VikingbattleaxesandspearsfoundintheRiverThames.(CourtesyMuseumofLondon)

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

A special thank you to Todd Palmer for his essay on the Vikingquotations that has allowed me to produce this work. Viking FightingNotes from 23Sagas was the foundation and inspiration for this book.AlsotoJaysonKaneforhisworkonthegraphics,hisnoirstylebringingtheimagestolife.

AbouttheAuthorAntonyCumminsisanauthorandhistoricalresearcher.HavingobtainedhisMasters degreeat theUniversity ofManchester inArchaeology, hehasworkedasaTVpresenter,documentaryfactcheckerandwriter.HeisalsotheheadoftheHistoricalNinjutsuResearchTeamwhotranslateand publish medieval ninja training manuals from various clans ofantiquity.Asamartialartist,Antonyhasspentmostofhismartialartslifestudying humanmovement and the dynamics of combat, concentratingon the Japanese arts but with the aim of understanding the universalprinciples of movement that define historical combat. For moreinformationonhisworkvisithiswebsite:www.natori.co.uk

AbouttheGraphicDesignerJayKanestudiedArtandDesign inEnglandandworksasa freelancegraphic designer. He has has worked alongside Antony Cummins formanyyears,realisinghisvisions.JaysonlivesinStockport,England.Formoreinformationonhiswork,visithiswebsite:www.iamjaykane.co.uk

CONTENTS

TitleAcknowledgementsTheSagas1TheDefinitionofa‘Viking’2MartialArtsTheWeaponsandtheImages3TheSwordTheOverheadCutTheStriketotheNeckTheDownwardStriketotheShoulderTheUpperShieldCleaveTheLowerShieldCleaveSeveringtheArmsTheHorizontalCutTheMid-levelStriketotheLegTheLow-levelStriketotheLegCuttingThroughBothLegsTheThrustandStabTheLeapandThrustTheDownwardStabTheTwo-HandedCutThrowingtheSwordPummellingSunderingaWeaponTheParryandCut4TheSpearTheSpearThrowCatchingandThrowingitBackTheThrustTheUpwardThrustTheLowerThrustTheImpaleandLiftTheSlashandCutTheStriketotheCentreoftheBack5TheAxe

TheOverheadCutTheStriketotheNeckStrikingtheShoulderTheShieldCleaveTheHorizontalCutTheMid-levelStriketotheLegsAttackingtheFeetAttackingtheArmsSunderingaWeaponTheParryandCutAmbidexterity6TheShieldTheShieldWallIndividualProtectionHemmingInTheSwordDisarmTheShieldasaWeaponTheRedirectionKnockingDownaSpear7UnarmedCombatTheBodyGrappleTheManipulativeGrabTheImprovisedWeaponTheThrowTheDisarmLeapingtheSpear8HorseCombatThePre-combatDismountTheSpurGash9CombinationMovesCombination1Combination2Combination3Combination4Combination5Combination6Combination7Combination8Combination9

Combination1010GroupCombatGroupCombat1GroupCombat2GroupCombat311MiscellaneousAspectsofCombatTheWayofDeathTheWayofSuicideClaimingtheHeadArmedandReady?TheSpikedShoes12EffectivenessofWeapons13ConclusionCopyright

THESAGAS

The sagas referred to in this book were sourced from the OnlineMedieval andClassical Library (OMACL) and are a collection of publicdomaintextsthatareavailabletoall.Forfurtherinformation,pleaseviewthe full manuscripts on the OMACL website or the published sagasthemselves. Each saga has been given a Roman numeral for ease ofreference.

I TheLifeandDeathofCormactheSkaldII TheStoryoftheHeath-SlayingsIII TheStoryoftheVolsungsIV TheStoryoftheEre-DwellersV TheLaxdaelaSagaVI TheSagaofGrettirtheStrongVII TheStoryofBurntNjal

Heimskringla, theChronicle of the Kings of Norway, includesthefollowingsagas:

VIII YnglingaIX HalfdantheBlackSagaX HaraldHafager’sSagaXI HakontheGood’sSagaXII SagaofKingHaraldGrafeldandoftheEarlHakonSonofSigurdXIII KingOlafTrygvason’sSagaXIV SagaofOlafHaraldsonXV SagaofMagnustheGoodXVI SagaofHaraldHardradeXVII MagnusBarefoot’sSagaXVIIISagaofMagnustheBlindandofHaraldGille

XIX SagaofSigurd,IngeandEystein,theSonsofHaraldXX SagaofHakonHerdbreidXXI MagnusErlingson’sSaga

1

THEDEFINITIONOFA‘VIKING’Thepoundingofthesurf,thecallofahornandthesightofasquaresailon the horizon; youmay be thinking that the next soundwould be thetroubledcryofabeachcomberscreamingtheword–Vikings!Thismaynothavebeenthecase.WhiletheAnglo-SaxonwordWicingexisted,wedo not know when this word became the common name for allScandinavian raiders, theymay also have be called theDanes,North-men orothernames. ‘Viking’maybederived from theOldNorsewordvik,meaningabay,implyingaVikingwasonewhokepthisshipinabay,ortheOldEnglishwic,meaningacamporatradingplace.However,theword Viking is used today to describe Scandinavian ‘warrior-farmers’and/orScandinavianprivateersandraiders. It isnotthe intentionof thisbook to list and identify the social differences in theVikingworld, or todifferentiate between those who were warrior-farmers and those whowereprofessionalsearaidersandprivateers.Thepurpose is toattemptto reconstruct the fighting arts of all the people within the medievalScandinavianworld.Nomatterwhat theywerecalledorhowtheywereportrayed,weknowthatwhatwearedealingwithisagroupofmenwhoare ‘warrior-farmers’ and that for the purposes of this book it does notmatter if they were fighting in Scandinavia over land disputes, raidingmonasteriesorprotectingtheDane-lawinEngland.ForthisinvestigationintothemartialartsoftheVikings,wehaveonlytoknowthata‘Viking’,aswehavecometoknowthem,wasaScandinavianwhowaspartofawarriorculturewithitsownmethodsoffighting.Therefore,thisbookwillrefer to all Scandinavian warriors as ‘Vikings’, as that is the name bywhichtheyarenowmostcommonlyknown.

ANALYSINGTHETEXTS

The first thing anacademicwould do is list the pitfalls in attempting toreconstruct theVikingmartialartsbyusing thepost-Vikingerawritings.

Theseinclude:

1Thetimedelaybetweentheeventsofthesagaeraandtherecordingofthesagascanaveragearound200years.

2Theauthorswerewritingforaspecificaudience.3Theclothes,weaponsanditemsoftheworldinthesagasactuallyreflecttheChristianmedievalperiodatthetimeofwriting.

4Thesubtletiesoftranslationcouldleadtomistakes.5Thewritersembellishedthefeatsofthoseinthestoriesbeyondthereality.

Theseproblemsareallgoodreasonsnottotrustthewordofthesagas.Mostacademicswouldsay it is tooproblematic togetacorrectmartialunderstandingfromthem.However,theaimofthisbookissimplytotakethebasicelementsof thecombatasdescribedandstart to reconstructthemasamartialart,not toanalysethehistorical record in full.SothisbookbecomesastartingpointforallVikingenthusiaststoworkfrom,asaguidelineforreference.Whilesomefeelthattherealityistoofarawaytograsp, theauthor feels that the truths thatwill beunearthed throughthisapproachareworththeeffortoftacklingtheproblemsthatthesagawritershaveleftforus.Nowthattheseproblemsareestablishedwecanidentifythesolutions.

It isthejobofthereadertoconsidertheseproblemsatall timesandtotake them intoaccountwhenstriving for the truth.With this inmindwenowturntothecounter-arguments.

1 This issue is a great factor in reliability and we can imagine that

manychangeshavebeenmade,especiallywiththeChristianisationof the country. However, if a man is decapitated in a story it isunlikelythatthiswillchangeintoalegamputationoraspearthrust,such evolution would not be natural. We can trust that if in thewrittensagaamanwasdefeatedbyhavinghis leg removed, thenwe can expect that the original story held the same information.Rememberthattheaudiencewasstillawarriorculture,evenifthatof Christian knights, they were still descendants of the people inthesesagasand200years isnota long time foranaristocracy to

transformitself,norisitsuchalongtimethatthestoriescouldhaveradicallychanged,sothatthecombatdescriptionsbecamedistortedwholesale,eveniftheyhadbecomesomewhatembellished.

2Thesagascertainlywereaimedatacertainaudience.Wehaveto

consider the difference in thewarrior aristocracy of theViking eraand thewarrior aristocracy of the early Christianmedieval period.Underneath the religious change you still have a selection ofaristocratic families who fight with similar weapons for similarreasonsofgreed, landandpride.Theysimplywant tohearstoriesofthebraveandtheheroic,whichhasnobearingonthemartialartsissue.

3 The lookofaVikingand the lookofaChristianknightmayseem

radicallydifferentfromanexternalpointofview.However,ifwetakeintoaccounttheonlyfactorsthatwouldaffectthemartialarts,thenwecanseethatthedifferencesareslight:aswordinthetwelfthandthirteenth century is very like its Viking equivalent. It is still wellconstructed, of similar length and weight. The spear is still aprincipalweapon,asistheaxe,thewarriorwearsmailandahelm,asdidtheVikings.Theonlychangestothisfundamentalequipmentare in the shape of the shield, fromwhat was probably a circularversion toakiteshape,and theadditionofsmallsectionsofplatemail being worn. The issue of the shield is germane and isdiscussed in the text.Andthereappears tobenomentionofplatemailinthesagas.

4 This is the biggest issue and themost problematic. All the sagas

herearelatenineteenth-centuryorearlytwentieth-centuryacademictranslations.Weknowfromthe introductionto thenewtranslationsof The Sagas of the Icelanders that these older translations aremore ‘word for word’ than later works. These older texts arethereforebetterforourpurposesastheystayasclosetotheoriginalas possible. It does not matter in general how the translator hascomeupwithsentencessuchas ‘hisheadwascleave in twain’or‘hislegwascutoffbelowtheknee’,anytranslationisunlikelytobe

factually incorrect. Here we are not concerned with the subtlemeaningsorliteraryskillofthework,wehaveusedasmallnumberof quotations that have direct meaning and are unlikely to be inerror.Thisbeingsaid, it isstillpossiblethat translationmaybethecause of some inaccuracies. On the whole, we have ignoredambiguous text references and poetic flourishes.We can use themost unambiguous quotations to begin to establish if groups ofattack and defence methods can be categorised, and from thesecategorisationswecanstarttobuildthemartialartsoftheVikings.

5Wehavetorememberthattheaudienceforthesagaswasasection

offightingmenorpeoplewhohavewitnessedviolenceofasimilarkind.Sowhiletherewasembellishment,itwasnotintherealmsoffantasy.Unrealistic embellishment about theViking fighting arts atthe time of writing would be like telling a story today in which asoldier of World War II shot and killed 500 men in an hour. Theaudiencewouldsimplyrefusetobelieveit.Theinclusionofdemons,monstersandspiritshastobetakenasapartoftheworldthattheylivedin,andheroicdeedsweremeanttobejustoutsideofthereachofawarriorandrelativelyclosetotherealityofcombat.Mostofthedescriptionsarebrutalandsimple.

2

MARTIALARTSAsamartialartistandhavingspentasignificantamountoftimeinJapantryingtofindthe‘secrets’behindthewayofthewarrior,Ihavelearnedafewlessons.Firstly,whenmartialartistsfromanystylereachesacertainlevel, they tend to gravitate towards the same form ofmovement fromwhatever school they come, that is – balanced, economical andpotentiallydeadly.Secondly,mostpeopleconcentrateonthedifferencesbetween styles, whereas the similarities outweigh dissimilarities. As ahistorian,Ifindthatthemodernmartialartsaudiencedonotthinkintheway in which ancient warriors thought. It is not often that you find thelikes of JuliusCaesarwriting that theGauls are soft andweak, nor doIrishmonkssay that the fightingstyleof theVikings is rudimentaryandlackinginorganisationorfinesse.TheMongolsandtheJapanesedidnotconsider each other as poor fighters. It is rare in history to find achronicleropiningthatthewarriorsoverthenextmountainareweaklingsandthattheirmartialprowessisquestionable.Ingeneral,allmartialartsstyles across the globe share a great deal in common – and anymantrainedinthoseartsfromayoungageisamantobefeared.Weshouldnotfallintothetrapofunderestimatinghowfarafightercanpushhimselfand the skill level that can be achieved in any art, especially one thatresultsindeath.Adeepunderstandingofthemartialartsisalifelongpursuit.However,

forthosewhohavehadnoformaltraining,herearesomepreceptsthatIfeeltobeuniversal:

•Movementshouldalwaysstartatthehips•Thebodyshouldmoveasone•Powerdoesnotcomefromthearmormusclesalone• Balance should be retained and small steps should be taken at alltimes

•Youshouldneveroverreachbutinsteadmoveinandstrike• Martialartsarenotstaticanda fightershouldmove likea ‘castleon

wheels’,openinghisportcullisonlytoattack•Movementsmustbedynamic,threedimensionalandfluid

Ihavespentmy life lookingfor theconnectionsbetweenallmartialartsandtheuniversaltruthsIhavecometoarethatawelltrainedmanmoveswithabsoluteefficiencyandstrikeswithformidablepower,beitkung-fu,jujutsuorfencing;andtobeonthereceivingendofadeterminedattackbyamasternormallyresultsindeath.

THEWEAPONSANDTHEIMAGES

Martial instruction books have consistently been plagued with drabpictures,grainyblackandwhitephotographsagainstaschoolhallgymbackground.Theaimof thisbook is tomerge threeelements:historicalresearch, martial arts instruction and noir style art, in a collaborationwhich should bring historical accuracy, art and entertainment together.Thatbeingsaid,itmustberememberedthattheseimagesaregraphicalrepresentationsand thereforehave limitations.Takenote that at times,shields shown flat against the ‘wall’ of the image in reality would becovering any openings. The reader must take these images as two-dimensional representations of three-dimensional movement. Theweaponsintheimagesareartisticrepresentationsofthetimeperiodandmay not match the saga descriptions completely. Taking both of theabovepoints intoconsideration,JaysonKanehasdoneawonderful jobofcreatingadynamicandinspirationalmartialartsguide.Now that the stage is set and the problems identified, you have

grasped the ideaofmartial arts andunderstand the approach taken totheweaponsand to thestyleof the imagery, theopportunity to takeanentirelynewlookattheworldoftheVikingwarriorcanbetaken.

3

THESWORD‘Theswordyehave,Bersi,islongerthanlawful’

Thesword,fromnomatterwhateraorinanyform,istheemblemofthehighestformsofthemartialarts.Toholdaswordbringsoutthewarriorinmostmenandtowatchitswinginsilverarcsthroughtheairrousestheblood.TheVikingswordisnodifferent.ThischapteronswordsmanshiprevealsthedynamicsofVikingswordcombatandthebloodytruthfoundattheendofablade.Theswordwasanexpensivepieceofequipment,often handed down from generation to generation. Early blades weremade of strips of wrought iron twisted with mild steel that were thenforgedandahardenededge(usuallyedges)added.Whenthinkingofswordsmanshipdonotthinkoftheslowmovements

of ‘sword and sandals’ or ‘merrieEngland’ cinema, instead one shouldthinkofaverydynamicinteractionbetweenthecombatantsthatusuallyonlylastsforashorttimebeforeeitherabloodyendisbroughtaboutorthesituationchanges.TheartoftheswordinVikingtimeswasfastandterminal.

THEOVERHEADCUT

Thisisabasiccuttingactionthatcanbefoundinallmartialartsacrosstheworld.Theprimary target is theheadwith the intentof splitting theopponent’s skull and it is a lethal cut in all its applications. It can beassumedthat thiscutwasprimarilydonewithasinglehandedgripandwouldprobablyhavebeendeliveredwithadirectionalsteptoimprovethepowerofthecutthroughbodydynamics.Itappearsthatthiscutwasnotintended tobea laceratingcutbutone thatwouldcleave theheadandthe body using as much force as the attacker could muster whileretainingbalance.Suchacut isdrasticanddeadly,ascanbeseenbythe references in the sagas. What is unknown is how this strike was

initiated.IntheKatoriShinto-ryuswordschoolofJapanthiscutisstartedwiththeswordsmanmovinghishandupwardsandtotheleftsideofhisheadbeforehe reaches the start of thedownward cut.This is done toavoid thesamurai’shelmetandcrest.Astart similar to this is inVikingwarfare is possiblebut not definite, asVikinghelmsdidnot have largecrestsoranyobstructivedecoration.However, if this cut ismadewhileholdingashieldthenitwouldhavetostart inoneof twoways. Itwouldeitherhavetoswingaroundthefrontoftheshield,asinthecasewiththesamurai helmet, or it would have to come up to a position from therear/rightquarter.Thedownwardswingoftheswordcouldcomefromawiderpossibilityofanglesifdonewithoutashield.

Version1:TheOverheadCutfromaroundtheshield.

Version2:TheOverheadCutfromtherightquarter.

SagaReferencesUnsurprisingly,thereferencesinthesagasshowjusthowdevastatingablow like this canbe, either fatal or causingextrememaiming.Moderntests of replica weapons confirm how destructive a blow this is to thehumanbody.

II

‘Bardi,whowastheswiftestofthosemen,andhewedathimwiththeswordThorgaut’sloom,andhewedoffwell-nighallthefaceofhim’

‘NowThorgisl(Hermundson)smitesastrokeonhimdownhisnosefromthebrow,andsaid:“Nowhastthougottenagoodmarkbefittingthee;andevensuchshouldmoreofyouhave.”ThenspakeThorgisltheHewer:“Noughtgoodisthemark;yetmostlikeit is,thatIshallhave the heart to bear itmanfully; little have ye yet to brag over.”Andhesmoteathimsothathefellandisnowunfightworthy’

III‘axes hard driven, shields cleft and byrnies torn, helmets wereshivered,skullssplitatwain,andmanyamanfelledtothecoldearth’

III

‘…andclavehimdown,bothhelmandhead,andmail-cladbody’

IV

‘…andsmotehisswordintohishead,andclaveitdowntothejaw-teeth’

V

‘ThenAnwentintothedairyhardandswift,andheldhisshieldoverhis head, turning forward the narrower part of it. Bolli dealt him ablowwithFootbiter,andcutoff the tail-endof theshield,andcloveAnthroughtheheaddowntotheshoulder,andforthwithhegathisdeath.’ [Here we see evidence of anachronism. The author isdescribingakiteshieldandnottheearlierroundversionattributedtothesagaage.]

