The History and Nature of Science in Secondary Education Poster Cera.pdfInquiry and History and...
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Discussion The most definitive thing that can be said is that there is no consensus model of how to teach H&NoS to which state standards adhere. However, this review of state standards yielded 4 distinguishable modalities—general approaches to the inclusion of the H&NoS standard. Within each modality, states fall into a small number of categories. The choices that the standards’ framers have made in regards to H&NoS are clearer to articulate based on these modalities. Inquiry and History and Nature of Science Inquiry standards generally encompass student science laboratory or field-work experiences. Benchmarks cautions that performing inquiry can only help students learn about the H&NoS if their experiences “progressively approximate good science.” Ought students gain the experience in high school of performing self- guided open inquiry in science? Will doing so give them an understanding of the H&NoS? History of…? Nature of…? Just the Science. Seven states do not include H&NoS in the standards at all, or include it only as an option. Based on the Fordham Foundation’s 2006 scores for state standards, the lack of H&NoS does not appear tightly coupled with “thin” standards. Is H&NoS necessary to include in the science standards? Or should the standards include only scientific knowledge? Science as a Human Endeavor in Society “Science as a Human Endeavor” and the relationships between Science, Technology, and Society are closely linked in the state standards. Not all states include these ideas, but those that do tend to include both. What should students be expected to know about the human dimension of the scientific enterprise? History of Theories for Science Content Most states do not specify particular historical episodes that students ought to learn, but some states include the history of certain theories separately from the H&NoS. The Big Bang Theory, Evolution, the Atomic Model, and Cell Theory are very central ideas, but there may be reasons for including this history. Is the History of Science important only for illuminating the Nature of Science? The History and Nature of Science in Secondary Education Cera Lawrence Center for Biology and Society, School of Life Sciences, Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona Background Two major educational reform projects created what the National Assessment for Educational Progress (2009) calls “the best thinking” in science standards: AAAS Project 2061’s Benchmarks for Science Literacy (1993) The National Academy of Science’s National Science Education Standards (1996) Both Benchmarks and the NSES emphasize students learning about science as an enterprise, a way of thinking, and a body of knowledge accumulated over time. Benchmarks refers to such ideas collectively as “The Nature of Science,” and includes a chapter on “Historical Perspectives” to supplement. The NSES wraps both into one chapter, “The History and Nature of Science” (H&NoS hereafter). Together, Benchmarks and NSES have established the consensus that H&NoS instruction is the foundation of secondary school science curriculum, and ought to be included as both a pedagogical framework and a learning goal. Since their publication, each state has created its own science standards and/or curriculum framework. However, each state has responded to the H&NoS guideline in different ways and to different degrees. After a decade and a half of standards-based reform in science education, how has the H&NoS guideline filtered down to the states? How the states incorporate the H&NoS standard matters if the national projects are to achieve reform in secondary science education. Methods Exploratory review: I retrieved the high school science standards documents from each states’ Department of Education website, and skimmed for H&NoS content. Descriptive Coding: Based on the guidelines of Benchmarks and NSES, and the exploratory review, I developed characteristics for which to look in the state standards. Modeling: From coding data, I developed inclusion modalities regarding H&NoS. Benchmarks for Science Literacy (1993) National Science Education Standards (1996) The Nature of Science • The Scientific World View • Scientific Inquiry • The Scientific Enterprise Historical Perspectives History and Nature of Science • Science as a Human Endeavor • Nature of Scientific Knowledge • Historical Perspectives Science as Inquiry How Have State Science Standards Incorporated National Level Curriculum Reform in the History and Nature of Science? Literature cited A Nation at Risk. 1983. National Commission on Excellence in Education. American Association for the Advancement of Science Project 2061. 1993. Benchmarks for Science Literacy. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. Finn, Chester E., Jr., Liam Julian, and Michael J. Petrilli. 2006. The State of State Standards 2006. Thomas B. Fordham Foundation. National Research Council. 1996. National Science Education Standards. Washington, D. C.: National Academy Press. Science Framework for the 2009 National Assessment of Educational Progress. 2008. National Assessment Governing Board. 