of Phase I, the quantitative

phase, and Phase II, the qualitative phase.

Chapter Four provides overviews of the quantitative and qualitative research

analysis and the triangulation of those findings.

Chapter Five discusses the theoretical and practical implications of the study’s

findings. The chapter concludes by offering suggestions for future research and

recommendations.

31

CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

Introduction

A review of the literature has shown that there are several sources in the US and

abroad related to doctoral programs, career aspirations, job-seeking patterns, career

choice, employability, career path/mobility, supply/demand, employment options, return-

on-investment, and the economy. Some studies centered on fields such as STEM, special

education, psychology, and higher education. Other studies focused on one geographical

area (state, region, country, or global), one institution or a group of institutions, or one

specific field of study. The literature also recognized two or more of the aforementioned

attributes that are contained in a single study. For example, the study by Pitter,

Whitfield, Lanham, and Savon (1998) showed the employment trajectory and earnings

over a five-year period of doctoral graduates from the State University System of Florida.

In addition, Keller’s (1999) study provided information on the supply and demand of

doctoral degree recipients in Maryland. Literature that contains the relatable qualities

encompassed in this study appeared in Baert et al. (2013), Tsang and Levin (1985), and

Hobjin, Gardiner, and Wiles (2011).

The majority of the U.S. studies were centered on STEM fields, special education,

and psychology. Some studies contained the entirety of PhD graduates lumped together

in an overarching research study to include a combination of varying factors, which

included, but were not limited to, one state or several countries, minority populations, or

focused on gender specific information. Larger studies done in the US include those

conducted under the National Science Foundation’s Survey of Earned Doctorates. The

32

Survey of Earned Doctorates (SED) provides little in the way of disaggregated data per

state and per institution, and the SED does not include specific information on doctorates

in education. Studies conducted globally, such as reports from the Organisation for

Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), incorporate groups of countries and

nations. The United States was included in the OECD, but research was conducted

according to specific topics. For instance, in 2015, France, Sweden, and Luxembourg

conducted economic surveys. Among studies that were conducted in Louisiana, one

rather dated follow-up study by Blackmon and Searns (1979) provided data on doctoral

graduates in education but focused on only one institution, Louisiana State University

(LSU). The LSU study focused on graduates’ experiences in and reactions to the

doctoral program and on the relationship of that program to subsequent employment.

The study and findings were related to graduates’ field of study, job status, doctoral

preparation program in the College of Education, and professional and civic activities.

Sources that addressed a combination of attributes that include (a) economic

recession, (b) employment options, (c) unemployment, (d) overeducation, (e)

overproduction, and (f) career selection and satisfaction on doctorates in education

presented a challenge. To address this challenge, attributes were connected to applicable

literature.

Economic literature provided the framework and became a source of reference for

other variables. The economy was considered the independent variable in this study and

would not be changed by other variables or factors (i.e. graduates, employment options,

career choice, and career satisfaction). Information about recession cycles, beginning

with the Great Depression in the 1930s through the Great Recession of 2007-2009,

33

became the backdrop for the other literature presented. Labor markets are directly linked

to the economy and have an effect on employment options for graduates. When the labor

market is favorable, graduates are more likely to find employment and when the labor

market is less favorable, employment options become less available. Labor market

literature and employment option literature were grouped to contain sources that

represent labor market trends and the historical and cyclical components of recessions

and employment options for college graduates

During recessions, federal and state budget reductions present employment

challenges for graduates as institutions implement limits on hiring to remain fiscally

viable. Careers that graduates would normally navigate towards may not be available.

Graduates and career choice were grouped together to present literature pertaining to

types of graduates (field of study) and whether or not they were securing career-related

jobs. With challenges in securing a career in a graduate’s field of study due to economic

constraints, career satisfaction may be affected. Career satisfaction was addressed within

the context of job satisfaction or graduates’ satisfaction with their work. In addition,

three theoretical frameworks were discussed that connect to the economy, employment

options, career choice, and career satisfaction.

Economic Recessions

There have been 47 recessions that were unofficially recorded since the U.S.

Panic of 1792 (Cowen, Sylla, & Wright, 2006). Major modern economic statistics were

not compiled on a regular and standardized basis until after WWII. America has

experienced many recessions since the Great Depression in the late 1920s to early 1930s.

The 1930’s depression lasted three years, seven months, and unemployment reached

34

24.9% (Encyclopedia Britannica, 2015). This extreme deep depression affected the US

until after WWII. The recession of 1945 lasted eight months and was the result of

demobilization and the shift from wartime to peacetime economy (Bureau of Labor

Statistics, 2012). However, the true impact from a major recession was not realized until

the Great Depression of the 1930s. Following the 1930’s Great Depression, American

economists, the government, and banking industries developed strategies to prevent

future depressions from happening at this magnitude (Crafts & Fearon, 2010).

The next big recession occurred in the mid-1970s following the Vietnam War.

The Iranian Revolution increased oil prices throughout the world, and the stock market

crashed in 1973-1974. Unemployment was at 9.0%. The 1980s had two recessions that

lasted a total of two years and were related to the Federal Reserve interest rates that were

increased to fight inflation from the 1973 oil crisis and the 1979 energy crisis (Urquhart

& Hewson, 1983; Zarnowitz & Moore, 1977). The literature showed that the Great

Recession of 2007-2009 and economic recovery had surpassed that which was

experienced following WWII (Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2015).

The average duration of the 11 recessions that were officially recorded between

1945 and 2001 was ten months. The Great Recession from December 2007-June 2009

lasted eighteen months with peak unemployment in October 2009 at 10% (Bureau of

Labor Statistics, 2012). This is comparable to 10.8% unemployment that occurred in the

early 1980’s recession, which lasted sixteen months (Urquhart & Hewson, 1983) and is

represented in Figure 1. The literature reflected in the study references the period of

unemployment and recession since WWII and through the 2009 recession.

35

Figure 1. Comparison of unemployment rates and periods of recessions as reported from

the current population survey (Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2012).

Labor Market—Employment Options

Altbach et al. (2005) presented concerns that universities were training too many

PhD’s and that the labor market could not absorb the surplus. When too many PhD’s

enter the labor force, prospects for permanent employment decline for new doctorate

recipients, especially in the academy. Overproduction in times of economic strain means

that more and more graduates find themselves unemployed or underemployed.

In contrast, others contemplated whether or not our universities are enrolling

enough students in doctoral programs to “advance the nation’s educational, economic,

and social well-being and to improve individuals’ income levels” (Altbach et al., 2005, p.

36

134). Altbach, Gumport, and Berdahl (2011) also reiterate that, while higher education

increases a person’s financial status, being highly educated doesn’t mean that graduates

will find remunerative, high-status employment. “On the supply side, the number of

doctorates in the U.S. workforce will depend on how many new Ph.D.’s are produced,

retirement ages of those now in the workforce, and employment of foreign doctorate

recipients, all uncertain” (Altbach et al., 2005, p. 137).

The OECD (2009) determined that the status of the academic profession’s

population is aging worldwide with about half or more of the professoriate edging close

to retirement. Some countries show that fewer students are pursuing their PhD, and

positions are being left unfilled. In addition, the uncertain employment market has

increased the urgency to find employment after graduation. Salary freezes and funding

issues in the academy are deterring many graduates from appointments and routing them

towards non-academic careers. Historically, academic salaries have not kept up with the

earnings of highly trained professionals in other fields (OECD, 2009).

With the rising costs of tuition and fees, EdD/PhD graduate debt requires a

comparable salary, as with the earnings attached to other doctoral degrees, in order to pay

back student loans. Countries are finding that their highly trained and educated graduates

are fleeing to higher paying jobs in the non-academic sector, and some are searching for

employment in developed countries. This complex phenomenon is described as “brain

drain.”

The labor market and employment of college graduates are cyclical and have a

historical component. Hobjin et al. (2011) identified that:

37

The current labor market outcomes of recent college graduates closely mirror

those observed during the 2001 recession and the subsequent jobless recovery.

Unemployment rates during the 2001 recession are widely recognized as cyclical

in nature. Similarities in the experiences of recent college graduates in the labor

market during the two recessions and recoveries are evidence that higher

unemployment rates in the current downturn and recovery are also mainly

cyclical. (para. 13)

To address this cyclical nature, studies done in the past during times of economic and job

market recession were highlighted in this study.

Rumberger (1984) analyzed the growth in the job market and growth in

educational attainment for young college graduates by examining the period from 1960 to

1980 as well as predicting future trends from 1980 to 1990. Rumberger found that

opportunities for young college graduates increased during the 1960s then declined in the

1970s and were bleak in the 1980s. The results of his analysis indicated that 75% of

college graduates in the 1970s were employed in professional and managerial jobs;

however, only 60% were employed in such high-level jobs in 1980. Rumberger

predicted that throughout the 1980s the situation would continue to get worse. In

forecasting educational attainment for college graduates from 1980-1990, Rumberger

predicted that more and more college graduates would be forced into jobs

incommensurate with their levels of education. Furthermore, Rumberger identified that

tasks of jobs would change and be more complex over time because of technological

influences. This would require advanced education to develop needed skills.

Interestingly, Rumberger’s study in 1984 represented a historical point that

38

identified the concept of overeducation and is applicable to the current environment.

Overeducation can be defined in one of three ways: (a) as a decline in the economic

position of educated individuals relative to historically higher levels, (b) as under-

fulfilled expectations of the educated with respect to their occupational attainments, or (c)

as the possession by workers of greater educational skills than their jobs require

(Rumberger, 1984). Economics and overeducation were also identified in a journal

article by Tsang and Levin (1985). Tsang and Levin’s article helped to delineate the

cyclical component of the economy and availability of careers for college graduates.

Tsang and Levin determined that the concept of overeducation and careers as affected by

the economy is not new. In the mid-to-late 1960s, having good employment

opportunities was not an issue for college graduates. They were able to secure high-level

jobs in industry and government. However, as the economy shifted downward, graduates

found it harder to secure employment, and their career expectations were challenged.

The effects of overeducation may also have a psychological role to play in

employment options and career selection. Workers with more education than what their

jobs require have an increased level of dissatisfaction, exhibit adverse workplace

behavior (such as absenteeism, turnover, and disruption), and have poorer health

(Sheppard & Herrick, 1972; House, 1974; Quinn & Shepard, 1974; Quinn &

Mandilovitch, 1975). In addition, Tsang and Levin (1985) reported that graduates who

have an advanced degree and are working below their skill level are less satisfied with

the work they do, experience depression and health-related issues, and suffer cognitive

decline. The concept of overeducation in the 1970s and 1980s differs somewhat from the

experiences of college graduates today. Employment trends in the 1980s were based on a

39

production model during an industrial economy. Today, graduates looking for work are

doing so in a knowledge economy.

Keller (1999) presented the concept of overproduction in his study. Keller’s

study was in response to numerous articles, both in scholarly journals and the popular

press, warning about overproduction of doctoral degree recipients at U.S. colleges and

universities. Keller proposed that the academic job market was tight for most of the

1990s, and competition for available, permanent, faculty appointments was made

complicated with reductions in the growth of federal spending and the decline in state

support for higher education. Keller suggested that the institutional response to these

cutbacks was to employ more part-time and temporary full-time faculty with the

decreased chance of tenure in order to conserve money.

Keller (1999) discovered that Maryland’s doctoral enrollments had peaked in

1994 and had fallen by 1998 (7,561 versus 7,196). In addition, nearly 1,000 doctorates

were awarded in Maryland in 1998, which was the largest in the state’s history. Another

significant fact Keller’s study revealed was that a substantial majority (88%) of

respondents reported they held full-time positions and less than 2% were unemployed.

Also, less than half (43%) held a job in postsecondary education and approximately one-

third were employed in business or government. There were 30% with full-time jobs as

educators. When addressing satisfaction, a substantial majority (84%) rated their

doctoral studies as excellent or good in the way it had prepared them for their current job.

Two-thirds of graduates reported their job was directly related to their major; however,

37% of those with a full-time job indicated that they did not need a doctorate to obtain

their current position.

40

Fiegener (2009) studied U.S. enrollment trends from 1998-2008. He determined

that by the late 1980s enrollment in doctoral programs had increased to the point of

surpassing the peak in 1973. From 1969 to 1999, the number of doctoral degrees

awarded increased by 66%, with few fluctuations. A record number of doctorates were

awarded in 2008 at 48,000. Fiegener also discovered that the proportion of 2009

doctorate recipients with employment prospects in 2009 was slightly less than reported in

2008 and about the same as in 2007, the year before the advent of the recession.

The oversupply of doctoral graduates and the cyclic, historical aspect were also

presented by Altbach et al. (2011). Faculty members were concerned about admitting

more students into doctoral programs. “Faculty lament the need to reduce the size of

incoming doctoral cohorts due to funding constraints; while labor market projections

suggest an oversupply reminiscent of the early 1970s, especially of PhD recipients for

academic jobs” (Altbach et al., 2011, p. 375). Furthermore, “talented doctoral students

consider abandoning their academic career ambitions” (Altbach et al., 2011, p. 375). The

challenges in the 1970s were centered on post-war and an era of retrenchment from 1969-

1975. At that time, federal government support was unstable, and the academic labor

market shrank as inflation took hold.

The unpredictable future of the PhD labor market is in direct relation to external

changes. Altbach et al. (2005) determined that demand will depend heavily on the state

of the economy and, for faculty positions, on state budgets for higher education. In

addition, Altbach et al. addressed the external environment and its impact on employment

demands. Altbach et al. (2005) state, “Unexpected external events—wars, new

breakthrough technology, or changes in national and state priorities, for example—could

41

have major impacts on increasing or decreasing demand in certain fields” (p. 117).

Today, the economic and employment instability continues to be addressed, and

predictions of the future are being reflected. In a report from the nonpartisan

Congressional Budget Office (CBO) (2014), United States unemployment and labor force

participation rates are not expected to approach the levels experienced in previous

recoveries until 2018. Furthermore, the agency estimates that the nation’s true

unemployment rate will fall to 5.8% by the end of 2017 and 5.5% by 2024. It is not

evident when the unemployment rate will drop to 4.8%, the level at the onset of the Great

Recession of 2007-2009.

The Development of Higher Education Management Systems (DEHEMS) project

provided a comprehensive research study that was conducted to seek evidence on the link

between education and employment (Melink & Pavlin, 2012). This study examined six

European countries (Austria, Germany, Italy, Poland, Slovenia, and Turkey). Melink and

Pavlin provided information on the labor market economic theory in the DEHEMS

report. The study determined that the labor supply follows changes in labor demand and

not vice versa. For instance, in the education process, higher skills are produced and then

lag behind changes in labor demand. Melink and Pavlin (2012) state, “As the education

process (the production of high skills) lags behind changes in labor demand, the labor

supply reacts with a delay, but eventually the supply of highly skilled labor increases” (p.

27). This affects the matching process of workers to vacancies, making it harder to find

suitable candidates for jobs.

42

In addition, workforce projections themselves influence decisions by individuals,

institutions, and government, thereby altering the future demand/supply ratio. Altbach et

al. (2005) state:

When PhD jobs appear plentiful, growing numbers of individuals apply to

graduate programs, but fewer apply when PhD jobs are in short supply. This

causes a lag between job market needs and PhD production and job shortages are

inevitably followed by surpluses and surpluses by shortages. (p. 157)

Graduates—Career Choice

The words “employment”, “job”, and “career” are often used interchangeably and

require a brief dissecting to understand the differences between them and how they are

perceived in this study. Employment can be described as an occupation with which

someone earns a living, and a job can be defined as a paid position of regular

employment. Merriam-Webster online dictionary defines the term career as “a field for

or pursuit of consecutive progressive achievement especially in public, professional, or

business life” and “ a profession for which one trains and which is undertaken as a

permanent calling” (i.e., a career in education). “The term career descends from the Latin

carraria, meaning a carriage-road or road” and can be defined as a person’s course or

progress through life (Gunz & Heslin, 2005). This distinction clarifies that those who

obtain their doctorate in education are doing so as a progression of their career in

education. This is not always the case and may not apply to everyone. The purpose of

this study is to identify the career choice of those who have followed the academic

progression to an EdD/PhD degree.

43

Career choice is comprised of a complex interaction of factors and is often

affected by societal circumstances beyond the control of the individual. Factors such as

self-efficacy, outcome expectations, and contextual differences influence career choice as

well as an individual’s decision to choose one career path over another (Lent, Brown, &

Hackett, 2002). For instance, changes in the economy affect a person’s choices, and the

task that confronts a person is the development of techniques to cope effectively with the

environment. A career is a complex, lifelong experience with varied unpredictable

trajectories. Anxiety accompanies uncertainty, and the process of searching for a career

is greatly compounded during an economic recession. This is not a new concept.

College graduates have faced similar obstacles in the past. Common sense suggests that

maintaining self-esteem is key for graduates to overcome anxiety and remain positive in

the face of a challenging economy and employment uncertainties.

The availability of jobs and the capability to secure a career in their field of study

are significant concerns to new graduates in an economic recession. Often, graduates

borrow substantial amounts of money to meet the rising costs of tuition and fees that

institutions charge in order to remain viable. The high debt that graduates incur needs to

be offset with earnings; therefore, the options for employment and selection of careers

become more of a concern, especially in depressed job markets. Three studies (Brown,

Hesketh, & Williams, 2003; Eby, Butts, & Lockwood, 2003; and Rousseau, 1997) advise

that careers once characterized by stability, vertical progression, and job security are now

likely to involve lateral movements across organizations, increased instability, and

periods of unemployment for most workers (as cited in McArdle, Waters, Briscoe, &

Hall, 2007).

44

In Pitter et al. (1998), graduates from the State University of Florida System were

studied from 1991-1996. The goal was to analyze the employment and earnings of

graduates by discipline and degree level. Pitter et al. found that professional programs

(i.e., business, education, engineering, and health) produced the greatest number of

graduates at all degree levels. Dominating the list of disciplines at the doctoral level in

education, Pitter et al. discovered that the highest number of doctoral graduates enrolled

were in curriculum and instruction (n=57) and earned a median average of $10,711 in

1991 to $12,687 by 1996. Educational administration was fifth of ten with a total of 31

graduates and earned an average median salary of $12,409 to $23,100 from 1991 to 1996.

In higher education administration, the total number of doctoral graduates from 1991 to

1996 was 14 with an average median salary of $6,331 to $9,031 and was ranked last out

of the ten doctoral disciplines studied.

According to the National Science Foundation (2009, 2010, 2012), the status of

post-graduation plans and commitments varied according to the types of doctorate and

the job market. The four types of positions identified by the NSF include: (a) postdoc

positions, (b) employed positions in academia, (c) employed positions in

business/industry, and (d) other employed positions. The NSF (2010) report states:

The overall trend from 2004 to 2009 shows doctorate recipients were increasingly

likely to accept postdoc positions (2.8 percentage points) and employed positions

in industry/business (1.9 percentage points), and are less likely to take positions in

academe (-3.2 percentage points) and other employment (-1.6 percentage points).

2009 had the largest single-year increase in the proportion of doctorate recipients

taking postdoc positions during the 5-year span (2.0 percentage points) and the

45

largest single-year decrease in the rate of academic employment (-1.4 percentage

points). (p. 6)

Identifying doctoral candidate’s aspirations, Driggs’ (2009) dissertation on career

choice and special education doctoral students attending colleges and universities in

California concluded that there was a dramatic increase in special education graduates

seeking faculty positions in higher education. Doctoral candidates also demonstrated an

adequate expectation of securing a job in the academy. Driggs determined that self-

esteem was a factor that motivated career choices. Driggs (2009) states:

When participants were asked about the potential employment opportunities in

higher education, they had strong positive responses. During interviews, some

students expressed concerns about the economic reward or working conditions,

but remained highly motivated by the desire to make contributions to the field of

special education through the training of teachers. (p. 69)

Driggs’ study revealed that special education doctoral graduates were seeking to establish

careers in higher education and special education graduates were more satisfied with

having an academic career. However, Michalski, Kohout, Wicherski, and Hart’s (2011)

research on psychology graduates and data provided by the NSF Survey of Earned

Doctorates (2012) concerning all doctoral degrees show that less than half of recent

graduates were working in higher education.

Harvey (2005) raised the issue of employability and questioned how colleges and

universities can make their graduates more marketable. This concept has implications in

that the choice of occupation for graduates is constrained by the skills and knowledge

they acquire, which affects employment choice, and does not take into account shifts in

46

the economic market. In Stone, Van Horn, and Zukin (2012), college undergraduates

from the classes of 2006-2011 were surveyed about their educational experiences,

employment status, and satisfaction. The goal of this nationally represented study was to

survey individuals who graduated before and during the recession. When graduates were

asked if they would do something differently to be more successful today, Stone et al.

found that the majority of the students that responded stated that they would have been

more careful in selecting their major or chosen a different major (37%). Twenty-four

percent would have started looking for work much sooner while still in college, and 20%

would have taken more classes to prepare for a career. In addition, Stone et al.

discovered that when students were selecting their majors they seriously considered the

job opportunities in the field (39%). However, 25% of the students took a job they were

not enthusiastic about because the salary allowed them to pay student loans more quickly.

In regards to success in securing their first full-time job, 26% stated they found a career-

related job within a reasonable amount of time, and another 20% stated they found a

career-related job more quickly than they had expected. On the other hand, 41% said that

they still had not found a career-related job. Furthermore, many identified that securing a

career would require going to graduate school (75%).

The Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) (2012) provided employment projections

for 30 occupations from 2010-2020. The BLS findings show that jobs that typically need

some type of postsecondary education for entry are projected to grow the fastest during

the 2010-2020 decade. Occupations classified as needing a master’s degree were

projected to grow by 21.7%, followed by doctoral or professional degree occupations at

19.9%, and associate degree occupations at 18.0%. Occupations classified as needing a

47

bachelor’s degree were projected to grow by 16.5% or 431,200 thousand jobs. Two-

thirds of the 30 occupations projected to have the largest number of new jobs typically

required less than a postsecondary education, no related work experience, and short-term

or moderate-term on-the-job training.

Career Satisfaction

The terms career satisfaction and job satisfaction are often intermingled. Job

satisfaction represents how individuals feel about their work and is a multi-faceted

construct. Locke (1976) defined job satisfaction as “a pleasurable or positive emotional

state resulting from the appraisal of one’s job or job experiences” (as cited in Dunnette,

1976, p. 1304). Hulin and Judge (2003) expanded the term job satisfaction to include a

multidimensional psychological response to an individual’s job that has cognitive

(evaluative), affective (emotional), and behavioral components. Examining the reasons

individuals choose a career and their life patterns provides identifiers to career

satisfaction.

Evaluating career success from one’s job experiences or job satisfaction is a

collective process. Steve Jobs stated, “Of course, it is impossible to connect the dots

looking forward; you can only connect them looking backwards, so you have to trust that

the dots will somehow connect to your future” (Stanford University, 2005, para. 9).

Choosing a career is a combination of looking back and looking forward, by being self-

aware, gathering information on opportunities, making decisions, and taking action for

the future. Career satisfaction tends to be seen as a subjective factor of career success.

Helsin (2005) confirms that subjective career success is most commonly defined as either

job or career satisfaction. This is not to systemically confuse career success with career

48

satisfaction. Individual career satisfaction is evaluated through personal points of view,

which may include pay and social position, but also addresses much broader and complex

issues, such as, career mobility, career well-being, and emotions connected to one’s work

(Kidd, 2008). Therefore, career satisfaction signifies a holistic concept.

McGregor, McAdams, and Little (2006) examined the relations between life-

stories, personality traits, and personal goals, and their overall impact on happiness in life

as a whole. Findings indicated that people who reported the highest levels of happiness

were those who maintained personal goals consistent with their personality traits and that

were thematically linked with their life stories (as cited in Sinclair, 2009). These findings

demonstrated that “when people pursue personal and career goals congruent with their

traits, disposition and, by extension, their own self-analysis via life stories, happiness

results” (Sinclair, 2009). Self-directed behavior suggests more control over one's career,

resulting in appropriate choices and a potential increase in career satisfaction.

Kidd's (2008) research showed that an important feature of career well-being is

career mobility. Career mobility suggests periodic changes in a person’s career, which

can result in career satisfaction. To follow career paths, individuals must develop

transferable career resources. They must also learn how to adapt to change, with

confidence and self-efficacy (Bandura, 1999).

To understand the determinants of career satisfaction, Moguérou (2002)

concluded that while many studies look to understand what determines job satisfaction,

studies that look at PhD graduates and career satisfaction are less common. Judgements

of job satisfaction are often the focus for psychologists and sociologists and are not often

studied by economists. However, Moguérou (2002) stated, “The satisfaction that workers

49

derive from their jobs may be viewed as an indication to how they react to general

economic conditions” (p. 2). He suggested that one’s satisfaction with one’s job depends

on gaps between outcomes and aspirations, where aspirations are increased by education.

Moguérou’s study focused on science and engineering PhDs in the United States. He

established two prominent types of careers for scientists and engineers with doctorates:

those in the academic sector where half of PhDs are employed and those in the business

and industrial sector where nearly one-half are employed. Less prominent jobs for

science and engineering PhDs are in local government and federal administration, which

comprise approximately 10% of other types of careers.

