The Gothic Cathedral as a Product of the Religious Medieval Mind

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THE GOTHIC CATHEDRAL AS A PRODUCT OF THE MEDIEVAL RELIGIOUS MIND

Ben Crenshaw

Ms. HoskinsMedieval Europe 370

18 March 2009


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For centuries the hundreds of Gothic cathedrals that are sprinkled throughout European cities

have stood as silent symbols of the medieval world. Feelings of awe and mystery surround these

impressive architectural structures: awe because of their size and engineering achievements, and

mystery because of their sacred significance. In his book, The Gothic Enterprise: A Guide to

Understanding the Medieval Cathedral, Robert A. Scott explores the 400 year cathedral-building

period from the twelfth to sixteenth centuries and the various factors that shaped cathedral construction

and use. He begins by asking the general question of how the medieval world acquired the basic

wherewithal (materials, labor, and money) to build these monumental structures. To build a cathedral

today would be quite a challenging task, so how were the people of medieval Europe1

able to pull off

such an astonishing feat? While Scott delves into historical, social, political, and theological causes,

cathedrals were fundamentally a product of the religious mindset of the various social classes of that

time period. The general population of Europe at the turn of the first millennium consisted of three

major social classes: the nobility, which included monarchs, nobles, and local lords; the clergy, which

included the pope, bishops, abbots, and parish priests; and the common working peasant.2

The

peasants, monarchs, and clergy of the Middle Ages each made significant but different contributions to

the cathedral-building process, yet were motivated by similar spiritual beliefs and practices.

To best understand the role that the common person played in the cathedral-building process, it

is necessary to grasp the general political situation in Europe by the twelfth century and the ways this

contributed to basic living conditions. Under the Carolingian dynasty of the eighth and ninth centuries,

the greater part of Gaul was conquered and united, especially during the reign of the Frankish king

Charlemagne (768-814). However, by the middle of the ninth century, the Frankish kingdom had been

partitioned into three states and the process of decentralization had begun. The rise of local lords

seeking to expand their influence of power eroded the control of the Frankish king and contributed to

political insecurity. In addition, external invasions by the Vikings, Magyars (Hungarians), and

1The term Europe is used retrospectively to refer to modern day France, Italy, Germany, Spain, Britain, etc, even though

this term was not used until after the Middle Ages.2 Eventually with the advent to towns, merchant and skilled labor classes developed.


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Muslims in the ninth and tenth centuries added to the general instability and chaos that characterized

these years.

For the vast majority of Europes population, life was a terrifying and difficult endeavor. Most

people were peasant farmers who worked the land on the manor owned by a local lord; as such, they

had no hope of social mobility or a prosperous life. Death was a common occurrence as up to a third

of all infants died by the age of five. The average life-span was only thirty years and by the time a

person reached the age of forty-five or fifty, they were considered elderly (Scott, 212). Sickness and

disease were very common, as was malnutrition. Almost everyone was dependent upon agriculture for

survival and most only harvested enough to live on. The dependency on agriculture for survival meant

that weather played a vital role in determining if one lived or died. Drought and cold weather often

destroyed crops, causing widespread famine and food shortages which led to malnutrition. In addition,

drinking water was often polluted which caused the spread of malicious diseases such as typhoid,

dysentery, and cholera (Scott, 214). Unhealthy diets and a lack of essential vitamins and minerals

resulted in weakened immune systems and the inability to fight disease which spread rapidly due to

poor sanitation. Plagues, such as the Black Death, wiped out entire communities and claimed millions

of lives.

If that were not bad enough, people lived in squalid conditions. Most houses were made of

mud and straw, provided very little protection against the elements, didnt heat well, and easily burned

down (Scott, 214). Violence was very common, dangers from wild animals and outlaws made it

unsafe to travel from community to community, and security depended on protection by manor lords

(Scott, 215-216). Due to looting parties and the political feudal system, local lords grew rich at the

expense of the peasants. All of these factors made life very difficult and dangerous for the common

person, and since there were no state or social institutions providing health, poor relief, or education,

people were mostly left to fend for themselves. In the pre-Enlightenment and pre-Scientific

Revolution world, there was widespread ignorance as to the biological, meteorological, and scientific


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causes of these problems; this meant seemingly simple and practical solutions were not reached. Due

to this lack of knowledge, everyone understood the world with a spiritual and supernatural perspective.