VI

‘Dromundtookthesword,atonceraiseditaloftandstruckablowat[a shallow] angle. It came into his head with such force that itpenetratedtohisjaw’

‘AsVigbjodbentdowntopullhisswordclearagain,Onunddealthimablowonhisshoulder,severinghisarmanddisablinghim’

‘FirsthewentforSteinolfofHraundalandclefthisskulldowntohisshoulders’

XI

‘NowthekingtakeshisswordKvernbitwithbothhands,andhewedEyvind through helm and head, and clove him down to theshoulders’

THESTRIKETOTHENECK

Thisisastrikewiththeswordtoanareaoftheneckwiththeintentionofdecapitation. The angle of attack may vary and will depend upon thesituationthattheswordsmanisinandhisrelativepositiontohisenemy.However,wecanestablishthatversion1isacutmadetoanopponent’sfaceanddirected to the left sideofhisneckabove theshield line.Wesee thisstrike inall swordplay.TheJapanesehaveasimilarcutcalledKesa-Giri, which is usually executed with a forward step. This cut ismeanttocutacrossthetopofthecollarboneandtotheoppositearmpit.Thereisathirdcut,whichisnotillustratedhere.Thesagasreference

decapitationfrombehindorsimplyastraightforwarddecapitationwiththeopponentstoodinanerectposition.Thiswouldconstituteathirdversion,however thecut is identical to the ‘HorizontalCut’ (version2)describedfurtheroninthischapterandissimplyanecklevelversionofthisstrike.

Version1:Astriketothesideoftheneck.

Version2:Itisalsoprobablethatthiscutwasmadeontheoppositesideandthattheswordsmanmovedhisswordtohisleftandstruckattherightsideoftheopponent.

SagaReferencesDecapitationisaprimemethodofkillinginawarriorculture;theconceptof the ‘head cult’ or ‘head-hunting’ is found throughout most warriorculturesandisclearlyevident intheVikingworld.What is interestingtonote is that sometimes itmay come as a surprise attack and be donefrombehindasanassassination,asopposedtoaduel.

II

‘ThorbiornleapsatBardi,andsmiteshimontheneck,andwondrousgreat was the clatter of the stroke, and it fell on that stone of thebeadswhichhadbeenshifted[aswhen]hetooktheknifeandgaveittoNial’sson;andthestonebrakeasunder,andbloodwasdrawnoneithersideoftheband,butthesworddidnotbite’

III

‘Lethimsmitetheheadfromoffhimthen,andbeonlylordofallthatgold’

‘…and therewith he drew his sword Gram and struck off Regin’shead’

VII

‘Then Flosi came up and hewed at Helgi’s neck, and took off hisheadatastroke’

‘Soheraninupthehall,andsmoteGunnarLambi’ssonontheneckwithsuchasharpblow,thathisheadspunoffontotheboardbeforethekingandtheearls,andtheboardwasallonegoreofblood,andtheearl’sclothingtoo’

XIV

‘ThenKalfstruckathimontheleftsideoftheneck’

THEDOWNWARDSTRIKETOTHESHOULDER

Thisisalmostthesameasthe‘StriketotheNeck’thereforetheimagesaboveinthelastsectionwillsuffice,theonlydifferencebeingthatthecuthasadeeperangleandisintendedtocutfromtheshoulderjointdowntotheoppositehip,thususingtheimagesfromthelasttechniquetherecanbethefollowingtwoversions.

‘DownwardStriketotheShoulder’damage.

Version1Thecutisintendedtocutthehumantorsoinhalffromadiagonalangleand could be said to exactly replicate the Japanese Kesa-Giri cutmentionedabove.

Version2Aswiththe‘StriketotheNeck’cut,itispossibletomakethiscutfromtheopposite side, especially if the swordsman does not have a shield inhand.Iftheswordsmanisusingashieldthenhewouldhavetoeitherdiptheshieldandturntheedgetowardshisnecksothat itdidnotobstructthebladeorhewouldhavetoexposethe insideofhisshieldandopenhisbodytoattack.Thiswouldonlybedone if thestrikewasapowerfulfull step and a fully committed stroke. Alternatively, it could involve anextension of the arm and a strong ‘flick’ style execution, an attempt tosevertheshouldermusclesanddisablethearm.However,thislastcutismerelyspeculationasmostofthereferencestalkofa‘mightyblow’andsevered limbs, which probably came from the swordsman’s right and

dominantside.

SagaReferencesThis appears to be amost devastating and powerful blow and usuallyendsafightandiseffectiveevenifthesworddoesnot‘bite’.Acrushedcollarboneorseveredarmbothresultinthelossofuseofthelimb.Onemustrememberthattheopponentwouldhavetobewithoutshieldortheswordsmanwouldhavetohaveusedagapinashield-bearer’sdefencetomakethiscut.

I‘She bluntedCormac’s sword, so that itwould not bite, but yet hestrucksogreatastrokeonThorvard’sshoulder that thecollarbonewasbrokenandhishandwasgoodfornothing’

TheUpperShieldCleave.Theattackerhereisstrikingintotheshieldofthedefendertouseitto

pullhimoffbalance.

II‘NowEyolfsmitethatOdd,anditcameontohischeekandontohismouth, and a great woundwas that’ [the angle from the cheek tomouthwouldindicatethiscutbutjusttotheface]

V

‘Bolli hewed in return, and struckLambi’s shoulder, and the swordflewdownalongthesideofhim,andhewasrenderedforthwithunfittofight’

‘Thorgilswasstandingnear,andstruckafterhimwithasword,andcaughthimontheshoulderandmadeagreatwound’

VI‘Thenhequicklyseizedtheshortswordwhichhewaswearing,drewitandstruckatthetroll’srightshoulder,cuttingoffherrightarmandreleasinghimself’

VII‘ThenKarismitesathim,andtheswordfellonhisshoulder,andthestrokewas somighty that he cleft in twain shoulder, arm, and all,andSnowcolfgothisdeaththereandthen’

‘…butGudleifsmotehimontheshoulderandhewedhisarmoff,andthatwashisdeath’

THEUPPERSHIELDCLEAVE

Thisistheexactsamecutasthe‘DownwardStriketotheShoulder’initsexecution.Thedifferenceisthatthecutisintendedfortheshieldandnotforthepersonorthattheshieldisusedtoblockthe‘DownwardStriketotheShoulder’.Thus, it isnot the technique thatmakes thiscutdifferentbutitsapplication.Weknowfromthesagasandmodernexperimentationthatashieldcouldbecleavedanditisonlythenashortsteptoconcludethat todosowaspartof theVikingswordarts, tobeused to renderashield unusable for the duration of the fight and thus opening up thedefencesoftheopponent.Thistheoryissupportedbythefactthatthereis the counter-move of the ‘SwordDisarm’, explained in the shield usechapter.

SagaReferences

Thisseems tobea regularoccurrence in thesagasand itseemsquitereasonable for a swordsman to expect his shield to be shattered. Theduellingsystemof‘threeshields’reflectstheknowledgethatone’sshieldwillbeatarget.

I‘Bersistruckthefirstblow,andcleftCormac’sshield’

‘ButBersileaptup,slashedathim,andclovehisshield.Thesword-pointwasatSteinar’sbreastwhenThordrushedforthanddraggedhimaway,outofreach’

TheLowerShieldCleave.Theswordsmanherehasdamaged the lowerpartof theopponents’

shield.

VII‘Kol hews at him, and the blow fell on Thrain’s shield, and cleft itdownfromtoptobottom’

‘HecutatonceatHrut’sshield,andclove itall in two, from top topoint’

THELOWERSHIELDCLEAVE

This is also a variation of the ‘DownwardStrike to theShoulder’ but isexecuted to the lower part of the opponent’s body. Again it isquestionableastowhetherthisisanattackagainsttheshielditselforifitis an attack that is blocked by the opponent’s shield. The key to thistechnique is that it shows that Viking swordsmanship incorporated amultiple level attacking concept. In the Japanese tradition this isdissectedintothreeareas,Jodan,ChudanandGedan–high,middleandlowlevel,respectively.Thissimplepointisofhighimportanceasitshowsamuchmore dynamic and three-dimensional spatial awareness duringcombat than we have come to expect from modern Viking

representations.

SagaReferencesThat a shield could be sliced in two is not difficult to believe havingwitnessedtheJapanesecuttingartofTameshigiri;theissuethatarisesisthestructureoftheVikingshield.Webelievethatsomeshieldshadiron-rimmededgesandsomedidnot.Therefore, is thecut that cleaves theshield in two delivered to a shieldwith an iron rim, or is the blow onlysuccessfulagainstashieldwithoutsuchadefensiverim–dependingonthethicknessofcourse?Thiswouldonlybeestablishedbytestcutsandforthetimebeingwillhavetoremainspeculation.

I

‘He struck the shield-edge, and the sword glanced off, slit Bersi’sbuttock, sliced his thigh down to the knee-joint, and stuck in thebone.AndsoBersifell’

VI

‘TheVikingdashedforward,reachedOnundandhewedathimwithhissword,whichcutrightthroughhisshieldandintothelogbeneathhisleg,whereitremainedfixed’

VI

‘ThenheturneduponGunnarhimselfandstruckablowthatseveredhisshieldrightacrossbelowthehandle,andtheswordstruckhislegbelowtheknee.Thenwithanotherrapidblowhekilledhim’

VII

‘ButwhenHelgiheardthat,hecastawaythecloak.Hehadgothisswordunderhisarmandhewedataman,andtheblowfellonhisshieldandcutoffthepointofit,andtheman’slegaswell.’[Again,thisappearstobeakite-shapedshieldof lateroriginthanthesagaera]

Version1:SeveringtheArms.Theswordsmanuseshisshieldtodefendhisownarmandattackstheoutstretchedforearmoftheopponent.

Version2:Therearemanyvariationsonthiscut,it isalsopossibletoperformanupwardstrikewiththebackofthesword.

SEVERINGTHEARMS

This is a fundamental technique used in otherMedieval European andalsoJapaneseswordsmanshipandappearstobeastaple intheVikingfighting arts. Most modern swordsmen undervalue the effectiveness ofattacking the extended forearms for the subconscious reason that akilling stroke is thought only to be delivered to the torso or head. The

severingofanarmwillundoubtedlyhalt the fightorbring it toabloodyend. The swordsman will still need to stay well guarded until theopponentfallsthroughlossofbloodorcannotreacthavingsuccumbedtothepainorshock.Anopponentcannormallystilldeliverastrikethathasstarted,even ifhehas receivedadeathblowhimself.Talhoffer,oneofthe most well-known swordsmen of the Medieval European tradition,illustrates thismove inoneofhisFechbüch or fight-books,asdoothermasters. The basic principle is towait for an opponent’s strike and foryoutocounterstrikebyaimingforhisextendedarm.

SagaReferencesThe main issue with a cut to the arms is armour. In Japaneseswordsmanshipthiscutcanbeexecutedintwoways.Withoutarmourtheswordisswunginanarctocutoffthehands,whereaswhenarmoured,theswordisplacedonthewristanddrawnacrossthetargettolaceratetheexposedarea.WhetherthisdistinctionwasmadeinVikingcombatisonlyspeculationandwouldbedependentonthetypeofarmprotection,ifany,thataVikingmayhavebeenwearing.(Thelastquotationdoesnotinvolveswordplay,butitisirresistible.)

VI

‘Grettiraimedablowathimwithhisswordandcutoffhispawjustabovetheclaws’

‘ThenGrettirsprangontothecrossbenchesnearthedoor.Gunnar’shands and the shield were still inside the door, and Grettir struckdownbetweenhimandtheshield,cuttingoffbothhishandsat thewrist. He fell backwards out of the door, andGrettir gave him hisdeathblow’

VII

‘GunnarcutatHallgrim’sarmhard,and lamedtheforearm,but theswordwouldnotbite’

‘ThenSkiolldcutoffhishand,andhestillkeptthemoffwithhisother

handforsometime’

‘…buthebrandishedhisswordsoquicklythatnoeyecouldfollowit,and hemade a blowwith the sword, and it fell onHallbjorn’s armabovethewrist,sothatitcutitoff’

‘GunnarsmitesoffOtter’shandattheelbow-joint’

XIII

‘Theresatalsoaveryhandsomemanwithlonghair,whotwistedhishairoverhishead,putouthisneck,andsaid, ‘Don’tmakemyhairbloody.’Aman took thehair in his handsandheld it fast. Thorkelhewedwithhisaxe;buttheVikingtwitchedhisheadsostronglythathewhowasholdinghishairfellforwards,andtheaxecutoffbothhishands’

THEHORIZONTALCUT

This isnotastaticand formulaiccut, it canbedoneatanyheightandfrom any position, be it two-handed or single-handed, with the bladehorizontal,or tilteduporevendown.Thecriteria is that thebladegoesfrom left to right or right to left in some form of stroke that runshorizontally.

SagaReferencesItisacommonbeliefthatonlyaJapaneseswordcouldcutabodyintwo,as it is often recorded. This commonmisconception that theKatana ismoreeffectiveatcuttingisaresultofnotunderstandingtheoriginsoftheKatana’s fame.Thequalities thataKatanaholdsoveranyotherswordareitsabilitytoretainacuttingedgeanditsflexibility;thesharpnessisofno consequence. If any sword is sharp enough and canwithstand theimpact of the cut, then it will succeed in the same cut (assuming ofcourse that the swordsman has the necessary technique and power).Documented sword tests show the ability of western swords to cut a

humanintwo.Whatpreventscompletedivisionisthemailshirt.Weknowthatabodycanbecutintwo,butasseeninthesagaquotes,theswordoftendoesnotbitebutresultsincrushedribs,whichisthelikelyoutcomeofanenemywearingchainmail.ThereissparsearchaeologicalevidenceforchainmailbeingwornbytheVikings,anexpensiveaccoutrement;asinglemailshirtwasexcavatedinScandinaviaatHaugsbygdinNorway.SomehavearguedthattheVikingsmayhavewornleatherarmour,beingmoreflexibleandlighter,butthereisnophysicalevidenceforthis.

I‘TheVikinglaidbarehisside,buttheswordwouldnotbiteuponit’

‘AtlastCormacsmoteuponThorvard’ssidesogreatablowthathisribsgavewayandwerebroken;hecouldfightnomore’

II

‘Bardislashedintothesideofhim,andKetilfell’

IV‘Hewasnotwounded,becausenoweaponmightbiteonhiskirtle’[thiscouldrepresentanyofthebodystrikes,howeveritiscitedhereasanexampleoftorsostrikes]

‘SteinthorbroughthissworddownonFreysteinabovehiships,andsmotethemanasunderinthemidst’

VI‘…thenhestruckatThorgilsthesonofIngjaldandalmostcuthimintwo’

‘Then thegiant tried to reachupbackwards toaswordwhichwashanginginthecave,andatthatmomentGrettirstruckathimandcutopenhislowerbreastandstomachsothatallhisentrailsfelloutintotheriverandfloateddownthestream’

Version1:Thearchetypal ‘HorizontalCut’ is from the rightsideof thebody to the leftatwaistheightwiththeintentionofopeningthegutortocuttheopponentinhalf.

Version2:Thecutcanalsobeaimedhigherandatnecklevelandthuscreatesatrue‘CuttotheNeck’whichwillgiveacleandecapitationor itcanbedeliveredto thenosebridgeofahelmet,

whicheffectivelyblindstheopponent;orthesamecutisaimedattheshouldersandbreast.

‘Itpassedacrosshisshoulder,outunderhisrightarm,andcuthimrightintwo.HisbodyfellintwopartsontopofGrettirandpreventedhimfromrecoveringhisswordasquicklyashewished’[Thiscutfitsbestwithinthischapterastheopponentistwistedinmid-air.]

VII‘GunnarseesthisandwasswifttosmiteattheEasterling,andcutshimasunderatthewaist’

‘Then Kari rushes at him, and hews at him on the breast with hissword,and theblowpassedatonce intohischest,andhegothisdeaththereandthen’

‘Karimadeasweepat thatsamemanwithhissword,andcuthimasunderatthewaist’

‘ThenThorsteinGeirleif’ssonrushedatKari,andthoughttotakehiminflank,butKaricaughtsightofhim,andsweptathimwithhisswordacrosstheshoulders’

XIII

‘There Thorstein Midlang cut at Bue across his nose, so that thenosepieceofhishelmetwascutintwo,andhegotagreatwound’

XIV

‘He struck the lenderman beforementioned [Thorgeir of Kviststad]across the face, cut off thenosepieceof hishelmet, andclovehisheaddownbelowtheeyessothattheyalmostfellout’

‘King Olaf hewed at Thorer Hund, and struck him across theshoulders; but the swordwould not cut, and it was as if dust flewfromhisreindeer-skincoat’

THEMID-LEVELSTRIKETOTHELEG

Thisisacutthatreplicatesthe‘DownwardStriketotheShoulder’butisexecutedatamuchlowerlevelandisaimedbetweenthethighandthe

knee joint. The purpose is to dismember at this point forcing theopponenttoyieldordie.Aswithallthecutsthatreplicatethe‘DownwardStriketotheShoulder’itispossibletoexecuteitonboththeleftandrightsidesofthebody.Thiscutcanalsobedonebytheswordsmaninalowcrouch.

SagaReferencesWhenalegisseveredinthesagas,oneoftwothingsnormallyhappens.Either the person stops fighting and falls down dead through loss ofblood;or theysurviveand thenbargain for their lives. Insuchacase itappearsfromthesagasthatthreemarksofsilverwillsecurequarterandis a ‘legal’wayout of a duel. It is alsonoteworthy that ‘peg-legs’werecraftedforthosewholostalegincombat.

I

‘Then Ogmund whirled about his sword swiftly and shifted it fromhandtohand,andhewedAsmund’slegfromunderhim’

‘TheMid-levelStriketotheLeg’.Theswordsmancanraisehisswordoneitherhisleftorrightside

andmakethecut fromastandingpositionallowing thehips to ‘fall’during theattackingstep to

insertpowerintothiscut.

V‘Thorleik struck him with his sword, and it caught him on the legabovethekneeandcutoffhisleg,andhefelltoearthdead’

VI‘…andGrettirhewedathisrightthigh,cuttingoutallthemusclessothathecouldfightnomore’

‘Kolskegg turned sharp round, and strode towards him, and smotehimwithhisshortswordonthethigh,andcutoffhisleg’

VII‘ThrainhewsatKol,andthestrokecameonhis legsothat itcut itoff’

‘SkarphedinnsmitesatHallgrim’sthigh,sothathecutthelegcleanoff’

‘Kari came up just then, and cut off Leidolf’s leg atmid-thigh, andthenLeidolffellanddiedatonce’

‘Kari leantononesideandsmoteatGlumwithhissword,and theblowfellonhisthigh,andtookoffthelimbhighupinthethigh,andGlumdiedatonce’

THELOW-LEVELSTRIKETOTHELEG

Thisisacutintendedtoseverthelegatanypointfrombelowthekneedowntotheankle.Thisagainisasub-genreofthe‘DownwardStriketothe Shoulder’, however, this time there is a fundamental difference instanceandpostureandthereforeithasbeendividedintotwoversions.