Moguérou (2002) found that job satisfaction was different for males and females

with PhDs in science and engineering. The parameters for these differences were social

characteristics, job security, number of hours worked, and earnings. Under social

characteristics, women expressed that they were less satisfied with their jobs than males,

but this was only true for those who worked in the academy. Women and men who

worked in the non-academic sector showed no differences in levels of satisfaction. Job

security was identical for both women and men, but the number of hours worked were

more satisfying for men, especially in the business sector, and negative for women.

Reflection on earnings showed that pay is positive for males and females in both

academic and non-academic jobs. In essence, the higher the earnings for PhDs in science

and engineering, the more probable women and men will be satisfied.

According to Gottfredson (1981, 2002), occupational preferences are changed

when external circumstances alter a person’s career choice. Gottfredson stated, “Career

compromise occurs when uncontrollable life events and external circumstances, such as

50

low job availability, financial constraints, family obligations, unexpected job demands, or

need for further training, prevent individuals from obtaining careers they originally

aspired to pursue” (as cited in Tsaousides & Jome, 2008, pp. 185-186). This results in a

discrepancy between career aspirations and career attainment. Tsaousides and Jome’s

(2008) study identified and investigated the emotional impact of career compromise

amongst college students using a hypothetical simulated model:

Individuals reported overwhelmingly lower levels of expected work-related

satisfaction as they were asked to consider working in more undesirable careers.

Job satisfaction appeared to be the most highly affected component of the

participants’ emotional experience. When career choice was restricted, and as

occupations became progressively more unappealing, individuals expected to feel

significantly more dejected and dissatisfied with work. The results suggested that

career compromise elicits threats of dissatisfaction and discontentment. (p. 192)

Theoretical Frameworks

Three theoretical frameworks were selected for the study. Selection of these

theories centered on their relation to the variables in the study which included EdD/PhD

graduates, employment options, career choice, and career satisfaction in relation to

economic recession. Mortenson’s (1986) search and matching theory (SMT) focuses on

labor demand and supply where employment is based on available jobs. The second

theoretical framework is based on Krumboltz’s (2009) happenstance learning theory

(HLT). This theory is a career-counseling model that is action-oriented to help

individuals create and benefit from unplanned events. Career development is a lifelong

process, and individuals are often challenged to change direction to retain or regain

51

employment during times of economic crisis (Krumboltz et al., 2013). The third

theoretical framework is the psycho-social model (PSM) by Fugate et al. (2004) that

addresses how individuals deal with fluctuations in the job market. Individuals possess a

collection of attributes that are necessary for effective adaptation to changing

employment environments.

Mortensen’s Search and Matching Theory

Mortensen’s (1986) and Mortensen and Pissarides’ (2011) search and matching

theory (SMT) has been applied in many economic contexts. Mortensen’s theory begins

with the probability that a worker will be able to transition into the labor market given a

relative abundance of vacant jobs. The probability that a worker finds a job is positively

related to the tightness of the labor market (see Figure 2). Increased unemployment

reduces the probability that a vacancy exists, and the time in finding employment is

delayed. In contrast, an increase in the number of vacancies relative to unemployed

workers increases the probability that a worker finds a job, but, at the same time, it

reduces the probability that a vacancy is filled.

Figure 2. Job flow and interdependency between graduates and labor demands as per

Mortensen’s search and matching theory (Mortensen & Pissarides, 2011).

52

This theory is applicable for EdD/PhD graduates who have initiated entry into the

labor market with the intention of becoming employed in their career field, but are doing

so in the midst of economic flux. Graduates are looking at employment options

(searching) and selecting careers (matching) based on job availability that is tied to

economic stability or lack thereof. Education, the transfer of knowledge, and the

adaptation of these skills for particular work situations are part of the process of

matching. In the early career of doctoral graduates, there should exist compatibility

between the individual, education, and professional destination (Mortensen & Pissarides,

2011). According to search and matching theory, graduates can be horizontally or

vertically mismatched. If individuals are horizontally mismatched, they are working in a

job matching their level but not in their field. Vertical mismatch is contrary to horizontal

mismatch:

Vertically mismatched relates to the condition of working in a job matching one’s

own field but not one’s own level of education. Inherently the matching problem

relates to several theoretical concerns such as labor market segmentation,

mobility, professionalization (and professionalism) or seniority.

(Melink & Pavlin, 2012, p. 24)

Therefore, the probability that a worker finds a job is positively related to the tightness of

the labor market and is not necessarily correlated to one’s educational level or career

field. During economic upheaval, organizations make decisions to eliminate existing

jobs that ultimately cause disparity in available careers.

53

Krumboltz’s Happenstance Learning Theory

John Krumboltz is an established career theorist who has developed learning

theories in career counseling. Under his happenstance learning theory (HLT), indecision

is desirable and sensible as it allows individuals an opportunity to benefit from unplanned

events (Krumboltz et al., 2013). This theory facilitates actions to generating and

anticipating possible job opportunities. Under HLT, personal adaptability is desirable to

stay employed. This means individuals must be willing and able to transform themselves

in response to changes in their environment, to adapt their job hunting strategy to

prevailing job market conditions, or even to reconsider their goals in the face of barriers.

Figure 3 shows the actions of anticipating and generating possible job opportunities.

Managing life transitions is an essential career management skill, and having insight on

how to deal with the limited degree of control we have over some career experiences is

important.

54

Figure 3. A model of Krumboltz’s happenstance learning theory that represents how an

individual is affected by external circumstances and the relationship to their internal

responses and decision-making (Krumboltz, et al., 2013).

According to HLT theory, unpredictable social factors, chance events, and

environmental factors are important influences on career choice (Krumboltz et al. 2013;

Mitchell, Levin, & Krumboltz, 1999). As such, Krumboltz et al. (2013) and Mitchell et

al. (1999) reiterate the need to approach chance conditions and events positively. In

particular, areas that foster career selection include:

curiosity to explore learning opportunities;

persistence to deal with obstacles;

flexibility to address a variety of circumstances and events; and

optimism to maximize benefits from unplanned events (Krumboltz et al., 2013;

Mitchell et al., 1999).

55

Happenstance learning theory suggests that people with these qualities are more

likely to take advantage of events and turn chance into opportunity. Furthermore, several

factors helpful in career management include:

the commitment to ongoing learning and skill development;

ongoing self-assessment and feedback from others;

effective networking;

achieving work-life balance; and

financial planning to incorporate periods of unemployment. (Krumboltz et al.,

2013; Mitchell et al., 1999).

Graduates who have these attributes and can perform these tasks are more able to

turn chance encounters and into career prospects.

Fugate’s Psycho-Social Model

The psycho-social model developed by Fugate et al. (2004) addresses how

individuals deal with fluctuations in the job market. The model emphasizes the

interactions between three elements: career identity, personal adaptability, and social and

human capital. For example, social capital will have an impact on career identity as

social networks shape and filter career choices. At the same time, changing career

identity will involve changing the social networks in which individuals operate (McArdle

et al., 2007). Figure 4 shows an interpretation of the interaction between psycho-social

elements—career identity, personal adaptability, and social and human capital—and

employability.

56

Figure 4. Interpretation of Fugate’s psycho-social model where career identity, personal

adaptability, and social and human capital are competencies that increase employability

(Fugate et al., 2004).

Career identity, the knowing why competency, includes the components of self-

awareness, option awareness, decision learning, transition learning (considered the DOTS

model), and career management skills, but it goes much further (Law & Watts, 1977).

The DOTS model reflects the awareness, attributes, and employability of an individual

job seeker. Career identity relates to individuals’ ability to reflect on their experiences in

order to determine who they are and who they want to be. This inclusion of past, present,

and future identity formation includes some aspects of the USEM model—understanding,

skills, efficacy beliefs, and metacognition. Identity formation is a learning and

development approach and accounts for a person’s level of employability (Yorke &

Knight, 2004; Knight & Yorke, 2004).

Career identity represents the way individuals define themselves in the career

context and can be conceptualized as a “cognitive compass” used to navigate career

opportunities (Fugate et al., 2004; McArdle et al., 2007). Career identity encompasses

Employability

Social and Human Capital

Career Identity

Personal Adaptability

57

attributes such as career motivation, personal meaning, and individual values (McArdle et

al., 2007). Career identity can guide individuals to establish goals and make important

decisions that are crucial in identifying career opportunities.

In identifying employability, Fugate et al. (2004) outlined personal adaptability or

the knowing self competency. This competency states that individuals must be willing

and able to transform themselves in response to changes in their environment. Fugate et

al. suggest that open individuals tend to exhibit flexibility when confronted with the

challenges inherent in uncertain situations. Furthermore, the model refers to one’s

willingness and ability to change behaviors, feelings, and thoughts in response to

environmental demands. The ability to change could include the willingness to learn new

skills, to adapt one’s job hunting strategy to prevailing job market conditions, or even to

reconsider one’s goals in the face of barriers. During periods of career insecurity,

personal adaptability is essential to success.

Social capital refers to a collective value of social networks and is the expected

economic benefit derived from cooperation between individuals and groups. McArdle et

al. (2007) stated, “Social capital reflects the interpersonal aspect of employability” (p.

249). This is the knowing whom competency that incorporates the impact of an

individual’s social background and access to supportive networks (both formal and

informal). The importance in social capital is that supportive social networking is a

source of social support for stressful events, such as unemployment (McArdle et al.,

2007). Social capital encompasses one’s ability to successfully develop and utilize

working relationships through factors such as emotional intelligence (Fugate et al., 2004).

Emotional intelligence is defined as “the subset of social intelligence that involves the

58

ability to monitor one’s own and others’ feelings and emotions, to discriminate among

them, and to use this information to guide one’s thinking and actions” (Salovey & Mayer,

1990, p. 189).

Human capital represents the personal variables that may affect one’s career

advancement and includes education, work experience, training, skills, and knowledge

(Fugate et al., 2004; McArdle et al., 2007). This is the knowing how competency and is

based on the concept of continuous learning that is used to build one’s human capital

which increases the chances at becoming employable. In addition, the human capital

element covers the various beneficial skills and knowledge that an individual has

obtained from their experience and education. Experience and education are very

necessary for the cyclical nature of the job market, the economy, and graduates’

employment search.

Limitations to the Literature

The literature on employment options, career choice, career satisfaction, academic

and non-academic employment and recession were vast, and an exhaustive review was

far beyond the scope of the study. Literature selection was relegated to determining the

sources most connected to the study. Limitations to the literature review included: (a) the

immense amount of information available in the United States and abroad, (b) locating

sources that contained all the factors in the study, and (c) time constraints as new

information becomes available daily. Furthermore, literature on theoretical frameworks

was just as complex. Over 100 counseling/psychology theories and numerous economic

theories proved to be multi-faceted. Selecting specific theories relevant to the study was

consigned to what was deemed appropriate.

59

CHAPTER 3

METHODOLOGY

Research Design

This study used a mixed-methods design. A mixed-methods design is a procedure

for collecting, analyzing, and combining both quantitative and qualitative data at some

phase of the research methodology of a single study or a multi-phased study (Tashakkori

& Teddlie, 1998, 2003a, 2003b; Creswell & Plano Clark, 2012). The rationale for using

mixed methods is that the combination of quantitative and qualitative research is greater

than using either approach alone. When used in combination, mixed methods allows for

a more complete analysis and easy comparison of quantitative results and qualitative

responses. Mixed methods provides the opportunity to capture the trends and details of a

complex issue, such as studying employment options, career choice, and satisfaction of

EdD/PhD graduates during economic recession.

In quantitative research, an investigator conducts a systematic empirical

investigation using statistical analysis and computational techniques of numeric data.

The inquirer uses positivist claims for developing knowledge, such as cause and effect

thinking, relating specific variables, creating a purpose statement and research questions,

using measurement and observation, and testing theories. A researcher isolates variables

and causally relates them to determine the extent and frequency of relationships. In

addition, the researcher determines which variables to investigate and chooses

appropriate instruments that produce reliable and valid scores.

Alternatively, qualitative research is an inquiry process that researchers use to

discover information about a phenomenon and learn more from participants using

60

exploration techniques. This technique allows researchers to provide a holistic picture

using word analysis, to report detailed opinions of participants, and to conduct the study

in a natural setting (Creswell & Plano Clark, 2012). In this approach, the researcher

makes knowledge claims based on the constructivist or participatory perspectives.

Qualitative data is collected from participants who are immersed in the phenomena in

which the study is framed. Data analysis is based on the values that participants perceive

for their world. Qualitative data produces an understanding of the problem based on

multiple contextual factors.

In a mixed-methods approach, researchers build the knowledge on a pragmatic

base (Creswell & Plano Clark, 2012; Maxcy, 2003), asserting knowledge as truth.

Approaches, variables, and units of analysis are chosen by what is most appropriate for

answering research questions (Tashakkori & Teddlie, 1998). A major theory of

pragmatism is that quantitative and qualitative methods are well-matched. This means

that numerical and text data collected sequentially or concurrently can better explain the

research problem.

Mixed-methods studies are designed by making decisions about the amount of

emphasis that will be placed on the data and include: (a) priority, (b) implementation, and

(c) integration (Creswell, Plano Clark, Guttman, & Hanson, 2003). Priority refers to

which form of data, either quantitative or qualitative, will be treated with more emphasis.

Implementation refers to whether the quantitative and qualitative data collection and

analysis comes in sequence, one following another, or concurrently, collected at the same

time. Integrating or connecting is the phase in the research process where the mixing of

quantitative and qualitative data occurs.

61

This study used the sequential explanatory mixed-methods design consisting of

two distinct phases (Creswell et al., 2003, 2012). In the first phase, the quantitative

phase, data was collected using a web-based or a paper/pencil survey. The data was

subjected to a descriptive analysis that provided an opportunity to determine if

relationships exist among identified variables consistent with the theories identified in the

study and with demographic variables. Additional analysis was conducted in relation to

the survey responses and provided adequate continuous variables to identify factors.

Factors were organized and analyzed using discriminate function analysis between

specific demographic responses which identified why individuals selected available

occupational opportunities.

The goal of the quantitative phase was to identify potential predictive power of

selected variables on the distributed doctoral students’ employment options and career

choice and allowed for purposefully selecting participants for the second phase. In the

second phase, two qualitative data-collection methods were used: (1) descriptive

responses based on specific questions in the initial survey were anchored to specific

questions in the qualitative survey and provided an expanded discussion that addressed

the phenomenon; and (2) qualitative multiple case study approach was used to obtain

transcript data through individual, semi-structured interviews to help explain why certain

external and internal factors assessed in the first phase were significant predictors of the

opinions of graduates’ career choice and explained why the choices were made. These

two data collection methods and the results were situated under the theoretical

frameworks presented in the study (search and matching theory, happenstance learning

theory, and psycho-social model). The rationale for this approach was that the

62

quantitative data and results provided an overall picture of the research problem (i.e.,

what internal and external factors contributed to or impeded EdD/PhD graduates’ ability

to find and secure academic or non-academic careers). The qualitative data and analysis

refined and explained the statistical results by exploring participants’ opinions and

choices in-depth and determined why graduates made their choices.

The purpose of using mixed methods for this study was to triangulate methods,

literature, theories, and data based on the triangulation technique described by Denzin

(1978). Triangulation provided four different triangulation techniques: (a) theory

triangulation, (b) investigator triangulation, (c) methodological triangulation, and (d) data

triangulation (Tashakkori & Teddlie, 1998, 2003a, 2003b).

Theoretical Triangulation

Selected internal and external factors caused, influenced, and effected outcomes.

Different theories addressed different dimensions that overlapped, provided more

explanation, alleviated misunderstood language or expressions, and addressed new

variables. Specific theoretical frameworks selected for the study are presented in Figure

5, which shows a Venn diagram with an overlay of variables between and among the

theories demonstrating theory triangulation.

63

Happenstance Learning Theory

Psycho-Social Model.

Theory of Career

Development.

adaptability

Career choice

Career

field

personal adaptability (self-concept)

unplanned events

(economic flux)

others others

others others

career identity

Search and Matching Theory.

Theory Triangulation Examples

Figure 5. Diagram based on the summary of theories for the research design.

Search and matching theory. Search and matching theory (Mortensen, 1986;

Mortensen & Pissarides, 2011) is applicable for EdD/PhD graduates who have emerged

into the labor market with the intention of becoming employed in their career field but

are doing so in the midst of economic flux. Graduates are looking at employment options

(searching) and selecting careers (matching) based on job availability that is tied to

economic stability or lack thereof.

Happenstance learning theory. The happenstance learning theory (Krumboltz

et al., 2013) proposes that individuals are afforded an opportunity to benefit from

unplanned events. Unplanned events, such as unemployment, lack of jobs, and economic

recession, are desirable for individuals to practice personally adaptability and remain

employable. This theory specifically addresses the need for people to deal with change

within the rapidly changing labor market.

64

Psycho-social model. The psycho-social model developed by Fugate et al. (2004)

addresses how individuals deal with fluctuations in the job market. The model

emphasizes the interactions between three elements—career identity, personal

adaptability, and social and human capital. Career identity resembles constructs like role

identity, occupational identity, and organizational identity in the realm of how people

define themselves in their work. Career identity is longitudinal because it involves

making sense of one’s past and present and directs one’s future, even though these

change over the course of a lifetime. Adaptability relates to the willingness of people to

change personal factors to meet demands of any external situation. In addition, social

and human capital is relegated to one’s ability to identify and realize career opportunities.

For instance, people with developed social capital utilize informal job search networks

and formal networks, which can span organizations and time. Human capital refers to

various factors that influence a person’s career advancements (i.e. age, education, work

experience, training, performance, tenure, emotional intelligence, and cognitive ability).

Investigator Triangulation

Analysis of related literature combined information on the phenomenon presented

and provided an overview of studies and documents related to the proposed study.

Compiled literature connected to the historic and cyclic nature of six variables that were

the foundation of the study: (a) unemployment, (b) economic recession, (c) availability of

jobs, (d) graduates, (e) perceptions of employment options, and (f) career choice.

For example, Hobjin et al. (2011) identified that unemployment among new

college graduates has all the hallmarks of being recurring and will likely go down when

the economy recovers. However, with the current weak labor market, outcomes for

65

recent college graduates are expected to remain depressed well into the future. Part-time

employment for recent college graduates increased significantly during the recession, just

as was recorded in the 2001 recession. “This means that, of the recent college graduates

who become employed, an increasing number took part-time jobs—a sign of

underemployment” (Hobjin et al., 2011, p. 3).

Research selected from Moguérou (2002) helped explain the determinants of job

satisfaction. Moguérou connected the term “job satisfaction” with “career satisfaction.”

The author concluded that while many studies look to understand what determines job

satisfaction, studies that look at PhD graduates and career satisfaction are less common.

These examples provide an opportunity for investigator triangulation and are significant

because literature review results on career satisfaction have generally been comprised of

undergraduates and represent their attributes and opinion, but are not generalized to

terminal degrees like doctorates in education.

Methodological Triangulation

A table of the sequential explanatory mixed-methods design is presented in

Appendix C emphasizing the multiple array of potential quantitative and qualitative

analyses that were used for triangulation. The quantitative method took priority in the

design because the quantitative research represented the major aspect of data collection

and analysis in the study. Generally, quantitative research provides a more efficient

method of obtaining a large amount of data that is analyzed using statistics. In the study,

the quantitative component was larger and was used first in the sequence to disclose the

predicting power of the selected external and internal factors to graduates’ employment

options, career choice, and satisfaction. The quantitative and qualitative methods were

66

assimilated at the beginning of the qualitative phase to select participants for case study

analysis and to develop interview questions based on the results of the both descriptive

and inferential statistical tests. The results of the two phases converged during the

interpretation and explanation phase of the quantitative and qualitative results to reveal

the findings of the study as a whole. The methods triangulation provided the opportunity

to: (a) illuminate, enrich, and provide depth to the data; (b) identify discrepancies; and (c)

discover divergent and convergent points.

Data Triangulation

Data triangulation of quantitative and qualitative findings allowed for greater

validity and provided mutual corroboration. Even though increased validity was not the

goal, repeated measures, observations, and more thorough explanations of quantitative

responses through interview responses or comments embedded in the survey assisted in

aligning the findings or revealing discrepancies. (See Data Collection Phase I

(Quantitative) and Data Collection Phase II (Qualitative.))

Variables in the Quantitative Analysis

The research questions predetermined a set of variables or factors for the study.

The expression "set of variables or factors" was used because the final instrument and

results of the survey determine if the set of variables produced an outcome that is

adequate to create “factors” or group variables. Four questions directed the design of the

study and identified the variables or factors. The first question addressed the extent that

employment options and career choice were meeting the expectations of graduates.

Three dependent variables or factors—employment options, career choice, and

expectations of graduates—were used to study relationships, their variance during the

67

economic study period, and the level of their impact on shaping the capacity of the

specific workforce. Figure 6 shows the relationship of variables or factors and the

economic recession and how it functions as an indirect independent variable.

Figure 6. Variables affecting expectations of graduates during economic recession.

The second question asked, “What are the contextual differences in academic and

non-academic career choice among curriculum and instruction (C&I), developmental

education (DE), and educational leadership (EdL) doctoral graduates?” The level of the

relationship among the variables or factors and types of programs (C&I, DE, and EdL)

was measured. Figure 7 shows the design for providing descriptive statistics and chi-

square to determine if there are differences among curriculum programs and career

choices and what relationships or factors contributed to the choices.

68

Figure 7. Contextual differences in career choice and type of data analysis in relation to

type of academic program.

The third question asked, “How do motivations and background affect career

choice and outcomes (satisfaction, meets needs, etc.) during economic downturn?” This

question addressed the impact of the economic downturn on specific dependent factors

that included graduates’ motivation (a factor consisting of self-concept variables such as

flexibility and adaptability) and the graduates’ background (a factor made up of variables

such as select demographics, past job experiences, and others). The sample of data

spanned eight years. This period of the recession affected many people, increased

unemployment, and altered a large cross-section of the nation. The motivations and

background factors of participants were examined against the backdrop of the period of

recession and recovery and how these factors were perceived to have shaped graduate’s

69

employment options and ultimately affected their career choice. The direct relationships

were verified by asking questions that provided recall from the period in which the

graduate was a student or was employed and had to consider making key decisions that

were based on immediate economic conditions or future trends. Valid survey questions

used in post-disaster events and in legal cases are known to provide evidence that recalls

facts and unobtrusive personal evidence and testimony can be made clearer.

As shown in Figure 8, these data highlighted key elements that triangulated with

subjective comments and interviews and revealed information that supported common

wisdom, the theoretical frameworks, and descriptive data about the impact of the

economic downturn on job choice and career options.

Figure 8. Link between quantitative and qualitative data in relation to the economic

downturn and subsequent triangulation of data.

The final question, “How does the availability of academic or non-academic jobs

affect career choice among EdD/PhD graduates?” provided the dependent variable—

70

types of available jobs. The dependent variables—the outcome or result of the influence

of the independent variable—included: (a) employment options, (b) career choice, (c)

EdD/PhD graduates, (d) academic employment, (e) non-academic employment, (f) types

of programs, (g) graduate satisfaction, (h) motivation, (i) background, and (j) types of

available jobs. The factors internal and external to EdD/PhD graduates which

contributed to or impeded finding or advancing a career were treated as independent or

predictor variables because they caused, influenced, or affected outcomes. The

independent variable in this study was the economic recession that had a continuous

effect throughout the study and was identified as influencing the individual during

enrollment in school, after graduation, or during job search activities.

Role of the Researcher

The role of the researcher in the quantitative part of the study was theoretically

non-existent. Participants acted independently of the researcher by answering a

questionnaire as if the researcher were not there. In the qualitative part of the study, data

was mediated through a human instrument; therefore, the qualitative researcher described

relevant aspects of participant responses. The role of the researcher became emic—as an

insider, who was a full participant in the activity. Data were constructed as the researcher

directly engaged each participant. The researcher described and interpreted relevant

aspects of participant responses, and identified the various realities from each participant.

Target Population and Sample

Sample Design

The target population of the study was based on an estimate of all doctoral

graduates in education from the United States who graduated from 2001-2008 or 51,495

71

(U.S. Department of Education, 2015) graduates; however, approximately 16% of the

graduates were foreign students, and nearly 42% of the total were from non-public

institutions. The subset calculation of 25,911 represented the population for this study

and signified graduates from only public institutions in the US with doctorates in

education (the N does not represent foreign students). The target sample or accessible

sample was an estimated 400 graduates who graduated between 2006 through 2014

within Louisiana public institutions incorporated under three system offices: (a)

Louisiana State University System (LSUS), (b) Southern University System (SUS), and

(c) the University of Louisiana System (ULS). The assessable sample was represented by

200 graduates or 50% of the accessible target sample (about 0.8% of the national

population subset of 25,911 graduates). The graduates in the population made up five

curricula in education as reported by the NSF: (a) education administration, (b) education

research, (c) teacher education, (d) teaching fields, and (e) other education programs.

These criteria differed from the three identified programs in the study under the ULS: (a)

curriculum and instruction (C&I), (b) developmental education (DE), and (c) education

leadership (EdL).

For the study, a stratified random sampling design was used to produce maximum

randomization through a random number generator, produced by Able Bits®. The

stratification percentage was calculated after the final data were sorted. The names of all

the graduates were placed in an Excel OS file, and the program randomly set up the

sample. The purpose of over-selection was to promote and favor the random selection.