The general dispensation toward the divine coupled with the fact that the Church was the only place

people could turn for help, made religious observance through the Roman Catholic Church one of the

most important aspect of peoples lives.

After its founding during the Roman Empire, the Catholic Church grew and expanded due to

missionary activity and support from the Frankish kings (many of whom were converted, from Clovis

to Charlemagne). Increasingly, the Church played an important role in the lives of the peasants and

farmers. For starters, the Church was one of the only sources of security that people knew. In that

chaotic, dangerous, and violent society, the Church was a bulwark of protection and comfort where

people could find acceptance and a haven from the outside world. Everyone believed in God and

Satan and an actual heaven and hell, and since the Church dictated salvation through the sacraments, it

was imperative that everybody regularly attend mass and partake in the Eucharist. Simply put, without

the Church, ones soul was damned; this was believed to be a literal and frightening reality. The

common view of God was that he was an omnipresent force throughout the world, yet he also existed

more personally and intimately in what was known as sacred spaces. Specifically, the monasteries and

churches that were scattered across the European landscape were believed to be such sacred spaces. It

was important for people to access the divine, but it was thought that this could be done only with the

help of the clergy; thus, people regularly attended church and relied upon it for their spiritual well-

being.

Beyond general church functions, people desired to access the divine for their personal benefit.

Since everything that happened was attributed to supernatural forces, it was vitally important to be on

favorable grounds with God. The death of a child, disease, fire, or crop failures were all interpreted as

punishment from God for wrong doings. Also, it was important to be in good relationship with God in

order to gain protection from natural forces and human enemies. Because peoples religious


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worldviews were intrinsically connected to their survival, without the Church and the ability to access,

experience, and petition the divine, it was very difficult to live. In this role, the Church fulfilled some

very specific functions. Traditionally, important church saints had been buried at certain basilicas and

abbeys, which then became shrines for the veneration of that saint. At this point in the medieval

world, it was generally believed that saints could intercede with God on behalf of those who prayed

and venerated them. The more important the saint had been during his or her lifetime, the closer they

stood to God on the spiritual hierarchy and the more powerful and effective their intercessory prayers

would be. Most people made many pilgrimages3

to churches to visit the shrines of important saints in

order to honor them and petition them to intercede on their behalf. Prayers included requests for

profitable harvests, fertility, good health, and protection from weather, enemies, and the like. It was

believed that an individuals and familys well-being and survival depended upon the success of

gaining Gods favor through intercessory prayer.

In connection to saints, people believed that miracles could be obtained through them

(especially since the qualification of a saint was often connected to a performed miracle). Miracles

were taken for granted in this culture and were defined very broadly to include such things as changes

in weather, recovery from an illness, protection from enemies, and much more. Venerating a saint

often included requests for miracles, which were thought essential for survival. In addition to visiting

shrines, people made pilgrimages to basilicas and churches to gain access to special relics that were

believed to have spiritual radiating power. Coming in close proximity to or actually touching relics

that were related to individual saints could result in miracles and answers to prayer. The relics were

kept in the sacred spaces of churches because they were thought to lose their power if uncovered and

exposed. This meant that people had to travel to see the relics, instead of the relics traveling from one

community to the next. Finally, many people made pilgrimages to major worship centers to be blessed

3 Pilgrims here refer to ordinary peasants, not a specific ethic, racial or religious people group.


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by the bishops and clergy since benedictions were given to bless just about everything imaginable

(Scott, 228).

