The Greek landscape: problems, prospects and challenges

Theano S. Terkenli

Department of Geography, University of the Aegean, University Hill Mitiline 81100, Lesvos, Greece, E-mail:t.terkenli@aegean.gr;

Tel:++30-6932222994, ++30-210-6197846

Context and objectives

Greek landscapes have been plagued by much neglect, misuse or even Greek landscapes have been plagued by much neglect, misuse or even irreparable destruction, especially since Greece’s era of rapid urbanization irreparable destruction, especially since Greece’s era of rapid urbanization (1950’s and 1960’s) (Pikionis 1963, Simaioforides 1989).(1950’s and 1960’s) (Pikionis 1963, Simaioforides 1989).

The country does not to-date have a Landscape Department (or Directorate) The country does not to-date have a Landscape Department (or Directorate) at the Ministry level, not even at the regional/ local levels.at the Ministry level, not even at the regional/ local levels.

Landscape is absent from most expressions of everyday private or public Landscape is absent from most expressions of everyday private or public life in Greece, whereas in Europe it has repeatedly been attributed with the life in Greece, whereas in Europe it has repeatedly been attributed with the properties of an essential medium and product of a high quality of life; the properties of an essential medium and product of a high quality of life; the essential context of a desirable standard of living.essential context of a desirable standard of living.

Most significant causes: a) rampant urbanization in the 1950’s and 1960’s, rural outmigration and the

abandonment of agriculture and livestock raising and b) out-of-plan/illegal construction and the boom in unplanned tourism growth

and vacation home construction, in the countryside. Within the problem lies its solution: urbanization and tourism. This presentation will elaborate on the deeper causes of the landscape

problem in Greece: its cultural roots, as well as the cultural means to its remedy and rectification.

Greeks are beginning to re-discover landscape, mainly through: a) the country’s urban transformation and b) domestic tourism.

On the cultural constitution of landscape

Landscape= the concept of the environment, as modified by man Landscape= the concept of the environment, as modified by man (Lukermann 1964: 171). “No statement of an area’s environment (Lukermann 1964: 171). “No statement of an area’s environment is pertinent unless specified in the historical and cultural terms of is pertinent unless specified in the historical and cultural terms of its inhabitants… [and] therefore, constantly its inhabitants… [and] therefore, constantly emergingemerging”.”.

All landscapes are cultural: The Landscape School of Geography.All landscapes are cultural: The Landscape School of Geography. We must look into the cultural underpinnings of any landscape We must look into the cultural underpinnings of any landscape

issue, in order to understand, analyze and rectify it: the purpose issue, in order to understand, analyze and rectify it: the purpose of this study.of this study.

The unfulfilled cultural geography of the Greek landscape.

The Greek landscape: a non-entity; overwhelmingly dependent on The Greek landscape: a non-entity; overwhelmingly dependent on public or private economic or political interests. public or private economic or political interests.

Mobilization in matters pertaining to the agricultural landscape in Mobilization in matters pertaining to the agricultural landscape in Greece has only been very recently instigated through European Greece has only been very recently instigated through European Union legislation and subsidized interventions (C.A.P.) that enforce Union legislation and subsidized interventions (C.A.P.) that enforce rural landscape protection and preservationrural landscape protection and preservation

Local interests, input and decision-making concerning the landscape Local interests, input and decision-making concerning the landscape are normally ignored or essentially non-existent. are normally ignored or essentially non-existent.

Two categories of protected natural landscapes have so far been Two categories of protected natural landscapes have so far been established in Greece, «aesthetic forests» and «landscapes of natural established in Greece, «aesthetic forests» and «landscapes of natural beauty», but their existence plays a minimal role in forestry planning. beauty», but their existence plays a minimal role in forestry planning.

Besides international organizations active in Greece (E.U, ICOMOS, Besides international organizations active in Greece (E.U, ICOMOS, W.W.F. etc), most significant factors in landscape policy-making and W.W.F. etc), most significant factors in landscape policy-making and management in essence remain the Archeological Service of Greece, management in essence remain the Archeological Service of Greece, a number of ministries, NGOs, local government or private a number of ministries, NGOs, local government or private stakeholders and certain civic societies.stakeholders and certain civic societies.

Precedence of the State Archaeological Service in legal matters and Precedence of the State Archaeological Service in legal matters and decision-making~ landscape.decision-making~ landscape.

Generally speaking, systematic physical planning interventions have Generally speaking, systematic physical planning interventions have been restricted to metropolitan and urbanized areas and have been restricted to metropolitan and urbanized areas and have predominantly been a long-standing tradition of the design sciences.predominantly been a long-standing tradition of the design sciences.

Nonetheless, Greek urban centers suffer much from a lack of green: Nonetheless, Greek urban centers suffer much from a lack of green: i.e. Athens has the lowest percentage of per capita green space in i.e. Athens has the lowest percentage of per capita green space in the EU: 2,3-3m²; several Greek landscapes are variably endangered.the EU: 2,3-3m²; several Greek landscapes are variably endangered.