Those persons who volunteered could have biased the sample. A random generated

selection encouraged the pursuit of the individuals by the investigator. The accessible

72

population of education doctorate graduates within the public higher education

institutions was estimated at approximately 400. The documented assessable population

was 265 as reported by the University of Louisiana System universities. The sample size

was 200, 50% of the estimated actual population. The sample design required the highest

number of participants possible.

Background for sample design. Research for the study was focused on one of

three university systems in the State of Louisiana—the University of Louisiana System

(ULS). Since its formation in 1974, the ULS, one of the nation’s twenty largest public

systems of higher education, has provided access to higher education through its nine

universities throughout the state. The ULS is a public, multi-campus university system

that is dedicated to the service of Louisiana and its people. The system offers a broad

spectrum of educational opportunities ranging from technical training at the associate

degree level to research at the doctoral level. The system's universities enroll more than

83,000 students annually and offer more than 600 academic degree programs (ULS,

2015).

Within the ULS are nine institutions; however, only six universities have

EdD/PhD programs. A list of the universities that were included in the study and the

types of doctoral programs offered are listed in Table 1. For the purpose of analysis,

three programs were researched—curriculum and instruction, educational

leadership/administration, and special/developmental education. Since 2007, there have

been changes to some degree and program names. For instance, some degrees that were

PhDs are now EdDs with the exception of one institution—University of New Orleans.

This institution identified all their doctoral degrees as PhDs. There have also been title

73

modifications of specialty programs (i.e. special education to developmental education).

Between 2007 and 2014, some programs have been added, and some have been canceled.

The researcher identified these differences; however, titles have been used

interchangeably in the study.

Table1

University of Louisiana System Universities, Degrees, and Programs

Degree Curriculum

Instruction

Educational

Leadership/

Administration

Special/

Developmental

Education

Grambling State University EdD x x

Louisiana Tech University EdD x

Southeastern University EdD x

University of Louisiana at

Lafayette EdD x

University of Louisiana at

Monroe EdD x

University of New Orleans PhD x x x

Data were collected for academic years 2006-2007 through 2013-2014 to

encompass the start of the recession in 2007 and the transition to economic return through

2014. The goal was to capture as much data as possible and provide a longitudinal

analysis and comparison between unemployment rates and employment trends of

EdD/PhD graduates.

The sample size represented the total population estimated to have completed an

EdD/PhD program in Louisiana during the study period. Based on national data from the

NSF for the decade 1998 to 2008, about 6,500 persons per year completed a doctorate in

education (Fiegener, 2009). The sample represented an estimated 0.4% of the total

population of persons who completed EdD/PhD programs during the same period. To

74

clarify date discrepancies, data produced from the NSF follows a ten-year cycle;

therefore, updated information from the NSF would not be available until 2018.

Phase I Quantitative—Data Collection

Participants for the survey were identified through collection of contact

information that was voluntarily supplied by EdD/PhD graduates upon exiting the ULS

universities. Permission to obtain contact information for doctoral graduates in education

was obtained from the six universities included in this survey. The ULS provided

support by submitting a letter outlining granting authority over the institutions to

circumvent multiple IRB’s and obtained permissions by the institutions to release contact

information. Criteria for selecting the participants included: (a) graduates from EdD or

PhD programs, (b) time period of Academic Years (AY) 2006-2007 through 2013-2014,

and (c) voluntarily supplied graduate contact information. For the purpose of the

quantitative phase, convenience sampling was used.

The University of Louisiana System’s office agreed to use the System’s letterhead

for the cover letter. The ULS letterhead offered authority and was used to help increase

the likelihood that participants would complete the questionnaire. The questionnaire

included demographic, descriptive, and attitudinal questions about the participants, their

programs of study, employment options and status, career choice, and career satisfaction.

Contact information provided as part of the universities’ graduate exit interviews and

student data collection strategies influenced the method of survey delivery. The ULS

also provided an official ULS email address for the researcher that provided authenticity

and support of the study and encouraged graduate participation.

75

The online survey software for the cross-sectional survey was Survey Monkey®.

It provided a way for responses to be downloaded into an Excel file and analyzed using

SPSS®. The results from paper surveys were manually entered into Survey Monkey®.

Qualitative responses embedded in the questionnaire were coded and combined into the

quantitative analysis. The questionnaire contains both closed-ended items (Likert-type,

multiple-choice, simple selection) with numerical responses as well as qualitative open-

ended items (e.g., Tashakkori, Aghajanian, & Mehryar, 1996).

Data Analysis

Data analysis measured the phenomena and other variables they coincided

(correlated) with, such as:

• demographic: age, gender, ethnicity, academic degree, employment, and

geographic location;

• psychosocial attributes: career expectations of students and their social

expectations of a doctoral degree; and

• behavioral and attitudinal outcomes: success in finding a job, career satisfaction,

graduate self-confidence, and self-reported career selection patterns.

In the first phase, the quantitative phase, a descriptive study using correlational

research methods provided a strong approach for examining the relationship among

survey variables, including demographic information and specific factors within the

survey instrument. The instrument developed to collect the data was a web-based or a

paper/pencil survey instrument. (See Appendix A.)

A professional version of SPSS® was used for the analysis. A descriptive

analysis, with simple metrics, sorted the characteristics and profiles of graduates

76

participating in the study, provided cross tables and frequency distributions, and captured

responses to questions addressing the indicated variables and factors.

Survey Instrument Validity

Validity of an instrument was the most critical factor in developing the

instrument. Validity asks, "Does the instrument do what it is supposed to do?" Validity

of the findings determines the credibility of the data and whether or not it equals truth.

Survey instrument validity was conducted using triangulation—converging different

sources of information in order to identify aspects of the phenomenon more accurately

from different vantage points and through different methods and techniques.

Construct validity. The theoretical frameworks created constructs that were

abstract and were articulated into questions that allowed the respondent to understand and

react and demonstrated the existence of the construct as a behavior or some other

response. The items connected and affirmed the construct and reinforced the theoretical

concepts. The review of the theory, the interpretation and development of items, and

reviews by experts from the National Science Foundation and National Institutes of

Health provided initial evidence that the measures were valid and that the constructs were

measured, since the items used were adopted from previous studies (U.S. Department of

Education, 2015). Comment sections within the survey and the follow-up interviews in

Phase II provided further validation. A panel of three experts provided validation and

consisted of staff from the University of Louisiana System office and Dr. James Barr,

who has worked and provided professional psychometric support to various local and

state agencies.

77

Content validity. Content validity is more applicable to tests, rather than

surveys, because assessment of knowledge is associated to performance or behavior

objectives. The most important facet to recognize with content validity is the connections

of items (representing variables) and the groups of variables that compile factors (similar

to objectives on assessment tests). Historical facts and events and actual choices or

perceptions were linked to expected experiences and acted as reference points within the

content. The validation process requires content experts, previously used validated items,

and standards or frameworks that state measureable objects. The proposed instrument

used many items available from the National Institutes of Health (NIH) and the NSF.

Many of the items asked similar questions but were directed towards STEM doctorates.

Interview questions were connected to the same questions on the survey instrument but

were designed to probe deeper and clarify, especially in areas where the pilot of the

instrument failed to address discrepancies in item responses.

Criterion-related validity. Criterion-related validity is generally connected to

assessments such as tests on cognitive, affective, or psychomotor topics. The proposed

instrument used many items available from the NIH and NSF. Since the items are

similar, the items on the instrument were expected to elicit the same responses. Interview

items were questions that connected to the same questions on the survey but were

designed to probe deeper and clarify, especially in areas where the pilot of the instrument

failed to address discrepancies in item responses.

Concurrent validity. Concurrent validity for this instrument was compared with

the National Science Foundation and the National Institutes of Health instrument

performance and did not measure cognitive, affective, or psychomotor content.

78

Survey Instrument Reliability

Larger surveys tend to have higher reliability. Multiple items asking the same

questions can be used to assess the links to the theoretical frameworks. The development

of an entirely new instrument was unnecessary because of the abundance of items and

instruments that ask the same types of questions across many different populations. The

use of items from existing valid instruments (NIH, NSF, Department of Agriculture,

Department of Commerce, and Department of Defense) assured item reliability. None of

the items was norm-referenced (NRT) or criterion-referenced (CRT) related, and none

measured cognitive or psychomotor constructs. The items addressed specific personal

facts, historical references, and memory. Affective domain constructs associated with the

theoretical frameworks were developed and piloted.

Two pilot studies were conducted to determine the instrument reliability and

logistics of the electronic instrument. One study was an alternative-form reliability

review. Fifteen graduate students were given the instrument, and the results were

compared to a second assessment of the same instrument with reordered items five weeks

later. The instrument reliability was calculated at r 0.86. Another pilot survey was

developed one month prior to the start of the study. The pilot survey was created using

Survey Monkey®, and a link was sent to five EdD/PhD graduates who resided in the

State of Louisiana and were known to the researcher. Pilot participants were instructed to

take the survey as if they were an active participant in the study. The pilot survey was

constructed with comment sections under each question, thereby allowing respondents

the opportunity to write recommendations where questions were ambiguous or redundant.

Recommendations were used to improve the clarity of the instrument and address any

79

reliability issues. The reliability was further connected directly to the triangulation

methods where multiple items and processes were embedded within the quantitative

survey. The survey questions were often followed by open-ended comment sections.

Phase II Qualitative—Data Collection

For the qualitative phase of this study, purposeful sampling, which implies

intentionally selecting individuals to understand the central phenomenon, was used.

Participants were selected from those responding to the survey initiated in the

quantitative phase and selection was established once it was determined the participants

volunteered to be interviewed (convenience sampling). A case study design was used for

collecting and analyzing the qualitative data. A case study design is an in-depth

exploration of a bounded system (e.g., activity, event, process, or individuals) based on

extensive data collection and describes the activities of the group (Creswell & Plano

Clark, 2011, 2012). The primary technique was conducting in-depth, semi-structured

telephone interviews with participants.

The interview protocol included ten open-ended questions. (See Appendix B.)

The content of the questions was formulated from the results of the statistical tests and of

the relationships between participant groups and predictor factors. The questions focused

on EdD/PhD graduates attitudes and satisfaction with career options and career choice

during the economic recession.

Selection of participants was based on the diversity of several factors: (a) gender,

(b) ethnicity, (c) age, (d) marital status, (e) region of country, (f) year of graduation, (g)

program, (h) work environment, and (i) position. For instance, selection of participants

who graduated at different time periods revealed information from the start of the

80

economic recession in 2007 through 2014. Ideally, sixteen participants would have

provided equal selection of two individuals from each academic year and would have

encompassed variations in their gender, ethnicity, age, marital status, region of the

country, program, work environment, and position. However, participant selection was

delimited to ten due to transcription and coding timelines. The participants received the

interview questions prior to the scheduled phone call. They were informed that their

interview would be recorded and transcribed verbatim. The respondents were afforded

the opportunity to review and correct the contents of the interview once transcribed. This

technique is called member checking—a strategy for validating qualitative research

(Creswell, 2013).

Data Analysis

Text data obtained through the interviews, the open-ended questions contained in

Phase I Quantitative survey, and any elicitation materials were coded and analyzed for

themes. Survey responses were coded by hand for the qualitative data analysis. The

steps in qualitative analysis included preliminary exploration of the data through reading

transcripts and making notes. Next, the data were coded by segmenting and labeling the

text with codes, and the codes were used to develop themes by combining similar codes.

Themes were connected and interrelated, which resulted in the construction of the

narrative (Creswell & Plano Clark, 2011). A thorough narration was then completed

using complex perspectives, sequence of events, or major actions followed by a detailed

description.

Analysis of multiple case studies was performed within each case and across the

cases. Analysis of the data was viewed holistically (the entire case) and embedded

81

(specific aspects of the case). This means that each case of the selected EdD/PhD

graduates who were interviewed by phone was analyzed for themes; then, all the cases

were analyzed for themes, similar or different. The purpose of this was to show the

extent to which the identified internal and external factors have similar or different

effects on the participants as it related to their opinions and satisfaction concerning

obtaining employment. The final phase involved interpreting the meaning of the cases

and reporting the results.

Validity of the Project Design

Discussion regarding the advantages of the mixed-methods design is presented

later in Chapter 3. The emphasis on triangulation or converging different sources of

information in order to identify aspects of the phenomenon more accurately from

different vantage points and through different methods and techniques is an established

method of validation. Navigation, surveying, orientation, and courtrooms provide

examples of applied triangulation of validation. The same process is applied in research

methods. Other ways to determine credibility are by using member checking to get

feedback from participants on categories and themes, conveying findings using in-depth

description, and using an external audit. An external audit requires having a person

outside the study review and report on the survey. Traditional research design uses

internal validity and external validity concepts. For this study, member checking was the

preferred method for validating the qualitative information.

Internal validity. The internal validity in this study used a design anchored

within a correlational study and used a random sample representing an accessible

population in one state. The accessible population is representative of graduates

82

throughout the United States from public universities. A study establishing and

measuring a relationship of a specific variable does not imply causation. Assumptions

and conclusions are not to be misconstrued and reported. In summary, three of six

internal threats were of concern.

Historical threats. Historical threats were evident since the participants

reviewed and related historical perceptions and previous experiences. By triangulating

the data collection process the threats can be reduced, but not eliminated; therefore,

extreme discrepancies between the responses of the instruments may have reflected both

historical and maturation threats.

Maturation. At the same time solving for historical threats, an additional threat

emerges—maturation. These internal threats were addressed in instrument design and

analysis but have created potential problems as the participants responded to the

questions in the survey and then the interview. Changes in their awareness, memory, and

ability to rethink the events have potentially altered the outcome in the interview and

compromised the effects of the survey responses. Maturation affects the reliability of the

instrument and the data collection procedures. A further maturation issue is associated

with merging the data and recall of information. The sample consisted of persons living

during different times and, therefore, their age, experience, and future worldviews could

have affected their interpretation and responses. This threat was identified and

moderated by analyzing the participants and sorting them by period (time the graduates

made choices, completed school, etc.) and age.

Instrumentation threat. Instrumentation threat was reduced by using three

different sources of data. Two sources include the quantitative and qualitative

83

information inside the survey and one external source, the interview. Sources were in

different formats designed to collect data differently and provided delivery of parallel

results. Statistical regression, selection, and mortality threats did not relate to this design.

Construct validity. Construct validity issues were addressed through processes

that assured that the instrument, items, and procedures are validated, piloted, and

approved and that supporting research is adequate and validates the theoretical

framework of the design. Even though the project was not an experimental design, the

same processes were required.

External validity. External validity issues relate as to how the results of the

study can be generalized to the population. Since the sample represents approximately

one percent (1.0%) of the estimated total number of education doctoral graduates in the

United States, the effect size is limited and generally improved when the number of

individuals in the sample is larger. Logical and historical evidence provide a basis of

debates on regional and national statistical generalization. Difference in culture;

diversity; historical experience; urban, suburban, and rural settings; and values are well

documented as variables that can reduce generalizations across geographic regions. The

design was adequate for a study under defined conditions and limitations. However, the

design was not adequate when generalizing across the average person and certainly not in

areas where differences are unique for that region.

Advantages and Limitations of the Sequential Explanatory Mixed-Methods Design

The strengths and weaknesses of mixed-methods designs have been widely

discussed in the literature. The benefits to using this design include: (a) the ability to

match the purpose of the method to the need in the study; (b) the ability to triangulate

84

data to ensure validity and level of variance; (c) the ability to provide complimentary

relationships between quantitative and qualitative data, one clarifying the other

throughout the study; and (d) the ability to help explain complex or contradictory survey

responses. Furthermore, mixed-methods design is generally easy to implement for a

single researcher, as it is sequential and continues from one stage to another. When

unexpected results arise from a quantitative study, the qualitative portion of the study

either supports or disputes those findings.

One limitation of the mixed-method design is the time-consuming nature of the

design. It requires feasibility of resources to collect and analyze both types of data

because of the large amount of data that has to be manipulated and reduced. Another

limitation to mixed methods is that it requires knowledge of both forms of data collection

and requires clear presentation to obtain the maximum benefits from the study. Lieber

(2009) states, “Perhaps the most unresolved challenges to mixed-methods research relate

to questions of data management, processing, and analysis” (p. 222).

Using mixed methods for the study provided a rich and holistic view of EdD/PhD

graduates and presented their thoughts and opinions about their employment options and

career choices during the recession starting in 2007 and the economic recovery through

2014. While this type of research is considered to be arduous, the value of the results

will benefit a variety of stakeholders in Louisiana and provide historical data that can be

reflected on for future research.

85

CHAPTER 4

PRESENTATION OF DATA

Introduction

Chapter 4 provides the quantitative and qualitative findings of the study. The

quantitative data is presented first because this method took priority in the design and

represented the major aspect of analysis. The quantitative data findings include the

profile of respondents, general demographics, and the research questions. Qualitative,

open-ended responses are embedded within the quantitative data findings. The four

research questions are presented and include supporting analysis on select variables that

answer the research questions.

The qualitative data findings are presented following the discussion of the

quantitative findings. The qualitative data analysis refined and explained the statistical

results by exploring graduates’ opinions and choices in depth. A holistic picture showing

how graduates perceive the phenomena is framed within multiple contextual factors.

Quantitative Data Findings

Phase I, the quantitative phase, data are provided to quantify survey responses and

to correlate and report significant results. Qualitative responses to specific variables are

inserted in the narrative.

Profile of Respondents

The six universities under the University of Louisiana System office supplied

contact information for 265 graduates and are represented in Table 2. The 265 graduates

represent the accessible population or approximately 66% of the total target sample of

400 graduates in the three university systems in the State of Louisiana. Over an eight-

86

year time period (academic years 2006-2007 through 2013-2014), three doctoral

programs were studied—curriculum and instruction, developmental education, and

educational leadership—and are included in the total number of graduates.

Table 2

Number of Accessible Graduates as Reported by Universities in the University of

Louisiana System

University of Louisiana System Universities Number of Graduates

Grambling State University 36

Louisiana Tech University 28

Southeastern University 48

University of Louisiana at Lafayette 27

University of Louisiana at Monroe 36

University of New Orleans 90

Total Graduates 265

One hundred eighty-four (n=184) graduates supplied personal emails to the

institutions, and 118 university-generated student emails were provided by the

participating institutions. Where participants had both a personal- and university-

provided email address, both addresses were solicited. Emails to participants included a

copy of the informed consent. Once participants returned the informed consent, a link to

the online survey was emailed. University-provided student emails did not generate any

responses. Eight percent (8%) of responses were collected from the first email attempt.

Two separate email attempts for completion of the online survey generated a total

response rate of 11% (n=20).

Following the lower-than-expected percent of responses from email solicitations,

80 informed consents were sent to participants with self-addressed stamped envelopes. It

was determined that the time between the return of the informed consents and survey

mailings was taking longer than anticipated. In an attempt to increase the number of

87

participants, packets were mailed that included the official letter from the ULS, the

informed consent, a self-addressed stamped envelope, and the 22-page survey.

Of the 150 packets, 35% (n=52) of the paper surveys and informed consents were

returned, and participant responses were manually entered into Survey Monkey®. From

the 184 personal emails, 11% (n=20) of graduates responded to the online survey. The

total percent of graduates who completed the survey using either the online survey tool or

a paper copy was 27% (72 of 265) of the accessible population.

General Demographics

Gender, ethnicity, age, status, and region. More females (81%, n=58) than

males (19%, n=14) completed the survey (see Appendix K for baselines of doctorate

recipients in education by gender and subfield). This is consistent with the data shift

shown in Appendix G where the percent of males with doctoral degrees declined and the

percent of females with doctoral degrees increased since 1949 (U.S. Department of

Education, 2007). The profile of participants by ethnicity showed that 82% were White,

non-Hispanic, and 18% were Black, non-Hispanic and other races. The majority of

respondents were ages 50-59 (32%), followed by ages 40-49 (24%) and 60 and over

(24%), and ages 30-39 (21%). No participants were ages 20-29. More respondents were

married (75%) than not married (25%). The majority of participants were from the

southeastern United States (90%). Seven (10%) participants were from the southwestern

and western US.

Income. Household income levels ranged from a low of $20,000 to $64,999

(16%); to $65,000 to $99,999 (28%); to $100,000 to $200,000 (39%); and income over

88

$200,000 (11%). The remaining 6% (n=4) chose not to provide household income

information.

Degrees and programs. The doctoral profile of the participants showed that

65.3% (n=47) were awarded EdD degrees and 34.7% (n=25) were awarded PhD’s. Three

types of doctoral programs in education, as defined in the ULS universities, are

represented in Figure 9 and include the following graduates: (a) 68% (n=49) educational

leadership/administration, (b) 26% (n=19) curriculum and instruction, and (c) nearly 6%

(n=4) developmental/special education.

Figure 9. Percentage of graduates by doctoral program.

Degrees awarded. The total number of degrees awarded by year is represented

in Table 3. Degrees awarded by year show 40% (n=29) of respondents received their

degrees from academic years 2006-2007 through 2009-2010, at the start and during the

recession. During the period of economic recovery—academic years 2010-2011 through

2013-2014—60% (n=43) of graduates received doctoral degrees.

6%

26%

68%

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

Graduates by Doctoral Program

Developmental Education

Curriculum and Instruction

Educational Leadership

89

Table 3

Number of Graduate Degrees Awarded by Academic Year During the Period of

Recession and the Period of Economic Recovery

Academic Year Number of Degrees

Period of Recession

2006-2007 1

2007-2008 9

2008-2009 4

2009-2010 15

Subtotal 29

2010-2011 10

2011-2012 11

Period of Economic Recovery 2012-2013 11

2013-2014 11

Subtotal 43

Total 72

Program and gender. A comparison of doctoral programs and gender are

represented in Figure 10 and include: (a) 18 females and 1 male in curriculum and

instruction, (b) 3 females and 1 male in developmental education, and (c) 37 females and

12 males in educational leadership.

Figure 10. Number of female and male graduates by degree program.

18

3

37

1 1

12

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

Curriculum and

Instruction

Developmental

Education

Educational

Leadership

Degree Program and Gender

FEMALES MALES

90

Program and ethnicity. Curriculum and instruction program graduates were

90% (n=17) White, Non-Hispanic and 10 % (n=2) Black, Non-Hispanic. Developmental

education program graduates were made up of 75% (n=3) White, Non-Hispanic and 25%

(n=1) Black, Non-Hispanic. Educational leadership program graduates were comprised

of 79% (n=38) White, Non-Hispanic; 19% (n=6) Black, Non-Hispanic; and 2% (n=1)

Asian or Pacific Islander.

Program and age. When comparing age to type of program, the majority of

curriculum and instruction program graduates were ages 40-49 (32%, n=6) and 50-59

(32%, n=6). Two (50%) developmental education program graduates were ages 40-49,

and the majority of educational leadership program graduates were ages 50-59 (32%,

n=16).

Research Questions

The object of the initial phase of the study was to answer the main research

questions. A Spearman Rank correlation analysis was conducted to determine if a

significant (>.01) relationship could be determined among the primary variables. Once

significance was identified, a cross-tabulation analysis was conducted, and a Pearson Chi

Square was calculated. Precise frequency tabulation was obtained for descriptive

statistics; however, due to the size of the sample, some categories were combined in the

inferential analysis when the frequency levels per cell were below four. Four research

questions were investigated and include:



91








Research Question 1

What is the extent to which employment options and career choice meet the

expectations of EdD/PhD graduates? Research Question 1 was analyzed using

descriptive analysis and Pearson Chi-Square where significance needed investigation.

Categories connected to the job market and graduate expectations were explored. The

term “current job market” means the graduates’ opinion of the job market at the time

taking the survey. Categories included: (a) program choice, (b) employment status, (c)

recession and recovery, (d) career in education, and (e) position. Cross-tabulation was

used to determine any relationships between variables.

Job market. The job market was rated as a combination of excellent, good, or

moderately good (favorable job market); and fair, poor, or not sure (less favorable job

market). Groupings of categories were generated for analysis due to the sample size.

The majority of graduates reported the job market as being 60% (n=42) favorable and

40% (n=28) less favorable for both the current job market and the job market at the time

of graduation. Overall, graduates viewed the current job market and the job market at the

92

time of graduation similarly. Figure 11 shows the total percent of graduates who reported

their opinion of the current job market versus the job market at the time of graduation.

Figure 11. Total percent of graduate responses to the current job market and the job

market at the time of graduation.

Job market and program. Graduates reported their view of the current job

market and the job market at the time of graduation overall and by program—curriculum

and instruction, developmental education, and educational leadership. There was no

statistical significance found using both a Pearson Chi-Square analysis (X2=1.78, P=.19)

and Likelihood Ratio Chi-Square (X2=1.71, P=.19). Table 4 represents graduate

responses to job markets and choice of doctoral program. Graduates who “would again

choose the same doctoral program” reported the current job market as 63% (n=40)

favorable also reported the job market at the time of graduation as 63% (n=40) favorable.

Two graduates of 72 reported they “would not again choose the same doctoral program”

and rated both the current job market and the job market at the time of graduation as “less

favorable”.

9%

34%

17% 17% 16%

7% 9%

30% 21% 26%

10%

4% 0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

Excellent Good Moderately

Good

Fair Poor Not Sure

Graduate Opinion of Job Markets

CURRENT MARKET MARKET AT GRADUATION

93

Table 4

Cross Tabulation of “Would Again Choose Same Doctoral Program” and “Graduate

Rating of Current Job Market and the Job Market at the Time of Graduation”

Current Job Market Job Market at the Time of

Graduation

Favorable

Less

Favorable Favorable

Less

Favorable

“If you had the choice, would you

again choose the same doctoral

program in education?”