In exchange for these religious services, the Church sought gifts from the pilgrims. Scott

explains in his book that saints attracted money because pilgrims were expected to leave gifts to

honor the saint and ownership of such goods could be claimed by the cathedral chapter (189).4

Pilgrims were eager to give such gifts because they desired to gain favor and services (such as

miracles) from the saints and their relics. Money and gifts given to confession, saints, relics, and more

were an important source of funds for the cathedrals and allowed the bishops to embark on building

and renovation projects (Scott, 190-191). Another financial byproduct of attracting so many pilgrims

was that large crowds began to draw merchants who would set up shop and sell their goods. Many of

these merchants became a part of fairs licensed by the church and such fairs were another important

source of income for cathedrals (Scott, 228). For the common people, cathedrals provided vital

religious goods and services which they were more than willing to obtain for a fee. Scott summarizes

this concept perfectly when he says that the medieval Church became nearly a bottomless reservoir of

supernatural power, which, in exchange for gifts, it dispensed to the faithful to help them cope with

every imaginable type of problem and situation (228).

Another social class that played an important role in making cathedral-building possible was

the nobility, especially monarchs. The papal-Frankish alliance during the reign of Pippin III in 754

marked the beginning of the papacys alignment with the west and relationship with the Carolingian

kings.5

Under Charlemagne, the Frankish king stood above everyone else (including the pope) as the

supreme ruler of the secular world, being ordained by God to administer peace and spread Christianity.

However, in the proceeding centuries, as central authority broke down in France and the papacy grew

stronger, the pope and king often stood on somewhat equal terms; an uneasy tension often permeated

their relationship. Each sought the exclusive title of being first in Gods eyes, and often this led to

4 A list of the different kinds of gifts given is found on pages 190-191 of Scotts book.5 Barbara Rosenwein,A Short History of the Middle Ages , (Canada: Broadview Press, 2005), 112.


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arguments and clashes.6

The Church also was constantly seeking to establish the clergy as a separate

social class in society, distinct from everyone else and not under the jurisdictional control of local lords

or the ruling monarch. The papacy was continually fighting secular infiltration by local lords who

sought to use the church to strengthen their own power. Corruption, greed, simony, and nepotism were

continual threats.

Although the Catholic Church had succeeded in becoming a strong, centralized, and

independent organization by the twelfth century, there were still theological and religious ties to

different national monarchies. Since both viewed themselves as equal partners in the heavenly

hierarchy (but fulfilling different sacred and secular roles),7

they each supported the other and looked

to the other for help and legitimacy. Due to the difficulties of ruling a kingdom in the eleventh and

twelfth centuries because of diverse populations, poor infrastructure, shifting boundaries, and outside

threats from neighboring monarchs, the king often sought the Churchs support in legitimizing his role

as the sovereign appointed by God. Because of this, the king would often bestow the Church with

money and gifts. Scott explains that this often took the form of gifts to papal building projects,

including grand monastic churches and ornate chapels, as well as cathedrals (229).

It is difficult to judge the motivating factors that determined why kings supported the Church in

these building enterprises. Were there personal and dynastic benefits involved, or were the monarchs

functioning from theological convictions? On the one hand, the king could have been using the

Church to bring divine authority to his rule; monarchs often still had the ulterior goal of gaining an

imagine of sacred rulership, 8

which would enable them to control the prelates9

and gain

jurisdictional power over the Church. Of course there was always the issue of cathedral-building

competitions with other monarchs of rival states; the more grand and spectacular the cathedral, the

more honor and glory was given to the king who financed it.

6 One example of the papal-king clash was over who had the authority to anoint bishops (Scott, 228).7

A diagram in Scotts book on page 220 shows the medieval view of heaven and earth hierarchy.8 Scott quotes art historian Suzanne Lewis (229).9 A prelate is a higher rank ecclesiastical figure such as a bishop.


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However, beyond practical and egotistical benefits, the theological views held by many kings

motivated them to support the Church. Monarchs at this time not only saw themselves quite literally as

soldiers of God, but the king was regarded as a sacred figure anointed by God to rule mankind

(Scott, 228-231). To this end, kings often were those that fought, waging Christian wars against

barbarian peoples to subjugate them and bring them under the influence of Christianity. Within their

own territories, the king was considered sovereign, and Scott makes the interesting insight that the

word sovereign can literally be interpreted as he-who-gives (230). Building great and beautiful

cathedrals was a direct and powerful way for the king to honor Gods Church and fulfill this duty of

royal provider. In his semi-divine role, it was the kings responsibility to support the building of

cathedrals in order to aid the Church in its spiritual responsibilities and please God by glorifying him.