SagaReferencesThis typeofwoundseemstoappearmuch less in thesagareferences,whichsuggeststhismovewasexecutedmorerarelyor itssuccesswassignificantly less then the ‘Mid-LevelStrike to the Leg’. Itwould take ahighly trained fighter with battle experience to have the subconsciousreactiontimetotakeadvantageofsuchanopening.

IV‘ThorarincutthelegfromThoriratthethickestofthecalf,andslew

bothhisfellows’

VII‘GrimcutoffSkiolld’sfootattheankle-joint’

‘TherewasamanwhoranuptoKari’sside,andmeanttocutoffhisleg,butBjorncutoffthatman’sarm’

Version1:Thecutcanbeachievedbyleaningforwardwiththeshouldersandextendingthearmso that the blade reaches the lower leg. The problemwith this cut is that it opens the fighting

stanceandexposesthearmallowingforaneasycounterstrike.Seethethirdquotation: ‘There

wasamanwhoranup toKari’sside,andmeant tocutoffhis leg,butBjorncutoff thatman’s

arm.’ It isunsurewhichsectionof the leg that theman isaiming for;however,bothupperand

lower leg targets could be applicable here. That being said, the ‘Low-Level Strike to the Leg’

wouldleavetheattackingarmmoreexposed.

Version2:Thesecondversionwouldbefortheswordsmantocrouchorsemicrouchashemadehis strike. This would open up the top of his head for attack but is a possible version of this

technique.

Atcutof thismagnitudewouldbedevastatingandkillanopponent.Swordcutting testsshowa

cleancutthroughbonebutalsothatthecutcanofcoursebestoppedbythesecondleg.

CUTTINGTHROUGHBOTHLEGS

Thisisacutthatseversbothofthelegsfromunderanopponentleavinghimbleedingtodeath.Wecanassumethatthecutwasmorethanlikelyto have been executed at an angle, cutting through the first leg at ahigherpointastheswordanglesdown.

SagaReferencesThere is no reason to doubt the effectiveness of this cut, we can seeevidence of victims at the Battle ofWisby (or Visby) in 1361, where anumberofpeople tookcuts to the lower legs.TheBattleofWisby tookplaceonthe islandofGotlandnot too longafter thesagaswerewrittendown. Many of those killed were buried with their armour, a treasuretrove for archaeologists, possibly because the bodies began todecomposeintheheatbeforetheycouldbestripped.

VII‘ThenGunnarcutbothhislegsfromunderhim’

‘Kolskegg saw that and cut off at once both Augmund’s legs fromunderhim,andhurledhimout intoRangriver,andhewasdrownedthereandthen’

‘…but afterwards he hewed off both of Asbrand’s feet from underhim’

THETHRUSTANDSTAB

Thisisnottobemistakenforalunge.Athrustofthisnatureisadrivenattackwhichwasprobablyexecutedfromamuchcloserdistancethananextended lunge and was most likely aimed around the solar plexus,breast and beneath the ribcage area,with the intent of piercing a vitalorgan.Thisthrustwasprobablydoneinoneoftwoways.

SagaReferencesGenerally, stabbing an opponent is in itself an attempt at a coup degrace,foraswordthrustthroughabodyisadeadswordunlessitcanbetakenoutwithspeed.Arealmartialencounter–especiallywhenit’salifeordeathsituation– isacollectionofsubconsciousreactionstoexternalaggression,andconsciousdecisionsareseldomevermade.Ithastobeconsidered if it is easy towithdrawa sword froma body or not,which

would affect howmuch this strike was practised. The fact that swordsweredouble-edgedsuggeststhatthrustswerenotuncommon,thattheywerealwaysanoption.

III‘GudruntookaswordandthrustitthroughthebreastofKingAtli’

‘Now crept thewormdown to his place ofwatering, and the earthshook all about him, and he snorted forth venom on all the waybeforehimashewent;butSigurdneithertremblednorwasadreadattheroaringofhim.Sowhenasthewormcreptoverthepits,Sigurdthrusthisswordunderhis leftshoulder,so that itsank inup to thehilts; then up leapt Sigurd from the pit and drew the sword backagainuntohim,andtherewithwashisarmallbloody,uptotheveryshoulder’

Version1:The‘One-handedThrust’iswheretheswordsmanisupcloseandpersonalandusesthe sword in one hand to skewer the body of the opponent. This is more than likely a single

attack,whicheitherresultsinthedeathoftheopponentifsuccessfulorresultsintheswordsman

retreatingtoadefensivepositionifunsuccessful.

V‘Thenshedrewaswordand thrust itatThordandgavehimgreatwounds,theswordstrikinghisrightarmandwoundinghimonboth

nipples.Soharddidshefollowupthestrokethattheswordstuckinthebolster’

VI‘Grettirgothissword,ranitintotheheartofthebearandkilledhim’

VII‘ThenThangbrandthrustsaswordintohisbreast,andGudleifsmotehimonthearmandheweditoff’

‘ThenKari thrustatLambiwithhissword justbelow thebreast, sothat the point came out between his shoulders, and that was hisdeathblow’

Version2:‘TheTwo-handedThrust’iswhereaswordsmangripstheswordonthehiltandthentakesagriphalfwaydowntheblade.Thisholdingoftheswordbladeisevidentinlatermedieval

swordsmanshipbutonlyappearstobedonewiththelongerswordsandcouldhavebeendueto

theadvent of better armourand theneed to strengthen thrusts to theweaker sections (and to

directthethrustorthrustsmoreaccurately).Thereasonforitsinclusionhereisthatsomeofthe

sagasstatehowenemieswerethrust‘throughandthrough’implyingmultiplestabwounds.Thus

aquickstabbingmethodwouldhave tobeadoptedand trying tostabametre longsword time

aftertimewithpowermayneedanelementofstability,makingitashortjabbingmotionbestdone

withtwohands.

The swordsman taking two short running steps to pierce the neck, face or upper body of the

opponent.

VIII‘Yngvehadashortsworduponhisknees,and theguestsweresodrunk that they did not observe the king coming in. King Alf wentstraight to the high seat, drew a sword from under his cloak, andpiercedhisbrotherYngvethroughandthrough’

XII‘Now when they came to the house they attacked the king, andHerseKlyp,itissaid,ranhimthroughwithhisswordandkilledhim’

XVIII‘Oneoftheheathensinparticularfoughtsobravely,andventuredsonear,thathecamequiteuptothecastle-gate,andpiercedthemanwhostoodoutsidethegatewithhissword’

THELEAPANDTHRUST

Thisispossiblytheclosestwehavetoaclassiclungebutthistechniquemayhaveactuallynotbeenemployedandmaysimplybeadescriptionofa fast attackwithanaggressive stepbeforeanattack.Oneshouldnotthinkof itasaclassical lungebutasacharging thrustwithoneor twosteps,orasasmall‘leap’forwardtoputweightbehindtheblade.

SagaReferences

V‘…andwhenBollisawthisheleaptforwardatHelgiwithFootbiterinhis hand, and thrust Helgi through with it, and that was hisdeathblow’

VII‘ThenVebrandandAsbrand thesonsofThorbrand ranup toKari,butKariflewatVebrandandthrusthisswordthroughhim’

Asleep in his bed, the opponent does not see the swordsman approach and deliver the fatal

strike.

THEDOWNWARDSTAB

This is itself not a martial move but an assassination strike. Killingsomeoneintheirbeddoesoccurafewtimesinthesagas.Thoughitmaynotrepresentmartialcombat,itdoesremindusoftherealitiesbehindthe‘chivalric’world thatweasamodernaudience tend to see inmedievalcombat.Weeventhinkof theVikingasa ‘noblesavage’whowouldkillhis enemies and duelwith his own kind.However,we do find surpriseassassinationsthroughoutmostofthesagasandtheretributionthattheybring.

SagaReferences

ThistypeofactionleadsusintotheworldoftheVikingageandshowsusaglimpseof the true barbarity sometimes found there. In the Icelandicsagasthereareaccountsofpeoplecreepingintoamainhallatnightandbeingmistakenforoneofthekinsman,whileinreality,theyaretheretoassassinate. If this typeof assassinationdid takeplace, it is difficult tocomprehendtheself-controlitwouldtake,walkingatnightthroughahallofwarriorstokillandthenwalkbackoutandrideacrossmoorsandfenstogetbacktothesafetyofone’sfarm.

III‘But the third time he went in, and there lay Sigurd asleep; then

GuttormdrewhisswordandthrustSigurdthroughinsuchwisethattheswordpointsmoteintothebedbeneathhim;thenSigurdawokewiththatwound’

THETWO-HANDEDCUT

Thisistheactofusingbothhandsontheswordhilttoexecuteacutwithmorepower.TheVikingweapon isnormallyone-handed, sowheredidtheypositiontheirsecondhandforthisstroke?Itwouldbereasonabletoconcludethattheswordsmanputhisthumbandindexfingerbetweenthehiltand the top lipof thepommelwhilewrapping therestof the fingersaroundthepommelitself.Theonlyotheralternativeisthatitwasheldinthelatermedievalstyle,usingtheswordasapole-arm,whichdoesnotfitwellwiththetexts.

SagaReferences

I‘Thatshallnotbe,’criedBersi;andtookuphisothersword,Whitting,two-handed,andsmoteThorkelhisdeathblow

VI‘There was a hard struggle between them; Grettir used his shortswordwithbothhandsandtheyfounditnoteasytogetathim’

THROWINGTHESWORD

This is the act of launching the sword at an assailant with the aim ofeitherhittingtheenemywiththepommelorpiercinghimwiththeblade.Itis unknown if this was an established technique, a one-off, or simplyfantasy.Asmallnumberofswordthrowingexamplesinhistorydoexist.RenownedJapaneseswordsmanMiyamotoMusashi(c.1584–1645)wasreputedlyabletothrowhisshortswordwithahighproficiency.Theonlypractical advice that could be given here is that, to make this work, itwould be better if the sword only rotates through half a circle, so it isthrownblade first,overaveryshortdistance, inwhat isnowcalled ‘nospin’.

Whilebasic innature,the‘Two-handedCut’wouldbeaformidableblowthatcouldbedelivered

withspeedandcouldalsocomefromanydirection.

If thiswasevera techniqueused inmedievalcombat, itwouldbeanemergencymove,ahigh

stakesgamble,asitwouldresultinthelossoftheswordsman’sprimaryweapon.

SagaReferencesWhat isuncertain inthenextquotationis if theswordbladeenteredhisbackor if itwassimplyabludgeoninghammer thatknockedhim to thefloor.Did people possess the ability to throw a sword a short distanceandhaveitsticklikeaspear,ordidtheythrowtheswordwiththeintenttostrikeandholdoutforluck?

Version1:Thisproposedmethodisdonebyholdingtheswordinanormalgripanddeliveringtheblow in a ‘hammer-hand’ style to the opponents face or head – as can be seen in the fourth

picture.

III‘Guttormgathimunto thedoor;but therewithSigurdcaughtup theswordGram,andcastitafterhim,anditsmotehimontheback,andstruckhimasunderinthemidst,sothatthefeetofhimfelloneway,andtheheadandhandsbackintothechamber’

PUMMELLING

Thisistheactofhittingtheopponentwiththepommelofyourswordandis the origin of theword pummelling. There is only one quote and it is

ambiguous.However,itisnotafarstretchoftheimaginationtoconsiderthattheVikingswouldhaveusedtheheavypommeltoinflictdamage.

Version2:Westernmedievalcombathasthetechniquecalledthe‘MurderStroke’andisfoundin

mostversionsofwesternswordsmanshipfromtheMiddleAges.Therefore,itisnotimpossibleto

consider that the Vikings had an antecedent to this move. The ‘Murder Stroke’ is done by

reversingtheswordandgrippingitbythebladewiththeintenttouseitasawar-hammer.

SagaReferencesPeopleoftenquestionversion2, the ‘MurderStroke’andwonderaboutthedamagesuchamovewoulddo toyourownhands.Butablade, tocut,hastomakecontactwithskin,drawtheskintoitsextremeandthensliceinacuttingmotion.Thereforethiscutwouldnotseriouslyinjurethehands. However,most peoplewould surely attempt this with gloves orgauntletson.

VI‘WhenhesawthattheboywaswithinreachheraisedhisswordaloftandstruckArnor’sheadwiththebackofitsuchablowthattheskullbrokeandhedied’

SUNDERINGAWEAPON

Thisistheactofcuttingthewoodenhaftofanymountedbladewiththeintentionofdisarmingtheenemy.Theactofcuttingthehaftofaweaponhascountlessvariationsandassuch, it is impossible to list themhere.Theswordsmanunderattackmustusetheopponent’sdirectionasaleadto make his cut against his opponent’s weapon. There are two basicvariationsofthisaction:

• Steppingontheinsideofhisattacksothatyouarefacingeachotherandthencuttingathisweapon.

•Steppingontheoutsideofhisattacktooutflankhimandthencuttingathisweapon.

SagaReferencesCouldaVikingswordcutthroughawoodenhaft?Thefirstreactionmightbethat,ifaVikingswordcancutthroughabodyandbones,thenwhynota wooden haft? Well, the modern replicas of weapons today are ingeneral,poorimitations.AwoodenhaftoftheVikingagemayhavebeenmade of relatively thick hardwood, possibly leather-bound or evenreinforcedwith iron and – even tougher – seasonedwood. So did thistechniquecutthehaft?

VI‘Grettirstruckbackwithhisswordandcut throughtheshaft [of thespear]’

Inthissequence,theswordsmanisontheinsideoftheopponent’sstrike.

Here,theswordsmanisontheoutsideoftheopponent’sstrike.

VII‘First, Glum Hildir’s son rushed at them, and thrust at Kari with aspear;Kari turned short round on his heel, andGlummissed him,

andtheblowfellagainsttherock.BjornseesthatandhewedatoncetheheadoffGlum’sspear’

‘After thattheyfallonhim,andhebreaksaspearofeachof them,sowelldidheguardhimself’

‘Skarphedinndashesthespearhaftintwo’

‘Hroald had a spear in his hand, andHogni rushes at him;Hroaldthrustsathim,butHognihewedasunderthespear-shaftwithhisbill,anddrivesthebillthroughhim’

THEPARRYANDCUT

Thisismovingtheopponent’sattackoutofthewaywithanattackofyourownagainsthis incomingweaponand then followingupwithacounterstrike. In many sword schools around the world the parry is a basicelementofswordplayandthesecomeinamyriadforms,fromthegraceofthefoiltothemoreweightylongswordparry.Aparrycanbeachievedin a multitude of ways delivered from many angles, especially with aswordonsword.However,itcanbebrokendownintofourmajorareas.Parry the opponent’s sword or spear to the left of the right, openingyourself for a cut on your return stroke or to parry upwards ordownwards, or even to the quarters. Themain point here is to simplyaverttheopponent’sswordwhileretainingbalanceandstabilityoveryourcentreofgravity,whichallowsyoutocounterwithpowerandsteadiness.

SagaReferencesThe word parry suggests a graceful flick of the wrist. In this casehowever,youshouldconsider theparryasasmallbutstrongblow thatknockstheopponent’sswordorweaponoffitstrajectory.

A simple parry and return – the swordsman knocks the opponent’s weapon to his right and

counterswithathrusttotheface;remember,countlessvariationscanbebasedonthistheme.

I‘ThenThorolfofSpakonufellsetuponCormacandstruckathim.Hewardedofftheblow’

IV‘…heranatThrand,andthrustathimwithaspear,butThrandputthe thrust from him, and smote Raven on the arm close by theshoulder,andstruckoffthearm’

VII‘Then down fell the bill, and Gunnar seized the bill, and thrustHallgrimthrough.’[Technically,movementoftheopponent’sweaponoffitslineofattack.]

4

THESPEARThespearisinthebackgroundoftheVikingimage,alwaysthereontheedge of our projection. In fact, the spear, along with all the pole-armswhichareincludedhere,canbeclassifiedasaViking’sprimaryweapon.Thespearattacksclearlyoutnumber theswordattacksandseemtobemore devastating at times.One advantage the sword appears to haveoverthespearisthatastriketotherelativelyunprotectedlowerlegswithaswordwillresultindeathorsurrender,whereasaspearcuttheredoesnot normally end the combat. However, the spear is a very dynamicweapon, to thrust, to throw and cut with, it was an active reachingweapon,notusedsimplytotapandprodasweseeatre-enactmentsandinfilms.Fromcatchingspearsmid-flight,throwingimpaledenemiesfromroofs and swiping at legs, spear combat in the Viking age appears tohavebeenoneofdynamicmovementandflightsofironlightningbolts.

THESPEARTHROW

Thespearwasthrownwiththeintentofdisarmingashieldorimpalinganopponent. The technique of spear throwing is universal and needs nodescriptionhere.

SagaReferencesThethirdsagaquotationhereissimilartoaRomantacticwhereaPilumwaspreparedforflightinasimilarmanner,withtheintentthatitcouldnotbethrownbackatitsowner.Thesheernumberofreferencespointstoitsextensiveuse.

III‘Manyaspearandmanyanarrowmightmenseethereraisedaloft’

V

‘Before they met, Kjartan flung his spear, and it struck throughThorolf’s shieldabove thehandle, so that therewith the shieldwaspressed against him, the spear piercing the shield and the armabove the elbow, where it sundered the main muscle, Thorolfdroppingtheshield,andhisarmbeingofnoavailtohimthroughtheday’

Thelaunchofaspearwoulddependuponthedistanceithadtotravelandthetrajectorywould

have to be changed depending on the situation. The trajectory here implies relatively close

combat.

