The Illegibility Effects of State Practices Simon

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The illegibility efects o state pracces: visions and realies o a road project in the

Putumayo region o Colombia1

Simn UribePhD candidate

Department of Geography

London School of Economics

[email protected]

Introducon

!ne of the common "ie#s of roads is that #hich emphasi$es their role as technologies of state

po#er. %egardless of the logics dri"ing these infrastructures& this "ie# largely stems from one of

their most patent e'ects& namely& that they render territories and popula(ons more "isible andopen to sur"eillance and control.1)hat this *legibility e'ect+ is in most cases far from absolute

and in prac(ce roads comprise spaces sub,ected to mul(ple sub"ersions& appropria(ons and

ends di'erent to those en"isaged& cons(tutes another sub,ect. Ethnographical scholarship has

pro"ided compelling e"idence on this par(cular issue& shedding light on the unstable&

ambiguous& and contested nature of such infrastructures.-

)his paper sees to eplore this sub,ect of legibility in the contet of a road pro,ect in the

/olombian pro"ince of Putumayo. )he pro,ect& part of a #ider regional transporta(on scheme

#hose main purpose is to connect the 0tlan(c and Pacic oceans through 2ra$il and /olombia&

comprises the impro"ement of the eis(ng road and the construc(on of a ne# 34 m sec(on.

)he passage of the ne# road through an area of forests rich in biodi"ersity has been a point of

conten(on on en"ironmental and social grounds. )he go"ernment& mean#hile& has promoted

the road as a pioneer eample of sustainable de"elopment in the country and countered such

concerns by emphasi$ing the pro,ect5s mul(ple en"ironmental policies.

S(ll& the many con6icts and obstacles faced by the pro,ect since its beginnings ha"e re"ealed the

large gap bet#een its goals and actual outcomes. 7n this paper& 7 #ill focus on the pro,ect5s

a8empts to clarify the land tenure situa(on in its area of in6uence& as it cons(tutes an eample

#here this gap became par(cularly e"ident. )hese a8empts& as it #ill be described& not only

brought to the surface the state5s deeply rooted or *structural+ legibility problems in the

pro,ect5s area& but paradoically ended up aggra"a(ng them.

1 Paper presented at the 0nnual 9ee(ng of the 0ssocia(on of 0merican Geographers. Los 0ngeles& 0pril

11& -:1;.

1
mailto:[email protected]:[email protected]:[email protected]


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the %eser"e& "isibly illustrates this pro,ect5s "ision of the road as model of en"ironmental

go"ernance.

7n prac(ce& ho#e"er& things turned out to be much less straighor#ard. )he pro,ect5s *Legal

assessment+&aimed at eamining and clarifying the land tenure situa(on of the ?orest %eser"e&

did not bring any clarity to the planners. !n the contrary& it iden(ed a number of issues

mirroring the state5s deep rooted legibility problems in the areaF the a"ailable ocial maps of

the %eser"e #ere of an inade>uate scale to allo# decision maing regarding its managementH

the ins(tu(onal presence in the area #as scarce& hence transla(ng into decient control and

sur"eillance in the areaH and its boundaries& ha"ing ne"er being demarcated& remained largely

unno#n.A

0 related and yet much more comple and dicult problem cons(tuted the peasant land

occupa(on of the %eser"e& a situa(on resul(ng in part from and re"ealing its many serious legal

holes. ?or instance& and due to the %eser"e5s category of *Protected+& pri"ate property of any

sort should not eist #ithin its boundaries. Ie"ertheless& the study re"ealed that the %eser"e

#as ne"er ocially registered&Ca situa(on that resulted in the ad,udica(on of se"eral land plots

follo#ing the establishment of the %eser"e and& e"en more striingly& in the issuance of mining

concessions inside the %eser"e& as sho#n in one of the study5s maps.

2oth the mining and land (tles iden(ed by the Land tenure assessment& though mirroring

some of the material e'ects of the state5s incongruous legal procedures& #ere to some etent

readable or at least J"isible5 to the pro,ect. )hrough their cadastral or land registra(on numbers&

they could be iden(ed in terms such as loca(on& area& o#ner or concessionaire& chain of (tle&

etc. Kuite di'erent #as the case of the socalled *pri"ate documents+ or documents aimed at

demonstra(ng possession or occupa(on of baldos9or lands claimed as "acant. )hese can be of

di'erent types& yet the most common ones are #ri8en contracts formali$ing land sales and out

ofcourt statements before a public notary declaring possession or occupancy of "acant lands.

