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Theories of Practice:Theories of Practice:The Human Resources FrameThe Human Resources Frame
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People are the heart of any organization. When people feel the organization is responsive to their needs and supportive of their goals, managers and leaders can count on their followers’ commitment and loyalty. Managers and leaders who are authoritarian or insensitive, who don’t communicate effectively, or who simply don’t care about their people can never be effective managers and leaders. The human resource manager and leader works on behalf of both the organization and its people, seeking to serve the best interests of both.
A HUMAN RESOURCES SCENARIO
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The job of the manager and leader is one of support and empowerment. Support takes a variety of forms: letting people know that they are important and that managers and leaders are concerned about them; listening to find out about their followers’ aspirations and goals; and, communicating personal warmth and openness. Human resource managers and leaders empower their followers through participation and openness as well as by making sure that they have the autonomy and the resources they need to do their jobs well. Human resource managers and leaders emphasize honest, two-way communication as a way to identify issues and resolve differences. They are willing to confront others when it is appropriate, but they try to do so in a spirit of openness and caring.
Bolman & Deal (1991, p. 359)
MANAGEMENT AND LEADERSHIPIN A HUMAN RESOURCES SCENARIO
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PrimaryMetaphor forOrganization:
CentralConcepts:
ManagerialAnd
LeadershipImage:
FundamentalChallenge:
Family Tribe Clan
Relationships Self-Interest Needs Feelings Skills
Empowerment Liberation Fulfillment Self-
Actualization
Attuneorganizationaland humanneeds
the human resources frame
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If the principles of scientific management were considered “revolutionary,” the assertions of the early human resources theorists were “radical”...
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…as their hypotheses challenged the antecedents and theories of practice governing how managers viewed workers for the new Industrial era.
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One of the earliest precursors of One of the earliest precursors of human resources theory...human resources theory...
David Owen18th century mercantilistowned spinning mills throughout
Scotlandbelieved that worker productivity
could be improved by being attentive to their basic human needs
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provided workers a high standard of living, including:
life-long educational opportunitiesdecent, clean housing
• preschool• day care
• progressive elementary and secondary schooling
• continuing adult education
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in contrast to prevailing practice, Owen trained his managers in humanehumane disciplinary practices......endeavored to make workers “originsorigins”
rather than “pawnspawns” of the organization (de Charms, 1968)
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Contrasting “pawns” and “origins”...Contrasting “pawns” and “origins”...
passive “workers” basically incompetent
and lazy
need close supervision
require training
active “resources” competent and basically
self-motivated
are self-regulating
bring skills, attitudes, energy, enthusiasm, and commitment
how managers and leaders view “pawnspawns”:
how managers and leaders view “originsorigins”:
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“replaceable cogs” in a machine
alienating, dehumanizing, and frustrating
victims of incompetent bosses, bureaucratic inertia, and organizational doublespeak
invigorating opportunities to make a personal contribution
a place for personal and professional growth and challenge by asserting oneself and advocating one’s needs
a place to experience a sense of belonging, to build self-esteem, and to become self-actualized
how “pawnspawns” experience work:
how “originsorigins” experience work:
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The issue raised by the human resources theories of practice is that of better aligning people andand organizations not people oror organizations...
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because...people need organizations…for the extrinsic rewards work provides
organizations need people
…for the intrinsic satisfaction work can provide
…for a reliable and stable labor pool…for the energy, effort, and talent people bring
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The assumptions of human The assumptions of human resources theories...resources theories...
1. organizations exist to serve human needs
3. the fit of people and organization is critical
2. organizations and people need each otherideas
energytalent
salariesopportunities
careers
an inappropriate fit can lead to exploitation or victimization by people and/or the organization
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The rise of industrial/organizational psychology in the 20th century, especially human needs theories, provided a theoretical focus to consider the fit of people and organization...
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Abraham Maslow (1954)...Abraham Maslow (1954)...
defined the hierarchy of pre-potent needs
5. self-actualization
4. self-esteem
3. belongingness
2. safety, security
1. physiological1
2
3
4
5
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asserted that the worker-structure conflict is built into the traditional principles of organizational design and management
task specialization defines jobs as narrowly as possible to improve efficiency…
Chris Argyris (1957)...Chris Argyris (1957)...