VI‘Grettirgotoffhishorse.Hehadahelmetonhishead,ashortswordbyhisside,andagreatspear inhishandwithoutbarbsand inlaidwith silver at the socket. He sat down and knocked out the rivetwhichfastenedtheheadinordertopreventThorbjornfromreturningthe spear upon him…Neither of themhad a helmet.Grettirwentalongthemarshandwhenhewaswithinrangelaunchedhisspear

atThorbjorn.Theheadwasnotsofirmashehadintendedittobe,soitgotlooseinitsflightandfelloffontotheground’

VII‘Atli grasped the spear, and hurled it after him. Then Brynjolf casthimselfdownontheground,butthespearflewawayoverhim’

‘AlittlewhileafterGunnarhurlsthebillatBork,andstruckhiminthemiddle,andthebillwentthroughhimandstuckintheground’

‘…andwiththathesnatchedupaspearandhurleditathim,andhithimunderthechin,andAslakgothisdeathwoundthereandthen’

‘ThangbrandshotaspearthroughThorwald’

‘Kari, and Grim, and Helgi, threw out many spears, and woundedmanymen;butFlosiandhismencoulddonothing’

‘Flosisnatchedthespearfromhim,andlauncheditatIngialld,anditfell on his left side, and passed through the shield just below thehandle, and clove it all asunder, but the spear passed on into histhigh justabove theknee-pan,andsoon into thesaddle-tree,andtherestoodfast’

‘Thenhelaunchedthespearbackovertheriver.Flosiseesthatthespeariscomingstraightforhismiddle,andthenhebackshishorseout of the way, but the spear flew in front of Flosi’s horse, andmissedhim,butitstruckThorstein’smiddle,anddownhefellatoncedeadoffhishorse’

‘men thought thatHalldorGudmund thePowerful’s sonhadhurledthespear’

“I see him kinsman,’” said Asgrim, and then he shot a spear at

Skapti,andstruckhimjustbelowwherethecalfwasfattest’

‘Flosi threw a spear at Bruni Haflidi’s son, and caught him at thewaist’

‘…aspearwashurledoutofthebandofGudmundthePowerful,anditstruckLjotinthemiddle,andhefelldowndeadatonce’

‘…andsnatchedaspear fromaman,andhurled itatEyjolf,and itstruck him in thewaist, andwent through him, andEyjolf then felldeadtoearth’

VIII‘A labouring thrall came running to the river-side,and threwahay-fork into their troop. It struck the king on the head, so that he fellinstantlyfromhishorseanddied’

XI‘Othersagainsaythatnobodycouldtellwhoshottheking,whichisindeed themost likely; forspears,arrows,andallkindsofmissilesflewasthickasasnow-drift’

XIII‘Somany spears were thrown against Earl Hakon that his armourwasaltogethersplitasunder,andhethrewitoff’

‘ThekingstoodonthegangwaysoftheLongSerpentandshotthegreaterpartoftheday;sometimeswiththebow,sometimeswiththespear,andalwaysthrowingtwospearsatonce’

XVI‘…but when they had broken their shield-rampart the Englishmenrodeupfromallsides,andthrewarrowsandspearsonthem’

CATCHINGTHESPEARANDTHROWINGITBACK

This is the techniqueof trackingaspearmid-flight,snatching it from itstrajectoryandthenreturningthespeartoitssenderorsimplydiscardingit.Itisprobablethattrainingrepetitionwasrequiredtobecomeanadeptat this skill. Once one has practised first, facing the thrown spear andmoving out of the way, it is best to thenmove to slapping the thrownspearoutof theair andeventually catching the thrownspear.Throughthistrainingyoucometorealisethatthisisbynomeansafantasticalskillandisinfactquitepracticalinexecution.

Aftercatchingaspear, thefightermust thenturn itaroundandpickatarget to launch itat, this

maynotbetheoriginalthrower.

SagaReferencesHistoricallythishasbeenrecordedinothercultures.Itisaskillattributedto Celtic or Iron Age warriors and can be seen in the histories andcontemporary fightingartscalled ‘Lua’, thewarriorwayof theHawaiianpeople.Moderndocumentaryevidencehasshownthesewarriorpeoplecatchingand throwingbacknotonlyasinglespearbutasuccessionofthem.Thereisacustomofthrowingaspearatavisitingtribalchiefwiththepurposeofhimcatchingitandshowinghisprowess.

VII‘Kari ran his ship alongside the other side of Gunnar’s ship, andhurledaspearathwartthedeck,andaimedathimaboutthewaist.Gunnarseesthis,andturnedhimaboutsoquicklythatnoeyecouldfollow him, and caught the spear with his left hand, and hurled itbackatKarli’sship,andthatmangothisdeathwhostoodbeforeit’

‘Audulf the Easterling snatches up a spear and launches it atGunnar.Gunnarcaughtthespearwithhishandintheair,andhurleditbackatonce,anditflewthroughtheshieldandtheEasterlingtoo,andsodownintotheearth’

‘NowKariturnstomeetEarlMelsnati,andMelsnatihurledaspearathim, but Kari caught the spear and threw it back and through theearl’

‘GraniGunnar’ssonsnatchedupaspearandhurled itatKari,butKari thrust downhis shield so hard that the point stood fast in theground, but with his left hand he caught the spear in the air, andhurleditbackatGrani,andcaughtuphisshieldagainatoncewithhislefthand’

THETHRUST

ThisiswithoutdoubttheprimaryattackofthespearintheVikingworld;itconstitutes most of the spear references from the sagas researched.Becauseofthevolumeofmaterialonthethrustthedifferentversionswillbedealtwithundera fewheadings.These include thrusts thatare low-level, high-level, upward, double-and single-handed. This section willdealwithonlythebasic‘Mid-levelThrust’.

Version1:Thedoublehandedmid-levelthrust.

Version2:Thesinglehandedmid-levelthrustwithshield.

SagaReferencesItappearsthatwhenathruststrikestrueandcausesdamageitdoessowithadevastatingeffect.Thesagassometimesclaim thata thrust canpierceshieldandmanandthatmostresult ineitheragreatwoundoradeadopponent.Inthefirstquotation,theattackerstrikeswiththeendofastaff,notaspear.

Version3:Thedoublehandedoverhandthrust.

Version4:Thesinglehandedoverhandthrustwithshield.

IV‘…and sprang up and drove at him with the staff so that he fell

stunned’

‘NowwhenSnorriandhis folkcame to thegarth, it isnot told thatany words befell there, but straightway they set on Arnkel, andchieflywithspear-thrust’

‘Thorleiftookaspearwhichstoodthereinthedoorway,andthrustitatThord’

‘…and the thrust smote his shield and glanced off it unto theshoulder,andthatwasagreatwound’

‘…andwouldthrustatThorleifKimbiwithaspear’

‘Hetookhisweaponsandwentafterthem,andcameupwiththemwestofSvelgrivertwixtitandtheKnolls,butassoonashecameupwiththem,HawkleaptoffhishorseandthrustatArnkelwithaspear,andsmotehisshield,yethegatnowound.ThenArnkelsprangfromhis horse and thrust with a spear at Hawk, and smote him in themidst,andhefellthereontheplacewhichisnowcalledHawks-river’

V‘AtthisbruntHelgi,thesonofHardbein,rushedinwithaspear,theheadofwhichwasanelllong,andtheshaftboundwithiron’

‘Helgi thrust at Bolli with the spear right through the shield andthroughhim’

VI‘At that moment Grettir returned, and taking his halberd in bothhandshethrustitrightthroughThorir’sbodyjustashewasabouttodescendthesteps.Thebladewasverylongandbroad.OgmundtheBadwasjustbehindpushinghimon,sothatthespearpassedrightup to thehook,cameoutathisbackbetween theshoulderblades

andenteredthebreastofOgmund.Theybothfelldead,piercedbythespear’

‘Itwasraininghard,sohedidnotgooutside,butstoodholdingboththe door-posts with his hands and peering round. At that momentThorbjornsidled round to the frontof thedoorand thrusthisspearwithbothhandsintoAtli’smiddle,sothatitpiercedhimthrough.Atlisaid when he received the thrust: ‘They use broad spear-bladesnowadays.’

VII‘Auzurturnstomeethim,andthrustathim,butfelldownfulllengthonhisback,foranothermanthrustathim’

‘Gunnar’s shieldwas just before theboom,andHallgrim thrust hisbillintoit’

‘AfterthatAtlithrustathimwithhisspear,andstruckhimabouthismiddle’

‘Sigmundhadahelmonhishead,andashieldathisside,andwasgirtwitha sword,his spearwas inhishand;nowhe turnsagainstSkarphedinn, and thrusts at once at him with his spear, and thethrustcameonhisshield’

‘…butHelgithrusthimthroughwithhisspear,andhegothisdeaththereandthen’

‘…andashesaidthishethrustatGunnarwithagreatspearwhichheheldinbothhands’

‘With thatherushesatGunnar ingreatwrath,and thrusthisspearthroughhisshield,andsoonthroughhisarm’

‘Thorgrim the Easterling went and began to climb up on the hall;Gunnar sees that a red kirtle passed before the windowslit, andthrustsoutthebill,andsmotehimonthemiddle’

‘Then the Vikings shot at them and the fight began, and thechapmen guard themselves well. Snowcolf sprang aboard and atOlaf, and thrust his spear through his body, but Grim thrust atSnowcolfwithhisspear,andsostoutly,thathefelloverboard’

‘Just then Helgi and Grim came up both to meet Kari, and HelgispringsonGritgardandthrustshisspearthroughhim,andthatwashisdeathblow’

Ascanbeseen,an‘UpwardThrust’couldbeatanyanglethatthefighterrequired.

‘…andsohereanendshallbeputtoit,’saysGrim;andwiththatheranhimthroughwithaspear,andthenHrappfelldowndead’

‘TherehemetGrimtheRed,Flosi’skinsman,andassoonasevertheymet,Thorhallthrustathimwiththespear,andsmotehimontheshieldandcloveit intwain,butthespearpassedrightthroughhim,sothatthepointcameoutbetweenhisshoulders’

XIII

‘ThenThorerHundstruckathimwithhisspear,andthestrokewentinunderhismail-coatandintohisbelly’

THEUPWARDTHRUST

This is a spear thrust that is executed from an angle that aims at theopponent’sheadandthenthroughotheranglesupwardsuntiloneevenreaches a vertical strike. The need for such a wide range of ‘UpwardThrusts’canbeseenfromthesituationswithinthesagas.Again,thiscanbedoneone-ortwo-handed.

SagaReferencesInallof these followingsituations theneed for this technique isderivedfromanopponentbeingonhigherground;wecanconcludethisbecausemostthrustsweretothestomacharea.

Version1:ThesinglehandedLowerThrust.

Version2:ThedoublehandedLowerThrust.

IV‘…andwhentheycametothehomesteadtheyleaptofftheirhorsesandweremindedtoenter,butmightnotbreakopenthedoor.Thentheyleaptupontothehouse,andfelltounroofingit…Arnbiorntookhisweapons,andwardedhimself from the insideof thehouse.Hethrustoutthroughthethatch,andthatbecamewoundsometothem.’

V‘…and forthwithHelgi thrust his spearout through thewindowandthroughHrapp,sothathefelldeadtoearthfromthespear’

‘Hardbein thrustahalberdout throughwhere thedoorwasbroken,andthethruststruckthesteelcapofThorsteintheBlackandstuckinhisforehead,andthatwasaverygreatwound’

VI‘Seeing that theycoulddonothing, theysprangon to the roofandbegantobreak it in.ThenGrettirgotontohis feet,seizedaspear

andthrustitbetweentherafters’

THELOWERTHRUST

This is a thrust that is aimed between the hips and the feet with theintentionofwoundingtheopponent,itisnotlikelythatonewouldsustainadeathwoundfromsuchastrokeandsoisreactiontoanopeningintheopponent’sdefence.Thismovecanbedoneeitherone-ortwo-handed.

SagaReferencesWoundscreatedbythisstrikewould–ifthesufferersurvivedthebattle–cause lasting damage.Awound could either become infected or couldcrippleawarrior.

IV‘ThenSnorrithePriestwentthereto,andfeltalonghisleg,andfoundaspearstuckthroughhislegbetweenthehoughsinewandthelegbone,thathadnailedtogetherthelegandthebreeches’

V

‘SoLambimadeathrustathiminthethigh,andagreatwoundthatwas’

VII‘Kolthrustathimwithhisspear;Kolskegghadjustslainamanandhadhishands full,andsohecouldnot throwhisshieldbefore theblow,andthethrustcameuponhisthigh,ontheoutsideofthelimbandwentthroughit’

XVII‘KingMagnus receivedawound,beingpiercedbyaspear throughboththighsabovetheknees’

THEIMPALEANDLIFT

The opponent is impaled after a ‘Mid-Level Thrust’ and then using hismomentum is lifted into theairand thensmashed into theground.Thetechnique involved in this movement would exploit the energy of theopponent’sattackandthespearwouldbebracedagainst theground.Itwasfinishedwithasinglehugeburstofstrength.

SagaReferencesThis, out of all the techniques investigated here, is probably the mostunbelievable.However, thatbeingsaidandwith theunderstanding thattheaudienceforboththeoralandthewrittenformofthesagaswaswellversed in combat,we can hope to find some truth here. People of themedievalworldwere, if only slightly, smaller then those of today,mostwould have been slim. In addition, we simply cannot comprehend thestrength of someone who has worked all of their lives in a medievalsetting.Take,forexample,thecolossalpowerofthedrawonanEnglishmedieval longbowandtherarityofmentodaywhocanreplicatesuchafeatof strength.Evenata laterdate, consider theunfeasibleweightofHenryVIII’sarmour.ThinkingofaVikingasapersonwho,fromawalkingage,workedafarm,pulledanoar,drewthebow,liftedshipsandsailedthenorth seas,we can start to understand that theact of simply liftinganotherhumanintheairmaynotbesuchanextraordinaryfeatafterall.Forarethesenottheelitewarriorsofthenorth?

VII‘Gunnargivesanotherthrustwithhisbill,andthroughSkamkell,andliftshimupandcastshimdowninthemuddypathonhishead’

Version1:‘TheSlashadCut’couldbemadeoverheadandbedeliveredtotheopponent’shead,faceorshoulders.

Version2: ‘TheSlashandCut’ couldbemade fromasidewaysangleandbedelivered to theopponent’shead,bodyorlegs.

‘ButwhenEgilseesthis,herunsatGunnarandmakesacutathim;Gunnarthrustsathimwiththebillandstruckhiminthemiddle,andGunnarhoistshimuponthebillandhurlshimoutintoRangriver’

‘ThorgeirOtkell’ssonhadcomenearhimwithadrawnsword,andGunnarturnsonhimingreatwrath,anddrivesthebillthroughhim,andliftshimupaloft,andcastshimoutintoRangriver’

‘JustthenThorbrandThorleik’sson,sprangupontheroof,andcutsasunder Gunnar’s bowstring. Gunnar clutches the bill with both

hands,andturnsonhimquicklyanddrivesitthroughhim,andhurlshimdownontheground’

THESLASHANDCUT

Thisisofcoursetheprocessofmakingacutinanarcfromsidetosideorupanddownasopposed toa thrustwith thepoint.Thiswouldhavebeenwith the intentionofdeliveringeitherabludgeoningblowwith theironspearheador tocutor lacerate theopponent if thespearheadwassharpenough.

SagaReferencesWe can speculate by reference to other martial arts that if a spear istouchingtheexposedpartsoftheenemy’sskinthenthespear-mancouldrapidlydrawtheweaponalongtheexposedflesh,usinghisownmotionto cut from a stationary point; thismight have happenedwhen combathad become congested and the spear blade was resting on exposedskin.Itisanopportunisticstrike.

VI‘OnGrettirenteringthegiantsprangup,seizedapikeandstruckathim,forhecouldbothstrikeandthrustwithit’

VII‘There layapole-axe in thecornerof thedais.Asgrimcaught itupwithbothhands,andranuptotherailat theedgeof thedais,andmadeablowatFlosi’shead’[thiscouldbeathrust]

THESTRIKETOTHECENTREOFTHEBACK

This is a cut or thrust that appears quite often in the literature of thesagas. The point of entry is described as being between the shoulderblades and presumably on the spine. It is sometimes executed as athrustandatother times it isunclear if it isacut.Theattack isusuallydonewithaspearorotherpole-arm. It isprobable that thiswouldhaveonlymainly been a forward stepping attack as it would need power towork its way through cloth or armour. The thrust is a more likelycandidatefortheattackingstyle,however,thisdoesnotruleoutthecutversion. This is an attack that also usually ends in the death of theopponentor ifnot itstillcreatesdamage.Thereseemstobenostigmaattachedtostrikingtheenemyinthebackduringa‘fairfight’.

Theunsuspectingopponentreceiveshisdeath-woundintheback.

SagaReferencesThis appears to be a killing stroke and usually ends in the opponent’sdeath; however as we can see in the second quote, even amiss canresultinseriousdamagetoanopponent.

I‘As soon asVali saw themhe turned and hewed atBersi.Halldorcame at his back and fleshed Whitting in his hough-sinews.Thereuponhe turnedsharplyand felluponHalldor.ThenBersi setthehalberd-pointbetwixthisshoulders.Thatwashisdeath-wound’

IV‘…butMarHallwardsoncamenext,andSwartthrustthebillathim,and it smote the shoulder-blade, and glanced off out towards thearmpit,andtherecutitselfthrough’

V‘…and when Hrut saw that, he raised up his halberd and struckEidgrimthroughthebackbetweentheshoulders’

VI‘Thorbjorn Angle was able to wound him severely between theshoulders’

5

THEAXETheaxeisofcoursethemosticonicweaponoftheVikings.Thebeardedimageofawildmanwithanaxealmosttoobigtowield,the‘berserker’,isforeverinourminds.Thisunrealisticimageisslowlybeingreplacedbyamoreaccuratepicture.However,oneelementof theoldfearful imagehastostay,andthatisthesheerpowerofaVikingaxeandthedamageitcaninflictuponthehumanbody,uponarmourandshield.This chapter provesmore complex then the sword or spear sections

beforeit.Withaswordoraspearoneknowswhattypeofweapononeisdealingwith.Theaxeontheotherhandcanbeinvariousforms,fromtheadze working tool to the small wood-chopping version, to a thrownweaponand then to themightywar,orgreat,axe.When the textdoesnot specifywhichaxe is in use the readers finds themselveshaving toworkitoutfromthesituation.Therefore,whilemostimagesinthissectionportrayasingleaxe,thereadermustrememberthevarioustypes.Theaxeisnotaslowweapon,infacttheconceptofaslowweaponis

aridiculousnotionfromthestart–whatwarriorwouldevencontemplateusing something that would only lead to their death? Unless he wasordered to do so by an incompetentmilitary hierarchy – and there areplentyofexamplesof that throughouthistory.TheVikingshadnosuchtop-down organisation, one of the reasons they were such formidablefoes. The Dane axe, or hafted axe, most popular during the transitionfromtheEuropeanVikingAgetotheearlyMiddleAges,weighedonly1or2kgandwasincrediblysharp.Thatbeingsaid,atop-heavyweapon,while fast in the hands of an expert, will not have the same potentialspeedasthesword.

THEOVERHEADCUT

Thisisabasiccuttingactionthatcanbefoundinallmartialartsacrosstheworld.Ithastheprimarytargetoftheheadwiththeintentofsplitting

theopponent’sskulland is tobeconsidered tobea lethalcut inall itsapplications.With the axe, several variationswere available, a double-handedaxe,forexample,willhavedifferingdynamicstoasingle-handedaxe. As with the sword, the use of a double-handed axe would havemeantthatafighterwouldhavetoattackfromaslightly longerdistanceandthereforeastraightforwardstepandcutwouldhavetakenplace.Ontheotherhand, thesingle-handedaxewouldhavebeenusedmore ‘upclose and personal’ and the cutmay have been produced by droppingthehipsmorethanactuallyafullstepandcut.

Thebasic‘OverheadCut’withalargeraxe.

SagaReferencesThearchaeologicalfindsconcernedwithanyperiodofmedievalcombatshow a variety of angles of cut into the skull and this should beremembered here more than anywhere else. You might consider the‘OverheadCut’tobewithintherangeofperhaps40degreeseithersideofthecrown,downtothesideofthejawandonbothsides.