Legally speaing& these documents are considered *pri"ate+ since they do not comply #ith the

re>uirements or follo# the basic legal or administra("e protocols of *public+ documentsF they

are not inscribed in the %egistry !ce& do not ha"e cadastral plans and land registra(on

numbers& and in some cases are not e"en notari$ed. )his does not mean& ho#e"er& that they are

Jillegal5 or not recogni$ed by public authori(es. 7n many cases& for instance& they form part of the

ordinary procedures for legal transac(ons of land such as sales or cessionsH in others& such as

land ad,udica(on processes& they may ser"e as proof of tenure or possession of land.

*Pri"ate documents+& despite their etra or semilegal character& cons(tute a "ery common #ay

to trade lands among peasants and are oen used #ith di'erent purposes such as e"idence of

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tenure or access to go"ernment subsidies. 2esides& some(mes their use can be associated to

prac(ces such as eluding sale or property taes or legal controls regarding land use. 9oreo"er&

and most signicantly for the argument ad"anced here& these documents usually originate from

Jreal5 prac(ces that do not necessarily tae place outside or infringe the la#& and yet remain

largely illegible to go"ernment func(onaries.

)he *Legal assessment+ iden(ed and eamined -4M of such documents associated to lands

#ithin the %eser"e or its surrounding areas. )he eamina(on in this case consisted basically of a

summary of the type of document and informa(on regularly supplied by each of them. )his

informa(on #as not homogeneous across documentsF some did not register areas or names of

land plots& others laced notary seals& #hile others #ere hand#ri8en papers #hose content #as

literally illegible. =o#e"er& this aspect is irrele"ant if #e consider that no ma8er ho# detailed or

par(al& c((ous or real& current or outdated& this informa(on Bunregistered& unrecorded and

ungeoreferenced remained largely undecipherable to the pro,ect.

NNN

2y the (me the land tenure assessment #as completed& it #as clear that the comple and

largely illegible character of land occupa(on in the road5s area of in6uence posed a serious

threat to the pro,ect5s goals. Oarious alterna("es to o"ercome this situa(on #ere proposedF

par(al subtrac(ons of the %eser"e5s lands legally ad,udicated or demonstra(ng legal tenureH re

categori$a(on of part of the current %eser"e to a class #ith lesser land use restric(onsH and

purchase of lands legally o#ned and remo"al of tenants *illegally+ occupying the %eser"e. )he

problem& though& #as that regardless of the alterna("e or combina(on of alterna("es to be

applied& in order to be "iable& any op(on re>uired rst a clarica(on of the %eser"e5s land

tenure situa(on.

2y -:11& more than three years aer the *Legal assessment+ had been concluded& the pro,ect

had not only been unable to sol"e this problem& but actually had eacerbated it. ith the

epected star(ng date of the road #ors approaching& the pro,ect ocers urged peasants to

pro"ide their land deeds or documents& #hile repeatedly stressing the prohibi(on of land

transac(ons #hile the %eser"e5s legal situa(on #as not claried. 7t #as e"ident& ho#e"er& that

the ocers themsel"es #ere incapable of pro"iding denite ans#ers to many of the peasants5

uncertain(es and concerns about their futureF ere their lands going to be epropriated by the

go"ernmentQ ill they recei"e any compensa(onQ hich lands eactly fell #ithin and outside

the %eser"eQ hat #ill happen to those #ith in"alid (tles or pri"ate documentsQ

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Unans#ered or gi"en ambiguous responses& these uncertain(es ended up causing or increasing

distrust among peasant communi(es& #hich in turn ended up aggra"a(ng the %eser"e5s land

tenure problems. )his sort of "icious circle had become e"ident during -:1: and -:11& #hen

rumours about people selling or buying lands #ithin the %eser"e began to circulate #ith some

regularity& and land sale signs proliferated along the pro,ect corridor. )hese signs& some#hat

paradoically& though highly "isible to the pro,ect& stood for deals that in most cases #ere

illegible to the pro,ect5s ocers and hence beyond their control.