...but the outcome is that work is depersonalized and becomes monotonous
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1. personal withdrawal—evident in absenteeism and quitting2. psychological withdrawal—evident in indifference passivity, and apathy3. resistance—evident in soldiering, deception, feather bedding, and sabotage4. power grabs—climbing the bureaucracy5. forming coalitions (e.g., unions) to redress power imbalances
evidence of worker-structure conflict:
6. socializing children with negative view of work (i.e., unrewarding, little hope for advancement)
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formulated a two factor theory of the motivation to work:
Frederick Herzberg (1959)...Frederick Herzberg (1959)...
M 2F A E
motivation is a psychological complex of two factorsfactors manifesting themselves in attitudesattitudes evident in their effectseffects
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2 FACTORS2F
these factors are the objective elements and subjective feelings (i.e., needs or drives activated by the events themselves) antecedent to an attitude
hygiene factors
motivators
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do not motivate but the absence of hygiene increases worker dissatisfaction
hygiene factors
when hygiene is not met, workers strike or give up motivation and become addicted to hygiene
extrinsic
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hygiene factors
Good organizational hygiene provides the foundation for higher motivation in the workplace...
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experiences enabling personal growth and self-actualization in the work itself
motivators intrinsic
achievement
responsibility
the work itself
advancement
doing complete jobs, experiencing successengaging in work design and accountabilitydoing the jobengaging in new learnings, developing expertise
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To inculcate higher motivation in workers, managers and leaders should focus on:
attending to the workers’ attitudes notnot the work process
using the organizing and planning functions to encourage high morale
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While attending to worker morale and attitudes, managers and leaders recognize:
that motivation to work is a psychological process not a matter of a worker’s interest in the job
that workplace hygiene is primary providing the foundation for motivation
that salary is a hygiene factor not a motivator
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According to Herzberg’s two-factor theory of motivation, the worst of all motivators is… …an across-the-board salary increase
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posited a theory of management, Theory X and Theory Y
…asserting that a manager’s assumptions about people become self-fulfilling prophecies evident in organizational behavior
Douglas McGregor (1960)...Douglas McGregor (1960)...
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Theory X... people are inherently:
lazypassive
possess little ambitionprefer to be ledresist change
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Theory X... workers are characterized by:
…an external locus-of-control…“other-centered” directedness
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Theory X... self-fulfilling prophecies:
coercion
tight controls
threats
punishments
low productivity
antagonism
militant unions
subtle sabotage
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Theory Y... people are inherently:
motivatedactive and interested
ambitiousprefer to lead
interested in change
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Theory Y... workers are characterized by:
…an internal locus-of-control…self-direction
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Theory Y... management through:
open systems
communication
self-managing teams
peer-controlled pay systems
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Theory Y... management through:
open systems
communication
self-managing teams
peer-controlled pay systems
needs and tasks aligned
accurate feedback
worker investment
fairness and equity
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the essential task of managers and leaders is to arrange organizational conditions…
…so that people can achieve their own goals best by directing their efforts toward organizational rewards
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While industrial/organizational psychology provided a theoretical focus to consider the fit of people and organization...
…the goal of making the workplace and productivity a forum for people to express their freedom and dignity, as noble as this goal may be, has never been empirically proven.
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juxtaposed two theories of practice, Model IModel I and Model IIModel II
Model IModel I…what managers and leaders say conflicts with what they do
Argyris & Schön (1974, 1996)...Argyris & Schön (1974, 1996)...
Model IIModel II…through organizational learning, there is congruence between what managers and leaders say and do
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Model I assumptions...Model I assumptions...
organizations are competitive, dangerous places
watch out for yourself or someone else will do you in
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Model I theory-in-use...Model I theory-in-use...
core values
action strategy
outcomes: behavior
outcomes: learning
identify and achieve goals
design and manage the environment unilaterally
defensive, inconsistent, fearful, and
selfish appearance
no learning: self-sealing, protection
from negative feedback
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core values
action strategy
outcomes: behavior
outcomes: learning
maximize winning, minimize
losing
own and control what is relevant to
one’s interests
engenders defensive,
inconsistent, fearful, and
selfish behaviors in
others
“single-loop” learning:
core values and
assumptions remain
unquestioned
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core values
action strategy
outcomes: behavioral
outcomes: learning
minimize the
expression of negative
feelings
insulate oneself from
criticism, discomfort,
and vulnerability
reinforces defensive
norms: mistrust, risk avoidance, conformity, and rivalry
core values and
assumptions are tested privately
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core values
action strategy
outcomes: behavior
outcomes: learning
be rational insulate others from being hurt
critical organizational issues are not
discussed
collusion that impedes
organizational learning
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The Model I problem-solving The Model I problem-solving process...process...