IV‘NowArnkelfelltoboringholesinthedoor-ledge,andlaidhisadzedownthewhile.Thorleiftookitup,andheaveditupswiftlyoverhisheadwiththemindtobringitdownonArnkel’sskull’

Adouble-handedaxewouldneedasteptoreallygeneratepowerbehindthecut.Remembering

thatdynamicmotionisthree-dimensionalandthatatransferofmovementfromthehipstoaxeis

whatdeliverstruepower.

‘…andtheadzeflewoutofhishand,andArnkelgotholdthereofandsmoteitintoThorleif’shead,andgavehimhisdeath-wound’

VI‘OnedayGrettirandArnbjornwerewalkingalongtheroadfor theirdiversion when they passed a gate, whence a man rushed outholdinganaxealoftwithbothhandsandstruckatGrettir’

VII‘AunundofWitchwoodsmotethehoundontheheadwithhisaxe,sothatthebladesunkintothebrain.Thehoundgavesuchagreathowlthattheythoughtitpassingstrange,andhefelldowndead’

‘Thrain was just about to put his helm on his head; and nowSkarphedinnboredownon them,andhewsatThrainwithhisaxe,‘theogressofwar,’andsmotehimonthehead,andclovehimdown

totheteeth,sothathisjaw-teethfelloutontheice’

‘WiththatheranstraightintotheboothuntilhecomesbeforeLyting,andsmiteshimwithanaxeonthehead,sothatitsunkinuptothehammer,andgivestheaxeapulltowardshim’

‘Thorgeir lifted the axe, ‘the ogress of war,’ with both hands, anddashedthehammeroftheaxewithaback-blowintotheheadofhimthatstoodbehindhim,sothathisskullwasshatteredtosmallbits’

XIV‘ThordtheLowseizedthestick-axe,whichlayinthefieldathisside,andstrucktheaxe-bladerightintoKarl’sskull’

XV‘AsmundstruckHarekonthehead,sothattheaxepenetratedtothebrains;andthatwasHarek’sdeath-wound’

XVIII‘Thenheheavedhisaxe forwards,andstruck thenextman in thehead,andclovehimdowntotheshoulders’

THESTRIKETOTHENECK

Thisisacutwithanaxewiththeaimofeithercleavingthroughthejaw,neckandcollarboneorwiththeintentionofdecapitation.Likethesimilarcutwiththesword,thisiscloselylinkedwitha‘High-levelHorizontalCut’to the neck. For categorisation purposes here we will class this as adownward stroke at any of the varying angles between vertical andhorizontal.Again,aswiththesword,thiscouldbedoneoneithertheleftortherightsideoftheopponent.

SagaReferencesThe fact that not all human targets are standing in an upright positionwhen the cuts aremade is often overlooked and herewe see a primeexample.Thethirdquotationheredisplayswhat is in factan ‘OverheadCut’astheberserkerisactuallyfallingfromhishorse.

V‘ThenSteinthorOlafsonleaptatBolli,andhewedathisneckwithalargeaxejustabovehisshoulders,andforthwithhisheadflewoff’

VI‘“Here I bring you your axe,” said Thorgeir. Then he struck atThorfinn’sneckandcutoffhishead’

This time, the stroke is illustrated by using a small axe and shield – note the different area of

attackanddamage.

‘WiththesamemovementheseizedtheViking’shelmetwithhislefthandanddraggedhim fromhishorse,whilewithhis righthandheraisedhisaxeandcutofftheberserker’shead’

XVII‘A littleafterKingMagnuswasstruck in theneckwithanIrishaxe,andthiswashisdeath-wound’

XVIII‘Olverliftedhisaxe,andstruckbehindhimwiththeextremepointofit, hitting the neck of themanwhowas coming up behind him, sothat his throat and jawbone were cut through, and he fell deadbackwards’

STRIKINGTHESHOULDER

Hittingdownwardsinanangledarcwiththeintentionoftakingoffthearmoftheopponentorshatteringtheshoulderjointandarea.Thisstrikecanbedoneoneithertheleftoftherightsidewiththeintentionofhittingtheopponentoneithershoulder.

SagaReferencesThere are references to a tug after an axe has embedded in theopponentwith the intentionofbringing themdown.Lookinghereat thesecond quotation one can see the axe-man pulling the foe off balanceoncetheaxehasbeendrivenin.Hewouldhaveusedthepowerfromthehips for thepull,not thestrengthofhisarm.Theshapeof thebeardedaxe,withitspronouncedhook,or‘beard’,meantthatitcouldhavebeenusedtopullshieldsorweaponsoutofthehandsofanopponentwithoutanactualstrike.

VII‘Thiostolf cut at him at once with his axe, and smote him on theshoulder, and the stroke hewed asunder the shoulder-bone and

collarbone,andthewoundbledinwards’

‘Then Skarphedinn hews at Sigmund with his axe; the “Ogress ofwar”. Sigmund had on a corselet, the axe came on his shoulder.Skarphedinnclefttheshoulder-bladerightthrough,andatthesametimepulledtheaxetowardshim.Sigmundfelldownonbothknees,butsprangupagainatonce’

‘But when he dashed the axe forward, he smote Thorkell on theshoulder,andheweditoff,armandall’

Thesamestrikebutthistimeillustratedfromtherear–however,thistimethewoundedmanhas

damagetotheothershoulder,toshowthatattackscancomeonbothsides.

XIV‘Thorerstruckablowwiththehammerofitontheshouldersohard

thathetottered’

THESHIELDCLEAVE

Strangely,theredoesnotseemtobeanyreferencestoa‘LowerShieldCleave’unlikethesword.Theshieldcleaveisanattacktotheshoulderbutaimedattheshielditself.

SagaReferences

VII‘[He] lifts uphisaxeandhewsatSigmund,andcleaveshis shielddowntobelowthehandle’

‘Thorgeir had hewn with the “Ogress of war”, holding it with bothhands,andthelowerhornfellontheshieldandcloveitintwain,buttheuppercaught thecollarboneandcut it in twoandtoreondownintothebreastandtrunk’

THEHORIZONTALCUT

This,likeitsswordcounterpart,isahorizontalstriketoeithersideofthebodywiththeintentionofcuttingopentheopponentortostunhimifthebackoftheaxeisused.

‘TheShieldCleave’.Inthisversion,theaxe-manpullstheaxebackusinghisnaturalbodyweight

aftertheaxehastakenaholdoftheshield,bringinghisopponentoffbalance.

Version1:‘TheHorizontalCut’.Thisdouble-handedstrikeisexecutedwithasteppingmotiontoanyareaofthebodyononeside.Itismostunlikelythatanyonewoulduseashieldwhilstusinga

largeraxe.

Version2:The‘HorizontalCut’withthesingle-handedaxewouldbeamuchmore‘snappy’effort,wheretheaimwouldbetostrikeoutquicklyandthentoreturntotheshelteroftheshield.

SagaReferencesOnemustrememberthatwhilechainmaildoesoffersomeprotectionitisalmost redundant against an axe, as an axe relies on its weight andbludgeoningpowerasmuchasitscuttingpower.

IV‘Uspak turned tomeethimand fetchedablowathimwithhisaxe-hammer,andsmotehimontheearsothathefellswooning’

‘TheMid-levelStriketotheLegs’withasteptosupplypowertotheblow.

V‘HunbogitheStrongwenttomeetThorgils,anddealtablowathimwithanaxe,anditstruckthebackofhim,andcuthimasunderinthemiddle’

VII‘Skarphedinnmadeasideblowathimwithhisaxe, the“Ogressofwar”,andhewsasunderhisbackbone’

THEMID-LEVELSTRIKETOTHELEGS

Thisisaswingingarcattacktothebody,deliveredbetweenthehipsandthekneejointwiththeintentiontoseverorbreakthelegs.Axesizeandweightisimportanthere,itseemsunlikelythatasmallaxewouldcausemorethensuperficialdamageincomparisonwiththewaraxe,dependingon thearmour.Thoughanunprotected legwould still receivea terribleblow.Therefore,hereweassumethelargeroftheaxefamilyisemployedandconcentrateontwoelements:thestrikeitselfandreturnoftheaxe.

SagaReferenceXIV‘ThorsteinKnarrarsmidstruckatKingOlafwithhisaxe,andtheblowhithisleftlegabovetheknee’

The return of the axe to its starting position from amissed strike to the legs – to do this, the

attackermustallow theaxe tocontinueon itspathand letgowithhis righthand.Theaxewill

continuetoswinginhisleft,andhecanpermitittogoupwardsandreturntothestartingposition.

ATTACKINGTHEFEETWITHATHROWNAXE

Theaxe(oranyotherprojectile)isthrowndownwardwiththeintentionofwounding or penetrating the opponent’s foot to cripple them and takethemoutofthefight.Deliveringthisblowaccuratelyisnotimpossiblebutit is difficult, so itwould appear logical that this strikewas an effective

distractiontogainadvantage.Ifthestrikedidhitthetargetallthebetter,ifnot the fighter could still be upon his opponentwith his otherweapon.Oncetheweaponhasleftthehanditisforgottenabout.

SagaReferenceInterestingly, we tend to see the small axe as a primarily a throwingweapon. Perhaps this is because of our seeing the Native Americantomahawk thrown in films and fictional Vikings following suit. However,there is little evidence from these sagas to show that theVikingswerethrowingtheseaxesapartfromthefollowing.

V‘…andtherewithheflungtheaxeatThorgils,andtheaxestruckhisfoot,andagreatwoundthatwas’

ATTACKINGTHEARMS

Again,thismovewoulddependuponasetofvariablessuchaspositionofattack,typeofaxeusedandwhetheronedefendedfromtheinsideoroutside. The images here are of a basic attack that represents amultitudeofpossibilities.

SagaReferencesAstheswordblowcouldcutthearmcleanofforresultindeeplacerationwounds,theaxecoulddeliveracrushingblowthatwouldbreakthearmor joints.Note that in the secondquotation thevictim isarmedwithanaxe,sotheattackcouldbelaunchedagainstanytypeofweapon.

VII‘Then Thorwald snatched up a fishing-knife that lay by him, andmadeastabatThiostolf; hehad liftedhisaxe tohis shoulderanddashed it down. It cameonThorwald’sarmandcrushed thewrist,butdownfelltheknife.ThenThiostolflifteduphisaxeasecondtimeandgaveThorwaldablowonthehead,andhefelldeadonthespot’

‘HelgiseesthisandcutsatHrapp’sarm,andcutitoff,anddownfelltheaxe’

Havingtheaxeinhand,hestepsforwardandthrowstheaxewithaflick,theninstantlyfollowsup

withasecondattack.Thiscouldbedonebyhavingasword in the lefthandwhile throwing the

axewiththeright,whichwouldthenrequirethefightertomovetheswordovertotherighthandor

strikeleft-handed,ortohavetheabilitytothrowwiththelefthand.Thisstrikeistoopenawindow

ofopportunityandforcetheopponenttomakeamove.Eveniftheyonlyhavetomoveoutofthe

wayofthethrownaxe,thatstillproducesopenings,meaningthatthethrownaxeitselfdoesnot

havetohit,thegoalistocreatemovementintheopponent.

Similartothedismemberingofthehandwithasword,this isthesameconceptwiththeaxe.In

thesecondimage,themanonthelefthasaimedfortheforearmoftheopponent’sattackinglimb

andseveredthehandfromthearm,whichallowshimto followupwithasmashingblowto the

face, which in turn will open up a window of opportunity for a killing blow. Complete

dismembermentwithanaxemightseem less likely thanwithasword,butonemust remember

thattheaxebladewashonedtoanextremesharpness.

Inthisscenario,thefighterhashittheopponent’saxehaftwithhisownhaft,causingtheattacking

weapontobouncebackwards,whichwillallowhimtofollowupwithanattack.

SUNDERINGAWEAPON

Sunderingaweaponwithanaxeistheprocessofmakingastrikeatthesame time as your opponent with the intent of hitting his weapon oraround the area of his hands or the haft, to dislodgehisweaponor tobreakit.

SagaReferenceIntheJapaneseswordartsthereisaconceptofstrikingatthesametimeanditisthenerveoftheswordsmanthatgainshimvictory.Weseeherethatasimilarunderstandingmusthavebeenhad,foriftheVikingmissed

hisstriketothehaftoftheopponents’weaponthenhewouldbeleftopenandinthepathofapossiblymortalblow.

VII‘BrynjolfrodeatThord,andsmoteathimwithhisaxe.Hesmoteathimatthesametimewithhisaxe,andhewedinsunderthehaftjustabove Brynjolf’s hands, and then hewed at him at once a secondtime,andstruckhimon thecollarbone,and theblowwent straightinto his trunk. Then he fell from horseback, and was dead on thespot’

THEPARRYANDCUT

Thisisstrikingthebladeoftheopponent’sweapontodeflecttheirattacktoonesideandthusopeningawindowforyoutoattack.Liketheswordparryinthelastchapter,youshouldnotviewthisasthe‘graceful’flickofmodern fencing but as a strike in itself, a blow aginst the opponents’blade.Thisisthenfollowedupbyanyattackthatisopenaftertheparryhasbeencompleted.

Thisparrycanbeinmultipledirections,beitfromtheoutsideortheinsideandwouldbefollowed

upbyanattack toanyopening.Note that this situation is the reverseof thesagaquotation to

showthatitcanworkbothways,heretheswordsmanisparryingtheaxestrike.

SagaReferenceThe reference states the size of his axe and that the axe-man is upagainstasword.Foramodernreinterpreterofhistoricalmartialartsit isof great interest to find confirmation that a large axe could be handledwithspeedandaccuracy.Historicalmartialreconstructorsknowthatthe

swords and the large axes of western traditions were not slow andunwieldy.Thelargerweaponsmusthavebeenslower,butthedifferencewould have been fractions of a second as opposed to the lumberingdepictionsofHollywood.Itissatisfyingtofindareferencetoalargeaxeusedinafluidandspeedywayagainstthesword.

XIII‘Hehadalargeaxe;andwhenAlfvinewasgoingtocutathimwithhissword,hehewedaway theswordoutofhishand,andwith thenextblowstruckdownAlfvinehimself’

AMBIDEXTERITY

Inthiscasebeingambidextrousdoesnotactuallymean,say,beingabletoswitchaswordfromonehandtotheotherwithequalfacility,itmeanshaving a weapon in each hand and being able to use them in such amannerthatoneiscompetentenoughtotrustone’slifetotheskill.Thetwomainquestionswhichariseare ‘whichhandholdswhichweapon?’and‘didtheVikingsuseashieldwiththisformoffighting?’Acombinationof fightingwith thespearandsword is recorded.Here

weseethat thesword is in the lefthand: ‘Hehadaspear inonehand,and a sword in the other…Thrustwith the right hand…With his lefthandhemadeacutatMord,andsmotehimonthehip.’Theanswertothefirst,maybebothquestionsseemsgiven;however,

thereareotherfactors.Isthisexamplethenorm,doesthischangefromcasetocaseanddoesthemanmentionedhaveadominantrightorlefthand?Wecanonlyguessbutwecansaywithadegreeofcertaintythatthemanintheexamplehasamuchhigherchanceofbeingright-handedthen left. Therefore, wewill take the following on trust.When a Vikingwieldedasetofweaponshedidsowith thesword inhis lefthandandthespearinhisrightandthatitwasprobablyreversedforaleft-handedperson.Thisisspeculative.[Asaleft-handerandimaginingthethreatofdeath, I’m not entirely convinced! Though closing distance and speedwouldnodoubtbeacrucialfactor.Ed.]Themainpointhereistheabilitytoswitcheffectivelybetweenweapons.The second question, did a Viking use a shield when he had two

weapons, is also tricky. Logically one would say, no, as it would becumbersome.However,thereisaquotationthatopensupthequestion:‘Hehadaspear inonehand,andasword in theother,butnoshield.’Why tell us if it was the norm? It is almost impossible to use a swordeffectively with a shield in the same hand. However, it is possible tothrustwithaspearwhilstyourforearmsupportstheshield.Wetentativelyconclude:

•TheVikingscouldwieldtwoweaponsatonce•Theywerepredominantlythespearandthesword•Itispossiblethatashieldwasusedatthesametime;however,itwouldhavehad tohavebeenwith thespearhandso thatonecould thrustandshield.

Version1:ThesetwoimagesshowtheVikingholdingtheweaponsinthemannerdescribed.

Version2:Thefirstsagaquotationdescribesmovingtheswordfromhandtohand.Ifeverdoneinreality,itwasmostlikelytotrytomakeanopeningintheopponent,partlythroughdistraction.

SagaReferencesThe first quotation below is intriguing; one can see the advantages ofchanging sword hands during a fight, but to do it before the combatbegins must be a distraction, an attempt to open a gap or simply tointimidate.

I‘Then Ogmund whirled about his sword swiftly and shifted it from

handtohand’

VII‘ThenItookmysword,andIsmotewithitwithonehand,butthrustatthemwithmybillwiththeother’

‘ThenStarkadsaid,“Twillneveranswerourendthatheshouldusehisbow,butletuscomeonwellandstoutly.”Theneachmaneggedontheother,andGunnarguardedhimselfwithhisbowandarrowsas longashe could; after that he throws themdown,and thenhetakeshisbillandswordandfightswithbothhands’

‘Thenahardbattlearose;Gunnarcutwithonehandandthrustwiththeother.Kolskeggslewsomemenandwoundedmany’

‘Hehadaspearinonehand,andaswordintheother,butnoshield.HethrustwiththerighthandatSigmundSigfus’son,andsmotehimonhisbreast,and thespearcameoutbetweenhisshoulders,anddownhefellandwasdeadatonce.Withhislefthandhemadeacutat Mord, and smote him on the hip, and cut it asunder, and hisbackbonetoo;hefellflatonhisface,andwasdeadatonce’

IV‘Steinthorwasoftheeagerest,andsmoteoneitherhand’

6

THESHIELDTheshieldisfarfromastaticpieceofVikingequipment,weseefromthesagas that itwasmanoeuvred in a dynamicwayand inways that onewouldnotexpect.Theproblemwiththeshieldisthefactthatthesagasclearlydescribekiteshields,whichprobablyfirstcameintouseinthelatetenthcenturyandreplacedthecircularshieldasusedbytheVikings.Thetaperedkiteshieldgavesomeprotection to the legswithoutadding toomuchweight.Onemightassumethattheauthorsofthesagassimplygotitwrong,thatthekiteshieldwasanachronistic.However,itisnotsoclearcut, some of the events in the sagas were in the tenth century, thesupposeddateofentryforthekiteshield.WedoknowthatthekiteshieldwasacceptedintheNorselandsinthe12thcentury.TheNormansareofcourse famed for their kite shield through its depiction in the BayeuxTapestryandasNormansareVikingdescendants,thismakesthematteralittlemorecomplex.ConiferwoodsuchasfirwasthemostcommonmaterialfortheViking

shield.Experimentalarchaeologythatuseswhat isbelievedtobeclosereplicashieldshasshownusthat:

•Vikingshieldswereflexible,lightandaffordedrelativelygoodprotection•Awellplacedswordbloworheavyaxecouldindeedcleaveashield.

