The Generation of Innovations From the book: Diffusion of Innovations Everett M. ROGERS Roberta...
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Transcript of The Generation of Innovations From the book: Diffusion of Innovations Everett M. ROGERS Roberta...
The Generation of Innovations
From the book: Diffusion of Innovations
Everett M. ROGERS
Roberta Campos
April 2008
Innovation-Development Process
Diffusion and Adoption
Consequences
Diffusion and Adoption
TIME
% ADOPTERS
Innovation-Development Process
Needs / Problems
Research(Basic and
Applied)
Development
Commercialization
Diffusion and Adoption
Consequences
Past Tracer StudiesPast diffusion studies
Innovation-Development Process
Needs / Problems
Research(Basic and
Applied)
Development
Commercialization
Diffusion and Adoption
Consequences
Need or problem
Starting point of the process
May be a future problem foreseen by a scientist. Ex: Labor shortage for tomato farmers
May rise as a priority on a system’s agenda Ex: Shift from an individual-blame
perspective to a system-blame view on traffic safety
Innovation-Development Process
Needs / Problems
Research(Basic and
Applied)
Development
Commercialization
Diffusion and Adoption
Consequences
Basic and Applied Research
Basic research: original investigations for the advancement of scientific knowledge without specific objectives.
Applied research: scientific investigation that are intended to solve practical problems.
Technological innovation: result of an interplay of scientific methods and practical problems.
Measure of success of research is the number of patents
Serendipity
Sometimes, one invention is made while pursuing a different innovation
Accidental discovery of a new idea.
Ex: Post-it!, Rogaine (hair-restorer) / Viagra
Innovation may be developped by users as well as by manufacturers.
Innovation occurs when information is exchanged on needs and technological solutions.
Ex: Warfarin (p. 150 / 151)
Innovation-Development Process
Needs / Problems
Research(Basic and
Applied)
Development
Commercialization
Diffusion and Adoption
Consequences
Development
Process of putting a new idea in a form that is expected to meet the needs of an audience of potential adopters (p. 137).
Technology is shaped by social patterns, it is influenced by social norms and values.
Ex: Gas refrigerator X Electric refrigerator
Development
Skunkworks: Small and « subversive » units within an organization that develop creative innovation.
Source of creativity outside the bureaocratic and large R&D departments.
Development: technological transfer
Traditional view of technological transfer: one-way process through which (basic and applied) research results are put into practice. (Technology mainly seen as hardware)
Technology transfer: « exchange of technical information between the R&D workers who create a technological innovation and the users of the new idea » (p. 140)
It is a two-way exchange and communication process.
Implies the arrival of practical information to the research and development moment.
Development: technological transfer
US X Japan
US R&D leader in creating technological innovations.
Japan: more effective in the transfer of technologies into commercial products.
Ex: VCR
1950’s: Ampex clients were TV stations.
Ampex R&D suggested a miniaturized VCR for home use => Management sold the rights to Sony Corp.
Today, no American company produces the VCR.
Innovation-Development Process
Needs / Problems
Research(Basic and
Applied)
Development
Commercialization
Diffusion and Adoption
Consequences
Commercialization
It is the conversion of an idea from research into a product for sale in the marketplace.
Production, manufacturing,
packaging, marketing,
communication, distribution, pricing
Commercialization
Technological cluster: two or more innovations market together to ease diffusion
Ex: Xerox PARC (Palo Alto Research Center) – By 1977
Commercialization:The PARC Example
Xerox PARC (Palo Alto Research Center)
In 1970, it was created to develop the office of the future.
By 1977, the PARC had developped: The world’s first personnal computer
The mouse
Icons and pull-down menus
Laser printing
Ethernet technology - network
Commercialization: The PARC Example
What generated this amazing performance? Outstanding R&D personnel sourced from:
the US Dep. of Defense’s Advanced Reserch Agency and Universities (MIT, Stanford, etc)
a nearby computer company that failed SRI International led by a visionary computer
scientist (invented the mouse)
PARC management style encourages innovation (favorable organizational culture)
Employees used innovation in their daily work Microprocessor (crucial prior innovation) just invented
in the early 1970’s.
Commercialization: The PARC Example
But why Xerox was unable to commercialize this technologies in the market place? Company sees itself as in the office copier business. Only
the laser printing fits this business mission.
No effective mechanism was created for technology transfer from PARC to the commercialization divisions in Xerox.
PARC in Palo Alto, CA and the Manufacturing center in NY.
Technological transfer happened when Steve Jobs hired several PARC engineers.
Innovation-Development Process
Needs / Problems
Research(Basic and
Applied)
Development
Commercialization
Diffusion and Adoption
Consequences
Diffusion and Adoption Innovation gatekeeping concept: controls whether or
not an innovation should be diffused to an audience.
Role of the diffusion agencies in agricultural and medical sectors.
National Institute of Health (1978) => consensus development: process that gathers scientists, practitioners, consumers, and others to reach agreement on the safety and effectiveness of an innovation.
Clinical trials conducted in the commercialization phase: evaluate the innovation under real life conditions.
Innovation-Development Process
Needs / Problems
Research(Basic and
Applied)
Development
Commercialization
Diffusion and Adoption
Consequences
Consequences
Changes to an individual or a community as a result of the adoption (or rejection) of an innovation.
Initial needs / problems are solved or not.
Socioeconomic impact of innovations
Ex: Tomato-harvesting
Consequences: Tomato-harvesting example
Motivation for mechanical harvester developement:
Risk of labour shortage: end of the bracero program in 1964
Intented to save the tomato industry
Development of large harvesters to cope with the size of the tomato production in California
Consequences: Tomato-harvesting example
Before the technology (1962): 4,000 farmers
50,000 farmworkers, mostly Mexican men immigrants
Soft tomatoes (bruises easily in mechanical harvesting)
After the technology (1971) 600 farmers
1,152 machines and 18,000 workers (80% women / a few Mexican)
Hard tomatoes (do not bruise easily) – fewer vitamins
Consequences: Tomato-harvesting example
Consequences:
32,000 former hand pickers out of work
Reduction of the number of producers
Industry concentration
What if the scientists had developed a smaller machine, affordable for small famers? How the social impact would differ?
Tracing the Innovation Process
Key learnings from tracer studies: Applied research contributes more directly to
creation of an innovation than does basic research.
Major technological advances require a cluster of innovations (Ex: The mechanical harvester and the harder tomato type).
A relatively long period (10 to 20 years) is needed between an innovation in basic research and its practical application. Basic research results « need to age ».
Reserch is often conducted without a practical application to a certain problem in mind. A considerable degree of serendipity may occur.
Weakenesses of tracer studies
All retrospective
Focus on important technological innovation: the heart pacemaker, oral contraceptives. How it works for less important innovations?
Should we trace non-successful innovations?
Accidental aspects are less likely to be fully reported on data available.
Thank you!