Despite serious, but rather sporadic and fragmented, efforts in Despite serious, but rather sporadic and fragmented, efforts in tertiary education institutions around the country, landscape tertiary education institutions around the country, landscape education is still lacking at all levels of the educational system; education is still lacking at all levels of the educational system; slow signs of consolidation in technical and graduate studies slow signs of consolidation in technical and graduate studies programs.programs.

Landscape science, research and practice have been slowly Landscape science, research and practice have been slowly gaining ground in Greece in very recent years. A case in point: gaining ground in Greece in very recent years. A case in point: total lack of Greek landscape maps, a task now in its infancy.total lack of Greek landscape maps, a task now in its infancy.

1990’s: landscape science undergoes a shift from the fragmentary, 1990’s: landscape science undergoes a shift from the fragmentary, peripheral and haphazard preoccupation of the peripheral and haphazard preoccupation of the design sciencesdesign sciences with practical landscape issues--as they developed out of related with practical landscape issues--as they developed out of related design and planning initiatives and spatial interventions--to a more design and planning initiatives and spatial interventions--to a more concerted, focused and systematic landscape approach by several concerted, focused and systematic landscape approach by several more disciplines and practitioners.more disciplines and practitioners.

Mainly a qualitative shift, characterized by its very limited extent Mainly a qualitative shift, characterized by its very limited extent and impact on actual landscape problems and issues in Greece and impact on actual landscape problems and issues in Greece and suffering from disciplinary limits and from the lack of and suffering from disciplinary limits and from the lack of cooperation between academics, practitioners and administrators, cooperation between academics, practitioners and administrators, as well as from effective application in landscape policy.as well as from effective application in landscape policy.

The cultural roots of the problem

Greece’s problematic relationship with its landscape is a cultural problem: traced to lack of a defined and well-developed landscape conscience in the country.

Landscape conscience refers then to the distinctive bonds (conscious or subconscious) that characterize a person’s or a people’s relationships with their landscapes.

Urban origins of a landscape conscience (Terkenli 2010, Manolidis 2008, Stathatos 1996).

Unfulfilled cultural geography of the Greek landscape. Its origins traced in a multitude of factors: deficient

industrialization of the country; the prevalence of a ‘market-place principle’ (McNeill 1978); the role of Greek Orthodox ecclesiastical art in landscape representations; the lack of a sense of environmental commons, etc

Spatial conscience ~ cultural system ~ history of a modern nation-state, caution must be exercised in generalizing and totalizing as regards whole cultures or social systems.

Post-war Greece: modernization and development defined mostly in economic terms, often to the detriment of environmental, socio-cultural or civic values.

Disintegration of the traditional environmental conscience of formerly rural populations regarding outdoor resources.

Landscape never constituted a collective good for most Greeks, and especially for urban Greeks.

Long-term cultural particularities, (clientelism and patronage): responsible for an atrophic civil society (Demertzis 1997). ‘Despite decades of social and economic change, the state still overwhelms civil society, and personal and family ties remain significant in most areas of life... The domination of civil society by the state is an overwhelming fact of Greek economic, social, and political life’ (Legg & Roberts 1997:72).

Environmental/ landscape matters relegated to the jurisdiction of the state and absolved of individual, personal responsibility (detrimental to the environment and the landscape).

Many landscape threats need countering by long-term policies demanding the sacrifice of short-term private interests.

Lack of a well-developed landscape conscience

In search of the urban origins of a landscape conscience, through the past 150 years:

1. Greece never went through a Renaissance, an urban rebirth, a baroque phase. Rather adopted aspects of modernity, a posteriori, by implanting and overlaying them on pre-existing cultural particularities.

2. The landscape ideal and form of representation: the perspective of Greek Orthodox ecclesiastical iconography, powerfully evocative and compelling for all Greeks, to-date. The Greek landscape was constructed by Western painters, in the 19th century, in accordance to romantic ideals: a) archaism and b) orientalism (Terkenli et al. 2001).

3. Greece also never went through a full-fledged industrial revolution. There was not even a bourgeoisie, when the new nation-state of Greece was created, to re-invent the landscape concept, through the urban-rural contradistinction.

Socio-cultural factors in historical perspective

Most significant: lack of a sense of the landscape as a “common good”.

Upon becoming ‘urban’, Greeks lost the old connection with the land, nature, and the landscape. The few already existing urbanites and the first generations of rural migrants never developed a sense of landscape.

Ethically active and vigilant strategy of generous mutuality (community) (Tuan 1986, Ostrom 1990). That has been largely absent in contemporary urban Greek society.

Rather, among Greek cultural characteristics, a “marketplace principle” has persisted in Greek social life, since the antiquities, (McNeill 1978).

The Greek landscape, taken for granted till the end of the 1970’s, was first acknowledged through interconnections emerging then between agricultural modernization and the rural landscape (nature vs society) and through tourism.