Itwouldappearthatincombattheshieldwasuseduntilitwasrenderedineffectivebyblowsand that aVikingwouldmore than likely leave thefightneedinganewone.WecanassumethatmostblowsweredeliveredtotheleftsideofaViking’sshield.Ifashieldwasdestroyedbytheendofcombatafewquestionsarise,notnecessarilygermanetoreconstructingtheVikingmartialartsbutofinterestnevertheless:

•Couldmostpeoplemakeashield?•Wasthedecorationsimple,astheshieldwouldsooftenbedestroyed?•DidaVikinghavea‘paradeshield’withahighlevelofdecorationthat

heusedwhenvisitingotherstoshowstatus?• Did a raiding Viking have a more simplistic shield design then ahomeboundfarmingVikingordidaraidingVikingfeeldecorationwasakeyelementofhiswarlikepresentation?

Decorationisdifficulttoidentifyfromanarchaeologicalpointofview.Weknow thatwhites, yellows, redsandblueswerecoloursusedonVikingshields.Alsowe can gather that a spiral or spiral variation designwasprobablymostpopular.Thereisevidenceforredbeingthemostpopularcolour.With a variety of shield bosses, leather rims etc., we can onlyguessatthelookoftheshields.Archaeologycannotrevealmuchduetothe deterioration of the wood, leather and pigment. Some sagaquotationsalludetodecoratedshields:‘Nikolashasaredshieldinwhichwere gilt nails and about it was a border of stars’; ‘Sigurd Swineheadcamefirstandhadaredtarge.’

SagaReferences

I‘Eachman was allowed three shields. Bersi cut up two, and thenCormac took the third. Bersi hacked away, butWhitting his swordstuckfastintheironborderofSteinar’sshield’

‘Whentwoshieldshadbeenhackedtosplinters’

II‘…shieldscleftandbyrniestorn’

VII‘Gunnarthrustathimwithhisbill,andhethrewhisshieldbeforetheblow,butthebillpassedcleanthroughtheshieldandbrokebothhisarms,anddownhefellfromthewall’

‘Karicutatonceathim,andthenamanranforwardandthrewhisshieldbeforeBjarni.Kariclefttheshieldintwain,andthepointofthesword caught his thigh, and ripped up the whole leg down to the

ankle’

THESHIELDWALL

There are not many references in the sagas to the ‘Shield-wall’. Thisdoesnotmeanthatitwasnotcommonplace.Wemustconsiderthatmostof the sagas deal with individuals and their plight, or a series ofindividualslockedintoastory.Therefore,thefocusismoreonindividualcombat.

SagaReferencesThe shield-bearers lining the ship have a spear thrust out below theirshields,as theattackwouldcome frompeople trying toboard theshipfrombelowthegunwale.

II‘Tisthemindofustwaintomakeshieldsmeettogether’ [thiscouldmeanfacetoface]

V‘Olaf bade the crew fetch out their weapons, and range in line ofbattle fromstem tosternon theship;andso thick theystood, thatshieldoverlappedshieldallroundtheship,andaspearpointstoodoutatthelowerendofeveryshield’

Version1:TheShieldWallwithspearsoverhead,tobeperformedonbothlandandsea.

Version2:TheShieldWallwithspearsunderhand, tobeperformedonboth landandseabut

probablymorelikelyatsea.

These threeversionsshow thedynamicwaya shield canbeused.First, theuseof theshield

one-handedtocatchanarrow;second,theuseoftheshieldasafullbodydefence,usedinboth

handsandfinally,theuseoftheshieldslungoverthebacktostoparrowswhenfleeing.

INDIVIDUALPROTECTION

Wecanseefromthesagasthattheshieldwasnotstaticbutwasplacedin front of blows to take theattack. Its flexibility and tendency tobreakmay well have been deliberate, in an attempt to snare the attacker’sweapon.

SagaReferencesItappearsthattheVikingsmayhavehadtheskillofdeliberatelycatchinganarrowontheshield(logicallythiscouldalsobeaspear;howeverthedamagewouldbemuchgreater).Eventhoughinthequotationthemandies from the arrow piercing through the shield, we can see that hetrusted the shield to hold andhad the skill to catchanarrowmid-flightupon it. It brings a new element into the art of the shield. The lastquotation refers toamakeshiftshieldofclothwrappedaround thearm,probablythecloak.

V‘WhenBollisawthathecastawayhissword,andtookhisshieldinbothhands,andwenttowardsthedairydoortomeetHelgi’

VI‘ThenhedrewhisswordandwentvaliantlyforGrettir,whodefendedhimself with his shield but would not use his weapons againstThorodd.Theyfoughtforatimewithouthisbeingwounded’

‘Illugi threwhis shield beforeGrettir anddefendedhimso valiantlythatallmenpraisedhisprowess’

VII‘Gunnar threwhis shieldbefore theblow,butHallbjornpierced theshield through.Gunnar thrust theshielddownsohard that it stoodfastintheearth’

‘SigurdSwineheadcamefirstandhadaredtarget,but inhisotherhandheheldacutlass.Gunnarseeshimandshootsanarrowathimfrom his bow; he held the shield up aloft when he saw the arrowflyinghigh,andtheshaftpassesthroughtheshieldandintohiseye,andsocameoutatthenapeofhisneck,andthatwasthefirstmanslain’

‘LytingthrustatSkarphedinn,butHelgicameupthenandthrewhis

shieldbeforethespear,andcaughttheblowonit’

XIII‘King Olaf threw his shield over his head, and sank beneath thewaters’

XVI‘TheVaringshadnoshields,butwrappedtheircloaksroundtheirleftarms’

HEMMINGIN

Thisisagroupofmenusingtheirshieldsina‘ShieldWall’ formationtorestrain a person for capture. It needs no explanation. However, it isinterestingtoseethattheVikingscouldactundercommandasateam;and thataggressivebehaviourwasnotalways responded towithequalferocity.

SagaReferences

VI‘Angle then ordered them to bear Illugi down with their shields,sayinghehadnevermetwithhis likeamongstoldermen thanhe.They did so, and pressed upon himwith awall of armour againstwhichresistancewasimpossible’

Thiswouldbea twistingactionandnotapullingone, theaim is tohave theopponent’ssword

trappedinone’sshieldandtotwisttheshieldtotheleftortotherightdependingonthepositionof

theattacker.

VII‘ThenSweyn,EarlHacon’s son, fell on them,andmademenhemthem inandbear themdownwithshields,andso theywere takencaptive’

THESWORDDISARM

The‘SwordDisarm’maybethemostinterestingtechniquetocomeoutofthisresearch,asitisacompletelynewelementtowhatwebelievetobewesternmartialarts.WhenaVikinghasreceivedablowtohisshieldandthe opponent’s sword has embedded in it; he would then use naturalleverageandtwisttheshieldawayanddisarmtheopponentorbreakhissword.The direction of twistwould completely dependupon the direction of

attack, the position of the enemy and other such factors. The mostprobablemethodwouldbetotwisttheswordagainstthedirectionofthethumb. Most martial arts that deal with wrist grabs, teach how to usenatural leverageagainst the thumband this isa logicalstep tohowtheVikingsmayhavedoneit.

SagaReferences

VII‘Against Gunnar came Vandil, and smote at once at him with hissword,andtheblowfellonhisshield.Gunnargavetheshieldatwistastheswordpiercedit,andbrokeitshortoffatthehilt’

‘Sigmund drew his sword and cut at Skarphedinn, and the swordcutsintohisshield,sothatitstuckfast.Skarphedinngavetheshieldsuchaquicktwist,thatSigmundletgohissword’

‘Gunnargavetheshieldsuchasharptwistthatthespearheadbrokeshortoffatthesocket’

THESHIELDASAWEAPON

Heretheshieldisusedoffensivelyintwoways.

SagaReferencesIn the first examplewe find a fleeingViking,which runs counter to theusualconceptoftheVikinghappytoreachValhalla.

VII‘He glided away from them at once at full speed. Tjorvi, indeed,threwhisshieldbeforehimontheice,buthe leaptover it,andstillkepthisfeet,andslidquitetotheendofthesheetofice’

XI‘ThoralfthrusthisshieldsohardagainstEyvindthathetotteredwiththeshock’

Version 1: ‘The Shield Throw’. It appears that the Viking did throw his shield at an enemy tohinder him, be he an oncoming attacker or in flight. Presumably, due to the size of theViking

shield,onewouldexpecttheshieldtobethrowninadouble-handed‘Frisbee’way,however,the

onlywrittenaccountisofathrowatthefeetandonice.

Version 2: ‘TheShieldBarge’ – it appears that aViking could use his shield to smash at theopponentwiththeintenttoshock,disorientateandopenagapinhisdefence.Thiswouldbedone

byformingastrongstepwithcontrol.Theimagehasthesecondhandreadytobackupthethrust,

ashowwewouldfollowupwoulddependonwhatthefighterhadasaweaponinhand.Also,the

attackerwouldhavetobecarefulnottoleantoofarforwardlesthisopponentlethimfallthrough

hisownmomentum.

THEREDIRECTION

The ‘Redirection’ is the process of aligning the shield so that the blow

givenby theopponentglancesoff.Thephysicalmethodwoulddependupon the angle of attack, but is always designed to open awindow ofopportunity for a counter strike. The deflection would differ greatlydependingoniftheattackismadebyaspear,swordoraxe.

Theswordsmanonthelefthasusedhisshieldtodeflecttheopponent’sswordblowdownwards

andtowardstheattacker’sleft,leavingtherightsideofthemanexposedforacounterstrike.

SagaReferencesHeretherealityofcombatwithashieldasmoredynamicandfluidthanonemightexpectisclearest.Theshielddoesnotblockablow,itdeflectsitpurposefully.

VII‘KariSolmund’ssoncameupwhereBjarniBroddhelgi’ssonhadthelead.Karicaughtupaspearandthrustathim,andtheblowfellonhisshield.Bjarni slipped theshieldononesideofhim,else it hadgonestraightthroughhim’

‘ThenLambiSigfus’sonrushedatKari,andhewedathimwithhissword.Karicaught theblowsidewaysonhisshield,and theswordwouldnotbite’

KNOCKINGDOWNASPEAR

Thiswasaperhapssurprisinglynecessaryskill–untilyourememberthe‘ShieldWall’.

Itisprobablethataspearinfullflightwouldpierceashield,therefore,ifconfidentofhisskills,a

swordsmancould knock the spearout of theairwith the rim insteadof letting it impact on the

surface.

SagaReferenceWe know catching a spear in flight is not only possible but alsohistorically proven, so to execute thismove is not so remarkable. Thatbeingsaid,whywouldaVikingdothisinsteadofsimplymovingoutoftheway?Orwhynotsimplytakethehitontheshield?Firstly,aVikingmaybe fighting in a shield wall or a troop and cannot simply sidestep.Secondly,weknowthataspearthrowhadgreatpenetrativepowerandthe Viking would not wish to risk impalement. Further, we have toconsiderthemoresofawarriorculturebasedonprestigeandstatusaswonbymartialprowess.Thewarriorwhocandisplayhigh-levelskillsinalife-and-death situation gains a higher status (and strikes fear in theenemy);andthisgiveshimsuchanopportunity.

VII

‘GraniGunnar’ssonsnatchedupaspearandhurled itatKari,butKari thrust downhis shield so hard that the point stood fast in theground’

7

UNARMEDCOMBATUnarmedcombat isby far themostcomplexarea that thisbookhas todealwith.Writinganaccuratedescriptionofunarmedcombat isdifficulteventoday.Itisvirtuallyimpossibletoaccuratelydescribethesubtletiesof the flow of dynamic movements that occur between two or morepeople.Thedescriptionsherearebeingwrittendown200yearslaterandpossibly by a non-combatant. Though they were written in a warriorcultureandforanaudienceofpeoplethatwouldbeusedtocombat.Withweaponry it is easy to describe the movements, such as decapitatingblows, cuts to legs and thrusts through the body, because they aredefined by the weapon.What we can gain from the quotations is thatunarmedcombatwasharsh,fastanddestructive.The words ‘unarmed combat’ refer to fighting without implements

designedforwar.Intheancientworld,trulyunarmedcombatonlyarosewhen it was competitive. In real life situations, during this period,unarmedcombatasweknowitdidnotexist.Mostofthetimeaweaponisathand, ifnot, thenanimprovisedimplement istobehad.Onemustnotconfusesportcombatwithhistoricfighting.Oneispurelyasport,theotherafighttothedeathwithanythingtohand.

Talhoffer’sfifteenth-centuryfightbookshowsthetypesofwrestlingpopularinmedievalEurope.

THEBODYGRAPPLE

Forthe‘BodyGrapple’wecanassumethatthetwocombatantsgrippedeach other upon the shoulders and arms, which we know to be amedievalstyleofwrestling.Fromthisinitialgrabwecanexpectthatthetwocombatantstriedtofindweaknessesintheotherbytheuseofholdsandthrowsinwhatappearstobeastrengthandskillsorientatedmatch.However,itsimplymaybealaterwriter’sinterpretationofwhat‘UnarmedCombat’appearedtobelike.Therearenopunchesthrowninthesagas.

SagaReferencesTables,doorsandfurniturearesmashed.Thesearenotboxingmatches.

IV‘NowArnkelfelltoboringholesinthedoor-ledge,andlaidhisadzedownthewhile.Thorleiftookitup,andheaveditupswiftlyoverhishead with the mind to bring it down on Arnkel’s skull, but Arnkel

heard thewhistleof it and ran inunder thestroke,andheavedupThorleifbythebreast,andsoonwasproventhemeasureofeither’sstrength,forArnkelwaswondrousstrong.SohecastThorleifdownwithsogreatafallthathelaystunned,andtheadzeflewoutofhishand,andArnkelgotholdthereofandsmote it intoThorleif’shead,andgavehimhisdeath-wound’

V‘Grim sprang forthwith upon Thorkell, and they seized each otherwrestling-wise,andspeedily theoddsofstrength told,andThorkellfellandGrimonthetopofhim’

VI‘Grettirtookallthetreasureandwentbacktowardstherope,butonhiswayhefelthimselfseizedbyastronghand.Heleftthetreasureto close with his aggressor and the two engaged in a mercilessstruggle.Everythingaboutthemwassmashed’

‘Soon theycame to theplacewhere thehorse’sboneswere lying,andhere theystruggled for long,each in turnbeingbrought tohisknees’

‘SuddenlyGrettirsprangunderhisarms,seizedhimroundthewaistand squeezed his backwith all hismight, intending in thatway tobring him down, but the thrall wrenched his arms till he staggeredfrom the violence. Then Grettir fell back to another bench. Thebenches flew about and everything was shattered around them.Glamwantedtogetout,butGrettirtriedtopreventhimbystemminghis foot against anything he could find. Nevertheless Glamsucceeded in getting him outside the hall…Then Glam made adesperateeffortandgrippedGrettir tightly towardshim, forcinghimtotheporch.Grettirsawthathecouldnotputupanyresistance,andwith a suddenmovement he dashed into the thrall’s arms and setbothhisfeetagainstastonewhichwasfastenedinthegroundatthedoor.ForthatGlamwasnotprepared,sincehehadbeentuggingtodrag Grettir towards him; he reeled backwards and tumbled hind-

foremostoutofthedoor,tearingawaythelintelwithhisshoulderandshattering the roof, the rafters and the frozen thatch…What withfatigueandallelse thathehadendured,whenhesawthehorriblerollingofGlam’seyes[Grettir’s]heartsanksoutterlythathehadnotstrength to draw his sword, but lay there wellnigh betwixt life anddeath.Glampossessedmoremalignantpowerthanmostfiends’

THEMANIPULATIVEGRAB

Aswiththedescriptionofunarmedcombat,themanipulativegrabisverydifficult to describe.All that can be said is that grabbing the clothes ofanother and then manipulating their movement can result in thecombatantendingupinastrongerposition.ThisisofcourseatechniqueeveryonerecognisesfromJudo.

SagaReference

IV‘SuchhastyredetookBiornthathecaughtuptheknifeandturnedswiftlytomeetthem,andwhenhecameuptoSnorrihecaughtholdof the sleeve of his capewith one hand, and held the knife in theother,insuchwiseasitwashandiesttothrustitintoSnorri’sbreastifneedshouldbe’

THEIMPROVISEDWEAPON

What can be noted from the text is the frequent use of non-weaponobjects toattack.TwoVikingswould literally takeanything tohandandsmash it against the opponent with the aim of bludgeoning them andwinningthefight.Thereissimplynomethodologyinthisandeachcaseisdependentuponwhattheimprovisedweaponofchoicewas.

SagaReferencesOfall thequotesdealingwith improvisedweaponrynone ismoreawe-inspiring than the berserker having his jaw broken with his own shield

andthenbeing takenfromthesaddleanddecapitated. It is images likethisthatshowthatinVikingformsofbattlefieldcombatanywayofkillingwasaccepted.

VI‘The berserker thought they were trying to get off by talking. Hebegantohowlandtobitetherimofhisshield.Heheldtheshielduptohismouthandscowledoveritsupperedgelikeamadman.Grettirsteppedquicklyacross theground,andwhenhegotevenwith theberserker’shorsehekickedtheshieldwithhisfootfrombelowwithsuchforcethat itstruckhismouth,breakingtheupper jaw,andthelower jaw fell down on to his chest.With the samemovement heseized theViking’shelmetwithhis lefthandanddraggedhim fromhishorse,whilewithhisrighthandheraisedhisaxeandcutofftheberserker’shead’

This situation has been adapted here to ground combat. The principle remains the same, to

smashtheopponent’sjawbykickingthelowerrimoftheshield.

‘LeifbeatoneofSteinn’smentodeathwitharibofthewhale’

‘Sixof the ruffians fell,allslainbyGrettir’sownhand; theothersixthen fled towards the landing place and took refuge in the boat-house,wheretheydefendedthemselveswithoars.Grettirreceivedasevereblowfromoneofthemandnarrowlyescapedaserioushurt’

‘Thenalltheothersdasheddownastheyreachedthesteps.Grettirtackledthemeachinturn,nowthrustingwiththespear,nowhewingwith the sword,while they defended themselveswith logs lying onthe ground or with anything else which they could get. It was aterrible trial of aman’sprowess todealwithmenof their strength,evenunarmed’

VII‘ThangbrandsmotethearmoftheBaresarkwithhiscrucifix,andsomightyatokenfollowedthattheswordfellfromtheBaresark’shand’

THETHROW

This is a heavily debated subject in the world of martial arts and thedifferencebetweena‘physicalthrow’suchasinJudoversusadynamicand ‘effortless throw’suchasAkido isapopularsubject.Rememberingall the problematic issues that surround interpreting ‘UnarmedCombat’wewouldsuspect that the throwingstyleof theVikingswould focuson‘physical’ or Judo style throws. There are similarities in Jujutsu/Judothrowstotheircontemporarywesterncounterpartsandmedievalcombathad itsownelaboratesystemof throws.Weonlyknow that theVikingshad an unknown level of expertise in the art of wrestling and of the‘physical’versionofthethrow.