Yes 62.5% 37.5% 62.5% 37.5%

No 33.3% 66.7% 33.3% 66.7%

When comparing graduate’s opinions of the job market by program, curriculum

and instruction graduates considered the current job market as 50.0% (n=9) favorable and

50% (n=9) less favorable and the job market at the time of graduation as 56% (n=10)

favorable and 44% (n=8) less favorable. Educational leadership graduates viewed the

current job market as 63% (n=30) favorable and 37% (n=18) less favorable and the job

market at the time of graduation as 60% (n=29) favorable and 40% (n=19) less favorable.

Irrespective of the job market, three developmental education graduates rated the current

job market and the job market at the time of graduation to be favorable (75%, n=3).

Job market and employment. Five graduates were seeking employment and

rated the current job market as 80% (n=4) less favorable and the job market at the time of

graduation as 20% (n=1) favorable. Graduates who were not seeking employment rated

the current job market as 62% (n=39) favorable and 38% (n=24) less favorable and rated

the job market at time of graduation as 62% (n=39) favorable and 38% (n=24) less

favorable. The results show a correlation among graduates who were seeking

employment and those who were not seeking employment and their rating of the current

job market and the job market at the time of graduation for someone with their degree

94

and experience. However, because there were a reduced number of responses within the

cells of the analysis, an accurate estimate of the relationship was not established.

Job market and recession. Table 5 and Table 6 show the comparison of

graduate responses comparing the current job market and the job market at the time of

graduation to the recession and recovery period. The tables show two groups—those

who graduated at the beginning and during the recession (2006-2008 through 2009-2010)

and those who graduated during the period of economic recovery (2010-2011 through

2013-2014). The two groups rated the current job market and the job market at the time

of graduation similarly. There were no statistical significances noted. Graduates who

received their degree during the recession period rated the current job market as 57%

(n=16) favorable and 43% (n=12) less favorable. Those who received their degree during

the period of economic recovery rated the current job market as 62% (n=26) favorable

and 38% (n=16) less favorable. Graduates who received their degree during the recession

period rated the job market at the time of graduation as 54% (n=15) favorable and 46%

(n=13) less favorable. Those who received their degree during the period of recovery

rated the job market at the time of graduation as 64% (n=27) favorable and 36% (n=15)

less favorable.

Table 5

Rating of Current Job Market by Graduates within the Period of Recession and Recovery

Current Job Market

Academic Years Favorable Less Favorable

Graduates within Period

of Recession

2006-2007 through

2009-2010 57.1% 42.9%

Graduates within Period

of Recovery

2010-2011 through

2013-2014 61.9% 38.1%

95

Table 6

Rating of Job Market at the Time of Graduation by Graduates within the Period of

Recession and Recovery

Job Market at Time of Graduation

Academic Years Favorable Less Favorable

Graduates within Period of

Recession

2006-2007 through

2009-2010 53.6% 46.4%

Graduates within Period of

Recovery

2010-2011 through

2013-2014 64.3% 35.7%

Education as career, program, and employment. Graduates’ opinions of

education as a career, their program, and their employment status were analyzed. Figure

12 shows 79% (n=56) of graduates strongly indicated they “would again choose

education as a career,” and 92% (n=65) “would again choose the same doctoral

program.” Approximately 14% (n=10) of graduates reported they “would not again

choose education as a career,” and 4% (n=3) of graduates “would not again choose the

same doctoral program.” Seven percent (n=5) reported they were “not sure” they would

again choose education as their career field and 4% (n=3) reported they were “not sure”

they would again choose the same doctoral program.

96

Figure 12. Graduates’ opinion of career choice and program choice.

Desire for career in education and employment. Table 7 shows a cross

tabulation of responses to the questions, “Did you pursue your doctorate out of a desire

for a career in education?” and “What is your employment status?” Those responding

“yes” to pursuing their doctorate out of a desire for a career in education showed 94%

(n=49) of graduates indicated they were employed full time. Approximately 78% (n=14)

of graduates who stated they did not pursue their doctorate out of a desire for a career in

education were also employed full time.

79%

92%

14%

4% 7% 4%

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

90%

100%

Choose Education Choose Prograam

Graduate Choice by Career and Program

Yes No Not Sure

97

Table 7

Cross Tabulation of “Did You Pursue Your Doctorate Out of a Desire for A Career in

Education?” and “What is Your Employment Status?”

What is your employment status?

Did you pursue your doctorate out of a

desire for a career in education?

Employed

full time

Employed

part time Unemployed Total

Yes Subtotal n 49 3 0 52

% within 94.2% 5.8% 0.0% 100%

No Subtotal n 14 3 1 18

% within 77.8% 16.7% 5.6% 100%

Total Total n 63 6 1 70

% within 90.0% 8.6% 1.4% 100.%

Fifty-three out of 71 (75%) graduates reported they pursued their doctorate out of

a desire for a career in education, and all 72 (100%) supplied voluntary statements to the

follow-up open-ended question, “Did you pursue your doctorate out of a desire for a

career in education? If yes, why? If no, why not?” Of those who answered “yes,” 30%

(n=19) reported they pursued their doctorate purely based on personal or professional

goals or opportunities. Graduates who pursued their doctorate because of their love of

education or other intrinsic reasons comprised 19% (n=12), and 14% (n=9) reported they

did so due to advancement or job requirements. Nearly 37% (n=24) of the remaining

graduates provided varied responses that included, but were not limited to, the following:

(a) to boost their salary prior to retiring to increase benefits, (b) as a natural progression

of degree attainment, (c) to improve their skills as educators, and (d) to be more

marketable. Statements supporting the graduates’ desire for a career in education are

represented in Table 8 and overwhelmingly indicate a range of values that support the

study design. Three graduates who reported “no” stated they got their doctorate because

they were already in education.

98

Table 8

Selected Samples of Varied Statements from Participants in Response to Categorical

Question Number 11. “Did you choose to pursue your doctorate out of a desire for a

career in education? If “yes”, why? If “no”, why not?

Overeducated or overqualified and underemployed. Overeducated relates to

having been educated to a higher academic level than is necessary. Overqualified is

defined as having qualifications that exceed the requirements of a particular job. These

two concepts were presented together in one question, “Would you consider yourself to

be overeducated or overqualified for your current position?” Underemployed means not

doing work that makes full use of a person’s skills and abilities and was presented in a

separate question, “Do you consider yourself underemployed in your current position?”

A cross-tabulation analysis of the two questions showed 65% (n=20) of graduates who

considered they were overeducated or overqualified also considered themselves

underemployed in their current position. Seven (23%) graduates considered themselves

to be overeducated or overqualified, but not underemployed, and four (nearly 13%) were

not sure. Twenty-six (96%) graduates who did not consider they were overeducated or

overqualified also did not consider themselves underemployed.

Participant

Assigned Number

Sample Statements

Categorical Question # 11

15 “Personal goal of acquiring a PhD.”

34 “Because the most senior positions in higher education require a doctorate

and I do not want to be ‘passed over’ because I lack the credential.”

3 “Seemed like the next logical step after a masters.”

11 “A personal journey to embed the value of education with my posterity.”

5 “Job security.”

12 “22 years—natural progression.”

6 “I wanted more options to advance in the field of education.”

41 “I was already in education and wanted to have more career opportunities.”

54 “This is the only career I know. It is my calling.”

26 “I love learning; contributing to our educational system. It’s part of me.”

99

Career and qualification. A symmetrical relationship was observed among

graduates who desired a career in education and their opinions of whether they viewed

themselves as overeducated or overqualified. Those who desired a career in education

considered themselves to be overeducated or overqualified (42%, n=22) and those that

desired a career in education did not consider themselves to be overeducated or

overqualified (44%, n=23). This means that nearly equal percentages of graduates who

desired a career in education did and did not consider themselves overeducated or

overqualified. Of the graduates who did not pursue their doctorate out of desire for a

career in education, 69% (n=11) stated they were overeducated or overqualified. The

third option of “not sure” reduced the number of observations within the cells of the

analysis, preventing an accurate probability estimate of the relationship. Table 9 shows

the distribution of responses.

Table 9

Cross Tabulation of “Did You Pursue Your Doctorate Out of a Desire for a Career in

Education?” and “Would You Consider Yourself to be Overeducated or Overqualified

for Your Position?”

Would you consider yourself to be overeducated or

overqualified for your position?

Did you pursue your doctorate out of a

desire for a career in education? Yes No Not Sure Total

Yes Subtotal n 22 23 7 52

% within 42.3% 44.2% 13.5% 100%

No Subtotal n 11 4 1 16

% within 68.8% 25.0% 6.3% 100%

Total Total n 33 27 8 68

% within 48.5% 39.7% 11.8% 100%

Position and employment. From 2006-2015, 29% (n=20) of graduates held one

position, 46% (n=32) of graduates held two positions, and 28% (n=18) held three or more

positions. Graduates who worked full time responded to the following question, “Is this

100

your first job since receiving your doctorate?” as follows: (a) 34% (n=21) were in the

same position, (b) 27% (n=17) were in their second position, (c) 18% (n=11) were in a

new position, and (d) 21% (n=13) were in their third or subsequent positions. Five

graduates who worked part time reported they were in a new position, a third position,

and other types of positions. In other words, some were working more than one part-time

job. In addition, one graduate reported being unemployed.

Research Question 2

What are the contextual differences in academic and non-academic career choice

between curriculum and instruction, developmental education, and educational leadership

doctoral graduates? Contextual differences included: (a) academic and non-academic

employment, (b) position, and (c) expectations.

Academic employment. Educational leadership graduates were more likely

employed at elementary schools, secondary schools, and two-year colleges than in

universities, private for-profits, or charter schools. Curriculum and instruction graduates

were employed at two-year colleges, four-year institutions, and research universities.

Developmental education graduates were working in four-year institutions and secondary

education.

Non-academic employment. Thirteen graduates (18%) were working in a non-

academic field—nine from educational leadership and four from curriculum and

instruction. Educational leadership graduates were either consulting, self-employed, or

were working in government, healthcare, and non-profit organizations. Curriculum and

instruction graduates were working in business and industry, healthcare, and public

policy agencies.

101

Position and expectations. Appendix H, Tables H1-H5, represents graduates’

opinions and expectations in relation to their positions. Percentages are presented as the

majority of graduate responses (see Appendix H for a detailed analysis). Nearly 66%

(n=46) of graduates “strongly agreed” their current position was related to their field of

study. Nearly 48% (n=33) of graduates “strongly agreed” their position was

commensurate with their level of experience. Graduates “somewhat agreed” (38%,

n=26) their position was commensurate with their level of education and training.

Graduates reported they “somewhat agreed” (31%, n=22) their position was similar to

what they expected to be doing when they began their doctoral program; however,

another 32% (n=22) reported they “strongly agreed” to the same. Appendix H, Table H5

shows that 50% (n=35) of graduates reported their position was professionally

challenging. When asked, “How satisfied are you with your current employment

choice,” the majority of graduates reported they were “very satisfied” (44%, n=31) (see

Appendix H, Table H6).

When comparing the three doctoral programs—curriculum and instruction,

developmental education, and educational leadership—the majority of graduates in each

program either “strongly agreed” or “somewhat agreed” their position was: (a) related to

their field, (b) commensurate with their level of experience, (c) commensurate with their

level of education and training, (d) similar to what they expected to be doing when they

began their doctoral program, and (e) professionally challenging (see Appendices I,

Tables I1, I2, I3, I4, and I5 for detailed analysis of program graduates’ responses).

Figures 13-15 show responses from curriculum and instruction, developmental

education, and educational leadership program graduates to the question, “How satisfied

102

are you with your current employment choice?” Based on Likert scale responses, a

higher percentage of program graduates reported they were satisfied with their

employment choice than dissatisfied.

Figure 13. Curriculum and instruction graduates’ response to the question, “How

satisfied are you with your current employment choice?”

Figure 14. Developmental education graduates’ response to the question, “How satisfied

are you with your current employment choice?”

47%

18%

29%

0%

6%

0% 0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

Very Satisfied Somewhat

Satisfied

Satisfied Dissatisfied Somewhat

Dissatisfied

Very

Dissatisfied

Curriculum and Instruction Graduates' Satisfaction with

Employment Choice

Curriculum and Instruction Graduates

75%

0%

25%

0% 0% 0% 0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%


Satisfied


Dissatisfied

Very

Dissatisfied

Developmental Education Graduates' Satisfaction with

Employment Choice

Developmental Education Graduates

103

Figure 15. Educational leadership graduates’ response to the question, “How satisfied

are you with your current employment choice?”

In addition, curriculum and instruction graduates stated “yes” they would again

choose education as a career (77.8%, n=14). Thirty-eight (77.6%) educational leadership

graduates reported positively they would again choose education as a career. Four

(100%) developmental education graduates reported they would again choose education

as a career. Ten graduates reported they would not again choose education as a career,

and nine responded to the follow-up question, “If no, what field would you choose?” The

nine respondents listed business, engineering, psychology or counseling, medicine,

science or physics research, and “anything else” as choices.

Pursue doctorate. Responses to the open-ended question on the quantitative

survey, “Why did you choose to pursue your doctorate?” were varied. Seventy of 72

(97%) graduates responded with comments. Graduates’ responses varied but centered on

the following categories: (a) goals and opportunities, (b) love of education or desire to

obtain degree (intrinsic), (c) for retirement, (d) advancement or requirement, (e) natural

41%

29%

8% 8% 12%

2%

0%

5%

10%

15%

20%

25%

30%

35%

40%

45%


Satisfied


Dissatisfied

Very

Dissatisfied

Educational Leadership Graduates' Satisfaction with

Employment Choice

Educational Leadership Graduates

104

progression, (f) marketability, and (g) skills improvement. Educational leadership and

curriculum and instruction graduates were more likely to pursue their doctorate because

of personal goals or career opportunities, advancement, their love of education or

intrinsic reasons. Those in developmental education were more likely to pursue their

doctorate because of their love of education or intrinsic reasons. Table 10 shows a

sample of varied statements or responses to the categorical question #10, “Why did you

choose to pursue your doctorate?”

Table 10

Selected Samples of Varied Statements from Participants in Response to “Why did you

choose to pursue your doctorate?”

Career in education. The study showed that 75% (53 of 71) of graduates stated

they pursued their doctorate out of a desire for a career in education. Responses to the

follow-up, open-ended question, “If yes, why? If no, why not?” included comments from

100% (n=72) of graduates and contained one or more of the following responses: (a)

goals and career opportunities, (b) improve skills or be a better educator/ administrator,

(c) chance for advancement, (d) desire to stay employed in higher education, (e) love of

Participant

Assigned Number

Sample Statements

Categorical Question # 10

14 “I considered a PhD as my Mt. Everest.”

7 “Professional recognition and personal goal attainment.”

32 “My mother always told me an education can never be taken away from

you.”

2 “To increase knowledge about my field and increase employment options.”

16 “It was a promise to my grandfather.”

5 “Boredom. I like school.”

42 “Several reasons: bucket list, extra time, work status.”

36 “Had been a goal. I had to get a terminal degree. Also, to advance to higher

administrative position.”

57 “I felt that if I furthered my education I could make a bigger impact in

education and advance my career.”

10 “Increase learning and reinforce job efficiency. Future job opportunities.”

27 “It was just a natural progression for me. I had an AS, BS in Higher Ed

Administration, and also a NBCT, and always wanted my doctorate.”

105

education or passion for learning, or (f) the aspiration to have a doctorate. An

educational leadership program respondent provided a holistic statement:

Education is the foundation for life. Education exists all around us regardless of

the age, location, skill-set, building, city, wilderness, or job—it is constantly

evolving and we all have more to learn. To expand and challenge myself results

in the expansion, development, and success of others. What better contribution

could I offer?

Table 11 shows selected samples of varied statements from curriculum and instruction,

developmental education, and educational leadership program graduates.

Table 11

Selected Statements from Graduates by Program in Response to “Did you pursue your

doctorate out of a desire for a career in education? If yes, why? If no, why not?”

Curriculum and Instruction Graduate Responses

Participant

Assigned Number

Sample Statements

11 “I wanted to be the best teacher I could be.”

15 “I was teaching at a small college and wanted to ensure continuation of that

job.”

8 “I always wanted to perform at the highest level in my chosen profession in

education.”

1 “Education is my passion. I love teaching.”

Developmental Education Graduate Responses

Participant

Assigned Number

Sample Statements

4 “This is the only career I know. It is my calling.”

16 “My goal is to become a college president.”

5 “My degree was already in education, but wanted to extend it.”

Educational Leadership Graduate Responses

Participant

Assigned Number

Sample Statements

69 “Yes, in order to advance to higher level with better pay and do some private

consulting in the near future.”

62 “I love learning and contributing to our educational system.”

31 “I viewed a terminal degree as the pinnacle of achievement from an

educational perspective and give me upward mobility in my career.”

10 “I wanted something to ensure my position if my position was no longer

available. My doctorate would give me more options.”

106

Research Question 3

How do motivations and background affect career choice and outcomes

(satisfaction, meet needs, etc.) during economic recession? Motivations are the drive or

aspiration that graduates retain, and background represents graduates’ experiences and

education. Where applicable, graduates were grouped according to economic period.

Graduates were identified as those who graduated within the period of the recession

(2006-2007 through 2009-2010) and those who graduated within the period of recovery

(2010-2011 through 2013-2014). For reference in data description and ease of

interpretation, those who graduated during the period of recession are referred to as

“recession graduates,” and those who graduated during the period of recovery are

referred to as “recovery graduates.”

Degree, program, and the economy. Twenty of 28 (71%) recession graduates

and 36 of 43 (84%) recovery graduates reported they “would again choose education as

their career field.” Eight (80%) recession graduates reported they “would not again

choose education for their career,” and two (20%) recovery graduates reported the same.

Five (100%) recovery graduates stated they were “not sure” if they would again choose

education as a career.

When asked, “If you had the choice, would you again choose the same doctoral

program in education?” 89% (25 of 28) recovery graduates responded “yes,” and 93%

(40 of 43) of recovery graduates responded positively. Two recession and one recovery

graduate “would not again choose the same doctoral program.” One recession and two

recovery graduates reported they were “not sure” if they would again choose the same

doctoral program.

107

Degree, program, and position. Figure 16 shows the importance graduates

weighed the need for their doctoral degree and doctoral program in securing their current

position. Graduates reported that obtaining their doctoral degree and obtaining their

doctoral program were helpful, but not essential in securing their current position.

Figure 16. Graduate perceptions of importance of degree and program to attain current

position.

Job search methods. The top five rated job search methods that graduates used

to obtain employment and those they believed were most successful in obtaining

employment are represented in Table 12. From those listed, networking channels were

the most used and the most successful sources for securing employment. Informal

channels, unsolicited offers, and meeting employers through former jobs were considered

examples of networking. Institutionally based or organizational websites were the most

common methods graduates used for Internet job searches (56.8%). Other electronic

sources such as LinkedIn®, HigherEdJobs®, Monster®, Indeed®, and CareerBuilder®

comprised 27.3% of the Internet job search methods used. Job search methods that were

16%

51%

27%

5%

15%

48%

28%

9%

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

Essential

Qualification

Helpful, but not

Essential

Unimportant Cannot Ascertain

Doctoral Degree Doctoral Program

108

not ranked in the top five job search methods included: (a) newspaper advertisement, (b)

regional and national convention placement services, (c) professional journals or

periodicals, (d) professional newsletters, (e) civil service applications, (f) search firm or

employment agency, or (g) sent unsolicited vitae.

Table 12

Top Five Job Search Methods Used to Obtain and Were Most Successful to Gain

Employment

Top 5 Job Search Methods

Used to obtain current position Percent Most successful in obtaining

employment Percent

Informal channels including

colleagues and friends 39.2%

Informal channels including

colleagues and friends 51.2%

Received an unsolicited offer 33.3% Received an unsolicited offer 36.7%

Internet source 31.6% Met employer through former job 30.0%

Met employer through former job 23.5% Internet source 30.0%

Faculty advisor 10.0% Faculty advisor 11.1%

Networking and recession. Figure 17 shows the importance graduates placed on

networking in relation to getting the job they wanted. Recession graduates’ and recovery

graduates’ responses were similar.

Figure 17. Total percent of graduates rating the importance of networking in gaining

desired employment.

52%

19%

0% 7%

11% 11%

51%

24%

7% 10%

0% 7%

Very

Important

Somewhat

Important

Important Somewhat

Unimportant

Very

Unimportant

Not

Applicable

NETWORKING

Recession Graduates Recovery Graduates

109

Networking and job market. When the current job market was viewed as

favorable, 60% (n=24) of graduates reported that networking was “very important,” and

when the current job market was seen as less favorable, 41% (n=11) of graduates stated

networking was “very important.” Similarly, when the job market at the time of

graduation was seen as favorable, 58% (n=23) of graduates viewed networking as very

important, and when the job market at the time of graduation was seen as less favorable,

44% (n=12) of graduates viewed networking as very important.

Meaningfulness, job market, and recession. Recession graduates (55.6%,

n=15) and recovery graduates (65.9%, n=27) viewed their work to be “extremely

meaningful.” This difference was not statistically significant (X2=4.2, P=NS). Graduates

reported their work as “extremely meaningful” when viewing the current job market

(73%, n=29) and reported the same when viewing the job market at the time of

graduation (70%, n=28).

Compensation, job market, and recession. Recession graduates reported they

were “moderately well” (41%, n=11) and “very well” (33%, n=9) compensated.

Recovery graduates stated they were “moderately well” (46%, n=19) and “very well”

(24%, n=10) compensated. Figure 18 provides the detailed analysis of Likert responses.

Chi-Square analysis was not used; however, the descriptive data indicates almost

identical responses to compensation within the recession period and period of economic

recovery. When considering the current job market and the job market at the time of

graduation, graduates reported both job markets as favorable (extremely good, good, and

moderately good) and also viewed they were “moderately well” compensated.

110

Figure 18. Comparison of recession graduates’ and recovery graduates’ opinions of how

well they were compensated for their work.

Graduates’ opinions and recession. Tables 19-23 show the comparison of

recession graduates’ and recovery graduates’ opinions about their positions and of select

items from the survey. The majority of graduates reported they “strongly agreed” or

“somewhat agreed” their position was: (a) related to their field, (b) commensurate with

their education, (c) commensurate with their experience, (d) what they expected to be

doing when they began their doctorate, and (e) professionally challenging. More

variation was noted concerning graduates’ levels of agreement in response to the

statement, “My position is similar to what I expected to be doing when I began my

doctoral program.”

0%

33%

41%

15%

11% 7%

24%

46%

10% 12%

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

Extremely Well Very Well Moderately Well Slightly Well Not At All Well

Graduates' Opinion of Compensation


111

Figure 19. Comparison of recession and recovery graduates’ opinions and the statement

“My position is related to my field.”


“My position is commensurate with my level of education and training.”

61%

32%

0%

7%

0%

69%

24%

2% 2% 2% 0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

Strongly Agree Somewhat Agree Neither Agree

nor Disagree

Somewhat

Disagree

Strongly

Disagree

Position as Related to Field of Study


32%

39%

0%

11%

18%

32% 37%

2%

15% 15%

0%

5%

10%

15%

20%

25%

30%

35%

40%

45%


nor Disagree

Somewhat

Disagree

Strongly

Disagree

Position as Commensurate with Education


112


“My position is commensurate with my experience.”


“My position is similar to what I expected to be doing when I began my doctoral

program.”

39% 36%

7%

18%

0%

54%

15%

7%

15% 10%

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%


nor Disagree

Somewhat

Disagree

Strongly

Disagree

Position as Commensurate with Experience


18%

43%

11% 7%

21%

29%

24%

12% 14%

21%

0%5%

10%15%20%25%30%35%40%45%50%


nor Disagree

Somewhat

Disagree

Strongly

Disagree

Position Similar to Expectation


113


“My position is professionally challenging.”

When asked the question, “How satisfied are you with your current employment

choice?” 18 recession graduates reported they were “very satisfied” (32%, n=9) or

“somewhat satisfied” (32%, n=9), and 30 recovery graduates reported they were “very

satisfied” (52%, n=22) or “somewhat satisfied” (19%, n=8).

Unexpected events. In response to the statement, “I view unexpected events as

an opportunity to succeed at something new,” recession graduates (52%, n=14) and

recovery graduates (50%, n=20) “strongly agreed.” The results were not statistically

significant (X2=4.2, P=.13). Additionally, there were no significant differences in how

graduates viewed unexpected events in the current job market (see Table 13) and the job

market at the time of graduation (see Table 14). Twenty-six (77%) graduates strongly

agreed that unexpected events were an opportunity to succeed at something new when the

current job market was viewed as favorable and 71% (n=24) strongly agreed the same for

46%

32%

11% 11%

0%

52%

21%

5% 10%

12%

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%


nor Disagree

Somewhat

Disagree

Strongly

Disagree

Position as Professionally Challenging


114

the job market at the time of graduation. No inferential statistics were conducted on these

variables due to lack of distribution across the question.

Table 13

Graduate Responses to Unexpected Events and Current Job Market

I view unexpected events as an opportunity to

succeed at something new.