8 states require the history of the Big Bang Theory 3 states require the history of Cell Theory 10 states require the history of Evolutionary Theory 10 states require the history of the Atomic Model History of Theories for Science Content "Describe how evidence led Darwin to develop the theory of natural selection and explain evolution." – Minnesota (2009) “Utilize benchmark discoveries to describe the historical development of atomic structure.” - Alabama (2005) 25 states include “STS” relationships as a standard 14 states include “Science as a Human Endeavor” as a standard Science in Society “History of Science as a Human Endeavor: Identify individual … contributions to scientific knowledge." – Arizona (2005) “A student should understand the relationships among science, technology, and society.” – Alaska (2006) 22 states separate H&NoS standards from inquiry standards 14 states embed H&NoS with inquiry or vice versa 7 states embed H&NoS with inquiry, but also consider it separately Inquiry and History and Nature of Science "When students engage in Inquiry, they are drawing on their understanding about the nature of science…” Michigan (2006) “Students gain understanding of how the scientific enterprise operates through examples of historical events…” Indiana (2008) 4 states do not include H&NoS as a standard 3 states include a History of Science standard only History of…? Nature of…? Just the Science. " Design and conduct a safe and simple investigation to analyze a scientific question. “ – Nevada (2006) “Students understand historical developments in science and technology." – Montana (2009) Why look at standards? Standards-based educational reform is historically rooted in 1983’s A Nation At Risk, but picked up significant political speed with the “No Child Left Behind” Act of 2001. While state standards are not necessarily representative of classroom practice, they do indicate those learning goals which education policy-makers think most vital. Acknowledgements This work was made possible by funding from the School of Life Sciences at Arizona State University, through the Center for Biology and Society, and by the relentless cheerleading of my mentors: Dean Paul LePore, Professor Julie Luft, Principal Lecturer John Lynch, and Professor Jane Maienschein. Travel funding was graciously provided by AAAS Section L and by SOLS ASU. So What? It is to be expected that each state will have slightly different standards, with quirky characteristics. This descriptive work is useful because the four modalities that emerged from this work serve as tools to further investigate the more interesting question: How did national level reform projects influence state standards in the adoption of the H&NoS guideline? Future historical archive work will use these modalities for case studies to understand how policy makers have decided to include H&NoS. In the context of standards-based education reform and potential nation-wide standards, understanding how the H&NoS guideline has filtered down to the state standards is useful for would-be reformers.
Transcript of The History and Nature of Science in Secondary Education Poster Cera.pdfInquiry and History and...
Discussion
The most definitive thing that can be said is that there is no consensus model of how to teach H&NoS to which state standards adhere. However, this review of state standards yielded 4 distinguishable modalities—general approaches to the inclusion of the H&NoS standard.
Within each modality, states fall into a small number of categories. The choices that the standards’ framers have made in regards to H&NoS are clearer to articulate based on these modalities.
Inquiry and History and Nature of Science Inquiry standards generally encompass student science laboratory or field-work experiences. Benchmarks cautions that performing inquiry can only help students learn about the H&NoS if their experiences “progressively approximate good science.” Ought students gain the experience in high school of performing self-guided open inquiry in science? Will doing so give them an understanding of the H&NoS?
History of…? Nature of…? Just the Science. Seven states do not include H&NoS in the standards at all, or include it only as an option. Based on the Fordham Foundation’s 2006 scores for state standards, the lack of H&NoS does not appear tightly coupled with “thin” standards. Is H&NoS necessary to include in the science standards? Or should the standards include only scientific knowledge?
Science as a Human Endeavor in Society “Science as a Human Endeavor” and the relationships between Science, Technology, and Society are closely linked in the state standards. Not all states include these ideas, but those that do tend to include both. What should students be expected to know about the human dimension of the scientific enterprise?
History of Theories for Science Content Most states do not specify particular historical episodes that students ought to learn, but some states include the history of certain theories separately from the H&NoS. The Big Bang Theory, Evolution, the Atomic Model, and Cell Theory are very central ideas, but there may be reasons for including this history. Is the History of Science important only for illuminating the Nature of Science?
The History and Nature of Science in Secondary Education Cera Lawrence
Center for Biology and Society, School of Life Sciences, Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona
Background Two major educational reform projects created what the National Assessment for Educational Progress (2009) calls “the best thinking” in science standards:
AAAS Project 2061’s Benchmarks for Science Literacy (1993) The National Academy of Science’s National Science Education Standards (1996) Both Benchmarks and the NSES emphasize students learning about science as an enterprise, a way of thinking, and a body of knowledge accumulated over time. Benchmarks refers to such ideas collectively as “The Nature of Science,” and includes a chapter on “Historical Perspectives” to supplement. The NSES wraps both into one chapter, “The History and Nature of Science” (H&NoS hereafter).