Again, Talhoffer’s fifteenth-century fight book shows the types of throws popular in medieval

Europe.

SagaReferences

VI‘Hecreptstealthilytothebed,reacheduptothesword,tookitdownandraised it tostrike.Justat themomentwhenheraised itGrettirsprang up on to the floor, and, seizing the sword with one hand,Grimwiththeother,hurledhimoversothathefellnearlysenseless’

‘Grettirswambeneath thewater,keepingclose to thebankso thatThorircouldnotseehim,andsoreachedthebaybehindhim,wherehelandedwithoutlettinghimselfbeseen.ThefirstThorirknewofitwaswhenGrettir liftedhimupoverhisheadanddashedhimdownwith such violence that the sword fell out of his hand. Grettir gotpossessionofitandwithoutspeakingawordcutoffhishead.Sohislifeended’

Version 1: From a spear thrust a defender grips the spear to disarm, steps to the side andwrenchestheweaponfromtheenemy;forthistobeplausibleandeffectivetheopponentmustbe

shiftedoffhiscentreofbalance.

Version2:Duringanattackwithanaxe,anunarmedVikingwouldhaveplacedhishandsontheopponent’sgripandonapartof theweapon.Fromherehe thenusesnaturalmomentumand

leveragetoturntheweaponagainsttheopponent.

VII‘…andwith thathecaughtholdofhim,and liftedhimupaloft,andthrusthimheaddownintothebroth-kettle.Solvidiedatonce’

THEDISARM

The ‘Disarm’ is of course an unarmed Viking taking his opponents’weaponandeithersunderingitorturningituponhim.Thesagasshowustwoversionsofthismanoeuvre.

SagaReferencesPeoplemayquestionanunarmedmanplacinghisunprotectedhandsonablade.However,inmostcaseswemustassumethatitistheshaftthatisgrasped.Wecanpointtothearchaeologicalmediaevalfindsofpeoplewho have been executed post-battle with cuts to the hands, as thecondemnedmenappear tohave tried tograb theweapon tosave theirlives.

V‘Olafwent to the fold-doorandstruckathimwithhisspear.Hrapptookthesocketofthespearinbothhandsandwrencheditaside,sothatforthwiththespearshaftbroke’

VII‘GlumHilldir’ssonhappened toseewhathewasabout todo,andsprangupatonce,andgotholdof theaxeaboveAsgrim’shands,andturnedtheedgeatonceonAsgrim;forGlumwasverystrong’

LEAPINGTHESPEAR

Thisisfacingaspearattackandeitherleapingoverthespearorpushingitsbladeintothegroundwithone’sfoot.

SagaReferencesA constant subject that appears in the sagas are games played byVikings, games that involve the pursuit of manly prowess in suchactivities that would include: jumping, swimming, ball games, wrestlingetc. It is easy to seehow thesegames transferred towar, ifweare tobelievethattheydidinfactperformthefeatof‘LeapingtheSpear’.

Version 1: It appears that when a thrown spear wais coming at a height that the Viking iscomfortablejumping,someVikingshadtheskillandaudacitytoleapoveritintheair,allowingit

tohit theground.Oneexample in the text describes thiswith the feetoutstretched– rockstar

fashion. One could see this as flamboyant and over the top, however we must consider the

previouslymentionedneedforvisibleprowessinbattle.Butthisisstilldubiousasaskill.

VII‘GritgardhurledaspearatKari,butKarisawitandsprangupaloft,andthespearmissedhim’

‘Tjorvi turnsagainstKariandhurlsaspearathim.Kari leaptup in

theair,andthespearflewbelowhisfeet’

‘ThelastranbehindKari’sback,andthrustathimwithaspear;Karicaughtsightofhim,andleaptupastheblowfell,andstretchedhislegs farapart,andso theblowspent itselfon theground,butKarijumpeddownonthespear-shaft,andsnappeditinsunder’

‘ThenKettle of theMark rushedatKari, and thrust at himwithhisspear.Karithrewuphisleg,andthespearstuckintheground,andKarileaptonthespear-shaft,andsnappeditinsunder’

Version2:The‘LegCatchandSnap’;this,althoughnotaleap,hasbeenplacedhereasasub-category.Itappearsthatoneskillwasto‘kickdown’alowspearthrustsothatthetipwentintothe

earth–asshow in the fourth image– this isdonewithone legwhich is then followedwith the

otherthatsnapsthespearhaftintwo.

8

HORSECOMBATNot many references feature combatants on horseback. The maindifferencebetweentheVikingsandthepeopleforwhomthesagaswerewrittenwasthegreaterimportanceofhorsecombatinthelaterperiod.

THEPRE-COMBATDISMOUNT

Mostmendismountbeforeacombatbegins.

SagaReferences

V‘ThemenofSalmon-river-Dalenowjumpedofftheirhorses,andgotreadytofight.Hrutbadehismentonottroublethemselvesabouttheodds,andtogoforthematarush’

VII‘So those three rode on past them; but the six others then cameriding right up to them, and they all leapt off their horses straightawayinabody,andturnedonKariandhiscompanion’

THESPURGASH

Whilenotacombatmovepersethe‘SpurGash’doesappearonceintheliterature. Perhaps it was kind of insult. This event is most likelyrepresentativeofa laterperiod thantheVikingEra.ThoughspurshavebeenfoundinmanyVikinggravesites.

SagaReference

VII

‘Now,itmustbetoldhowOtkellridesfasterthanhewould.Hehadspursonhis feet,andsohegallopsdownover theploughed field,and neither of them sees the other; and just as Gunnar standsupright,OtkellridesdownuponhimanddrivesoneofthespursintoGunnar’s ear, and gives him a great gash, and it bleeds at oncemuch’

Hegashestheopponent’sfacewithaspurorbludgeonsthimwiththestirrupwhileonhorseback.

9

COMBINATIONMOVESThe following chapter looksat a seriesof combinationmoves in detail.They are designed to be as realistic and historically representative aspossible.

COMBINATION1

This is an entrapment manoeuvre by two aggressors that leaves theVikingValidead.ValiattacksBersi,whichallowsHalldortoflankhimandstrikeacuttingblow.ThismakesValiturnonhisrearattackerwhereuponBersiusesthetechniqueof‘Strikingthecentreoftheback’andkillsVali.The age of Halldor tells us somuch about Viking culture and society:‘Halldorwastwelvewintersoldwhenthesedoingscametopass.’

HereweseeBersi(B)andHalldor(H)closeinonVali(V), flankandkillhim.Bersi isholdinga

halberdandastaffwhileHalldorhasasword.

SagaReference

I‘But when he was on the way back again, out came Bersi andHalldortomeethim.Bersihadahalberdinonehandandastaff intheother, andHalldor hadWhitting.As soonasVali saw themhe

turned and hewed at Bersi. Halldor came at his back and fleshedWhitting inhishough-sinews.Thereuponhe turnedsharplyand felluponHalldor.ThenBersisetthehalberd-pointbetwixthisshoulders.Thatwashisdeath-wound’

COMBINATION2

This displays a ‘Low-Level Leg Strike’ by an aggressor who is thendisembowelledbyhisenemy,whousesasword thrust tohisstomach.Thiscombination isaperfectexampleofawarriorcontinuinghisattackeventhoughhehasbeenincapacitatedorhasreceivedadeathwound.Themartialartistmustalwaysguardhisorherexitfromanattack–andindeadlycombatbothpeoplecandieandpossiblyoftendid.

Thisencounterholdsagreat lesson formedievalcombat:alwaysguardyourselfwhenyou feel

youhavedeliveredafatalblow,asitwilltakeashortwhilefortheblowtoregisterandtakeeffect,

in which time the opponentmay react and as in this case, ‘win’ the combat. In this case, the

severingofalegwillendthefightbuttheswordsmanontheleftcelebratedthisvictorytooearly,

whichgavethesoontobedyingmanawindowofopportunityintheshorttimehehasbeforehe

succumbstothelossofblood.

SagaReference

II‘ButonestrokeThorodfetchedatThorbiorn,andsmoteoffhis footattheankle-joint;butnonethelesshefoughton,andthrustforthhisswordintoThorod’sbelly,sothathefell,andhisgutburstout’

COMBINATION3

ThisdisplaysathrustbytheaggressorThorirwhooverextendshispole-arm thrust, which is used against him by the defender. Uspak thedefenderusestheparryandcuttoallowtheaggressortooverextendandfalltohiskneesandinapositionwhereheisopentoattack.

SagaReference

IV‘Thorirhadabear-billinhishand,andtherewithheranatUspakandsmoteathim,butUspakputthethrustfromhim,andwhereasThorirhadthrownallhismightintotheblow,andtherewasnoughtbefore

the bill, he fell on his knees and fell forward. Then Uspak smoteThorironthebackwith:hisaxe,andloudrangthestroke’

COMBINATION4

Thisdisplaystwomenattackingadefenderwhoisonhigherground.Theattackers thrustat thedefenderwhohas tobendbackwards toexecutehisparry.Theaggressorsthentakeadvantageofthisanduse‘Low-LevelStriketotheLegs’todisablehim.PerhapstheVikingsfoughtascombat-pairsasamatterofcourse,oneusingtheopeningsthattheothercreatedtokilltheenemy.

Combination4.Ascanbeseen,thewarriorontheleftmakestothrustatthemandefendingon

thewall.Inapre-arrangedattack,themanontherighttakesadvantageofthegaphiscompanion

hascreatedandstrikesatthedefender’slegs.

SagaReference

VI‘Onundwassteppingoutwithonefootontothebulwark,andashewasstrikingtheymadeathrustathimwithaspear;inparryingithebentbackwards,andatthatmomentamanontheforecastleoftheking’sshipstruckhimandtookoffhislegbelowtheknee,disablinghimatablow’

COMBINATION5

Aprojectileresults inthedroppingofaprincipalweapon.TheopponentthentakesupAtli’sownswordandusesa‘Low-LevelStriketotheLegs’todisableandthendeliversadeathblow.

Inthissituation,thedefenderhasthrownastoneattheopponentasanimprovisedweapon,so

thathecantakeadvantageofthegaporwindowitcreates,inthiscasetheuseofafallensword.

SagaReference

VII‘justthenAtligotablowonhishandfromastone,anddownfellhissword.Hrut caughtup thesword,andcuthis foot fromunderhim.Afterthathedealthimhisdeath-blow’

COMBINATION6

Thiostolf attacksHrutwith anaxe.Hrut thenmakesan ‘Evasion’moveandsimultaneouslyusesa‘Disarm’strikewithhislefthandtoThiostolf’saxehand.ThesecondstepHruttakesistoexecutea‘Low-levelStriketotheLegs’tocutoffThiosof’sleganditappearshebargeshimtopushthenowone-leggedmanover.Tofinish,Hrutmakesan‘OverheadCut’andkillshisopponent.Thisisafantasticexampleofthefluidityandspeedofsuchcombat.The‘Disarm’isinterestingasHrutusehisemptyhand.InJapanesemartialarts thisskill isakin toKoppo-jutsu,which isa ‘bone-breaking’skillandconsistsofstrikingjoints,sometimesusedtoopenthehandwhendefendingagainstknifeorweaponattacks.

SagaReference

VII‘Thiostolf cuts at Hrut. Hrut got out of the way of the stroke by aquick turn, and at the same time struck the back of the axe sosmartly with a side-long blow of his left hand, that it flew out ofThiostolf’sgrasp.ThenHrutmadeablowwithhisswordinhisrighthandatThiostolf’sleg,justabovetheknee,andcutitalmostoffsothat it hung by a little piece, and sprang in upon him at the sametime,andthrusthimhardback.Afterthathesmotehimonthehead,anddealthimhisdeath-blow’

A strike to the back of the hand to disarm the opponent. This must not be an exaggerated

movement but an up-close, short, very powerful – andunexpected– strike. If done correctly it

shouldmaketheweapon‘fly’outoftheopponent’shandandleavehimdisarmed.

COMBINATION7

Thisdisplaysanattackerrunningupfrombehindandprobably tryingtouse the ‘Strike to the Centre of the Back’ at which his opponent turnsaround and parries, which he then combineswith a ‘Disarm’ using theprongsofhisownweapon.

Usingprongs,hiltsandanyprotrusionissomethingoftenmissedinourappreciationofmedieval

fighting.Here,thedefendermustparrytheblowandturnthatparryintoafluidhookmotionand

thenusethenaturalweightof thebodytodisarmtheopponentbycatchinghisweapononany

cross-barorhook.

SagaReference

VII‘SkamkellranbehindGunnar’sbackandmakesablowathimwithagreataxe.Gunnarturnedshortrounduponhimandparriestheblowwiththebill,andcaughttheaxeunderoneof itshornswithsuchawrenchthatitflewoutofSkamkell’shandawayintotheriver’

COMBINATION8

Thisdisplaysanaggressorusinga ‘Low-levelStrike to theLegs’wheretheopponentjumpsabovethecutandthenstrikeswithaspear,eitherinmid-flightorjustashelands.Thejumpmusthavebeenonlykneeheightandwouldbeconsideredasmall‘hop’overastriketothelowerleg.

SagaReference

VII

‘Otkell smites at Gunnar with his sword, and aims at his leg justbelowtheknee,butGunnarleaptupintotheair,sohemisseshim.ThenGunnarthrustsathimthebillandtheblowgoesthroughhim’

Combination 8. In this version, the defender has leapt over the sword stroke to his legs and

landed,thenwaitedfortheattackertomovetohisnextstrikeandastheattackerhasmovedto

takehisnextblowthedefenderhasfoundagapandusedhisspeartothrusthimthrough.

COMBINATION9

This displays an aggressor running upon the warrior Skarphedinn andthrusting at him.We then see Skarphedinn ‘sunder’ the spear with anaxe.Hethenmakesapowerfulsecondblowthatiseitheran‘OverheadCut’ or a ‘Shield Cleave’, which forces the shield back and allows

Skarphedinn to kill the aggressor with a blow to the head. Thiscombinationdemonstrateshowthemovementbetweenstrikes,cutsandthrustswouldhavebeenextremelyfluidandfastpaced.

Thespearmanhas thrust forwardbut thedefender on the right hasblocked the spear and cut

throughtheshaft,oratleastrestricteditsmovement,fromhereanddependingonwhichwindows

ofopportunityopenup,theaxe-mancanmakehiscounterstrike.

SagaReference

VII‘ThenHroaldAuzur’sson ranup towhereSkarphedinnstood,and

thrustathim.Skarphedinnhewedthespearheadofftheshaftasheheldit,andmadeanotherstrokeathim,andtheaxefellonthetopoftheshield,anddashedbackthewholeshieldonHroald’sbody,buttheupperhornoftheaxecaughthimonthebrow,andhefellatfulllengthonhisback,andwasdeadatonce’

COMBINATION10

This displays a very rare and interesting insight to ‘Combat Teams’ orVikingtacticsonasmallscale.Ononesidewehaveanarcherprotectedby shield-bearers and the said archer is amagnificent shot. Thus, thedefendersconcoctaplantoshootwithina fractionofasecondofeachother, the first to shift the protecting shield and the second to use theopening created to kill the archer. There can be no doubt about theexistenceofsuchskilfularchers;throughdocumentedexperimentationinrecentyearswehaveseenthelevelsthatsomepeoplecanachievewithareplicabow.It islogicaltohavehad‘sharpshooters’ofthedayinthefieldofarchery.

The‘sharpshooting’archerprotectedbytwoshield-bearers.Theenemyconcoctedaplantohave

arrows shot to the outside of the defenders’ space, making themmove the shields to protect

against thearrowscoming infromtheperiphery, thisopenedupagapforanotherarchertokill

the‘sniper’.

SagaReference

XVIII‘While theVindlanderswere storming the castle, their kingandhischiefswereoutof thebattle.Atoneplacetherewasamanamongthe Vindlanders shooting with a bow, and killing a man for everyarrow; and twomen stood before him, and covered himwith theirshields.ThenSaemundHusfreyjasaidtohissonAsmund,thattheyshouldboth shoot together at this bowman. ‘But Iwill shoot at themanwhoholds the shieldbeforehim.’Hedid so, andhe knockedthe shield down a little before the man; and in the same instant

Asmundshotbetweentheshields,andthearrowhitthebowmanintheforehead,sothatitcameoutathisneck,andhefelldowndead’

10

GROUPCOMBATGroupcombatisanormandgangfights,‘packstylehunting’,areallpartoftheVikingfightingsystem.Realfightingoftenconsistsofbattlingwithmore than one person at a time and it is clear from historical recordsacrossthewarriorculturesoftheworldthatonemancankillmany,withskill,weaponsanddetermination.Butifhemustfacemultipleassailantsthenatsomestagethebattlebecomesunwinnable.

GROUPCOMBAT1

GroupCombat 1 displays a group of assailants thrusting at Arnkel thedefender,againstwhichheuses the techniqueof ‘SunderingWeapons’to smash the spear shafts. Then two of the assailants comeupon himwithswordsdrawn,towhichheagainmakesanunknownstrikeatthem.By this time the defender has reached his weapons and shield anddefendshimself.However, itappears that the troops layabouthimandgivehimwoundsuntilheweakensanddies.

SagaReference

IV‘NowwhenSnorriandhis folkcame to thegarth, it isnot told thatany words befell there, but straightway they set on Arnkel, andchieflywithspear-thrust,whichArnkelputfromhimwiththesledge-runner,andmanyofthespear-shaftswerebrokenthereby,norwasArnkelwounded;butwhentheyhadspenttheirshot-weapons,thenThorleifKimbiranatthegarthandleaptupontoitwithsworddrawn,and Arnkel smote at him with the sledge-runner, and Thorleifdroppeddownawayfromthestrokeoutofthegarth,andtherunnersmoteagainstthegarthwall,anduptherefromflewapieceoffrozenturf; but the sledge-runner was broken, and fell apart part. Arnkelhadlaidhisswordandshieldagainstahayrick,andnowhetookup

hisweaponsanddefendedhimself therewith;butnowhebegan togatherwounds, andwithal they cameup into the garth about him.ThenArnkelleaptupontothehayrick,anddefendedhimselfthenceforaspace,butsuchwastheendofthematterthathefell,andtheycoveredhimover there in thegarthwithhay;and thereafterSnorriandhisfolkreturnedhometoHolyfell’

Thegroupattackthedefender,whousinganimprovisedweaponbreakstheirspears.However,

tonoavail,astheysurroundandwoundhimuntilhecandefendhimself,nomore.