In return, hopefully God would elevate the king, answer his prayers, and bring him power and success.

So we can see that the monarchs fulfilled both a secular and sacred dual role, and that much of

their sacred involvement was motivated by their religious and theological beliefs. The bishops and

priests often reinforced the kings theology of their sacred roles, because the Church needed the states

support and financing to be able to carry out the expensive work of cathedral construction. Scott gives

a perfect example of this in recounting Abbot Sugars theological vision of the king in relationship to

the Church and specifically the function of the Abbey Church of St. Denis in France. Suger believed

the King (Louis VI) to be the Vicar of Godbearing Gods image in his person and bringing it to

life (Scott, 81). With this view being embraced by the clergy it is no wonder that monarchs accepted

it and thus made significant contributions to the Church.

By this point it should be clear that the social classes of commoners (majority of the

population), and the royalty (very small percentage of the population), constituted the religious

foundational support and financial resource that enable the Church to embark on its cathedral-building

crusade. This support was not necessarily a means of social standing, special privilege, or economic


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ability, but was fundamentally an outcome of a spiritual worldview.10

Without this support, the

bishops and archbishops of the Catholic Church would not have been able to build the Gothic

cathedrals that they did. However, simply acquiring the means to build a new church did not

automatically produce the Gothic style. The remaining evolution of the Gothic style rested entirely in

the hands of the bishops, priest, and abbots who had a heavenly vision as to what the cathedral should

look like.

Gothic cathedrals didnt just spring up overnight or develop out of nothing. The previous

architectural style of church building was called Romanesque with its trademark rounded arches, barrel

vaulting, thick walls, and dark interior. Many of the Gothic cathedrals that were built were remodeled

Romanesque churches. If an older abbey or basilica burned to the ground, often a Gothic-styled

cathedral was erected in its place. The two styles often mixed as the slow transition was made from

Romanesque to Gothic. At one point Scott says, the Gothic style evolved slowly out of the

Romanesque, starting from the time when diagonal ribs first were added to groin vaults.11

Eventually,

during the High Gothic period,12

the Gothic look became distinctive and became the antithesis of the

Romanesque (Scott, 14). The difference between a Romanesque and High Gothic church is startling:

the Gothic style soars higher, lets in abundantly more light, and has a lighter (as opposed to heavy)

feel. What accounts for the transition from the Romanesque to the Gothic style and how were these

new architectural innovations introduced? I believe that one of the major driving forces behind the

Gothic style was the spiritual vision held by the prelates.

Many of the spiritual concepts that the clergy held were the same as those of the laity and

common people who frequented the Church, yet their beliefs were more complicated and expressed

themselves in dramatic ways. The idea of sacred space was instrumental in the building of Gothic

cathedrals, yet this concept had of course existed well before the Gothic era. For the clergy, a sacred

space basically meant an appropriate dwelling for God, patterned somewhat after the Old Testament

10However, social class and prosperity did determine to what extent an individual could give.

11 Scott quoting architectural expert, Paul Frankl (116).12 The High Gothic period lasted from 1194-1300.


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idea of the tabernacle. Just like the peasants, the clergy believed that God was omnipresent but that he

could also personally reside in a man-made temple. The bishops and priests didnt take it for granted

that God would inhabit any church building; instead, they thought that it was necessary to attract the

divine being and then induce it to stay (Scott, 152). This led the clergy to build not only large

structures in order to contain God, but also very exquisite and beautiful structures. Since this was to be

Gods dwelling place, there was no holding back as to how grand, glorious, and wonderful it should

be. If the cathedral failed in this regard, or if the bishop overseeing its construction failed to give his

best, this was considered demeaning toward God, which would lead him to vacate the cathedral and

not return. Therefore, the size, beauty, and grandeur of each cathedral were imperative to its function;

if Gods presence was not there, people would not attend the church or give gifts.