Current Job Market

Excellent, good,

moderately good

Fair, poor, or

not sure Total

Strongly agree Subtotal n 26 8 34

% within 76.5% 23.5% 100.0%

Somewhat agree Subtotal n 11 15 26

% within 42.3% 57.7% 100.0%

Neither agree nor

disagree

Subtotal n 1 3 3

% within 25.0% 75.0% 100.0%

Somewhat disagree Subtotal n 1 1 2

% within 50.0% 50.0% 100.0%

Total Total n 39 27 66

Total % within 59.1% 40.9% 100.0%

Table 14

Graduate Responses to Unexpected Events and the Job Market at the Time of Graduation

I view unexpected events as an opportunity to

succeed at something new.

Job market at the time of graduation

Excellent, good,

moderately good

Fair, poor, or

not sure Total

Strongly agree Subtotal n 24 10 34

% within 70.6% 29.4% 100.0%

Somewhat agree Subtotal n 12 14 26

% within 46.2% 53.8% 100.0%

Neither agree nor

disagree

Subtotal n 1 3 4

% within 25.0% 75.0% 100.0%

Somewhat disagree Subtotal n 2 0 2

% within 100.0% 0.0% 100.0%

Total Total n 39 27 66

Total % within 59.1% 40.9% 100.0%

Research Question 4

How does the availability of academic or non-academic jobs affect career choice

among EdD/PhD graduates? Research Question 4 investigated whether there was an

impact on career choice based on job availability.

115

Employment. When asked, “What is your current employment status?” 90%

(n=63) of graduates reported they were employed full time, 7% (n=5) were employed

part time, and 3% (n=2) were unemployed or employed in a temporary position. When

asked, “What best describes when you became employed?” 28% of graduates were in

their position when they started their doctoral program. Additionally, 38% were

employed before completing the requirements for their doctorate, and 35% found their

present job after receiving their doctorate.

Graduates who were currently seeking employment comprised approximately 7%

(n=5) of the total group. Those that were seeking employment were open to seeing what

career opportunities were available. The amount of time spent seeking employment

ranged from three months to three years; however, the person who had been seeking

employment for three years was currently teaching full time and was waiting for the

opportunity to move into a specific administrative position.

Graduates’ opinions on their position and reasons for not seeking employment in

the current job market and the job market at the time of graduation included: (a) their

position was related to their field; (b) their position was commensurate with their level of

experience; (c) their position was commensurate with their level of education; (d) their

position was similar to what they expected to be doing when they began their doctoral

program; (e) they were satisfied with their current employment choice; (f) their position

was professionally challenging; and (g) they had good career prospects where they were

currently working.

Number of positions. When asked, “Since receiving your doctoral degree, how

many different positions have you held during the time period 2006-2015?” (includes

116

both full-time and part-time positions), nearly 29% (n=20) indicated this was their first

position, 46% (n=32) of graduates indicated that they were in their second position, and

26% (n=18) reported they had held three or more positions.

Qualitative Data Findings

The purpose of the qualitative phase of the research study was to examine the

opinions of graduates on their employment options and career choice during the Great

Recession of 2007-2009 through the period of economic recovery. The research

questions for the qualitative portion of this study are located in Appendix B. During the

semi-structured interviews, study participants described: (a) career goals, (b) economic

environment, (c) motivations, (d) career choice, and (e) perceptions and expectations.

Participants provided advice to future EdD/PhD graduates on how to secure a career in

education and discussed how they believed institutions could possibly prepare graduates

for careers in non-academic fields during economic recessions. Participants further

expressed their views about their education, life, and career in relation to the importance

of the study.

Figure 24 shows the placement of the interviews in the triangulation. Interviews

were intended to explain the quantitative results and to highlight key elements of the

triangulation.

117

Figure 24. Diagram showing qualitative interviews as part of data triangulation.

Profile of Respondents

Of the 72 graduates surveyed in Phase I, 47% (n=35) of graduates indicated

interest in being considered for the interview in Phase II—the Qualitative Phase—of the

study. Final selection of interview participants was based on study parameters that

included: (a) the economy (recession and recovery), (b) doctoral graduates by program

(curriculum and instruction, developmental education, and educational leadership), and

(c) employment or careers. Appendix J shows a detailed table identifying interview

participants and selection variables.

Ten of 35 (29%) participants agreed to be interviewed for Phase II, returned the

informed consent form, and set up a date and time for the interview. The gender and

ethnicity of participants included eight White, Non-Hispanic (seven females and one

male) and two Black, Non-Hispanic (one female and one male). Eight females (80%)

and two males (20%) were selected based on established criteria. This is

118

demographically representative of the graduates that were surveyed in Phase I where 81%

were female and 19% were males.

In Phase I, 68% of graduates were in educational leadership, 26% in curriculum

and instruction, and 6% in developmental education. In Phase II, 60% of graduates were

in educational leadership, and 40% were in curriculum and instruction. Two

developmental education graduates showed interest in being interviewed; however,

neither responded to voluntarily participate at the time of final selection. Participants

ranged from age 30 to over age 60. Eight participants were married, one was separated,

and one was single. Nine participants were from the southeastern region, and one was

from the southwestern region of the nation. Salary categories ranged between $40,000-

$65,999 to over $200,000. During Phase I, 40% of participants graduated during the

recession and 60% during the recovery period. However, for Phase II, the opposite was

true; 60% graduated during the recession, and 40% graduated during the recovery period.

Appendix J shows participant work settings and their position/title and includes:

(a) a specialist in a health maintenance organization, (b) a coordinator and assistant

director in a school district, (c) a retired dean from a two-year college and licensed

professional counselor, (d) an assistant professor and assessment coordinator in a four-

year university, (e) a teacher in an elementary school, (f) a principal in a charter school,

(g) an interim chair at a research institution, (h) an art teacher at a secondary school, (i) a

professor for a research institution, and (j) an education consultant for a private-for-profit.

In Phase I, 18% (n=13) of graduates worked in non-academic settings. In Phase II, 10%

(n=1) worked exclusively in a non-academic setting. Pseudonyms were used to protect

participant confidentiality.

119

The participants who were interviewed received the interview questions prior to

the scheduled telephone call. They were informed that their interview would be recorded

and transcribed verbatim. Data were gathered from the 10 participants using semi-

structured telephone interviews. The approximate length of time to conduct the

telephone interviews ranged from 20 minutes to over 60 minutes. Telephone interviews

were recorded using an application on an iPhone®. Recorded interviews were

downloaded to a computer to insure security and backup of the recordings. The

recordings were transcribed using Dragon Naturally Speaking® and a parroting

technique. The recordings were analyzed twice to insure that all narratives were

accurate. The respondents were given the opportunity to review and correct the contents

of the interview once transcribed (member checking). One participant returned their

transcription with minor grammatical corrections.

Study Findings

The themes in this study were intended to be discrete; however, in the context of a

global theoretical framework, themes overlapped at various points. Participants’

responses to interview questions often addressed more than one theme. Five themes that

emerged from the data included:

Participants’ perceptions of their career goals and their motivation for their

doctorate;

Participants’ perceptions of the economy and their careers;

Participants’ opinions about alignment of expectations and the satisfaction and

meaningfulness of their career;

Participants’ resourcefulness and the value of networking; and

120

Participants’ advice to graduates, institutions, and others.

Phase I-Quantitative survey results were supported by the interviews and reflect each of

the themes presented.

Theme 1. Participants’ perceptions of their career goals and their motivation for

their doctorate

Perceptions of career goals and motivation were presented together because

participants strongly linked their career goals with their motivation for their doctorate.

For the most part, career progression was: (a) planned as a professional or personal goal,

(b) based on a need for advancement, (c) to increase employment opportunities, or (d) a

natural progression from degree attainment—bachelor’s, master’s, then doctorate.

Polly, one of the older interviewees in her 60s, recalled watching an Oprah

Winfrey show where Oprah indicated that writing down personal goals would make it

more likely one would accomplish them. Polly stated, “So, that’s what I did.” She

started her career in education by teaching first grade but wanted the capability to do

more than teach, so she obtained a master’s degree in library science. She recounted, “It

turned out to be a perfect time to get that degree because in 1981 databases were just

getting started.” She wanted the opportunity to work outside of education if she ever

decided to take that direction. Her library science degree was the key to achieving one of

her goals—starting her own consulting business.

Polly stated that she pursued her doctorate in education because it was her chosen

career path and she was working with people who had either a PhD or an EdD. She

stated:

121

I felt like I was capable of doing the job I was doing, but I liked having the

credentials that went behind it. I wanted to do consulting work and I knew it

would make a big difference and it turned out helping me in the long run in

securing my position with a nationally recognized company.

Polly initiated her consulting business by changing paper files to electronic files at Exxon

plants and other industries from 3:00-5:00 p.m. She worked at a high school library a

half day in the mornings and was teaching at a juvenile lockdown facility for violent

female juvenile offenders. She explained, “I really had three career paths going at the

same time.” She was faced with three different full-time job offers at one time due to her

successful part-time work. Polly shared, “It was hard to decide what it was I wanted to

do, so I went back to my plan. Everything about my life had been about education.”

Amy, one of the younger interview participants in her 30s, also had a goal that

included non-academic employment and earning a doctorate. Amy remarked she was

motivated to open a business but realized that start-up costs and first-year profit

uncertainties would require her to save more money. Getting her doctorate in curriculum

and instruction allowed her the opportunity for a promotion and a higher salary, which

would expedite her plan. Amy stated, “Initially, it was a monetary incentive for the

advanced degree. My first degree is actually in marketing, so I long to have my own

retail store one day.”

Kate, who works at a four-year institution, stated she knew that from a very young

age she was going to be a teacher: “I knew my parents were very education-oriented.”

Kate shared that her dad had to drop out of school in the eighth grade to help his dad on

the cotton farm. He had never had the opportunity to advance his education. “He always

122

talked to me in terms of what I could do when I got my doctorate. Education was always

a value in my family and I always knew I was going to go to the highest level.”

Debbie had moved to Louisiana from Iowa and recounted that in the late 1970s

and early 1980s women in the Midwest still did not have many roles in leadership. She

stated, “Either you were a teacher or a nurse.” She thought leadership was something she

wanted to pursue and really was not sure she wanted to teach because she realized that

teaching salaries were so low. She worked in business and industry in a leadership role

for three years but continued to take courses in education thinking that one day she might

want to teach. While working in business and industry, she secured her certification in

special education. She left her job in business to teach special education in elementary

school, progressed into an assistant principal position, and then became a principal.

Debbie reported there were two things that propelled her move into educational

leadership. First, in the late 1980s, technology was beginning to become a part of the

learning environment and she became one of the first teachers to have a computer in her

classroom. She continued her education, received her master’s in educational

administration, and participated in a principal exchange with a head teacher in London.

This developed her global thinking about learning and the realization that the world was

changing. She wanted to be able to do something different and innovative and knew that

getting her doctorate would allow her that opportunity. Because online learning was her

specialty, she joined a cohort with University of New Orleans that was offering a hybrid

doctoral degree. In January 2005, hurricanes Katrina and Rita made her education a

unique situation but did not hinder her goal. Her ultimate goal was to have the

credentials that would enable her to work with other institutions in Louisiana and across

123

the country in order to offer professional development in online learning for credit or

coursework. Debbie had considered continuing to take courses to specialize but realized

that it made more sense to spend time getting a doctorate as it carried more weight than

specialization. Another participant, Claire, considered doing the same. She was working

as an adjunct faculty member with her master’s degree and considered taking additional

credit hours to specialize but realized, “In order to move forward, I needed to have the

credentials to do the innovative things that I really wanted to do, so I really needed to get

a doctoral degree.”

Hank, an interim chair and instructor at a research institution, explained that

receiving a doctorate was based on his journey to get his doctorate and was also linked to

his motivation for advancement. Hank recounted, “I always had a desire, no matter what

area of life I was in, to go to the top.” Hank worked at a Catholic hospital in Louisiana as

a medical laboratory scientist for 25 years. He acquired his master’s degree in education

while working as head of the department of education. Getting his doctorate was the next

logical step. Hank stated:

I actually started working on my doctorate out of a personal goal, but eventually,

in order to move up in higher education, I was going to have to have a doctorate

to become a department chair. It started as a personal goal, but then it ended up

being a requirement for further advancement. Advancement became the

motivation for me to continue to work on my doctorate and achieve it.

Another participant, Marie, an educational leadership graduate, stated, “My whole

life I knew I wanted to be in education.” Her initial motivation to pursue her career in

education was intrinsic. After working as a principal for a number of years, she found

124

she liked the human resources aspect of her job. She wanted to obtain a position in

human resources in business and industry. However, she first wanted to acquire 20 years

in education to receive state teacher retirement benefits. Her motivation included non-

academic employment because of her experience with human resources within the

institution.

Carl, a secondary school art teacher, cited his love of art as his initial reason for

the start of his career in education. “I originally started off as an art major and that’s

when I decided to become an art teacher.” Carl applied for a position with an education

consortium at a Louisiana university teaching art in grades K-8. One of the benefits of

working at an education consortium was that employees got a discount on doctoral

courses. He stated, “It was only $150 per credit hour so I decided I’d take the

introductory class to see if I wanted to pursue it.” Carl decided to complete the doctoral

requirements because he wanted the advanced degree to be able to work in administration

one day.

Participants’ career goals and their motivations for their doctorate are collectively

similar. Obtaining a doctorate gave participants the credentials needed for their career

and fulfilled their aspirations. Participant stories recounted a specific event or a series of

events that helped them transition into their career paths. Transitions in employment or

career mobility are noted in each life story. Kidd’s (2008) research shows that (a)

obtaining a doctorate based on personal and professional career goals, (b) seeking or

being presented with employment opportunities, and (c) linking education with career

paths are important features of career well-being. Career well-being involves seven

features—career transitions, interpersonal relationships, relationship with the

125

organization, work performance, sense of purpose, learning and development, and work-

life issues. Furthermore, Kidd (2008) reminded us that an important feature of career

well-being is career mobility. Career mobility suggests periodic changes in a person’s

career that can result in career satisfaction. To follow career paths, graduates in this

study developed transferable career resources.

Theme 2. Participants’ perceptions of the economy related to their careers

All interview participants reported that their careers were not affected by

economic shifts. Three individuals had their doctoral education disrupted during the time

of Hurricanes Katrina and Rita; however, the impact was not noteworthy as participants

stated their institutions supported them and made sure everyone kept on track to graduate,

despite the chaos. Four participants have had long careers in both academic and non-

academic fields that have spanned at least three significant recessions. However, none

reported any difficulties with their career or employment.

In relation to the economy, Paula remarked that in 1978 interest rates were high,

“I remember that very well.” She recalled the oil industry decline in the 1980s and the

decrease in education budgets. She was on the list to be laid off; however, she had

always “looked ahead at opportunities” and took advantage by adding certifications to

secure employment. Paula has both a doctorate in education and a bachelor’s degree in

business. Since retiring, she now works in private business as a consultant.

The literature showed that economic shifts and resulting recessions in the 1970s

and 1980s affected employment options and career choice (Rumberger, 1984; Urquhart &

Hewson, 1983; Zarnowitz & Moore, 1977). The literature also showed that graduates

who are well prepared with a multitude of experiences and interactions with people in

126

different sectors are more successful in securing a career (Raddon & Sung, 2009).

Paula’s story represents having personal adaptability; and by looking ahead and learning

new skills, she was better able to secure her career.

Sally, a former teacher, stated the economy did not directly affect her ability to

find employment in education but did affect her family. Her story begins with her career

as a high school mathematics teacher. She knew she would need additional education in

order to do what she wanted and decided to pursue her master’s degree in counseling.

She worked with children as a private therapist but became “disillusioned because of the

problems children were having and they were not getting adequate services.” She missed

the school environment, returned to K-12, pursued her doctorate, and “fell into

administration.” Sally’s husband worked in the oil industry. The oil industry had

struggled over the past several years since the problems with British Petroleum and the

explosion and destruction of an oil drilling ship—Deepwater Horizon—in April 2010.

Drops in oil prices and the increased regulations on drilling hindered her husband’s

employment, so they recently moved from New Orleans to North Carolina to be closer to

their daughter and grandchildren. She knew she would need a job in North Carolina and

applied to a community college as a director of developmental education. Sally’s

academic and non-academic background gave her the credentials for the job, and she was

hired.

Kate reported the economy had no impact on her career and thinks her doctorate

has made her more marketable to withstand economic shifts. She stated:

I was born to be a teacher and that has always been my goal. When switching

jobs, I have tried to advance my career to make more money. I’m going to do

127

what I love, but I want to be paid for it. My husband also works in education, but

hasn’t had a pay raise in seven years.

Kate has looked at local companies and jobs in human resources; however, her

projected retirement from the State will delay any transition into private industry until she

completes 25 years of service and eligible for additional state benefits. She believes that

her doctorate in curriculum and instruction can propel her into any field. Nevertheless,

she believes that her experience and skills have been an important part of building a

portfolio that makes her more marketable in non-academic fields. Having translated her

goals to include non-academic employment, Kate believes that she can withstand job

market shifts and can easily navigate between academic and non-academic careers.

When asked if the economy had ever affected her career, Debbie’s response was

emphatic. “Never!” She stated, “If anything, having the doctoral degree has opened up

doors big time. I always felt very confident that if I had ever decided to leave any of my

positions in education I could secure a job in a heartbeat.” Polly added, “No, I’ve been

fortunate in that most of the time I had more than one opportunity. The economy

adversely affecting my career hasn’t been the case for me.”

The question, “Since you’ve had a long career [40 years], was there any time in

that process where the economy made it difficult for you to find employment?” elicited

this response from Hank:

No, not at all. I’ve always realized that there are going to be two areas where

you’re always going to be able to find a job—healthcare and education. I’ve

followed those two tracks and I’ve had careers in both. The economy has never

had an impact on my ability to find employment.

128

Participants’ responses about the economy and their careers contradict much of

the literature. For example, Altbach et al. (2011) stated that talented doctoral students

may not pursue their academic career goals due to funding constraints and unfavorable

labor markets. Additional, Altbach et al. (2005) reported that the unpredictable future of

the PhD labor market is in direct relation to external changes and that demand will

depend heavily on the state of the economy and on state budgets for education. With

state budgets cut dramatically over the past decade, the consensus should be that funds

for employment in academia would limit positions and make it increasingly difficult for

doctoral graduates in education to secure employment. Therefore, graduates would chose

employment in non-academic fields due to a lack of academic jobs. Participants’

responses presented the opposite. Participants are working in both academic and non-

academic fields. Those who work in non-academic environments are doing so out of

choice, not due to a lack of positions in academia.

Theme 3. Participants’ opinions about alignment of expectations and

satisfaction/meaningfulness of career

Participants stated that their expectations aligned with their levels of satisfaction

and the meaningfulness of their work. Helsin (2005) confirmed that subjective career

success is most commonly defined as either job or career satisfaction. Individual career

satisfaction is evaluated through personal points of view, which may include pay and

social position, but also addresses much broader and complex issues, such as career

mobility, career well-being, and emotions connected to one’s work (Kidd, 2008).

Therefore, in this study participants presented career satisfaction as a holistic concept.

129

Debbie’s expectations were centered on the pursuit of doing things that she really

wanted in order to make a difference to impact or influence areas that she could. Her

levels of satisfaction and meaningfulness of her work were generated from her internal

drive to work in leadership roles and to be a change agent. Recently, she helped to

develop an online doctoral program and is currently teaching an online doctoral cohort

for distinguished educators. She works with individuals from Hong Kong, Malaysia, the

Netherlands, Mexico, Australia, Canada, and the United States. Currently, the

distinguished educators are working with a Ministry of Education overseas to improve

the infrastructure in the country and to improve the educational opportunities for

everybody. Debbie stated, “I’ve taken the things that I have learned over the past and

applied it to the future. And now I really feel like I’m effecting change at a global level,

which is something I always wanted to do.”

Polly’s focus was not so much on expectations as it was on satisfaction and

meaningfulness of her career. For instance, when asked the question, “What was your

most satisfying job?” Polly reflected, “My most satisfying job was when I worked with

those girls at the juvenile facility. It really did not have much to do with money, even

though the job paid well.” She recounted that the girls had such a tough life and they

really did not have anybody that cared about them. She ended, “That made me feel good

to be able to work with them. It was a hard job, but I got the greatest satisfaction from

that.”

However, Kate reported that at her last position she “was overworked, stressed,

and was getting paid far less than my current position.” The expense and stress of

traveling over an hour to and from work resulted in her returning to the PK-12 school

130

system as a librarian. At the beginning of her career, she “had always wanted to work at

the university level.” After she made the decision to return to the PK-12 system due to

financial reasons, she reported, “I was struggling to get back into academia. Here I was

with a doctorate, more education and experience than any of the principals in the system,

and there I was working in the library.” She viewed this as a learning experience. She

was able to return to work in higher education when a position opened at a local

university, and her level of satisfaction and meaningfulness of her work improved. She

now works as an assistant professor and assessment coordinator.

Kate’s story ties into the literature by Tsang and Levin (1985) which stated that

graduates who have an advanced degree and are working below their skill levels are less

satisfied with the work they do and may even experience depression and health-related

issues, and suffer cognitive decline.

Hank’s career expectations were somewhat different from other respondents.

Hank stated that his initial dream was to be a jet pilot. “I wanted to be a jet pilot. When I

was in college I took the examination and passed, but I failed the eye examination. So, I

couldn’t become a fighter pilot.” He remained in the military, acquired a biology degree,

and was encouraged by his recruiter to go into the healthcare field. Hank worked as a

medical laboratory scientist in the military and, upon discharge, continued his work at a

local hospital. He became a hospital administrator, began working on his master’s, and

then completed his doctorate. While employed at the hospital, Hank became the head of

the department of education and the head of the department of human resources. It was

at this time he began teaching allied health courses. He stated, “Life kind of lead to

situations where I ended up with an opportunity to teach.” Hank reported that his

131

experiences outside of the field of education and in teaching gave him the opportunity to

give back. The things he had learned in his day-to-day work were “good things” that he

could share with his students. He enjoys helping students achieve their dreams in life and

really relishes what he is doing today. Hank shared, “I love teaching. I love giving back

to the students. I love seeing students succeed.”

Hank’s and Kate’s career trajectories can be linked to Gottfredson’s (1981) theory

of circumscription and compromise. The theory states that career compromise occurs

when uncontrollable life events and external circumstances prevent individuals from

obtaining careers they originally aspired to pursue (as cited in Tsaousides & Jome, 2008).

These examples demonstrate self-directed behavior, which suggests more control

over one's career, resulting in appropriate choices and a potential increase in career

satisfaction. Sinclair (2009) stated, “When people pursue personal and career goals

congruent with their traits, disposition and, by extension, their own self-analysis via life

stories, happiness results” (p. 20).

Theme 4. Participants’ resourcefulness and networking

Theme 4 presented itself as an emergent and unexpected theme. The theme that

was evident in the interviews, but was not instinctively articulated by all interview

participants, was resourcefulness and the value of networking. As was stated in Theme 3,

participants demonstrated self-directed behavior (self-management). Fugate et al. (2004)

ascribe that careers have become less bounded (outside a single organization) and

individuals are choosing to self-manage their careers. Interview participants who self-

managed their careers, investigated ways to be resourceful, and practiced personal

adaptability enjoyed careers that spanned multiple organizations and even industries.

132

Their ability and willingness to adapt indicated an initiation to change—an approach that

was more proactive than reactive.

In addition, participants unintentionally communicated how their connections

with others and their training and expertise in their field propelled their careers. Sinclair

states, “Networking directly shapes career outcomes by regulating access to jobs,

providing mentoring and sponsorship, channeling the flow of information and referrals,

augmenting power and reputation, and increasing the chances of promotion” (as cited in

Gunz & Peiperl, 2007, p. 23). While not all interview participants credited their careers

to networking, some participants revealed they made personal and professional

connections, enhanced their skills, and continuously sought educational opportunities to

advance their careers. Three of the 10 interview participants had long careers in both

academic and non-academic settings and were presented with job opportunities because

of direct and indirect networking.

Polly’s career path crossed with individuals from the Department of Education,

the Board of Regents, a major oil company, and an internationally recognized educational

network. While working for the Department of Education, Polly befriended a prominent

person who presented job opportunities to her on two separate occasions: “They had an

opening for an assistant director of instructional technology and Cecilia asked me to

apply and I got the job.” She stated they did a lot of training with top people in education

throughout the state. As instructional technology was becoming more common and less

training was needed, Polly was offered a job by a national company who wanted her to be

their director of professional development. It was not too long after Polly started

working at her new job that Cecilia contacted her and asked if she would work part time

133

on a project. “I worked part time in both roles for almost three years. But each job was

getting more demanding.” Polly continued, “In addition, I was managing my own

consulting business with a major oil and gas company.” Polly’s connection with Cecilia,

her work at the Department of Education, training with the top people in education in the

state, and her association with a national company helped her obtain a position at the

Board of Regents. Polly stated, “I got my chance to be back in the K-12 environment and

that was the same time I was completing my dissertation.” Polly worked with the

research department to develop a research instrument specifically designed to help her

complete her dissertation study. The research instrument was eventually marketed to an

internationally recognized educational network. Because of her work with the research

instrument, the network approached her with a job offer.