)he crucial aspect of this Jillegibility e'ect5& 7 suggest& is not the #ays in #hich it eposed the gap

bet#een Jnorm5 and Jprac(ce5 or Jpro,ect5 and Jcommunity5& but rather ho# this gap re6ected

the mul(ple dialec(cal entanglements bet#een these apparently detached or independent

spheres. 7n other #ords& the peasants5 illegible land tenure prac(ces could only be eplained in

connec(on to the go"ernment5s norma("e inconsistencies& ,ust as people5s uncertain(es and

distrust could not be isolated from the pro,ect5s a8empts to Jclarify5 the land tenure situa(on in

the ?orest %eser"e.

=o#e"er& as 7 shall describe net& to fully grasp this Jillegibility e'ect5& to understand its roots and

ho# it reproduced in (me and space& #e ha"e to loo not ,ust to #hat the pro,ect Jsa#5 but also

to those elements #hich from the beginning it ignored or& conned to its conceptual frame#or&

#as unable to percei"e.

"ecoming illegible

7n the rst place& #e ha"e to loo bac to the coloni$a(on history of the area #hich today

comprises the ?orest %eser"e& a story that goes bac to the late 1M;:s. )he rst se8lers #ere

mostly landless peasants from the neighbouring pro"inces #ho came looing for "acant lands.

hat made these lands par(cularly a8rac("e& ho#e"er& #as not only the fact that they

remained unclaimed& but especially its abundance of precious #oods& a highly "alued product

#hich for se"eral decades became the main li"elihood of the region.

)he etrac(on of (mber& an ac("ity that con(nues to play an important role in the local

economy Be"en though it cons(tutes a prac(ce long deemed illegal& is "ital to understand the

comple land tenure system in the region. Part of this compleity has to do #ith the simple fact

that land& especially bac in the 3:s and 4:s #hen "acant lands #ere s(ll abundant #as "alued

not so much in terms of si$e but the amount of (mber it contained& and abo"e all its access. )his

aspect is mirrored in the old land deeds and documents& #hich rarely register areas but instead

emphasi$e the proimity of the lands to access routes and in some cases men(on the eistence

of (mber. 0t the same (me& most of these lands #ere not enclosed and its borders #ere

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fre>uently "ague and impermanent landmars largely indecipherable to outsiders such as

trochasor footpaths& crees& trees& and tones. )he follo#ing descrip(on of a land plot coming

from a pri"ate document o'ers a good eample of this situa(on. )he document& a notari$ed

contract formali$ing the sale of a land plot in 0ugust 1M44& does not register the plot5s area or

name but instead contains the follo#ing detailed descrip(on of its bordersF

)o the East& it borders #ith the bridle path that goes to San ?rancisco& this side measures eighty

RC: metersH to the Iorth& in est direc(on& borders #ith the land of =ermgenes IupTn& a

small cree up#ards& un(l nding a gua"a tree and a plant of chontaduro&1:this side measures

se"enty t#o metersH from this landmar it goes South& bordering #ith the same =ermgenes

IupTn& un(l nding a small ditch& this line measuring een meters R14H from this landmar in

the same est 6an& goes bac to the East un(l it nds a barbasco tree& 11this line Rsic t#enty

meters R-:H from here& forming a set s>uare& it goes South un(l its nds a ojo de aguas vivas,12

this line measuring thirty R;: metersH from this landmar& in the est 6an& heads again to the

East& follo#ing the stream of the ojo de agua men(oned abo"e& bordering #ith lands of

2enedicto IupTn& un(l it gets again to the abo"e >uoted road to San ?rancisco& point of

departure& shore of the #aters abo"e referred.1;

0ccording to the seller5s "ersion recorded in the same document& this land plot #as a baldo

inherited from his father& and it is highly liely that it #ould be later granted by the go"ernment

to the current or future buyer. 7n such case Bdicult to determine as the document does not

seem to be connected to any land deed included in the study& it #ould ha"e e"entually become

a property #ith (tle deeds& containing more Jlegible5 data such as area& land registra(on

number& and cadastral plan. =o#e"er& e"en considering this to be the case& it is predictable that

this Jlegibility5 #ould be rather ephemeral& for it is "ery liely that the same land plot #ould be

later sub,ected to par(al sales and other transac(ons #ith pri"ate document #hich& as has been

noted& is a highly common prac(ce in the area.