Since God was believed to be dwelling in the sacred space of the cathedral, the clergy strove to

make the cathedral mirror their concept of heaven as much as possible. The cathedral was an image of

heaven in the sense that it was supposed to be an imitation of heaven as much as was humanly

possible. The cathedral was really a mediating place between God and man: it brought heaven to

earth, but also, as Scott describes, the Gothic cathedral was intended as a space where people could

get a taste of heaven (121). The bishops who oversaw the construction envisioned heaven as being

both a bright and orderly world. Therefore, filling the cathedral with bountiful light and constructing it

in a perfect geometrical design were major priorities. Light was also important since it was seen as the

perfect medium by which man could experience the divine (Scott, 123). If proper lighting could not be

achieved, the cathedral would not adequately mirror heaven, would fail to attract both the divine and

the laity, and would therefore be useless to the bishop who used it as his center of administration.

Building the Gothic cathedral to be filled with light was a major problem since the earlier

Romanesque style required thick walls and smaller windows, which meant poor interior lighting. In

response to the lighting need, new architectural designs were created to allow greater building heights

of up to three stories, thinner walls as weight was redistributed, and a more airy, porous, and open


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feeling. The three major architectural advancements which so clearly distinguished the Gothic style

were ribbed vaulting, pointed archways, and flying buttresses. The ribbed vaulting (as opposed to

Romanesques barrel vaulting), shifted the weight from all along the solid outside walls to individually

spaced pillars. These open areas between the pillars not only made the cathedral seem less oppressive

and contained, but also allowed for more windows and thus more light. Pointed archways made it

possible to have thinner and higher arches, and the flying buttresses helped shore up the outside walls

since they were thinner and less able to handle the weight of the roof. It is fascinating to realize that all

of these new architectural achievements werent a result of different building materials or solutions to

structural failures, but were created in response to spiritual ideas. As Scott says, in essence, new

structures and forms were invented to solve problems created by theological purposes (133).

Geometry and order also played a very significant role in determining cathedral shape and

construction. Because the designers were trying to reconstruct an imitation of heaven according to the

clerical understanding of heaven, the cathedral was a model of symmetry, perfect geometric

proportions, and repeated patterns and volumes. Scott explains in some depth that these ideas were

drawn from St. Augustines13 theological works on geometry, beauty, music, and modulation (Scott,

123-124). Since most of the designers and bishops who oversaw the building projects had been

educated in religious schools they would have been well versed in these concepts and eager to

implement them in their work (Scott, 124). Therefore, every part of the cathedral was purposeful and

exact, with each section relating to the whole to produce a coherent and unified structure.

Another example of how clerical worldviews shaped cathedrals relates to their belief that the

sacred must not be profaned by the secular. Since God was dwelling in the cathedral, it was vitally

important that the structure remain holy and purified from outside contaminating forces. It was

thought that if the sacred space could not be kept holy, God would not want to stay there since he

would not be protected from pollution by the profane. This led to the cathedrals being built in such a

13 St. Augustine of Hippo lived from 354-430 and is considered one of the fathers of Christian theology.


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way as to clearly mark the boundaries between the sacred and secular (Scott, 152). The towering

outside walls shut the cathedral off to everyone and the only way to gain access was by permission

through the front gates.14 Within the cathedral itself there were also zones of sacredness: the further in

and the higher up one progressed, the more sacred and exclusive the cathedral space became. Scott

explains that the transition from one zone to the next is always marked in some way, most commonly

by one or more steps, which signal an increase in the degree of hallowedness (158). The nave was the

least sacredplace where the laity would stand during the liturgy. They could not access the high altar

and choir which were up yet more flights of steps and cordoned off by a choir screen. This area the

presbytery was only accessible to the bishop and choir when performing their liturgical duties.

The religious views of the clergy not only established the design and construction of the

cathedral, but also served to determine its function. This is where the spiritual perspectives of the

clergy and common people overlapped as the peasants made the clergys functional vision a reality.