Debbie’s resourcefulness and networking was less prescribed and was the result

of her desire to affect change and make a difference. Debbie repeatedly took

opportunities to connect with people from all over the world. Her resourcefulness and

networking were incorporated through: (a) writing articles and publishing, (b) conducting

professional development, (c) certifying in specialty areas, (d) performing adjunct work,

(e) consulting with the National School Board Association, (f) obtaining teacher

education recognition as a technology leader in the state, (g) providing instruction to

doctoral students, (h) accepting unsolicited job offers, and (i) networking globally. She

lives the advice she gives to graduates, “Building partnerships opens the door to get

involved in different ways. I’m not just saying networking educator-to-educator, but way

outside of that.”

134

Hank had foresight into his initial career path but had to change direction because

of circumstance. Hank wanted to be a jet pilot, but because he could not pass the eye

examination, he decided to be a navigator. While in the military, Hank was enrolled in a

biology degree program. He was curious about what type of career a biology major could

secure, so he met with a recruiter. Hank explained, “The recruiter stated that with all the

courses I had taken in biology they would easily transfer into the healthcare field.” Hank

used the “detours” in his career path as opportunities to navigate into other career fields.

He was mindful that the training he had received in the military would transfer into

civilian employment. Hank shared, “One thing has led to another.” His long careers in

the military, in healthcare, and in education were linked to his motivation to connect to

opportunities, and those opportunities were presented because of his connections with

others. Hank self-managed his career, practiced personal adaptability, and enjoyed

careers that spanned multiple organizations and even industries. He was proactive,

possessed the ability to be resourceful, and was willing to adapt to change. Hank added

that he has “met and worked with a great many people with interesting backgrounds”

who have supported him.

Polly’s networking kept her employed in education and her resourcefulness

aided her in her private consulting business. Hank perceptively navigated from the

military into health care, then into education with the mindset that jobs in healthcare and

education would always be available. Hank appreciated a less bounded career and he

networked with others from differing organizations. However, Debbie’s resourcefulness

and philosophy about networking was built from her experiences and her pursuit of

making connections on a global level. Debbie’s interview was the longest of all the

135

participants. Her professional connections were ongoing. Her list of accomplishments

and education were nearly exhausting. However, she articulated her career path as if it

were seamless and ordinary. While she was working in one job, she was expertly

positioned to step into another job.

Throughout the interviews, it was evident that participants possessed outgoing

personalities, sought people and opportunities, and built connections that responsively

portray career success. In addition, these participants found a niche at just the right time

that propelled their career. For instance, Polly acquired her master’s in library science at

the same time databases were introduced, and she had the desire to one day open her own

consulting business that ultimately included the skills she obtained from her degree.

Hank’s niche was long careers in the military, the medical field, and in education. Hank

spoke of his drive and determination and doing what he loves. He has acquired talent,

cultivated and developed its range and depth, and used it to secure his career. As for

Debbie, she was one of the first teachers in the state to have a computer in her classroom

because of her passion to use technology to increase online education and learning in a

global environment. From this humble beginning, she has built her career.

Fugate et al.’s (2004) and McArdle et al.’s (2007) social and human capital

competencies align with Theme 4. Social capital or the knowing whom competency

encompasses one’s ability to successfully develop and utilize working relationships

(Fugate et al., 2004). Participants in Phase II established social networks that created an

economic benefit derived from cooperation between individuals and groups (networking).

In addition, participants’ resourcefulness aligns with Fugate et al.’s (2004) and McArdle

et al.’s (2007) human capital or knowing how competency. Human capital represents the

136

personal variables that may affect one’s career advancement and includes education,

work experience, training, skills, and knowledge.

Theme 5. Participants’ advice to graduates, institutions, and others.

Participants provided advice to EdD/PhD graduates, institutions, and others. For

graduates, participants presented flexibility and planning as two major themes. For

institutions, participants advised how to better prepare graduates for a career in academic

and non-academic employment. In addition, participants provided comments they felt

compelled to share with others.

Flexibility. Remaining flexible was advice participants expressed to future

EdD/PhD graduates. Participants remarked that the educational environment continues to

be fluid, and change is ongoing. Fugate et al. (2004) suggested that open individuals tend

to exhibit flexibility when confronted with the challenges inherent in uncertain situations,

and openness refers to a person’s willingness and ability to change behaviors, feelings,

and thoughts in response to environmental demands.

Paula stated, “I think that you have to remain flexible. The environment is just so

much more fluid.” Paula added that education is no longer a stable environment and

provided the following statement:

We had what I considered to be a more stable environment and we could predict

certain things. I don’t think education can do this anymore. We no longer have

that luxury. Change is the rule of the day; you have to stay flexible.

Debbie commented that flexibility and openness need to be part of the agenda for

graduates, instructors, and higher education institutions. Debbie offered, “Connecting

and building partnerships with different kinds of businesses and industries and in

137

different parts of the country and world will help them understand what they are doing

and why.” She remarked that a changed mindset would allow graduates to look at global

issues and be exposed to other groups of people, businesses, and methods of operation.

Debbie added:

It’s a critical piece for anybody who’s in education to realize that it’s not always

going to be the same. If you want to be successful long-term, you have to update

your skills, reinvent yourself, and make yourself flexible to think outside the box

a little bit differently than what’s been done in the past.

Kate stated, “Careers in education are usually organic and when you get

opportunities, you just step in. But understand that your goals can evolve over time.”

Hank reiterated, “There’s always going to be challenges, but you have to have inward

drive because nothing is impossible. That’s my belief.” In order to remain flexible,

participants advised graduates to be open to new experiences and knowledge and to

modify their perspectives as they learn and grow.

Planning. Planning was additional advice from participants to future graduates.

Participants stated they believed getting the EdD/PhD would lead to better jobs, and

planning for an advanced degree was beneficial. Participants agreed that the field of

education was going to continue to change and that graduates should plan and be

prepared.

Hank recognized the need for planning when discussing his career trajectory. He

stated, “I always thought about my next step in case there’s a detour on this particular

highway. And there have been several detours in my career.” Hank thought that

possessing an inward motivation was essential to setting goals and trying to achieve those

138

goals. He stated that graduates should find an inward motivation to stay the course to

achieve their goals. In addition, Hank remarked that “planning would require graduates

to look up the road to see what it would take in order to achieve their goals.”

Paula reiterated, “I look ahead often and sometimes I don’t always live in the

moment as I should, but I always did aspire to look down the road to see what

opportunities were available and take advantage.” Carl realized that his plan of one day

becoming a principal or working in some other administrative role was going to take

longer than anticipated. He believes he is struggling to get into administration because of

his art degree, despite having an EdD and certifications in social studies and technology.

He stated that graduates should do their research, look at what they want to do, and

acquire the education and experience to get there.

Kate remarked that graduates should start building their portfolio early. She

shared:

I was lucky enough to have a mentor that encouraged me to start presenting now,

start sending in articles, and do research. It is not just about the degree; it’s all the

other things on the vita that are also important.

Debbie strongly encourages her graduate students to think about how their study

might be part of their career. She asks, “What can you do with the study that you’re

doing to make a difference somewhere somehow?” Debbie stated that she wants

graduates to have a personal passion that they may be able to investigate and do extensive

writing about which they may be able to publish. Graduates can then engage in their own

consulting or they may be able to work jointly with another business entity to implement

139

or create some type of model. She encourages graduates to reference literature on

leadership and disruptive innovation.

Sally indicated that maintaining the focus of the dissertation was probably the

greatest advice on planning she received from her mentor. She stated, “Make your

dissertation your calling card. Make it the thing that you have enough passion, that you

want to do for a long time—something you want to teach.” She assured that planning the

dissertation on something that graduates love would propel them into their dissertation

and help them get a job they would love. Amy added, “Use strategies you have learned

from information acquisition, researching, studying, public speaking, and networking—

and be well-read.”

Participants’ advice to graduates on the importance of planning represent the

human capital or knowing how competency (Fugate et al., 2004). Education, work

experience, training, skills, and knowledge affect one’s career advancement. The human

capital element covers the various beneficial skills and knowledge that an individual has

obtained from their experience and education. In the early career of doctoral graduates,

the amount of time to implement career goals can be increased with planning.

Advice to institutions. Participants felt that being open to change was the best

advice they could give institutions. Participants reflected on the lack of change at

universities and with faculty. The consensus was that institutions should embrace the real

world and develop strategies to increase the likelihood that graduates can find

employment in education and other settings outside of academia. The literature from

Harvey (2005) supported the participants’ views, which raises the issue of employability

and how colleges and universities can make their graduates more marketable. The

140

concept of employability has implications in that the choice of occupation for graduates

is constrained by the skills and knowledge they acquire, which affects employment

choice and does not take into account shifts in the economic market.

Paula advised that colleges and universities should take a closer look at economic

scenarios and what is happening out in the current environment:

Because, once again, there are many changes in education. In particular,

professors need to be exposed to economic conditions on a regular basis and come

together and discuss how to better prepare students for different careers once they

graduate if a career in education is not available to them or if they want to branch

off into another field.

Paula added, “Faculty are embedded in the idea that they have always done it this way”

and are often resistant to change. She believes, “All colleges and universities could do a

better job preparing people for other careers, other jobs, other opportunities with an

education degree.”

Kate added, “I think that maybe a course on how to market your skills to

everybody, not just the education community, would be valuable.” Her suggestion to

institutions was to offer seminars to help teach graduates how to build a professional

portfolio that would impress not only academia, but also companies like Chase, JP

Morgan, or others.

Debbie stated that institutions could help students to think differently, to have a

changing mindset, and to look at global issues that affect higher education, and even K-

12 classrooms. She believes it is important to get graduates exposed to other groups of

people and businesses to experience how they operate and learn how to build teams and

141

partnerships. Graduates should become engaged in something that is their passion and

partner with people who are in higher education that are doing research, are publishing,

and guide them through that process. Debbie added:

I think for any higher education institution the leadership in any program must

constantly reevaluate not only the core structures that are being offered but

communicate with graduates, communicate with prospective students, and have a

pretty strong recruiting mechanism in place.

She believes that an institution’s mission and vision should direct where they are going

and why they are doing what they are doing. “What is the population you really want to

influence?” Debbie’s final comment was that electronic portfolios were valuable because

they give the graduate the opportunity to showcase their work long-term and give the

graduate the ability to present their work to different entities.

Carl had the opportunity to choose the person and project for his doctoral

practicum. He stated, “I learned the most from my doctoral practicum.” He shadowed a

principal and selected to work with the school’s reaffirmation (accreditation) as his

project. “I shadowed the principal and selected a project that benefited them and allowed

me to learn new skills.” He stated that it was during the doctoral practicum that he

participated in SACS accreditation and observed what a principal’s responsibilities were.

“That’s when I knew I wanted to be a principal.”

Hank stated that internships or externships give students the opportunity to relate

what they are learning in the classroom to the real world and that is where they gain

valuable experience. He responded:

142

I think having the opportunity to do an internship or work in an area of interest

would give students real life experiences. You can talk about it all day in the

classroom, but if you never get out there and have the opportunity to practice it

and see how things are done, it is just classroom experience.

Mary added, “Institutions could provide some type of internship or on-the-job

training. Experience is the best teacher. That’s where you learn the most.” In addition,

Polly stated that institutions should emphasize publication so that graduates have a

stronger writing/research perspective. She also thinks internships are important but

believes that it may limit too many people as most doctoral students work full time while

getting their doctorate.

In general, participants stated there should be some type of collaboration to

prepare graduates for other careers if jobs in education become scarce or graduates want

to utilize their skills in a non-academic environment. Claire shared:

I think they should make some changes to prepare graduates for non-academic

careers. I think they probably should because most of our program was geared

towards the education environment. If they were already in education and the

economy changes, it would make it possible for them to find something

associated with education in the non-academic sector.

Sally provided a more in-depth statement:

Changes can be easily assimilated in the educational leadership program because

that program is so much about organizational change and effectiveness. Those

skills are quite applicable to industry skills. Some may say they may not want to

stay in this field forever. They may say, “I don’t know about a doctoral degree in

143

education because I don’t want to be locked in that field forever.” This doesn’t

apply to me, but I do hear that statement.

Counsel to others. One of the most profound personal statements that any

participant advised was shared by Kate. When asked, “What other information about

your education, life, or career would you like to share that you feel would be important

for my study?” Kate commented on pursuing a career in education:

I have tried to steer my daughter away from a career in education because I think

that she could help just as many people making better money doing something

else. It breaks my heart that I don’t want either one of my children to be teachers

right now because I do believe I was born to be one. I do believe it’s a calling. I

think it is an important calling, but it is not valued by our society. And it just

breaks my heart.

Amy, a coordinator and assistant director, also believes that having a career in

education is a calling and quoted, “And he gave some, apostles; and some, prophets; and

some, pastors and teachers;” (Ephesians 4:11, King James Version). She stated that she

has been blessed to find a place where her talents and gifts could be used in a positive

way. Amy added, “I trust God and know what he has done, the great things for me and

my 14-, almost 15-year career.” And Debbie shared, “We have to trust the process along

the way no matter what we are doing. As a very strong Christian-minded person, I’m

thinking, ‘Well, okay, so this is my next role. Where are you leading me, God?’”

In conclusion, Sally commented, “I think it’s important that people know how we

got where we are. People take very, very different routes to get where they are.” Her

comment coincides with Gunz and Heslin (2005) who defined the term “career” as

144

descending from the Latin carraria, meaning a carriage-road or road and can be defined

as a person’s course or progress through life.

Concluding Remarks

As represented in this study, a career is a complex, lifelong experience with

varied unpredictable trajectories. Participants knew they wanted a career in education.

There was no evidence of disillusionment. Merriam-Webster online dictionary defines

career as “a field for or pursuit of consecutive progressive achievement especially in

public, professional, or business life” and “ a profession for which one trains and which

is undertaken as a permanent calling” (i.e., a career in education). Participants’ career

stories epitomized the definition of career and shed light on the evolutionary processes of

their career paths.

Graduates displayed attributes of career self-management by proactively looking

for opportunities and by honing and mastering skills that set them apart from others.

Graduates’ satisfaction with employment and career choice was directly related to their

awareness of career goals and motivations. Individual career satisfaction was evaluated

through personal points of view and addressed much broader and complex issues, such as

career mobility, career well-being, and emotions connected to one’s work (Kidd, 2008).

Fugate et al. (2004) provided that career identity is longitudinal because it involves

making sense of one’s past and present and directs one’s future, even though these

change over the course of a lifetime.

Summary of Data Results

The results of the quantitative phase of this study revealed that the majority of

EdD/PhD graduates were employed full time (90%), were working in the field of

145

education (82%), and were satisfied with their career choice (83%). There were no

contextual differences between doctoral programs. Graduates’ motivations and

backgrounds were a part of career choice and did not alter outcomes during economic

recession. Recession graduates (71%, 20 of 28) and recovery graduates (84%, 36 of 43)

reported they “would again choose education as their career field.” In addition, jobs

were available in education, and doctoral graduates’ careers were not affected.

There was evidence that EdD/PhD graduates pursued their doctorate out of a

desire for a career in education (75%). Statements that supported their views

overwhelmingly indicated they intended to work in education and planned to get their

doctorate in education (self-awareness). The findings established that graduates pursued

a career in education because of personal and professional goals, as well as for intrinsic

reasons. Participants stated that they were employed in education when they set goals

directed towards future employment opportunities, career progression, and degree

attainment. Graduates linked their career goals with their motivation for their doctorate.

Participant interviews indicated that they were willing and were able to change

behaviors, feelings, and thoughts in response to environmental demands. Graduates from

Phase I and participants from Phase II reported being personally adaptable and were open

and flexible when confronted with challenges inherent in uncertain situations. Personal

adaptability (Fugate et al., 2004) or the knowing self competency was familiar to

graduates and participants. Graduates and participants were willing to learn new skills,

adapt their job hunting strategies, and reconsider their goals in the face of barriers.

Graduates reported positively that they viewed unexpected events as an opportunity to

succeed at something new (“strongly agree” 51%; “somewhat agree” 40%). Graduates

146

strongly agreed (46%) and somewhat agreed (42%) that they positively dealt with

unpredictable or changing job situations.

Social capital presented a collective value of social networks and was the

expected economic benefit derived from the cooperation between individuals and groups

(Fugate et al., 2004). Graduates in Phase I and participants in Phase II portrayed the

knowing whom competency and conveyed what was presented by McArdle et al.’s (2007)

research, which stated that supportive social networks become a source for graduates’

employment and career progression.

Networking was reported as being the most often used and most effective job

search method to obtain employment. Recession graduates (52%) and recovery graduates

(51%) reported networking to be “very important,” and the findings concerning the job

markets (current and at the time of graduation) showed the majority of graduates viewed

networking as being “very important.” Similarly, when the job markets were viewed as

less favorable, the majority of graduates stated that networking was very important.

Participants in Phase II—the Qualitative Phase—articulated the value of networking,

which became an emerging theme. Sinclair (2009) presented networking as directly

shaping the career outcomes of graduates by: (a) regulating access to jobs, (b) providing

mentoring and sponsorship, (c) channeling the flow of information and referrals, (d)

augmenting power and reputation, and (e) increasing the chances of promotion.

Human capital had an effect on graduates’ and participants’ career advancement

and became the personal variables that included: (a) education, (b) work experience, (c)

training, (d) skills, and (e) knowledge. This knowing how competency supported the

concept of continuous learning and was used by graduates and participants to build their

147

human capital, which increased their chances of being employed and helped support their

career path. Interview participants conveyed that advanced education and a range of

experiences increased their levels of satisfaction and meaningfulness in their positions,

and having additional skills played a large part in career progression. Furthermore,

interview participants conveyed that skills and knowledge obtained from their

experiences and education were beneficial in career advancement and career mobility.

Graduates who pursued their doctorate out of a desire for a career in education

were employed full time (94%), and those who did not desire a career in education (78%)

were also employed full time. The majority of graduates considered they were not

overeducated or overqualified and did not consider they were underemployed (96%).

This means that graduates did not view their education to be higher than necessary nor

their qualifications to have exceeded the requirements of their job.

The qualitative results showed that doctoral graduates in education pursued their

doctorate because they had a desire for career progression that was based on personal

goals and motivations. Graduates in the quantitative survey and the interviews reported

that receiving their doctorate: (a) fulfilled aspirations, (b) offered an opportunity to polish

skills, (c) provided opportunities for advancement, and (d) established a sense of

achievement.

From the study results, it was determined that the recession did not affect

employment options and career choice because graduates: (a) were in their positions

before they started their doctorate (nearly 28%), (b) were in their positions while in their

doctoral program (38%), or (c) found their present jobs after receiving their doctorate

(35%). The majority of graduates have held one (29%) or two (46%) positions during the

148

period of the recession and economic recovery (2006-2015). The inference is graduates

did not have any difficulty securing and maintaining a career in education. In addition,

the majority of graduates were “very satisfied” (44%) and “somewhat satisfied” (24%)

with their employment choice.

Graduates in Phase I and Participants in Phase II provided models of successful

careers in education as well as in non-academic fields. Career paths were inevitably

linked to career motivation. The desire to serve and give back to others overshadowed

negative interpretations about a career in education. Low salaries in education were

scantly mentioned. The inference is most participants have an intrinsic motivation and

logic of reward that is people-driven and not monetary-driven. Intrinsic values may

provide a unique response in the careers available to educators and academic fields over

other career fields. Financial gain is not always the primary goal; therefore, it may not be

the measure of success.

149

CHAPTER 5

SUMMARY, RECOMMENDATIONS, AND CONCLUSIONS

Summary

The objective of this mixed-methods study was to identify and explore contextual

factors that form employment options and career choice of EdD/PhD graduates during

economic recession from Louisiana universities. Because most EdD/PhD graduates

anticipate their careers will be in their field of study, they are not always prepared to

search for employment outside their field—in this case, education. However, given

significant economic challenges, it is not always realistic for graduates to pursue an

occupation based on their training, but they may be forced to choose careers seemingly

unrelated. Furthermore, without knowledge of how to market their skills for non-

academic employment, doctoral graduates in education may find they are overeducated,

overqualified, or underemployed.

The study was designed as a sequential, explanatory research design; however,

qualitative questions were embedded in the quantitative survey to address contextual

factors amongst graduates. The research design was constructed with the quantitative

phase emphasized first. Following the quantitative data and results (including open-

ended, qualitative responses), the qualitative research was conducted to explore and

generalize findings to the larger population studied during the quantitative phase. The

data in this mixed-methods study provided evidence that supported the research design

and answered the research questions. Figure 25 shows the sequential, explanatory

research design used in the study.

150

Figure 25. Figure showing embedded and sequential research design.

The purpose of using mixed methods was to triangulate the methodology,

literature, theories, and data (Denzin, 1978). The choice of using a mixed-methods

design confirmed the relationship between the quantitative and qualitative findings. In

addition, the qualitative data complemented the findings from the quantitative phase.

The type of data mixing that occurred in the sequential design was connection.

Mixing occurred as one phase built on the other and occurred in the research process

between data analysis (Phase 1) and data collection (Phase 2). Syntheses of the study

findings were aggregative, in that findings were assimilated or integrated. The

importance of assimilating the study findings was to understand the judgments involved

in designating the relationships between findings as confirmatory, divergent, or

complementary (Sandelowski, Voils, & Barroso, 2006). In this case, findings were both

confirmatory and complementary.

Assimilation options included configuration, whereby findings are arranged into

either a theoretical model, narrative line of argument, or other coherent form

(Sandelowski et al., 2006). A brief summary of the findings for Phase I and Phase II

were organized into a theoretical model—Fugate et al.’s (2004) psycho-social model—

and are presented in Table 15.

Quantitative

Data & Results

Interpretation

Following

up with

Qualitative

Data &

Results Qualitative

Data & Results

151

Table 15

Assimilation of Quantitative Data Findings and Qualitative Data Findings within Fugate

et al.’s (2004) Psycho-social Model

Competency Quantitative Phase Qualitative Phase

Career Identity (Knowing Why)

Doctoral Program

Career Goals

Motivation

Satisfaction

Meaningfulness

Expectations

Doctoral Program

Career Goals

Motivation

Satisfaction

Meaningfulness

Expectations

Personal

Adaptability (Knowing Self)

Job Search Methods

Job Markets

Economy

Unexpected Events

Career Mobility

Education

Economy

Flexibility

Planning

Social Capital (Knowing Whom) Networking Networking

Human Capital (Knowing How)

Doctoral Degree

Doctoral Program

Employment

Advice to Others:

Education

Work Experience

Training

Skills

Knowledge

The findings were significantly supported by the dominant theoretical framework and

literature that originated from Fugate et al.’s (2004) psycho-social model that stated:

career identity encompasses attributes such as career motivation, personal

meaning, and individual values (Fugate et al., 2004; McArdle et al., 2007);

personal adaptability incorporates flexibility when confronted with challenges and

refers to the willingness and ability to learn new skills, to adapt one’s job hunting

strategy to prevailing job market conditions, or even to reconsider one’s goals in

the face of barriers (Fugate et al., 2004);

152

social capital embodies the collective value of social networks and is the expected

economic benefit derived from cooperation between individuals and groups

McArdle et al. (2007); and

human capital represents the personal variables that may affect one’s career

advancement and includes education, work experience, training, skills, and

knowledge that one obtains from their experience and education (Fugate et al.,

2004; McArdle et al., 2007).

The research questions in this study sought to explain where EdD/PhD graduates

were employed, the reasons they chose education as a career, and if the recession had any

effect on career choices. Table 15 provided summary relationships that were presented in

the quantitative and qualitative phases in the study and were directly connected to the

four research questions:










153

Applicable Literature

This study was rooted in three areas: (a) employment options, (b) career choice,

and (c) economic recession, all discussed in detail in Chapter 2, Literature Review.

Three theories were also presented in the literature: (a) Fugate et al.’s (2004) psycho-

social model; (b) Krumboltz et al.’s (2013) happenstance learning theory; and (c)

Mortensen’s (1986) and Mortensen and Pissarides’ (2011) search and matching theory.

The study findings were supported more from the theoretical literature, in particular,

Fugate et al.’s (2004) psycho-social model, than literature pertaining to the economy,

labor market, employment options, and career choice.

The employment and economic literature suggested that: (a) historical and

cyclical recessions create a lack of available jobs in all sectors, including academia; (b)

more doctoral graduates would seek employment in non-academic fields due to budget

cuts and lack of job availability in academia; (c) doctoral graduates would be in careers

unrelated to their field of study; and (d) doctoral graduates would be less satisfied with

their career choice. However, the findings in this study support the opposite. In other

words, the findings of this study were not what was initially anticipated.

The contradiction in the employment and economic literature may imply skewed

sampling. Much of the current literature was centered on doctoral graduates in STEM

fields or psychology and their employment in academic or non-academic careers.

Literature on graduates from the STEM fields showed they navigate toward positions that

have monetary compensation and not necessarily academic appointments. In addition,

the sample was from only one region of the nation and while there were large enough

154

numbers to draw conclusions, other regions were not represented. Other regions could be

more representative of the literature.

Theoretical Implications

Fugate et al.’s (2004) psycho-social model functioned as the dominant theoretical

framework for the study. The model suggests that interactions between competencies—

career identity, personal adaptability, and social and human capital—help individuals

deal with fluctuations in the job market. These competencies reflect resiliency. Two

other theories were also explored based on their relevance to the study’s variables.