Together, Benchmarks and NSES have established the consensus that H&NoS instruction is the foundation of secondary school science curriculum, and ought to be included as both a pedagogical framework and a learning goal. Since their publication, each state has created its own science standards and/or curriculum framework. However, each state has responded to the H&NoS guideline in different ways and to different degrees. After a decade and a half of standards-based reform in science education, how has the H&NoS guideline filtered down to the states? How the states incorporate the H&NoS standard matters if the national projects are to achieve reform in secondary science education.
Methods Exploratory review: I retrieved the high school science standards documents from each states’ Department of Education website, and skimmed for H&NoS content.
Descriptive Coding: Based on the guidelines of Benchmarks and NSES, and the exploratory review, I developed characteristics for which to look in the state standards.
Modeling: From coding data, I developed inclusion modalities regarding H&NoS.
Benchmarks for Science Literacy (1993)
National Science Education Standards (1996)
The Nature of Science • The Scientific World View • Scientific Inquiry • The Scientific Enterprise
Historical Perspectives
History and Nature of Science • Science as a Human Endeavor • Nature of Scientific Knowledge • Historical Perspectives
Science as Inquiry How Have State Science Standards
Incorporated National Level Curriculum Reform in the History and Nature of Science?
Literature cited A Nation at Risk. 1983. National Commission on Excellence in Education. American Association for the Advancement of Science Project 2061. 1993. Benchmarks for Science Literacy. New York, NY:
Oxford University Press. Finn, Chester E., Jr., Liam Julian, and Michael J. Petrilli. 2006. The State of State Standards 2006. Thomas B. Fordham
Foundation. National Research Council. 1996. National Science Education Standards. Washington, D. C.: National Academy Press. Science Framework for the 2009 National Assessment of Educational Progress. 2008. National Assessment Governing Board.
8 states require the history of the Big Bang Theory 3 states require the history of Cell Theory 10 states require the history of Evolutionary Theory 10 states require the history of the Atomic Model
History of Theories for Science Content
"Describe how
evidence led Darwin
to develop the
theory of natural
selection and
explain evolution." !
– Minnesota (2009)
“Utilize benchmark
discoveries to
describe the
historical development of
atomic structure.” !
- Alabama (2005)
25 states include “STS” relationships as a standard 14 states include “Science as a Human Endeavor” as a standard
Science in Society
“History of Science as a
Human Endeavor:
Identify individual
… contributions to
scientific knowledge."!
– Arizona (2005)
“A student
should
understand
the
relationsh
ips
among scienc
e,
technolog
y, and
society.”
– Alaska (2006)
22 states separate H&NoS standards from inquiry standards 14 states embed H&NoS with inquiry or vice versa 7 states embed H&NoS with inquiry, but also consider it separately
Inquiry and History and Nature of Science
"When students
engage in Inquiry,
they are dra
wing
on their
understandin
g
about the nature
of science…
” !
Michigan (2006)
“Students gain understanding of
how the scientific
enterprise operates through
examples of historical events…” !
Indiana (2008)
4 states do not include H&NoS as a standard 3 states include a History of Science standard only
History of…? Nature of…? Just the Science.
" Design and
conduct a s
afe
and simple
investigatio
n to
analyze a
scientific
question. “!
– Nevada (2006)
“Students understand
historical developments in
science and technology."!
– Montana (2009)
Why look at standards? Standards-based educational reform is historically rooted in 1983’s A Nation At Risk, but picked up significant political speed with the “No Child Left Behind” Act of 2001.
While state standards are not necessarily representative of classroom practice, they do indicate those learning goals which education policy-makers think most vital.
Acknowledgements This work was made possible by funding from the School of Life Sciences at Arizona State University, through the Center for Biology and Society, and by the relentless cheerleading of my mentors: Dean Paul LePore, Professor Julie Luft, Principal Lecturer John Lynch, and Professor Jane Maienschein.
Travel funding was graciously provided by AAAS Section L and by SOLS ASU.
So What? It is to be expected that each state will have slightly different standards, with quirky characteristics. This descriptive work is useful because the four modalities that emerged from this work serve as tools to further investigate the more interesting question: How did national level reform projects influence state standards in the adoption of the H&NoS guideline? Future historical archive work will use these modalities for case studies to understand how policy makers have decided to include H&NoS.
In the context of standards-based education reform and potential nation-wide standards, understanding how the H&NoS guideline has filtered down to the state standards is useful for would-be reformers.