1. assume that others are causing the problem
2. develop a private, unilateral diagnosis and solution to the problem
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…calmly using facts, logic, and rational persuasion to assert the merits of your point of view
…using indirect coercive influences …formulating and issuing direct
critiques
3. get other(s) to change by...
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4. defensiveness confirms the original diagnosis
5. intensify pressures by offering to protect or to reject the other person(s)
6. if unsuccessful, bear no responsibility because the outcome is the other person(s) fault
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Model I outcomes...Model I outcomes...
feelings of vulnerability
Managers and leaders using a Model I theory of practice increase in workers...
self-protecting behaviors
games of camouflage
deception
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Model II problem-solving Model II problem-solving process...process...
1. emphasize common goals and mutual influence
Mutually Assured Destruction produces no winners
M
A
D
LEADERS AND MANAGERS DO NOT FORGET:
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2. communicate openly and publicly, testing one’s assumptions and beliefs
Does what I espouse... …what I do?
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3. combine inquiryinquiry with advocacyadvocacy
what othersothers think, know, want, and feelinquiry
advocacy what II think, know, want, and feel
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a fundamental competence in relating with diverse individuals effectively
Human resources theory requires that Human resources theory requires that managers and leaders possess...managers and leaders possess...
sufficiently good interpersonal skills:
the refined ability to inquire in a non-threatening way: What is going on here? Why are people behaving as they are? What can I do about it?
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is not afraid of conflict
sufficiently good intrapersonal skills:
in arguments, is able to distance oneself from the passion of the moment and to construct how other individuals are making sense of things
is able to confront conflict
“complicates” (rather than simplifies) one’s understanding of how the organization really works
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negotiates the fit between the individual and the organization
sufficiently good group skills:
is comfortable with plurality, diversity, and ambiguity
directs conflict towards productive ends while solving problems, resolves organizational
issues
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while groups can promote... …groups can also generate
increased knowledgea diversity of perspectives
time and energyimproved communication
increased acceptance of decisions
caving into social pressureinefficiency
personal agendas which dominate the decision
making processunproductive constraints
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to increase group productivity managers and leaders must be able to address:
other’s personal interests the requirements of various task roles the requirements of various personal roles informal group norms interpersonal conflict
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Basic human resources Basic human resources strategies...strategies...
1. develop a long-term organizational commitment to the philosophy of human resources
• build human resources in to the corporate and incentive structures
• develop quantitative and qualitative measures of human resources management
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2. invest in people
• hire the right people and reward them well
• provide job security• promote from within• train and educate• share the wealth of success
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3. deal directly with people• engage in active listening• provide accurate feedback• search for common interests• experiment with ideas and
proposals• doubt one’s infallibility• treat differences as a group
responsibility© www.asia-masters.com
4. empower people through work redesign
• provide greater autonomy and participative management
• focus on job enrichment• emphasize teamwork• ensure egalitarianism• provide opportunities for
upward hierarchical influence© www.asia-masters.com
Because change causes people to feel incompetent, needy, and powerless, providing for the development of new skills, creating opportunities for involvement, and providing psychological support are essential managerial/leadership tasks.
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effective managers and leaders are…catalysts
Using human resources theory...Using human resources theory...
whose primary concerns are…support
…empowerment
…servants
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Human resources tasks for Human resources tasks for managers and leaders...managers and leaders...
1. help individuals and group develop a shared sense of direction and purpose
2. balance task and process goals
3. endeavor to make group work both satisfying and efficient
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4. keep on top of a large, complex set of activities
5. get support from bosses6. get support from corporate staff
and other constituents7. motivate, coordinate, and control
large, diverse group of subordinates
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ineffective managers and leaders are…wimps
Abusing human resources Abusing human resources theory...theory...
whose primary concerns are
…making people happy
…managing by abdication
…pushovers
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…personal
Strengths of the human resources Strengths of the human resources theory of practice...theory of practice...
…practical
…addresses fundamental human needs and interests
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…naïve
Limitations of the human Limitations of the human resources theory of practice...resources theory of practice...
…optimistic
…not realistic in a fast-changing environment
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Integrating reflective practice, conceptual Integrating reflective practice, conceptual pluralism, and organizational analysis...pluralism, and organizational analysis...