Mortenson’s (1986) search and matching theory focused on labor demand and supply,

when employment is based on available jobs; and Krumboltz’s (2009) happenstance

learning theory, a career counseling model that is action-oriented to help individuals

create and benefit from unplanned events. However, Mortenson’s and Krumboltz’s

theories had minimal connections to the study variables—EdD/PhD graduates,

employment options, career choice, and career satisfaction in relation to economic

recession—as a whole.

Recommendations

Conducting this study about doctorates in education from Louisiana universities

allowed for in-depth consideration for stakeholders about academic and non-academic

careers within the broad context of the economy. Ostriker et al. (2011) support this

concept and stated the following about their own research:

The data produced from this study will be useful to administrators, faculty and

155

students considering doctoral study, and to those concerned with governance and

policy related to doctoral education, as well as to the employers of PhD’s outside

of academia. (p. 10)

Future Research

Based on the data analyses and findings for this study, one recommendation

includes further studies to determine historical patterns in employment during economic

recessions and to investigate for contradictory results. As recessions are cyclical and

historical, determining patterns from different time periods would support this study’s

findings and provide additional literature on EdD/PhD graduates and career choice.

Educational leadership program graduates made up the bulk of participants in the

study. There were fewer participants from developmental education programs, which

presented variances in the findings. Future studies that probe deeper into career paths

within each type of program would provide a more in-depth case study. Future research

can build on these findings within economic theories.

Exploring options for expanded qualitative research would be beneficial as this

study was conducted with a small group of graduates (n=10) and was conducted with a

limited amount of in-depth questioning. This study used a mixed-methods research

design where the quantitative phase was treated with more emphasis. Mixed-methods

studies are designed by making decisions about the amount of emphasis that will be

placed on the data (Creswell, Plano Clark, Guttman, & Hanson, 2003). The qualitative

analysis was conducted sequentially and explained the statistical results in Phase I, the

Quantitative Phase, by exploring participants’ opinions. An exhaustive qualitative study

would lend to more focused analysis and in-depth understanding of the phenomenon.

156

Future studies could be expanded to include all university systems in Louisiana.

While the University of Louisiana System universities serve a larger student population

overall and provided an accessible population of 265 students for this study, the

Louisiana State University System and Southern University System universities could

make available 200 or more graduates to increase the accessible population and stratify

the sample.

Graduates

Increasingly, it is necessary for graduates to gain those skills that will enhance

their prospects for employment. In order to increase their chances at securing a career,

graduates ought to focus on strategies that enhance their opportunities. Graduates who

are well prepared with a multitude of experiences and interactions with people in

different sectors are more successful at securing a career (Raddon & Sung, 2009).

If doctoral graduates in education desire a career outside of academia, it then

becomes the responsibility of the EdD/PhD graduate to not only apply their education

and experiences, but also learn how to market their skills. This is an important factor

when considering employment outcomes for graduates in education. Factors such as self-

efficacy, outcome expectations, and contextual differences influence career choice and an

individual’s decision to choose one career path over another (Lent, Brown, & Hackett,

2002). The development of techniques to cope effectively with different environments

enhances the employability of graduates.

Interview participants suggested that building a professional portfolio would be

beneficial to graduates because it would provide a longitudinal showcase of their work

that could be presented to prospective employers from any industry—academic or non-

157

academic. In addition to a professional portfolio, graduates may find it beneficial to

investigate ways to market their degree and experience, which would make them more

appealing to employers outside of academia. This may require visiting a career resource

center to: (a) restructure their resume, (b) polish up on interview skills, or (c) do a

personality assessment or skills inventory.

Doctoral graduates in education should consider components of career identity—

self-awareness, option awareness (the perception and comprehension of available

options), decision and transition learning, and career management skills. Career identity

encompasses attributes such as career motivation, personal meaning, and individual

values (McArdle et al., 2007). Career identity can be used as a guide to establish goals

and make important decisions that are crucial in identifying career opportunities. Goal

setting was an important consideration provided by participants in Phase II.

Graduates should be willing and able to transform themselves in response to

changes in their environment. Personal adaptability will provide graduates with

flexibility and resiliency when confronted with challenges inherent in uncertain

situations. Learning new skills, adapting job hunting strategies to job market conditions,

and reconsidering goals are essential to career success.

Graduates would benefit from expanding their social networks. Social capital,

such as networking, provides formal and informal relationships that aid in employment

options (Fugate et al., 2004; McArdle et al., 2007). Building human capital allows

graduates to be more marketable when the job market is not as stable or if graduates no

longer desire a career in education (Fugate et al., 2004; McArdle et al., 2007).

Ultimately, graduates would fare better by viewing their career as a combination of

158

looking back and looking forward, by being self-aware, gathering information on

opportunities, making decisions, and taking action for the future.

Finally, graduates should look ahead with the thought of career security, not job

security. Participants in Phase II—the Qualitative Phase—provided evidence that their

motivation and the management of their goals have led to long-term career success.

Institutions

Program accountability is important to institutions because students in doctoral

programs will incur an enormous personal and financial commitment. The decision to

pursue a doctorate requires graduates to determine the time to completion, program

strengths and weaknesses, financial support, institutional and program reputation, and

potential career success. This investment should inspire institutions to guide graduates in

making decisions about their future career choices. Programs are supposed to be self-

evaluative; therefore, enhancing programs based on feedback from graduates can act to

facilitate improvement of those programs and help institutions to remain accountable.

The foundation of programs and curricula can be supported from study findings and

graduate feedback.

This study provides data that can be beneficial when marketing programs and can

be used in program development to improve marketable skills of EdD/PhD graduates.

Providing coursework, seminars, and internships to doctoral graduates to include non-

academic employment would augment program viability and enhance graduates’

outcomes. Incorporating professional development on the use of professional portfolios

would also provide a future venue for employment. Institutions can benefit from the

study’s findings by using the information about their graduates to support accountability

159

through outcomes-based criteria (accreditation and regulatory agencies). The data

provided informs university system offices, university administrators, and other

stakeholders about graduate destinations and career choice. Data can be used to support

tracking of EdD/PhD graduates. The University of Louisiana System office can use the

study findings to monitor graduates from the nine institutions under the ULS and can

expound on the findings.

Conclusions

Large-scale research on EdD/PhD graduate career experiences, and particularly

their ambitions, expectations, and plans for the future and whether career aspirations were

realized, was limited. This study provided an avenue to develop research based on a

specific population of graduates to understand employment options and career choice

during economic flux. Differences were identified in terms of contextual factors that

affect opportunity, choice, and outcomes for EdD/PhD graduates. The findings from this

study offer an explanation for future research.

160

References

Altbach, P.D., Berdahl, R.O., & Gumport, P.J. (2005). American higher education in the

twenty- first century (2nd

ed.) Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press.

Altbach, P. G., Berdahl, R. O., & Gumport, P. J. (2011). American higher education in

the twenty-first century (3rd

ed.). Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press.

American Recovery and Reinvestment Act (ARRA) of 2009. Pub.L. No.111-5. 123 Stat/

115, 516 (Feb. 19, 2009). Retrieved from http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/BILLS-

111hr1enr/pdf/BILLS-111hr1enr.pdf

Baert, S., Cockx, B., & Verhaest, D. (2013). Overeducation at the start of the career:

Stepping stone or trap? Labour Economics, 25, 123-140.

Bandura, A. (1999). Self-efficacy in changing societies. New York, NY: Cambridge

University Press.

Blackmon, C. R., & Searns, M.L. (1979). Doctoral graduates in education from Louisiana

State University, 1975-1978: A follow-up. Bureau of Educational Materials and

Research 9 (1), 25. Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA.

Brown, P., Hesketh, A., & Williams, S. (2003). Employability in a knowledge-driven

economy. Journal of Education and Work, 16(2), 107-126.

Bureau of Labor Statistics (2012). The recession of 2007-2009. Retrieved from

www.bls.gov/spotlight

Career. (n.d.). In Merriam—Webster Dictionary online. Retrieved from

http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/career

Congressional Budget Office (2014). The budget and economic outlook: 2015-2025.

Retrieved from https://www.cbo.gov/publication/49892

http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/BILLS-111hr1enr/pdf/BILLS-111hr1enr.pdf

http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/BILLS-111hr1enr/pdf/BILLS-111hr1enr.pdf

http://www.bls.gov/spotlight

https://www.cbo.gov/publication/49892

161

Cowen, D.J., Sylla, R., & Wright, R. E. (2006). The U.S. panic of 1792: Financial crisis

management and the lender of last resort. National Bureau of Economic

Research.

Crafts, N. & Fearon, P. (2010) Lessons from the 1930s depression. Oxford Review of

Economic Policy, 26, 540-560.

Creswell J.W., & Plano Clark, V.L. (2011) Designing and conducting mixed methods

research (2nd

ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, Inc.

Creswell, J.W. (2013). Qualitative inquiry and research design: Choosing among five

approaches (3rd

ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

Creswell, J.W., & Plano Clark, V.L. (2012). Educational research: Planning, conducting,

and evaluating quantitative and qualitative research (4th

ed.) Boston, MA:

Pearson Education, Inc.

Creswell, J. W., Plano Clark, V. L., Guttman, M., Hanson, W. (2003). Advanced mixed

methods research designs. In A. Tashakkori & C. Teddlie (Eds.), Handbook on

mixed methods in the behavioral and social sciences (pp. 209-240). Thousand

Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

Cryer, P. (2001). The research student’s guide to success (2nd

Ed). Buckingham: Open

University Press.

Denzin, N. K. (1978). The research act (2nd

ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.

Driggs, M.E. (2009). Career choice for doctoral students: A study of doctoral students in

special education attending colleges and universities in California. Unpublished

doctoral dissertation, University of San Francisco, San Francisco, CA.

162

Eby, L.T., Butts, M., & Lockwood, A. (2003). Predictors of success in the era of the

boundaryless career. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 24(6), 689.

Fiegener, M.K. (2009). Numbers of U.S. doctorates awarded rise for sixth year, but

growth slower. Science Resource Statistics Info Brief, NSF 10-308. Arlington,

VA: National Science Foundation. Retrieved from

http://www.nsf.gov/statistics/infbrief/nsf10308/

Fugate, M., Kinicki, A. & Ashforth, B. (2004). Employability: A psycho-social construct,

its dimensions, and applications. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 65(1), 14-38.

Gottfredson, L.S. (1981). Circumscription and compromise: A developmental theory of

occupational aspirations [Monograph]. Journal of Counseling and Psychology,

28, 549-579.

Gottfredson, L. S. (2002). Gottfredson’s theory of circumscription and compromise. In D.

Brown & L. Brooks (Eds.), Career choice and development (pp. 179–232). San

Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass Publishers.

Great Depression (n.d.). In Encyclopedia Britannica online. Retrieved from

http://www.britannica.com/event/Great-Depression

Green, H., & Powell, S. (2007). Doctoral education in the UK. In S. Powell and H. Green

(Eds.). The Doctorate Worldwide. Maidenhead: Society for Research into Higher

Education and Open University Press, 88-102.

Gunz, H.P., & Heslin, P.A. (2005). Reconceptualizing career success. Journal of

Organizational Behavior, 26(2), 105-111.

Gunz H.P., & Peiperl M. (2007). Structural holes. Handbook of Career Studies.

London: Sage Publications.

http://www.nsf.gov/statistics/infbrief/nsf10308/

http://www.britannica.com/event/Great-Depression

163

Harvey, L. (2005). Embedding and integrating employability. New Directions for

Institutional Research, 128, 13-28.

Helsin, P.A. (2005). Conceptualizing and evaluating career success. Journal of

Organizational Behavior, 26, 113-136.

Hobjin, B., Gardiner, C., & Wiles, T. (2011). Recent college graduates and the job

market. Federal Reserve Bank of San Francisco, Economic Letter. Retrieved from

http://www.frbsf.org/economic-research/publications/economic-

letter/2011/march/college-graduates-job-market/

House, J. (1974). The effects of occupational stress on physical health. Work and the

quality of life (J. O’Toole (Ed.)), 145-170. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

Hulin, C.L., & Judge, T.A. (2003). Job attitudes. In W.C. Borman, D. R. Iigen, & R. J.

Klimoski (Eds.), Handbook of psychology: Industrial and organizational

psychology (pp. 255-276). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.

Keller, M. (1999). Study of the supply of and demand for doctoral degree recipients in

Maryland. Annapolis, MD: Maryland State Higher Education Commission.

Kidd, J. M. (2008). Exploring the components of career well-being and the emotions

associated with significant career experiences. Journal of Career Development,

35(2), 166-186.

Knight, P.T. & Yorke, M (2004). Learning, curriculum and employability in higher

education. London: Routledge Falmer.

Krumboltz, J.D. (2009). The happenstance learning theory. Journal of Career

Assessment, 17 (2), 135-154.

http://www.frbsf.org/economic-research/publications/economic-letter/2011/march/college-graduates-job-market/

http://www.frbsf.org/economic-research/publications/economic-letter/2011/march/college-graduates-job-market/

164

Krumboltz, J.D., Foley, P.F., & Cotter, E.W. (2013). Applying the happenstance learning

theory to involuntary career transitions. The Career Development Quarterly,

61(1), 15-26.

Law, B., & Watts, A.G. (1977). Schools, careers, and community: A study of some

approaches to careers education in schools. London, England: Church

Information Office.

Lent, R. W., Brown, S., & Hackett, G. (2002). Social Cognitive Career Theory. In D.

Brown (Ed.), Career choice and development (4th

ed.) San Francisco, CA: Jossey

Bass.

Lieber, E. (2009). Mixing qualitative and quantitative methods: Insights into design and

analysis issues. Journal of Ethnographic and Qualitative Research, 3, 218-227.

Locke, E.A. (1976). The nature and causes of job satisfaction. In M.D. Dunnette (Ed.),

Handbook of industrial and organizational psychology (pp. 1297-1349). Chicago,

IL: Rand McNally.

Maxcy, S. J. (2003). Pragmatic threads in mixed methods research in the social sciences:

The search for multiple modes of inquiry and the end of the philosophy of

formalism. In A. Tashakkori & C. Teddlie (Eds.), Handbook on mixed methods in

the behavioral and social sciences (pp. 51-89). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage

Publications.

McArdle, S., Waters, L., Briscoe, J.P., & Hall, D.T. (2007). Employability during

unemployment: Adaptability, career identity and human and social capital.

Journal of Vocational Behavior, 71, 247-264.

165

McGregor, I., McAdams, D. P., & Little, B. R. (2006). Personal projects, life stories, and

happiness: On being true to traits. Journal of Research in Personality, 40, 551-

572.

Melink, M. & Pavlin, S. (Eds.) (2012). Employability of graduates and higher education

management systems. Network for the Development of Higher Education

Management Systems (DEHEMS). University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Social

Sciences. Retrieved from http://www.aqu.cat/doc/doc_60722650_1.pdf

Michalski, D., Kohout, J., Wicherski, M., & Hart, B. (2011). 2009 Doctorate employment

survey. Washington, D.C.: Center for Workforce Studies.

Mitchell, K.E., Levin, Al S., & Krumboltz, J.D. (1999). Planned happenstance:

Constructing unexpected career opportunities. Journal of Counseling and

Development, 77(2), 115-124.

Moguérou, P. (2002). Job satisfaction among U.S. Ph.D. graduates: The effects of gender

and employment sector. Dijon, France: Université de Bourgogne; Brighton, UK:

University of Sussex.

Mortensen, D. (1986). Job search and labor market analysis. Handbook of Labor

Economics, (2). (O. Ashenfelter and R. Layard (Eds)). North-Holland.

Mortensen, D. & Pissarides, C.A. (2011). Job matching, wage dispersion and

unemployment. (K. Tatsiramos and K. Zimmermann (Eds)). Oxford University

Press.

National Science Foundation (2009 ). U.S. Doctorates in the 20th

Century. Survey of

Earned Doctorates. Retrieved from: http://www.nsf.gov/statistics/nsf06319/ and

http://www.nsf.gov/statistics/srvydoctorates/

http://www.aqu.cat/doc/doc_60722650_1.pdf

http://www.nsf.gov/statistics/nsf06319/

http://www.nsf.gov/statistics/srvydoctorates/

166

National Science Foundation (2010). Numbers of doctorates awarded continue to grow in

2009; Indicators of employment outcomes mixed. InfoBrief Science Resources

Statistics, NSF 11-305, November 2010.

National Science Foundation (2012). Doctorate recipients from U.S. Universities: 2011.

Special Report NSF 13-301. Arlington, VA: National Center for Science and

Engineering Statistics. Retrieved from:

http://www.nsf.gov/statistics/sed/2013/start.cfm

Neumann, R., & Tan, K.K. (2011). From Ph.D. to initial employment: The doctorate in a

knowledge economy. Studies in Higher Education, 36(5), 601-614.

Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (2009). Education at a glance

2009. OECD Publishing. Retrieved from http://www.oecd.org/education/skills-

beyond-school/43636332.pdf

Ostriker, J.P., Holland, P.W., Kuh, C.V., & Voytuk, J.A. (Ed’s.) (2011). A data-based

assessment of research-doctorate programs in the United States. Committee to

Assess Research – Doctorate Programs. National Research Council.

Pitter, G.W., Whitfield, D., Lanham, D., & Savon, B. (1998). Great expectations: A

longitudinal analysis of outcomes following graduation. AIR 1998 Annual

Forum Paper.

Quinn, R., & Mandilovitch, M. (1975). Education and job satisfaction: A questionable

payoff. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan, Survey Research Center.

Quinn, R., & Shepard, L. (1974). The 1972-73 quality of employment survey: Descriptive

statistics with comparison data from 1969-70 survey of working conditions. Ann

Arbor, MI: University of Michigan, Survey Research Center.

http://www.nsf.gov/statistics/sed/2013/start.cfm

http://www.oecd.org/education/skills-beyond-school/43636332.pdf

http://www.oecd.org/education/skills-beyond-school/43636332.pdf

167

Raddon, A., & Sung, J. (2009). The career choices and impact of Ph.D. graduates in the

UK: A synthesis review. Centre for Labor Market Studies, University of Leicester.

Rousseau, D. (1997). Organizational behavior in the new organizational era. Annual

Review of Psychology, 48, 515-546.

Rumberger, R. (1984). The job market for college graduates, 1960-1990. Journal of

Higher Education, 55, 433-454.

Salovey, P., & Mayer, J. (1990). Emotional intelligence. Imagination, Cognition, and

Personality, 9(3), 185-211.

Sandelowski, M., Voils, C. I., & Barroso, J. (2006). Defining and designing mixed

research synthesis studies. Research in the Schools, 13, 29-40.

Scott, D., Brown, A., Lunt, I., & Thorne, L. (2004). Professional doctorates: Integrating

professional and academic knowledge, Maidenhead: Society for Research into

Higher Education and Open University Press.

Sheppard, H., & Herrick, N. (1972). Where have all the robots gone? Worker

dissatisfaction in the 70’s. New York, NY: Free Press.

SinClaire, V. (2009). How to maximise the chances of career satisfaction and career

success. Counseling at Work, 19-25.

Stanford University. (2005). Steve Jobs to 2005 graduates: ‘Stay hungry, stay foolish’.

Retrieved from Stanford University, Stanford, CA

http://news.stanford.edu/news/2005/june15/grad-061505.html

State Higher Education Executive Officers (2014). State higher education finance: FY

2013. Retrieved from

http://www.sheeo.org/sites/default/files/publications/SHEF_FY13_04292014.pdf

http://www.sheeo.org/sites/default/files/publications/SHEF_FY13_04292014.pdf

168

Stone, C., Van Horn, C., & Zukin, C. (2012). Chasing the American dream: Recent

college graduates and the great recession. John. J. Heldrich Center for Workforce

Development and Edward J. Bloustein School of Planning and Public Policy.

New Jersey: Rutgers University.

Tashakkori, A., Aghajanian, A., & Mehryar, A.H. (1996). Consistency of Iranian

adolescent behavioral intentions across two decades of change. Paper presented

at the 54th

Annual Convention of the International Council of Psychologists,

Bannf. Alberta, Canada.

Tashakkori, A. &Teddlie, C. (1998). Mixed methodology: Combining qualitative and

quantitative approaches. Applied Social Research Methods Series, 46. Thousand

Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications.

Tashakkori, A. & Teddlie, C. (Eds.) (2003a). Handbook of mixed methods in social and

behavioral research. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications.

Tashakkori, A. & Teddlie, C. (2003b). The past and future of mixed methods research:

From data triangulation to mixed methods designs. In A.Tashakkori & C.Teddlie

(Eds.), Handbook of mixed methods in social and behavioral research (pp. 671-

701). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications.

Tsang, M.C., & Levin, H. M. (1985). The economics of overeducation. Economics of

Education Review, 4(2), 93-104. Michigan State University and Stanford

University.

Tsaousides, T., & Jome, L. (2008). Perceived career compromise, affect and work-related

satisfaction in college students. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 73, 185-194.

169

Urquhart, M.A., & Hewson, M.A. (1983). Unemployment continued to rise in 1982 as

recession deepened. Bureau of Labor Statistics. Retrieved from

www.bls.gov/opub/mlr/1983/02/art1full.pdf

U. S. Department of Education. Digest of education statistics (2007). National Center for

Education Statistics. Retrieved April 10, 2015 from www.ed.gov

U. S. Department of Education. Digest of education statistics (2015). National Center for

Education Statistics. Retrieved April 10, 2015 from www.ed.gov

U. S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics (2012). Employment projections –

2010-2020. Retrieved from

http://www.bls.gov/news.release/archives/ecopro_02012012.pdf

U. S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics (2015). Labor force statistics from

the current population survey. Retrieved from

http://data.bls.gov/timeseries/LNS14000000

University of Louisiana System (n.d.). Overview. Retrieved April 1, 2015 from

http://ulsystem.edu/index.cfm?md=pagebuilder&tmp=home&pid=161

Wellington, J., Bathmaker, A.M., Hunt, C., McCulloch, G., & Sikes, P. (2005).

Succeeding with your doctorate. London, England; Sage Publications Ltd.

Woodley, S. K. (2015). Grambling State University presidential search: A message from

committee chair Sandra K. Woodley. Accessed February 19, 2015 from

University of Louisiana System Web site:

http://www.ulsystem.edu/index.cfm?md=newsroom&tmp=detail&articleID=589

Yorke, M., & Knight, P.T. (2004). Embedding employability into the curriculum. York:

Higher Education Academy.

http://www.bls.gov/opub/mlr/1983/02/art1full.pdf

http://www.ed.gov/

http://www.ed.gov/

http://www.bls.gov/news.release/archives/ecopro_02012012.pdf

http://data.bls.gov/timeseries/LNS14000000

http://ulsystem.edu/index.cfm?md=pagebuilder&tmp=home&pid=161

http://www.ulsystem.edu/index.cfm?md=newsroom&tmp=detail&articleID=589

170

Zarnowitz, V., & Moore, G.H. (1977). The recession and recovery of 1973-1976.

National Bureau of Economic Research.

171

Appendix A

Survey: The Impact of Economic Change on Employment Options and Career

Choice of Doctoral Graduates in Education from Louisiana Universities

Demographic Information

1. What is your gender?

Female

Male

2. What is your race/ethnicity?

White, Non-Hispanic

Black, Non-Hispanic

Hispanic

Asian or Pacific Islander

American Indian or Alaska Native

Race/Ethnicity Unknown

3. What is your age?

20-29

30-39

40-49

50-59

60 and over

4. What is your marital status?

Single, never married

Married

Widowed

Divorced

Separated

5. What region of the country do you live?

Midwest - IA, IL, IN, KS, MI, MN, MO, ND, NE, OH, SD, WI

Northeast - CT, DC, DE, MA, MD, ME, NH, NJ, NY, PA, RI, VT

Southeast - AL, AR, FL, GA, KY, LA, MS, NC, SC, TN, VA, WV

Southwest - AZ, NM, OK, TX

West - AK, CA, CO, HI, ID, MT, NV, OR, UT, WA, WY

6. What is your current household income in U. S. dollars?

172

Less than $20,000

$20,000 to $39,999

$40,000 to $64,999

$65,000 to $99,999

$100,000 to $200,000

Over $200,000

Would rather not say

7. Indicate the month and year you were awarded your doctorate.

Month Year

8. Please indicate doctoral degree earned.

EdD

PhD

9. Please indicate your doctoral program.

Curriculum and Instruction

Developmental/Special Education

Educational Leadership/Administration

CAREER

10. Why did you choose to pursue your doctorate?

11. Did you pursue your doctorate out of a desire for a career in education?

Yes

No

If Yes, why? If No, why not?

12. If you had the choice, would you again choose education as your career field?

Yes

No

Not sure

If no, what field would you choose (business, medicine, law, etc...)?

13. If you had the choice, would you choose the same doctoral program in

education? (Curriculum and Instruction, Developmental Education, Educational

Leadership/Administration)

Yes

No

173

Not sure

If no or not sure, why?

EMPLOYMENT

14. What is your CURRENT employment status? (Mark one only)

Currently employed full time

Currently employed part time

Currently employed in a temporary position

Unemployed

15. Are you currently seeking employment?

Yes

No

If yes, how many months have you been seeking employment?

If no, why are you not seeking employment?