The urban turn to the landscape

One common factor in the development of a landscape conscience in the modern European realm: Industrial Revolution. ‘It was precisely this urbanization, and the increasing distancing from nature to which were subjected the population of societies in the process of industrialization, which almost simultaneously created the need for contact with some substitute’ (Stathatos 1996: 16).

Thus, the bourgeoisie reinvented the landscape concept, initially closely tied to the English landscape school.

A series of new landscape spatialities and a sense of landscape conscience ensued through the nostalgia of urbanites for the ‘lost’ countryside.

Greece never went through any of the stages of landscape (conscience) formation that other modern European societies have gone through (Cosgrove 1998; Olwig 2001).

The country retained its rural character until the post-war mass rural migration into the large urban centers.

The cultural means to the rectification of the problem

The seeds of the rectification of the problem lie in Greek a) urbanization and b) tourism.

The basis of this slow, but steady transformation, rests in the reconfiguration of the country’s urban and agrarian identities, the emergence of new notions of urbanity and rurality.

As in all deeper structures, forms and processes of cultural transformation, these changes are slow in coming: again, emerging.

Greek urbanization & the urban way of life

The creation of the need/ acknowledgment of landscape came through insurmountable pressures of urbanization.

Loss of landscape (i.e. forest fires of summer of 2007) and EU’s CAP played a role in the rediscovery of the Greek landscape, but it was mostly, urban culture that propelled changing attitudes:

The need for ‘nature’, and nostalgia for ‘Greece as it used to be’—as opposed to city life: mainly materialized through internal tourism, often in search of identity and ancestral roots.

Tourism: the return to the landscape

Since the early to mid-1990’s, significant growth in domestic tourism.

In the past 10-15 years, Greeks have been rediscovering their landscapes.

Reasons: a) a higher standard of living and intolerable city life conditions, b) aggressive advertisement and promotion of Greek destinations by the state & supply side, and c) the combination of emerging alternative tourism forms & opportunities with the discovery by the Greeks of “long-weekend” tourism.

Greeks, landscape and tourism Study of domestic tourism: among the 3 most significant motives of

Greek domestic tourism, is the ‘environment’ (no explicit “landscape” category): 3rd in people’s preferences, after “holidays and entertainment” and “rest and relaxation” (Tsartas et al. 2001): no surprise, since it is 3S tourism that most Greeks go on vacation in July/ August.

Through domestic tourism, Greek urbanites have slowly began to develop a landscape conscience, to rediscover landscape, and, through it, to rediscover family roots, local histories, ‘authentic’ Greece.

Also, these tourism/ recreation landscapes—mostly rural—have gone through significant transformations~ not only conventional agricultural production, but also landscape symbolism/ representation/ consumption.

They have been turning into urban or semi-urban consumption spaces, through recreation activities and second-home construction.

Thus, the (rural) landscapes themselves have been adjusting to their new uses, through the preservation mainly of landscape forms, for purposes of visual appeal.

Post-war Greek governments launched an intensive promotional campaign at home and abroad (still active today) through publicity photographs and other representations of Greek space (Stathatos 1996):

an imaginary country on which the sun always shines brightly, where the sea is always blue and placid, the houses—of a uniform Cycladic style—are invariably freshly whitewashed, and all of whose inhabitants are permanently cheerful, welcoming and colorful.

Problem: Greece has been exporting, but also consuming this distorted image of itself, for 4 consecutive decades (becoming innate?). Moreover:

Currently, all tourist landscapes begin to resemble one another: u-topian tropical paradises, widely and uniformly (re)produced and standardized..

The new global cultural economy of space: another challenge?

Loss of spatial specificity, a consequence of the changes imposed by capitalism on social and spatial structures, exacerbated through new processes of spatial transformation.

All landscapes are products of the interaction between the human communities that inhabit them and local ecosystems, thus subject to the same cultural—broadly defined—processes of spatial transformation.

Highly interwoven processes of this new global cultural economy of space: the globalization and standardization of landscapes (elements/ dimensions), landscape deconstruction and often redefinition and the loss of pre-existing place/ landscape identity (Terkenli and d’Hauteserre, 2006).

Outcomes: a) formation of new types of landscapes, often disconnected from local geographies and histories and b) commoditization of landscape, in any or all of its dimensions.

Concluding thoughts

With pressure mounting from E.U. and With pressure mounting from E.U. and OECD initiatives for landscape research, OECD initiatives for landscape research, planning and policy, Greece is currently planning and policy, Greece is currently finding itself in a position of having to finding itself in a position of having to struggle to meet its own landscape struggle to meet its own landscape problems and challenges at a fast pace and problems and challenges at a fast pace and to develop its own landscape agenda for to develop its own landscape agenda for the future.the future.

Greece needs, not only to tend to its landscape problems, as these exist so far, but also to protect its landscapes from such globalizing landscape trends.

Principal goal: the re-definition and development of Greek lay landscape conscience: a deep and wholesale cultural overturn, with regard to the landscape and the environment.

Such a task needs to rest on knowledge/ education, active participation in decision-making but mostly immediate action in re-configuring and properly managing our landscape geographies.