Analyzing organizations through four frames inculcates the conceptual pluralism needed to diagnose the issues underlying the problems manifesting themselves in human organizations.
the structural frame
the human resources frame
the political frame
the symbolic frame
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This module has focused on...This module has focused on...
the human resources theorieshuman resources theories that managers and leaders can utilize in practice episodes
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the human resources frame
as these theories of practice provide managers a frame of reference to inform decision making, the
offers managers and leaders guidance about the strengths and limits of human resources theory
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People are the heart of any organization. When people feel the organization is responsive to their needs and supportive of their goals, managers and leaders can count on their followers’ commitment and loyalty. Managers and leaders who are authoritarian or insensitive, who don’t communicate effectively, or who simply don’t care about their people can never be effective managers and leaders. The human resource manager and leader works on behalf of both the organization and its people, seeking to serve the best interests of both.
A HUMAN RESOURCES SCENARIO
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The job of the manager and leader is one of support and empowerment. Support takes a variety of forms: letting people know that they are important and that managers and leaders are concerned about them; listening to find out about their followers’ aspirations and goals; and, communicating personal warmth and openness. Human resource managers and leaders empower their followers through participation and openness as well as by making sure that they have the autonomy and the resources they need to do their jobs well. Human resource managers and leaders emphasize honest, two-way communication as a way to identify issues and resolve differences. They are willing to confront others when it is appropriate, but they try to do so in a spirit of openness and caring.
Bolman & Deal (1991, p. 359)
MANAGEMENT AND LEADERSHIPIN A HUMAN RESOURCES SCENARIO
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PrimaryMetaphor forOrganization:
CentralConcepts:
ManagerialAnd
LeadershipImage:
FundamentalChallenge:
Family Tribe Clan
Relationships Self-Interest Needs Feelings Skills
Empowerment Liberation Fulfillment Self-
Actualization
Attuneorganizationaland humanneeds
the human resources frame
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The next module will focus on...The next module will focus on...
and the political science theories that managers and leaders can utilize in practice episodes
the political frame
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Managers and leaders have to recognize political reality and know how to deal with it. Inside and outside any organization, there are always a variety of different interest groups, each with its own agenda. There are not enough resources to give everyone what he or she wants, and there is always going to be conflict.
A POLITICAL SCENARIO
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The job of managers and leaders is to recognize the major constituencies, to develop ties to their leadership, and to manage conflict as productively as possible. Above all, they need to build power bases and use power carefully. They cannot give every group everything it wants, although they can try to create arenas for negotiating differences and coming up with reasonable compromises. Managers and leaders also have to work hard at articulating what everyone in their organizations possesses in common. Managers and leaders must tell the people that it is a waste of time to fight each other when there are plenty of enemies outside that they can all fight together. Groups that fail to work well together internally tend to get trounced by outsiders who have their own agendas.
Bolman & Deal (1991, p. 361)
MANAGEMENT AND LEADERSHIPIN A POLITICAL SCENARIO
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the political frame
PrimaryMetaphor forOrganization:
CentralConcepts:
ManagerialAnd
LeadershipImage:
FundamentalChallenge:
Jungle Self-Interest Power Conflicts Competition Politics Intrigue
Advocate Referee Mediator
Developagenda
Formcoalitions andbuild powerbase
Acquire goodintelligence
Dispenseinformationwisely
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ReferencesReferences
Argyris, C. (1960). Individual actualization in complex organizations. Mental Hygiene, 44(2), 226‑37.
Argyris, C. (1986, Sept.-Oct.). Double loop learning in organizations, Harvard Business Review, 64(5), 74-79.
Argyris, C. (1977, Sept-Oct). Skilled incompetence. Harvard Business Review, 55(5), 115-25.
Argyris, C. (1991). Teaching smart people how to learn. Harvard Business Review, 69(3), 99-109.
Argyris, C., & Schön, D. A. (1974). Theory in Practice: Increasing Professional Effectiveness. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
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Barnard, C. I. (1938/1968). The functions of the executive. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Bolman, L. G., & Deal, T. E. (1997). Reframing organizations: Artistry, choice and leadership (2nd edition). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
DeCharms, P. (1968). Personal causation. New York: Academic Press.
Festinger, L. (1957). A theory of cognitive dissonance. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
Herzberg, F., Mausner, B., & Snyderman, B. B. (1959/1993). The motivation to work. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers.
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Maslow, A. H. (1943). A theory of human motivation. Psychological Review, 50, 370-396.
McGregor, D. (1960). The human side of organization. New York: McGraw Hill.
Sergiovanni, T. J. (1989). Informing professional practice in educational administration. Journal of Educational Administration, 27(2), p. 186.
Weick, K. E. (1995). Sensemaking in organizations. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Inc.
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