16. Overall, how would you rate the CURRENT job market for someone with your

degree and experience?


good Fair Poor Not sure

17. Overall, how would you rate the job market for someone with your degree and

experience at the time you graduated?


good Fair Poor Not sure

18. Would you consider yourself to be overeducated and/or overqualified for your

current position?

Yes

No

Not sure

19. Since receiving your doctoral degree, how many different positions have you

held between 2006-2015? (include full-time and part-time positions)

1 position

2 positions

3 positions

4 or more positions

20. What best describes when you became employed?

174

I was employed in this position when I started my doctoral program.

I was employed before completing requirements for my doctorate.

I found my present job after receiving my doctorate.

21. How many months did you spend actively looking for employment after you

graduated?

22. Is this your first job since receiving your doctorate?

Yes, new position

No, same position

No, second position

No, third or more position

No, other

Other (please specify)

ACADEMIC EMPLOYMENT

Type of ACADEMIC employment.

Please select the category that best describes the type of position you hold in your

current work setting. You may be involved in several types of work activities;

however, your employment position can usually be described by one of the following

categories. (If you work in a non-academic field, please skip to Question 29.

23. At what type of academic institution do you work?

Research University

Four-year University

Two-year College

Private for-Profit Institution

Elementary School

Secondary School

Magnet School

Charter School


24. If employed a PK-12 setting, which position do you hold?

Superintendent

Assistant Superintendent

Principal

Assistant Principal

Other Administrator

Curriculum Specialist

Teacher

School District Office

175

School-based Operations

Education Consultant

Other K-12 position (please specify)

25. If employed at a University/College setting, which position do you hold?

President/Chancellor

Vice President/Vice Chancellor

Associate VP/VC

Assistant VP/VC

Dean

Department Head

Faculty

Director

Coordinator


26. What is your current faculty rank? (Only if you are faculty. If not, select "Not a

Faculty Member")

Full Professor

Associate Professor

Assistant Professor

Adjunct/Visiting Faculty

Lecturer/Instructor

Not a Faculty Member

Other Faculty Position (please specify)

27. Which best describes your work setting?

Education Department

Higher Education System

Psychology Department

Research Center or Institute

Other Academic Department or Unit (please specify)

28. If you are an administrator, in what administrative area do you work?

Academic Affairs

Admissions

Advising

Alumni

Business and Finance

Career Counseling

Fund-Raising and Development

Human Resource

176

Information Technology

Institutional Research and Planning

Public Relations and Communications

Residential Life

Student Affairs and Services

Teaching Center

Not applicable


29. What is your official job title at your present academic position?

NON-ACADEMIC EMPLOYMENT

Type of NON-ACADEMIC position.

Please select the category that best describes the type of position you hold in your

primary work setting. You may be involved in several types of work activities;

however, your employment position can usually be described by one of the following

categories.

(If you work in an academic field, skip to Question 32.)

30. What type of non-academic environment do you work?

Business and Industry

Consulting/Self-employed

Government

Health-care/Medicine

International Organization

Military

Non-Profit Organizations/Public Interest

Public Policy Agencies


31. What is your job title of your present non-academic position?

General Employment

32. How important was your doctoral degree and doctoral program in enabling you

to attain your current position? [Check one choice in each column]

Doctoral Degree Doctoral Program

Essential qualification

Helpful, but not essential

Unimportant

Cannot ascertain

Essential qualification

Helpful, but not essential

Unimportant

Cannot ascertain

177

33. Do you consider yourself underemployed in your current position?

Yes, I am

No, I am not underemployed

Not sure

If yes or not sure, please explain how you consider yourself to be underemployed.

Please indicate your agreement/satisfaction or disagreement/dissatisfaction with the

following statements regarding your current position.

34. My position is related to my field.

Strongly agree Somewhat

agree

Neither agree

nor disagree

Somewhat

disagree

Strongly

disagree Not applicable

35. My position is commensurate with my level of education and training.


agree

Neither agree

nor disagree

Somewhat

disagree

Strongly


36. My position is commensurate with my level of experience.


agree

Neither agree

nor disagree

Somewhat

disagree

Strongly


37. My position is similar to what I expected to be doing when I began my doctoral

program.


agree

Neither agree

nor disagree

Somewhat

disagree

Strongly


38. My position is professionally challenging.


agree

Neither agree

nor disagree

Somewhat

disagree

Strongly


39. How satisfied are you with your current employment choice?

Very

satisfied

Somewhat

satisfied Satisfied Dissatisfied

Somewhat

dissatisfied

Very

dissatisfied

Not

applicable

178

Job Search Methods

40. Please RANK the TOP FIVE job search methods that you used to obtain your

current employment position. (1-highest, 2, 3, 4, 5-lowest). Ranking will

automatically re-order once selected and all others will not be used.

Informal channels including colleagues/friends

Faculty advisor

Newspaper advertisement

National convention placement service

Regional convention placement service

Advertisements in The Chronicle of Higher Education or other professional newsletter

Professional journals or periodicals

Filled out a civil service application

Used a search firm/employment agency

Met employer through former job

Sent unsolicited vitae

Received an unsolicited offer

Internet/Electronic Source

41. If you used an Internet Source, please specify.

If you used some other source than those listed, please specify.

42. Please RANK the TOP FIVE job search methods that were most successful in

helping you to obtain employment. (1-highest, 2, 3, 4, 5=lowest). Ranking order will

automatically re-order once selected.

Informal channels including colleagues/friends

Faculty advisor

Newspaper advertisement

National convention placement service

Regional convention placement service

Advertisements in The Chronicle of Higher Education or other professional newsletter

Professional journals or periodicals

Filled out a civil service application

Used a search firm/employment agency

Met employer through former job

Sent unsolicited vitae

Received an unsolicited offer

Internet/Electronic Source

43. If you used an Internet Source, please specify.

If you used some other source than those listed, please specify.

179

Opinion Questions

If you are currently employed, please answer the following questions.

If you are currently unemployed, skip questions 44-61.

44. How important was networking for you to get the job you wanted?

Very important

Somewhat important

Important

Somewhat unimportant

Very unimportant

Not applicable

45. How meaningful is your work?

Extremely meaningful

Very meaningful

Moderately meaningful

Slightly meaningful

Not at all meaningful

46. How challenging is your job?

Extremely challenging

Very challenging

Moderately challenging

Slightly challenging

Not at all challenging

47. In a typical week, how often do you feel stressed at work?

Extremely often

Very often

Moderately often

Slightly often

Not at all often

48. How well are you compensated for the work you do?

Extremely well

Very well

Moderately well

Slightly well

Not at all well

180

49. How likely are you to look for another job outside your current place of

employment?

Extremely likely

Very likely

Moderately

Slightly

Not at all likely

Agreement Questions

Please respond to the following statements.

50. I view unexpected events as an opportunity to succeed at something new.

Strongly agree

Somewhat

Neither agree nor disagree

Somewhat disagree

Strongly disagree

Not applicable

51. I am flexible in expanding my career options.

Strongly agree

Somewhat


Somewhat disagree

Strongly disagree

Not applicable

52. I deal very well with unpredictable or changing job situations.

Strongly agree

Somewhat


Somewhat disagree

Strongly disagree

Not applicable

53. I have passion and excitement about my current work.

Strongly agree

Somewhat


Somewhat disagree

181

Strongly disagree

Not applicable

54. I continue to look to see what career opportunities are available.

Strongly agree

Somewhat


Somewhat disagree

Strongly disagree

Not applicable

55. I find my work is aligned with my qualifications.

Strongly agree

Somewhat


Somewhat disagree

Strongly disagree

Not applicable

56. I am highly motivated to follow my career goals.

Strongly agree

Somewhat


Somewhat disagree

Strongly disagree

Not applicable

57. I am ready for a career change.

Strongly agree

Somewhat


Somewhat disagree

Strongly disagree

Not applicable

58. I am satisfied with the meaningfulness of my job.

Strongly agree

Somewhat


Somewhat disagree

Strongly disagree

182

Not applicable

59. I am determined to accomplish my career goals.

Strongly agree

Somewhat


Somewhat disagree

Strongly disagree

Not applicable

60. I have good career prospects in my current employment.

Strongly agree

Somewhat


Somewhat disagree

Strongly disagree

Not applicable

61. I feel my job makes good use of my skills and abilities.

Strongly agree

Somewhat


Somewhat disagree

Strongly disagree

Not applicable

Volunteer Telephone Interview

As part of this survey, a second phase is also being conducted and will include a

telephone interview with select participants.

If you would like to have the opportunity to be selected to participate in the second

phase, please provide your e-mail address. You will be contacted through the email

you provide to set up an interview time.

62. My email address is:

183

Appendix B

Qualitative Questions for Interviews

1. Describe your career motivations and goals? Have they changed over time?

2. How has the economic environment affected your career goals?

3. What motivated you to pursue your doctorate in education?

4. Have you considered a career in both the academic and non-academic sectors?

Why or why not?

5. Talk about your current position. How does it align with your current

expectations? Do you find it satisfying and meaningful work?

6. What advice would you give future EdD/PhD students in regards to securing a

career in education?

7. Is there anything that your institution could have done to better prepare you for a

career in education?

8. Do you think your institution should make changes in EdD/PhD programs to

prepare graduates for careers in non-academic fields? If so, what changes?

9. Is there any additional information about your education, life, and/or career which

I have not covered in my earlier questions that you feel would be important for

my study?

10. Do you know of other University of Louisiana EdD/PhD graduates (2006-2014)

that I might interview for my study?

184

Appendix C

Creswell, J.W., & Plano Clark, V.L. (2011)

Table for a Study that uses the Explanatory Design

Phase Procedure Product

Quantitative Data

Collection

• Cross Sectional web-based

survey

• Descriptive and

demographic data and

disaggregation of numeric

data

Quantitative Data Analysis • Data screening (univariate,

multivariate to test validity of

the model)

• Factor analysis (to create sub-

scores from responses)

• Frequencies

• Discriminant function analysis

(only if valid continuous data

are available)

• SPSS® quantitative software

(based on operational choices

of procedures)

• Descriptive statistics,

missing data, linearity,

homoscedasticity,

normality, multivariate

outliers

• Factor loading

• Descriptive statistics

• Canonical discriminant

functions, standardized and

structure coefficients,

functions at group

centroids (only if valid

continuous data are

available)

Case Selection; Interview

Protocol Development

• Purposefully selecting

participants from respondents

to survey based on typical

response and maximal

variation principle

• Developing interview

questions

• Interview protocol

Qualitative Data

Collection

• Individual in-depth telephone

interviews with participants

• E-mail follow-up interviews

• Elicitation materials

• Documents

• Text data (interview

transcripts, documents,

artifact description)

• Image data (photographs)

Qualitative Data Analysis • Coding and thematic analysis

• Within-case and across-case

theme development

• Cross-thematic analysis

• Qualitative software

• Visual model of multiple

case analysis

• Codes and themes

• Similar and different

themes and categories

• Cross-thematic matrix

Integration of the

Quantitative and

Qualitative Results

• Interpretation and explanation

of the quantitative and

qualitative results

• Discussion

• Implications

• Future research

185

Appendix D

INFORMED CONSENT FORM – QUANTITATIVE

Name of Study: THE ECONOMIC IMPACT ON EMPLOYMENT OPTIONS AND CAREER CHOICE OF DOCTORAL GRADUATES IN EDUCATION FROM LOUISIANA UNIVERSITIERS

Doctoral Student: Kathleen Holloway DESCRIPTION OF THE RESEARCH You are invited to participate in a research study that I am conducting as part of my doctoral candidacy in the Higher Education and Organizational Change program at Benedictine University. The purpose of the study is to explore how the economic recession has affected your ability to find employment and whether or not you are working in your field of study. You are invited to participate because you have been identified as one of approximately 250 graduates from higher education doctoral programs from universities under the University of Louisiana System from Academic Years (AY) 2006-2007 through 2013-2014. Your participation will be voluntary and can be ended at any time. WHAT WILL MY PARTICIPATION INVOLVE? Your involvement will be to provide background and demographic data on a questionnaire and respond to multiple-choice, Likert-type, and open-ended questions that express your opinions and attitudes about your ability to secure employment in your field of study upon graduation. You may be asked for your voluntary consent to be a part of a follow-up qualitative interview to provide a deeper understanding of the responses to the initial survey. The survey will be e-mailed to you via a web-based link. For those who have provided a physical address, but no e-mail, you will be provided a paper/pencil version and a self-addressed stamped envelope. Any information you provide will be kept confidential. Your name or any identifying marker will be eliminated. Your name will not be reported in the study and your responses will be anonymous. You may choose to answer all of the questions, some of the questions, or none of the questions. In the event that you wish to discontinue your participation, you may do so even after signing the informed consent. To maintain confidentiality, the surveys, interview transcripts, and all files pertaining to your participation in this study will be stored in a locked cabinet for seven years and destroyed afterwards, if no longer needed. All computer files will be kept on a secure server. I will also maintain a copy of the data on a password-protected computer. WHAT ARE THE RISKS AND BENEFITS OF PARTICIPATING? There are no foreseeable risks for participating in this study. You will not directly benefit from your participation in this study, nor will you receive monetary payment for agreeing to participate. The knowledge gained from this study will contribute to understanding how cyclical economic recessions affect the employability of EdD/PhD graduates from education programs in Louisiana. This study is being conducted in part to fulfill requirements for my EdD degree in Higher Education and Organizational Change at the graduate school of Benedictine University in Lisle,

186

Illinois. The study has been approved by the Institutional Review Board of Benedictine University and the individual institution from which you have graduated as part of the University of Louisiana System. The Chair of Benedictine University’s Institutional Review Board is Dr. Alandra Weller-Clarke. She can be reached at (630) 829-6295 and her email address is [email protected]. If you have any questions pertaining to this study please contact me, Kathleen Holloway, Benedictine University doctoral candidate, 985-209-8190 or by e-mail at [email protected]. The director of this dissertation is Dr. James E. Barr. He can be reached at 985-447-8839 or by email at [email protected] If you are willing to participate, please sign the Informed Consent Form. Thank you for your assistance. Participant Signature X: Date:

mailto:[email protected]



187

Appendix E

INFORMED CONSENT FORM – QUALITATIVE

Name of Study: THE IMPACT OF ECONOMIC CHANGE ON EMPLOYMENT OPTIONS AND CAREER CHOICE OF DOCTORAL GRADUATES IN EDUCATION FROM LOUISIANA UNIVERSITIERS Doctoral Student: Kathleen Holloway DESCRIPTION OF THE RESEARCH You are invited to participate in a phone interview as part of the research study that I am conducting as part of my doctoral candidacy in the Higher Education and Organizational Change program at Benedictine University. The purpose of the interview is to further explore your opinions on how the economic recession has affected your employment options and career choice. You are invited to participate because you have voluntarily consented to be interviewed. Your participation is voluntary and can be ended at any time. WHAT WILL MY PARTICIPATION INVOLVE? Your involvement will be to provide your opinions about the economic recession and your employment options and career choice through a recorded and transcribed telephone interview. You will be asked approximately ten questions and the interview will take approximately 30 minutes. Prior to the telephone interview, you will receive the interview questions via email or postal method. The interview will be recorded and transcribed word for word and you will be afforded the opportunity to review and correct the interview content. You will also have the opportunity to retain a copy of your completed transcription. Your information will remain confidential and your participation is completely voluntary. Any information you provide will be kept confidential. Your name or any identifying marker will be eliminated. Your name will not be reported in the study and your responses will be anonymous. You may choose to answer all of the questions, some of the questions, or none of the questions. In the event that you wish to discontinue your participation, you may do so even after signing the informed consent. To maintain confidentiality interview transcripts and all files pertaining to your participation in this study will be stored in a locked cabinet for seven years and destroyed afterwards, if no longer needed. All computer files will be kept on a secure server. I will also maintain a copy of the data on a password-protected computer. Excerpts from the interview may be included in the final dissertation report or may be used in other publications that may be conducted at a later date. Your name and any other identifiable markers will not be included and your identity will remain confidential.

188

WHAT ARE THE RISKS AND BENEFITS OF PARTICIPATING? There are no foreseeable risks for participating in this study. You will not directly benefit from your participation in this study, nor will you receive monetary payment for agreeing to participate. The knowledge gained from this study will contribute to understanding how cyclical economic recessions affect employment options and career choice of EdD/PhD graduates from education programs in Louisiana. This study is being conducted in part to fulfill requirements for my EdD degree in Higher Education and Organizational Change at the graduate school of Benedictine University in Lisle, Illinois. The study has been approved by the Institutional Review Board of Benedictine University and by the University of Louisiana System. The Chair of Benedictine University’s Institutional Review Board is Dr. Alandra Weller-Clarke. She can be reached at (630) 829-6295 and her email address is [email protected]. If you have any questions pertaining to this study please contact me, Kathleen Holloway, Benedictine University doctoral candidate, 985-209-8190 or by email at [email protected]. The director of this dissertation is Dr. James E. Barr. He can be reached at 985-447-8839 or by email at [email protected] If you are willing to be interviewed, please sign the Informed Consent Form. Thank you for your participation. Participant Signature X: Date:




189

Appendix F

Diagram for a study that uses the Explanatory Design

190

Appendix G

Distribution of Male and Female Doctoral Graduates from 1949 to 2012

SOURCE: US Department of Education, National Center for

Education Statistics, Earned Degrees Conferred, 1949-50 and

1959-60; Higher Education General Information Survey (HEGIS),

"Degrees and Other Formal Awards Conferred" surveys, 1967-68

through 1985-86; and 1986-87 through 2005-06 Integrated

Postsecondary Education Data System, "Completions Survey"

(IPEDS-C:87-99), and Fall 2000 through Fall 2006 (This table

was prepared June 2007)

191

Appendix H

Tables H1, H2, H3, H4, and H5 Representing Graduates’ Opinions and Expectations

Table H1

My position is related to my field of study.

Frequency Valid Percent

Strongly agree 46 65.7

Somewhat agree 19 27.1

Neither agree nor disagree 1 1.4

Somewhat disagree 3 4.3

Strongly disagree 1 1.4

Total 70 100.0

Table H3

My position is commensurate with my level of education and training.


Valid Strongly agree 22 31.9





Total 69 100.0

Table H2

My position is commensurate with my level of experience.


Strongly agree 33 47.8





Total 70 100.0

192

Table H4

My position is similar to what I expected to be doing when I began my doctoral program.







Total 70 100.0

Table H5

My position is professionally challenging.







Total 70 100.0

Table H6

How satisfied are you with your current employment choice?


Valid Very satisfied 31 44.3

Somewhat satisfied 17 24.3

Satisfied 10 14.3

Dissatisfied 4 5.7

Somewhat dissatisfied 7 10.0

Not applicable 1 1.4

Total 70 100.0

193

Appendix I

Tables I1, I2, I3, I4, and I5 Representing Program Graduates’ Opinions and Expectations

Table I1.

Doctoral Program Graduates’ Opinion of Statement “My position is related to my field.”

Doctoral Program

My position is related to my field.

Strongly

agree

Somewhat

agree

Neither agree

nor disagree

Somewhat

disagree

Strongly

disagree Total

Curriculum

Instruction

Subtotal n 12 4 0 1 0 17

% within 70.6% 23.5% 0.0% 5.9% 0.0% 100.0%

Developmental

Education

Subtotal n 3 1 0 0 0 4

% within 75.0% 25.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 100.0%

Education

Leadership

Subtotal n 31 14 1 2 1 49

% within 63.3% 28.6% 2.0% 4.1% 2.0% 100.0%

Total Total n 46 19 1 3 1 70

% within 65.7% 27.1% 1.4% 4.3% 1.4% 100.0%

194

Table I2.

Doctoral Program Graduates’ Opinion of Statement “My position is commensurate with my level of experience.”

Doctoral Program

My position is commensurate with my level of experience.

Strongly

agree

Somewhat

agree

Neither agree

nor disagree

Somewhat

disagree

Strongly

disagree Total

Curriculum

Instruction

Subtotal n 12 1 1 2 0 16

% within 75.0% 6.3% 6.3% 12.5% 0.03 100.0%

Developmental

Education


% within 75.0% 25.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 100.0%

Education

Leadership

Subtotal n 18 14 4 9 4 49

% within 36.7% 28.6% 8.2% 18.4% 8.2% 100.0%

Total Total n 22 26 1 9 11 69

% within 47.8% 23.2% 7.2% 15.9% 5.8% 100.0%

195

Table I3.

Doctoral Program Graduates’ Opinion of Statement “My position is commensurate with my level of education and

training.”

Doctoral Program

My position is commensurate with my level of education and training.

Strongly

agree

Somewhat

agree

Neither agree

nor disagree

Somewhat

disagree

Strongly

disagree Total

Curriculum

Instruction

Subtotal n 8 5 0 2 1 16

% within 50.0% 31.3% 0.0% 12.5% 6.3% 100.0%

Developmental

Education


% within 25.0% 50.0% 0.0% 0.0% 25.0% 100.0%

Education

Leadership

Subtotal n 13 19 1 7 9 49

% within 26.5% 38.8% 2.0% 14.3% 18.4% 100.0%

Total Total n 22 26 1 9 11 69

% within 31.9% 37.7% 1.4% 13.0% 15.9% 100.0%

196

Table I4.

Doctoral Program Graduates’ Opinion of Statement “My position is similar to what I expected to be doing when I

began my doctoral program.”

Doctoral Program

My position is similar to what I expected to be doing when I began my doctoral

program.

Strongly

agree

Somewhat

agree

Neither agree

nor disagree

Somewhat

disagree

Strongly

disagree Total

Curriculum

Instruction

Subtotal n 4 4 4 3 2 17

% within 23.50% 23.5% 23.5% 17.6% 11.8% 100.0%

Developmental

Education


% within 25.0% 25.0% 0.0% 25.0% 25.0% 100.0%

Education

Leadership

Subtotal n 12 17 4 4 12 49

% within 24.5% 34.7% 8.2% 8.2% 24.5% 100.0%

Total Total n 17 22 8 8 15 70

% within 24.3% 31.4% 11.4% 11.4% 21.4% 100.0%

197

Table I5.

Doctoral Program Graduates’ Opinion of Statement “My position is professionally challenging.”

Doctoral Program

My position is professionally challenging.

Strongly

agree

Somewhat

agree

Neither agree

nor disagree

Somewhat

disagree

Strongly

disagree Total

Curriculum

Instruction

Subtotal n 10 5 1 1 0 17

% within 58.80% 29.4% 5.9% 5.9% 0.0% 100.0%

Developmental

Education


% within 75.0% 25.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 100.0%

Education

Leadership

Subtotal n 22 12 4 6 5 49

% within 44.9% 24.5% 8.2% 12.2% 10.2% 100.0%

Total Total n 35 18 5 7 5 70

% within 50.0% 25.7% 7.1% 10.0% 7.14% 100.0%

198

Appendix J

Table Showing Interview Participants and Selection Variables

Phase II—Qualitative Phase

Name Gender Race Age Status Region Salary Year

Graduated Program Work Setting

Position/

Title

Paula F W 50-59 M SE $100-200k 2012 CI HMO Specialist

Amy F B 30-39 M SE $65-99,999 2014 CI District Coordinator &

Asst HS Director

Claire F W 60+ SP SE $40-65,999 2009 EdL 2 year

Dean &

Licensed

Counselor

Kate F W 40-49 M SE $100-200k 2010 CI 4 year Asst Prof &Assess

Cood

Sally F W 50-59 S SE $40-65,999 2014 CI Elem Teacher

Marie F W 30-39 M SE $100-200k 2011 EdL Charter Principal

Hank M B 60+ M SE $100-200k 2008 EdL Research Interim Chair

Carl M W 30-39 M SW $65-99,999 2012 EdL Secondary Teacher

Debbie F W 60+ M SE $200,000+ 2007 EdL Research Professor

Polly F W 60+ M SE $100-200k 2009 EdL Private/For

Profit

Education

Consultant

199

Appendix K

Baseline of Doctorate Recipients by Sex and Subfield Based on Survey of Earned Doctorates, 2014

Baseline of Doctorate Recipients by Sex and Subfield Based on Survey of Earned

Doctorates, 2014

ULS Universities

Doctorate Recipients

by Subfield

2007-2014

Subfield of study # Total %

Total # Male % Male # Female % Female # Total % Total

Education 1,454 481 33.1% 972 66.9% 265

Education

administration 777 53.4% 330 22.7% 447 30.7% 162 61.1%

Curriculum &

Instruction 549 37.8% 132 9.1% 416 28.6% 65 24.5%

Developmental

education 128 8.8% 19 1.3% 109 7.5% 38 14.3%

SOURCE: NSF, NIH, USED, USDA, NEH, & NASA https://nces.ed.gov/statprog/handbook/pdf/sed.pdf

Doctorate Recipients by Sex and Subfield of Study from 2007-2014

Subfield of study # Total %

Total # Male % Male # Female

%

Female

Education 72 14 19% 58 81.0%

Education

Administration 49 68.1% 12 16.7% 37 51.4%

Curriculum &

Instruction 19 26.4% 1 1.4% 18 25.0%

Developmental

Education 4 5.6% 1 1.4% 3 4.2%

https://nces.ed.gov/statprog/handbook/pdf/sed.pdf

The Impact of Economic Change on Employment Outcomes ......2016/07/21 · I love you, Dad. To my...

Documents

Transcript of The Impact of Economic Change on Employment Outcomes ......2016/07/21 · I love you, Dad. To my...