GROUPCOMBAT2

This displays a complex but fast paced fight involving fourmen. Thordusesaspear thrustatThorleif.Thorleifprotectshimselfwithhisshield,which results in the attacker Thord slipping on the rocks and falling.Thorleifseeinghischance,jumpsontopofhisfallenattackerwithwhatisprobably an overhead cut.Whenhemakes this attackwe seeanotherman,Freystein,jumpwithThorleiftoaidhiminthekill.ThefourthmanisSteinthor,andheisonthesideofthefallenThord.SteinthorcomesintoprotectthefallenThordwithhisshield.AtthesametimethathecovershisfriendSteinthorusesa‘Low-levelStriketotheLegs’andcutsthelegoffThorleif, themanattackinghis fallencomrade.Uponseeinghisallyinjured,FreysteinthrustsatSteinthor.However,theskilledSteinthorseestheblowcomingand‘LeapstheSpear’andthencutshisattackerdownwith a ‘Strike to the Neck’. The reference to ‘shoe-spikes’ may beanachronistic. The usual Viking footwearwas littlemore than a leatherankle slipper. See later section on the spiked shoe in chapter 11.(Interestingly,longlacesmayhavebeenasignofstatus.)

GroupCombat3:Thestrikewiththepole-armtotheswordoftheright-handmanmustbestrong

enoughtotemporarilydisarmhim,atwhichpointthedefendertakestheheadofthemanonthe

left.Thedefendermustfollowuphereandfinishorcontendwiththemanontheright.

SagaReference

IV‘Now slowworkwas thewinning of the skerry, butwhen they hadbeen thereat a longwhile, ThordWall-eyemade a dash at it, andwould thrust at Thorleif Kimbi with a spear, for he was ever theforemostofhismen.ThethrustsmotetheshieldofThorleif,butevenasThordWall-eyelabouredovertheblowhisfeetfailedhimontheslipperyfloe,andhefellonhisbackandslippedheadforemostdownfrom the skerry. Thorleif Kimbi leapt after him to smite him deadbeforehecouldgettohisfeetagain,andFreysteinRascalfollowedThorleif, and he had shoe-spikes on his feet. Then Steinthor ranthereto, and cast his shield over Thord even as Thorleif fetched ablowathim,andwiththeotherhandhesmoteatThorleifKimbi,andsmotethelegfromhimbelowtheknee;andwhilethatwasa-doingFreysteinRascalthrustatSteinthor,aimingathismiddle;andwhenSteinthorsawthat,heleaptupaloft,andthethrustwentbetweenhislegs,andthesethreethings,whereofwehavetoldevennow,hedidin one and the same nick of time. Then he ran to Freystein, andsmotehimon theneckwithhis sword,and loudwas theclatterofthatstroke.Sohecriedwithal:‘Artsmitten,Rascal?’

GROUPCOMBAT3

ThisdisplaysaparrythatleadstoaDisarmasGunnardefendshimself.Gunnaruseshissword,whichisinhisotherhand,todecapitateThorkelwithastrike to theneck.Gunnar isusingbothapole-armandaswordand disarms the first attack with a parry and then decapitates anothermanwithhissecondhand.

SagaReference

VII‘BorkmadeablowatGunnar,andGunnar threwhisbillsohard inthe way, that the sword flew out of Bork’s hand; then he seesThorkel standing on his other hand within stroke of sword. ThedefendingGunnarwasstandingwithhisbodyswayedalittleononesideandmakesasweepwithhissword,hecatchesThorkelontheneck,andoffflewhishead’

11

MISCELLANEOUSASPECTSOFCOMBATThis chapter considers the sections of the sagas that could not becategorised above and that stand outside the normal realm of combattechniques.

THEWAYOFDEATH

The ‘Way of Death’ is the concept of the ‘soul’ being tempered by awarriorculture,forgingadisciplinedwarriorwhohasnofearofdeath.Wesee the concept of life without fear of death in most warrior cultures,wherehonourtakesprideofplaceorwheretodieinbattleisthegreatestachievementtherecanbeinlife.InthesagaswehaveseenVikingsturnandflee,wehaveseenthemattackfrombehindandwehaveseenthemattack like a pack of wolves. But once in a while we see the warriorarchetype, the one who is the bravest of men and the most skilledamongsthispeers.Onecouldattributethistopoeticlicenceusedtothrillanaudience,whichmaybetruesomeofthetime.Asasocietyweneedherofigurestoworshipandweneedanidealtopursue.Thatbeingsaid,therealityofbravery isnot lost in themistsof time.Weknowofheroicdeeds in both of the World Wars; we have read historically accuratestories of men giving up their lives, heroes. We also know of thefanaticismoftheJapaneseintheSecondWorldWarwhogavetheirlivesingreatnumbers touphold theirownconceptofhonour. It issurelynothard to conceive that the nearly perfect warrior can exist from time totimewithinwarriorcultures.

SagaReferences

II‘ThorgisltheHewersparednought;hedeemedgreatscathewroughthimbythedeathofhisson.Hewasthemightiestmanofhishands,andbetterwithweaponsthanothermen.Hehewethoneitherhand

anddeemethlifenobetterthandeath’

III‘Nowwas thatbattle fierceand fell,and thoughSigmundwereold,yetmosthardilyhefought,andwasevertheforemostofhismen;noshieldorbyrnymightholdagainsthim,andhewenteverthroughtheranksofhisfoemenonthatday,andnomanmightseehowthingswould fare between them;many an arrow andmany a spear wasaloftinairthatday,andsohisspae-wrightswroughtforhimthathegot no wound, and none can tell over the tale of those who fellbefore him, and both his arms were red with blood, even to theshoulders’

Here the swordsman is committing suicide by placing the sword to his armpit andpushing the

bladethroughhisheart–intheSagathisisdonebyafemale.

In thiscase, theswordsmanis ‘falling’onhisswordbyplacing itagainsthischestandallowing

thebladetostrikedeeplyintotheheart.

‘Well could hewield sword, and cast forth spear, shoot shaft, andholdshield,bendbow,backhorse,anddoallthegoodlydeedsthathelearnedinhisyouth’sdays’

V‘…but the men of Salmon-river-Dale very soon found that in Hruttheyhadtodealwithoneforwhomtheywerenomatch,fornowheslewtwomenateveryonslaught’

VII‘Hewasatallmaningrowth,andastrongman,bestskilledinarmsofallmen.Hecouldcutorthrustorshootifhechoseaswellwithhisleft aswithhis righthand,andhesmoteso swiftlywithhis sword,thatthreeseemedtoflashthroughtheairatonce.Hewasthebestshotwiththebowofallmen,andnevermissedhismark.Hecouldleap more than his own height, with all his war-gear, and as farbackwardsasforwards.Hecouldswimlikeaseal,andtherewasnogameinwhichitwasanygoodforanyonetostrivewithhim;andso

ithasbeensaidthatnomanwashismatch’

THEWAYOFSUICIDE

Modern western society with its Christian elements still shaping oursecular age see suicide as negative.But each culture of course has adifferentunderstandingof the ‘rules’of theafter lifeand thedignity thataccompanies suicide. The Vikings were men and women born in arelativelyviolentageand temperedby theirsociety,however theywerehumans like you and me and they share certain traits. One has toremember that inaworldof religiousbeliefsand toapeoplewhohavefirmvalues,someactionsthatareinexplicabletous,areinfactnormaltoothers.Sometimesofcoursehumansdounexplainedthings,andlogicisnotafactor.

SagaReferencesThe second quotation describes a ‘classic’ Roman suicide. Hake fallsuponhissword.

III‘Now she bade bring forth much gold, and bade all those comethither who would have wealth: then she caught up a sword, andthrustitunderherarmpit,andsankasideuponthepillows,andsaid,“Come,takegoldwhosowill!”’

IX‘Hakegotupandwentafterthemawhile;butwhenhecametotheiceonthelake,heturnedhissword-hilttothegroundandlethimselffall upon the point, so that the sword went through him. He wasburiedunderamoundonthebanksofthelake’

CLAIMINGTHEHEAD

This is the process of taking the decapitated head of an enemy for

displayorasawarning.Wemustnotusethetermhead-huntingasthereis no evidence that the Vikings killed simply to claim the head. TheVikings’ attitude is similar to that of the Japanese. The medievalJapanesetookheadsasproofofvictoryandtocollectreward,asintheViking sagas. One can only speculate what they did with the headsafterwards,however,asthethirdquotationsuggests,theymayhavekeptthem.For comparison, in Japanese feudal society theheadwas takenand

made ready to be presented to a lord. There were intricate points ofetiquette that dictated the way the head should be presented,systematised according to social standing and consideration of theenemy’sghost.Itwascleanedandpreparedandpresentedtothelordona ‘plate’or ‘board’.The lordwasprotected fromtheheadbyanarcher,andhecouldonlyglanceat theheadfrombehindafan;awarcrywasgivenandthentheheadwastakenaway.Oncertainoccasionsthelordhad tomake the ritualisticcuttingofaKuji-kirigrid in theairbefore thehead,forprotection.Thefirsttworeferencesindicateasimilarlyritualisticapproachintheplacingofthedecapitatedheadbetweenthethighs.

Thebodylyingdownwiththeheadbetweenthelegs.

SagaReferences

VI‘When the thrall had spoken, the faintness which had come overGrettirlefthim.Hedrewhisshortsword,cutoffGlam’sheadandlaiditbetweenhisthighs’

Grettir then drew his sword Jokulsnaut, cut off the head of thehowedwellerandlaiditbetweenhisthighs.

VII‘AfterthattheyslewKol,andThraincutoffhishead,andtheythrewthetrunkoverboard,butkepthishead’

XIX‘Sigurd asked which of his lads had most desire to go in againstBeintein, which he called brave man’s work; but none was veryhurriedtomakereadyfor it.WhiletheywerediscussingthismatterSigurdrushed into thehouse,pastBeintein.Beinteinstruckathim,butmissed.SigurdturnedinstantlyonBeintein;andafterexchangingblows, Sigurd gave him his death-stroke, and came out presentlybearinghisheadinhishands’

Herethebodyissatupwiththeheadbetweenthelegs.

Awarriorkeepshisprizehead.

ARMEDANDREADY?

Filmsoftenportraymedievalwarriorsinarmourandhelmetsmostofthetime.Theysitdowntomealsinfullplatearmourandgoabouttheirdailylivesgearedforwar.WhendidtheVikingactuallywearhissword,whenwouldhehavehismailor leatherprotectionon,wheredidhekeephishelmet?Armour iskept inaboxoronastandwhennot inuse inmostmedieval societies. As a samurai kept his sword with him, did theVikings?Thereare references to thisandyes,wecansee theVikingskept theirswordshandy,andthesecondquotationshowsusthatsomesleptarmedandreadywhentheywereonwatch.ButwhennotonalerttheVikingwarriorswouldbedressedinwoollencloaks,woollenorlinenshirtsandbreeches.Lin-klædi, linenclothing, is oftenmentioned in theIcelandicsagas.Ingraves,theswordorfightingknifeisnotwornbythebodybutisputalongsideit;andinthesagaswhenawarriorputsonhissword it is remarked upon. Both these points suggest that the swordperhapswasnot,infact,wornasamatterofcourse.

SagaReferences

VI‘He drew his sword Jokulsnaut and tied a loop round the handlewhich he passed over hiswrist, because he thought that he couldcarryouthisplansbetterifhishandwerefree’

XX‘Theychangedthewatchwitheachotherinthenight,andthosewhohad been before on watch lay down and slept; but all completelyarmed. It was their custom, when they went to sleep, that eachshould have his helmet on his head, his shield over him, swordunderthehead,andtherighthandonthesword-handle’

ThesleepingVikingreadyforwar.

THESPIKEDSHOES

‘SpikedShoes’, if theywereindeedworn,wouldallowthewearerbettergripon the iceor in rough terrain.People in themartialartscommunitywill immediately bring to mind the Japanese foot spike and look forsimilarities. However, there is no record of the Japanese foot spikesbeingusedasanoffensiveweapon.Thoughatrainedwarriorcouldhavemadeuseofthemiftheoccasionarose.

SagaReferencesThe ‘snow-shoes’ of the third quotation are the sameasmodern snowshoes.

IV

‘FreysteinRascal followedThorleif, andhehadshoe-spikesonhisfeet’

‘…butFreysteinstoodfirmonhisspikedshoes’

XIV‘Hewasbetterthananymanatrunningonsnow-shoes’

TheVikinginthesnowusing‘spikedshoes’

12

EFFECTIVENESSOFWEAPONSAnyone can see the true destructive power of the Viking weaponry bysimplystudyingthemanyvideosofpeople‘cuttesting’Vikingswordsontheinternet.Thewoundsdescribedinthesagasarereadiilyinflictedandcanbeacceptedastruth.Theonlydoubtsthatarisearetodowiththoseblows that are said to shatter helms.Weknow that it is possible to dominordamage tomail, as it described in the sagas,wealso know thatcuttingthroughashieldiscertainlypossible;butpeopledisputetheabilityto cut a helm. This has not been proven or disproven, but one mustremember that not all helmets were metal, some were of leather andbone.Inferiorproductswereonthemarket.Inferiorswordsthatdidnotmake

thegrademayhave found theirway into thehandsof thewarriors.Wecanfindexamplesofthisinthequotationsbelow,ofswordstoobrittleortoomalleable.Weshould thinkof theweaponsof theVikingsnotasahordeofgleaming treasuresbutofavariedcollectionof tools, fromthehumblewoodaxe, to thesecond-hand,shoddyblade,all thewayup toan outstanding heirloom, the creation of a master craftsman. Thearrestinglybeautifulimageinthesecondquotationshouldnotblindustothefactthatthisperfectlyhonededgehasbeencreatedtodestroy.

SagaReferences

III‘“Beholdthysmithying,Regin!”andtherewithsmoteitintotheanvil,andtheswordbrake;sohecastdownthebrand,andbadehimforgeabetter’‘Thenhepraised the swordmuch, and thereafterwent to the riverwithalockofwool,andthrewthewoolupstream,anditfellasunderwhenitmetthesword.ThenwasSigurdglad,andwenthome’

IV‘But in thehome-fieldatMewlithemen foundahandwhereas they

had fought, and it was shown to Thorarin; he saw that it was awoman’shand,andaskedwhereAudwas; itwastoldhimthatshelay in bed. Then he went to her, and asked whether she werewounded;shebadehimpaynoheedtothat,buthewaswarewithalthatherhandhadbeenhewnoff.Thenhecalledtohismother,andbadeherbindupthewound’‘Then were Thorbrand’s sons brought home to Holyfell and theirwounds boundup. ThorodThorbrandsonhad so great awound inthebackofhisneckthathemightnotholdhisheadstraight’‘ThenSnorrithePriestdrewhishanddownhisthroat,andfoundanarrow sticking athwart his gullet and the roots of the tongue.ThenSnorri thePriest tookdrawing-tongsandpulledout thearrow, andthenSnorriThorbrandsonfelltohismeat’‘So thenbefellagreatbattle,andSteinthorwasat theheadofhisown folk, and smote on either hand of him; but the fair-wroughtswordbitnot,andwhenasitsmotearmour,ofthemuststraightenitunderhisfoot’

VI‘Therewasno resistance in him for hewasalreadydead fromhiswoundedleg;histhighwasallmortifieduptotherectum.Manymorewoundstheygavehim,butlittleornobloodflowed.’‘Theysaidthiswasunnecessary,asthemanwasdeadbefore.‘Iwilldomore,’ he said, and struck two or three blows at Grettir’s neckbeforehetookoffhishead.’‘Nowtheyallroseupandranatthem,andModolfKettle’ssonwasquickest of them, and thrust at Kari with his spear. Kari had hisshieldbeforehim,andtheblowfellonit,andthespearstuckfastinthe shield. Then Kari twists the shield so smartly, that the spearsnappedshortoff,andthenhedrewhisswordandsmoteatModolf;butModolfmadeacutathimtoo,andKari’sswordfellonModolf’shilt,andglancedoffitontoModolf’swrist,andtookthearmoff,anddown it fell, and the sword too. Then Kari’s sword passed on intoModolf’s side, and between his ribs, and soModolf fell down andwasdeadonthespot.’‘Granihadhisshieldbeforehim,andthespearcameontheshieldand passed right through it, and into Grani’s thigh just below the

small guts, and through the limb, and so on, pinning him to theground,andhecouldnotgetridofthespearbeforehisfellowsdrewhimoffit,andcarriedhimawayontheirshields,andlaidhimdowninadell.’

IX‘…andtherewasgreatbattle,inwhichKingHalfdanwasvictorious;andjustasKingSigtrygandhistroopswereturningabouttofly,anarrowstruckhimundertheleftarm,andhefelldead.’

CONCLUSION

The Viking martial arts consisted of a set of ‘techniques’ that werecommontothepeopleacrossScandinaviaandtheywererepresentedinthe sagas. Remembering that some of the sagas are hundreds yearsapart in writing, we can see that a definite series of moves is foundthroughout, moves that are no doubt shared by many martial stylesacrosstheancientandmedievalworld.TheVikingsystemsharesmanytechniqueswith later Europeanmedievalmartial texts and elements ofthe writings of fechtmeister Hans Talhoffer in southern Germany, forexample,canbefoundintheVikingarts.WhilstrecognisingthatgettingtotherealitiesofVikingcombatismade

difficult by the changes made in the sagas to suit a later ‘knightly’audience, we have here a glimpse of a form of combat that wascontinuousbetween800and1400.Evenifthecombatinallofthesagasacrossallthetimeperiodswasa

direct reflectionof theexperienceof theaudience theyentertainedandhadlittleconnectiontotheVikings,andifallthetechniquesshowninthisbookare in factearlysecondmillenniumformsofcombat,wehavestillcreated something of a first. The earliest illustrated document inexistenceforwesternmedievalcombatistheMSI.33manuscriptheldbyLeeds Armouries and dates to 1290. So the moves described in thesagasareasimportantasthisnowfamousmanuscriptinthesearchforearlywestern combat arts. I of coursedonot think that the techniquesdemonstrated here are from a later date – I believe the sagas tell thetruthabouttheVikings,orenoughofthetruthtosaythatthisishowthefearsomewarriorsofthenorthfought.

TheVikingraidonLindisfarne,793.‘NeverbeforehassuchterrorappearedinBritainaswehave

nowsufferedfromapaganrace,’wrotethescholarAlcuin.

TheBattleofStamfordBridge,1066.LegendhasitduringtheeventualroutoftheVikingsby

HaroldGodwinson’sSaxonarmy,atonestageahugeVikingblockedthebridgeandslew40men

withanaxe.BothimagescourtesyofrenownedartistVictorAmbrus,fromhisbeautifulBattlefieldPanoramas–FromtheSiegeofTroytoD-Day.

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