)his illegibility pa8ern& on the other hand& only accounts for a small part of the land tenure

prac(ces in the area. 2eyond documents and deeds& there is a mul(tude of the socalled

*arreglos the palabra+ or "erbal agreements through #hich lands are regularly appropriated&

traded& inherited& rented& etc. 0 typical eample of these agreements cons(tutes the tenure of

lands #hich people in the area call *baldos+& though in prac(ce are nonad,udicable lands for

di'erent reasons. )hese lands are regularly the more remote or less accessible ones& for the

most part uninhabited or only sporadically occupied. S(ll& and e"en though they lac any ind of

document& they all ha"e *o#ners+.

)o be8er illustrate this point& let me brie6y describe an archetypical peasant farm #ithin the

?orest %eser"e. !riginally a baldo& this farm #as granted in 1MC- to VosW Pere$ Bits current

o#ner&13aer ha"ing occupied the land for more than ten years. 7n paper& the farm has an

etension of -4 ha& some#hat abo"e the a"erage si$e for the area. 7n prac(ce& ne"ertheless& it


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etends far beyond this area& the main reason being that the farm5s southern boundary borders

#ith an etensi"e area of forests& #hose main access is through the same farm. 7t is from this

forest& #hose area the o#ner es(mates at about 1:: ha& that he etracted cedar& cumin and

other precious #oods for more than three decades.

E"en no#adays& #hen VosW no longer logs (mber& his farm con(nues to be the main *gate+ to

the forest and anyone #ishing to enter it needs his permission.


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1 See& among othersF ilson& ?. -::3& *)o#ards a Poli(cal Economy of %oadsF Eperiences from Peru+& Development

and Change ;4R;F4-443H 9as>uelier& 0. -::-& *%oad mythographiesF space& mobility& and the historical imagina(on

in postcolonial Iiger+& American thnologist& "ol.-M R3& pp.C-MC4H Sel#yn& ) -::1& *Landscapes of separa(onF

re6ec(ons in the symbolism of bypass roads in Pales(ne+& in 2ender 2& iner 9 Reds.& Contested !andscapes"

#ovement, e$ile and place& 2erg& !ford X Ie# uest for connec("ity

through road construc(on+& &ournal o' Cultural conom* 1 R1& pp.AMM-H Porath& I. -::-& *0 ri"er& a road& an

indigenous people and an entangled landscape in %iau& 7ndonesia+& +ijdragen tot de %aal, !anden -o.en.unde14CR3&

pp.AMAMAH GilesOernic& ). 1MM& *JIa lege ( guiriri5 R!n the %oad of =istoryF 9apping out the past and present in

952res %egion& /entral 0frican %epublic+& thnohistor* ;4R-& pp.4-443H Zirsey& S. and Z. "an 2ilsen -::-& *0 road to

freedom. 9ee ar(cula(ons and the )ransPapua =igh#ay+& +ijdragen tot de %aal, !anden -o.en.unde14CR3& pp.C;A

C43H Lye& ). -::4& *)he road to e>ualityQ Landscape transforma(on and the 2ate of Pahang& 9alaysia+& in idlo& )

and . )adesse& /ropert* and qualit*, ncapsulaon, Commerciali0aon, Discriminaon & 2erghahn 2oos& !ord&

pp.M:1:;.

;*San ?rancisco9ocoa alternate road construc(on pro,ectPhase 7. Loan Proposal+& 70D2& December 1A& -::M& p.;%etrie"ed fromFh8pF[[idbdocs.iadb.org[#sdocs[getdocument.aspQdocnum\;4:-4;1MR-:1:& 9arch 1:.

3*Plan 2Tsico de 9ane,o 0mbiental y Social RP290S de la %eser"a ?orestal Protectora de la /uenca 0lta del %o

9ocoa. Documento %esumen+& 27D& /orpoama$onia& 7n"ias& 7ncoplan. Vuly& -::C. %etrie"ed fromF

h8pF[[###.iadb.org[es[proyectos[pro,ectinforma(onpage&1;:;.htmlQid\col1:1M]docR-:1:& Io"ember 14.