As was mentioned before, important apostolic and later church saints were often buried in cathedrals in

order to preserve their sacredness and give them appropriate access to pilgrims. This of course

brought in money to the cathedral chapter from the myriad of gifts left by pilgrims seeking answer to

prayers and miracles. Bishops also sought to acquire as many relics as possible for a number of

reasons. First, since relics were believed to lose their spiritual power if not stored properly, it was

necessary to keep them in sacred spaces such as cathedrals, and this drew many people who wanted to

view and touch them. Second, relics were thought not only to sanctify the place they were kept, but

also physically protect the surrounding area. Scott says that abbeys, monasteries, and cathedrals were

anxious to obtain them [relics] as a way of discouraging attacks from predators and enemies, who

would fear incurring divine wrath (195). The numerous benefits of acquiring relics led bishops to

obtain them in any way possible. Soon, a market for stolen relics evolved as bishops squabbled over

who had the right to what relics. Finally, and most obviously, the religious views of the clergy dictated

14 Often the front gates were used only on ceremonial occasions so the side porches would be used for weekly access.


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the form and content of the liturgy and specific rituals that were carried out. The liturgy was always

performed in Latin, which the laymen could not understand; this made the cathedral experience all the

more awesome and mysterious to them, impressing them with a reverence for the divine. There were

weekly rituals for cleansing the laity in preparation for services and communion, but also more

ceremonial rituals reserved for specific times such as the Palm Sunday celebration.15

In conclusion, it seems evident that the Gothic cathedral was very much a product of the

religious mindset of the common people, royalty, and the clergy. The peasants and monarchs each

supported the church in many ways, but most importantly through financial contributions. They did

this in order to gain Gods favor and gain strength, comfort, protection, and hope.16

Upon this

foundation of support the prelates were able to design and build their theological visions of sacred

spaces dedicated to worshipping God and mediating between God and his people. Each social group

contributed significantly and I believe that the cathedrals could not have been built if one of these

classes had failed to help. Scott sums it up nicely in a quote from art historian Erwin Panofsky: In its

imagery, the High Gothic cathedral sought to embody the whole of Christian knowledge, theological,

moral, natural, and historical, with everything in its place and that which no longer found its place

suppressed (129). However, it is also important to keep in mind that the religious and theological

explanation for the building of cathedrals is only one part of the overall picture. The development of

the Gothic cathedral was not a straight-forward and simple evolution since there were many other

factors involved. Economic revival and rebirth in the tenth and eleventh centuries saw the rise of a

merchant and skilled labor class, the flow of monetary capital, and the development of cities. Since the

cathedral was an urban structure, this economic upturn certainly played a part in making the cathedral

building enterprise a reality. Also during the tenth century, religious reforms in the monasteries began

to transform the church and eventually the papacy. This reform and the further theological

development probably also factored into the cathedral-building centuries. Beyond this, Im sure there

15Scott describes this ritual procession in detail (166-168).

16 The common man also supported cathedral construction in the practical ways of providing labor (on and off site) and

materials.


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were other political and socio-economic reasons that contributed to the cathedral phenomenon; I have

only sought to explore the religious perspective and the impact it made.

Regarding the Gothic cathedral as an enduring symbol of the Western medieval European

world, I think that in many ways Robert Scott has done a superb job of tracing all the different factors

and elements that contributed to building the cathedrals. On the surface it may seem that the cathedral

was just another church, similar to ours today just slightly bigger with different decorations and

architecture. Even though the cathedral is definitely a religious structure I think it is a great symbol for

all of medieval European society. It was a haven and safe shelter for the peasants who suffered

unimaginable difficulties and trials. It also served as the place of their religious expressions and piety

as they sought help for daily living. It symbolizes the clerical beliefs of sacred space, heaven on earth,

veneration of saints and relics, and the routine of weekly services. Practically, it provided the means of

income and administration by which the bishops could effectively rule their dioceses and pastor the

souls under their care. Politically it symbolizes the contributions made by monarch both for pragmatic

reasons, but also for theological ones. It also symbolizes the power struggle between the clergy and

nobility and the mutually support each gave to the other. Through the Gothic cathedral, we can get an

accurate snapshot from a variety of angles that helps us understand what life was really like for

different people in medieval society.

The Gothic Cathedral as a Product of the Religious Medieval Mind

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