4 *7nforme de Ges(n 0mbiental y Social R7G0S. /orredor "ial Pasto9ocoa. Oariante San ?rancisco9ocoa

R/!L1:1M+& !ctober -::M& p.MA. %etrie"ed fromF h8pF[[idbdocs.iadb.org[#sdocs[getdocument.aspQ

docnum\----AC4R-:1:& 0ugust ;.

*Elaboracin del Plan 2Tsico de 9ane,o 0mbiental y Social RP290S de la %eser"a ?orestal Protectora de la /uenca

0lta del %o 9ocoa. )omo 7O. J/omponente de diagnos(co ,urdico e insitucional5+& 27D& /orpoama$onia& 7n"ias&

7ncoplan. Vuly& -::C. %etrie"ed fromF h8pF[[###.iadb.org[es[proyectos[pro,ectinforma(onpage&1;:;.htmlQid\co

l1:1M]docR-:1:& Io"ember 14.

A*Elaboracin del Plan 2Tsico de 9ane,o 0mbiental y Social RP290S de la %eser"a ?orestal Protectora de la /uenca

0lta del %o 9ocoa. )omo 7O. J/omponente de diagnos(co ,urdico e insitucional5+& 27D& /orpoama$onia& 7n"ias&

7ncoplan. Vuly& -::C. %etrie"ed fromF h8pF[[###.iadb.org[es[proyectos[pro,ectinforma(onpage&1;:;.htmlQid\co

l1:1M]docR-:1:& Io"ember 14.

C )he registra(on is a legal re>uirement essen(al to mae public to third par(es any *limita(on of domain+

or land use restric(ons

M 7n legal terms& baldosare lands o#ned by the state #ith the purpose of a#arding them to indi"iduals #ho

comply #ith certain re>uirements established by the la#.

1: +actris gasipaes& local palm.

11 Generic name for plants containing poisonous chemical compounds commonly used for shing.

1- Iatural #ater source Remphasis mine.

1; *Elaboracin del Plan 2Tsico de 9ane,o 0mbiental y Social RP290S& )omo 7O+& 0neo predial Oereda

/ampucana& !p.cit.& n.p.

13 Iame changed upon re>uest.
http://idbdocs.iadb.org/wsdocs/getdocument.aspx?docnum=35025319http://idbdocs.iadb.org/wsdocs/getdocument.aspx?docnum=35025319http://idbdocs.iadb.org/wsdocs/getdocument.aspx?docnum=35025319http://www.iadb.org/es/proyectos/project-information-page,1303.html?id=co-l1019#dochttp://www.iadb.org/es/proyectos/project-information-page,1303.html?id=co-l1019#dochttp://idbdocs.iadb.org/wsdocs/getdocument.aspx?docnum=2222785http://idbdocs.iadb.org/wsdocs/getdocument.aspx?docnum=2222785http://www.iadb.org/es/proyectos/project-information-page,1303.html?id=co-l1019#dochttp://www.iadb.org/es/proyectos/project-information-page,1303.html?id=co-l1019#dochttp://www.iadb.org/es/proyectos/project-information-page,1303.html?id=co-l1019#dochttp://www.iadb.org/es/proyectos/project-information-page,1303.html?id=co-l1019#dochttp://www.iadb.org/es/proyectos/project-information-page,1303.html?id=co-l1019#dochttp://www.iadb.org/es/proyectos/project-information-page,1303.html?id=co-l1019#dochttp://idbdocs.iadb.org/wsdocs/getdocument.aspx?docnum=35025319http://www.iadb.org/es/proyectos/project-information-page,1303.html?id=co-l1019#dochttp://idbdocs.iadb.org/wsdocs/getdocument.aspx?docnum=2222785http://idbdocs.iadb.org/wsdocs/getdocument.aspx?docnum=2222785http://www.iadb.org/es/proyectos/project-information-page,1303.html?id=co-l1019#dochttp://www.iadb.org/es/proyectos/project-information-page,1303.html?id=co-l1019#dochttp://www.iadb.org/es/proyectos/project-information-page,1303.html?id=co-l1019#dochttp://www.iadb.org/es/proyectos/project-information-page,1303.html?id=co-l1019#doc


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14 SeeF Sco8& V. -::M& %he art o' not being governed" An anarchist histor* o' upland )outheast Asia &

The Illegibility Effects of State Practices Simon

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