The First Two Years: Psychosocial Development Slides prepared by Kate Byerwalter, Ph.D., Grand...

The First Two Years: Psychosocial Development

Slides prepared by Kate Byerwalter, Ph.D., Grand Rapids Community College

The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence by Kathleen Stassen Berger

Chapter 7

Seventh Edition

Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7th Edition, Chapter 7

What does “psychosocial” mean? Psychosocial development is the

combination of emotional and social development.

During infancy, interactions with sensitive, responsive caregivers foster psychosocial development.


The First Year

At birth: distress and contentment

Social smile appears around 6 weeks

Anger (as early as 4 months)

Fear Stranger wariness Separation anxiety

Emotional Development in Infancy


Can anyone relate to this one?

JOURNAL-COURIER / TIFFANY HERMON / THE IMAGE WORKS


The Second Year

Fear and anger, laughing and crying become more discriminating

New emotions appear: pride, shame, embarrassment, guilt

These emotions require a sense of self Dot-of-rouge experiment

Emotional Development in Infancy (cont.)


Self Awareness

The realization that one is a unique person separate from others

Emerges around 15-18 monthsMeasured by reaction to dot of rouge on face Is the prerequisite for pride, guilt, shame,

embarrassment, jealousy, empathy


Make it Real: Pride and Shame Have you ever heard a caregiver “put

down” a young child? Explain.

In what specific ways can caregivers foster a young child’s sense of pride? Make a list.


Pride and Shame

“It seems that building self-esteem results not from praising young children, but from enabling them to accomplish things that make them feel proud.”

(Berger, 2005)


Theories about Caregiving

There are several theories of how the interaction between caregiver and infant shapes the infant’s behavior, personality, and relationships with others.


Freud believed that conflicts during the oral and anal stages shaped the infant’s later personality.

Example: Too strict toilet training may lead to an anal retentive personality.

Psychoanalytic Theory


Erik Erikson’s First Two Psychosocial Stages

Trust vs. Mistrust: quality of care in the first year shapes the infant’s view of the consistency and predictability of the world

Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt = basic need to gain self-rule or feel ashamed that it doesn’t happen


Behaviorism

Infant’s emotions and personality are molded as parents reinforce or punish child’s spontaneous behavior.

Social referencing strengthens learning by observation.


Cognitive Theory

Cognitive Theory states that infants form a concept of what to expect from people.

The result is a working model, a set of assumptions about relationships.

Example: An infant learns to expect that people can be trusted (or not).


Epigenetic Theory

Epigenetic theory holds that child-rearing practices shape inborn predispositions.

Example: A “naturally” fearful infant becomes less fearful in the context of a supportive parent who encourages bravery.


Temperament: An Example Of Epigenetic Theory

Temperamental traits originate in one’s genes, but are influenced by experience.

Examples: Infants differ in their reactions to new situations (fearful or bold); some infants cry easily, others seem “born tough”.


Temperament (cont.)

CORROON AND COMPANY / MONKMEYER


Measuring Temperament

The NYLS relied on parent reports and direct observations to categorize infants as:

EASY (40%) SLOW TO WARM UP (15%)DIFFICULT (10%)HARD TO CLASSIFY (35%)


Temperament and Caregiving

It is important to appreciate each child’s unique temperament.

Goodness of fit: the match between the child’s temperament and the environment

This is especially important for a child with a difficult temperament


Sociocultural Theory

Sociocultural theory places a strong emphasis on the role of the entire social context on infant development.

Ethnotheory states that child-rearing practices (e.g., co-sleeping or not) are embedded within each culture or ethnic group.


Make it Real: Ethnotheory The text describes the reaction of Mayan

parents to their 18-month-old son’s refusal to wear pants; this is contrasted to how Western parents might react.

After reading the passage, think about your own reaction. How much are your thoughts influenced by your culture?


Proximal and Distal Parenting

A study of West African and Greek parents found differences in infant-caregiver play.

West African mothers were more likely to use proximal parenting (keeping the infant physically near), whereas Greek parents used distal parenting (physically distant).


Proximal and Distal Parenting (cont).

The researchers found that proximal parenting at 3 months predicted more compliant behavior at 1½ yrs; whereas distal parenting predicted greater self-recognition (a sign of independence).


The Development of Social Bonds

Synchrony: coordinated interaction between caregiver and infant that starts the process of attachment

MYRLEEN FERGUSON CATE / PHOTO EDIT


Early Emotional Responses Interactions between caregiver and infant

are crucial for emotional development (i.e., synchrony).

Still face technique = studying synchrony by assessing infant’s reaction when caregiver halts synchronous behavior…(infants don’t like it!).


Attachment

Attachment is a close emotional bond between infant and caregiver(s) that develops gradually over the first year of life.


Signs of Attachment

It is easy to know if a parent is attached to an infant (they pull out the wallet full of pictures, talk lovingly about the infant, etc.).

But how do we know how the infant feels about the parent?


Signs of Attachment

Infants show their desire to be with a caregiver through:

contact-maintaining behaviors (e.g., smile, hold on to person), and

proximity-seeking behaviors (e.g., crawl toward person).


Measuring Attachment

Mary Ainsworth measured attachment through the “Strange Situation”

Performed when infant is around 1 year old

Results have correlated with child outcomes later in life


Measuring Attachment

Strange Situation is a laboratory procedure assessing:

Exploration of the toysReaction to caregiver’s departureReaction to caregiver’s return


Categories of Attachment

Secure Attachment = Yes, explore toysMay cry upon caregiver leavingHappy to see caregiver return

Long-term outcomes are positive (e.g., good social skills, well-liked, happy kids)



Insecure-Resistant Attachment:Little to no exploration of toysCry when caregiver leavesRemains upset (cry/anger) upon

caregiver’s return

Long-term outcomes include dependence (especially for girls) or aggression (especially for boys)



Insecure Avoidant AttachmentYes, explores the toysDoesn’t cry when caregiver turnsAvoids or ignores caregiver upon return


Attachment Categories

Disorganized Attachment

Infant demonstrates bizarre, inconsistent behavior toward the parent

Infants in this category may have been abused or neglected

Outcomes for them are often negative


Secure Attachment is Likely When:

The parent is:

sensitive to child’s needsresponsive to signalsengages in infant-caregiver playnot overly stressed

And when the infant is “easy”


Attachment Over Time

An infant can change attachment status over time, especially if the social setting changes.Examples: divorce, abuse, remarriage

Overall, secure attachment in infancy is associated with positive outcomes later in life.


Make it Real: Attachment

Think of someone you know who has difficulty in relationships (could be you). How might early attachment experiences influenced his or her ability to form connections with others?


Looking to others for cues for how to feel, especially in a new situation

Example: If a caregiver shows fear of a situation, the infant likely will too!

This shows that emotions can be learned

Social Referencing


Referencing Mothers

A study by Kochanska (2001) found that in general, infants and toddlers obey their mother’s requests, especially if the mother was convincing in her tone and choice of words.

(Yes, toddlers do have the ability to obey!)


Referencing Fathers

Fathers today spend considerable time with their children, and research is just beginning to document the importance of this relationship.


Make it real: Referencing Fathers

In what ways do you think fathers interact with infants differently than mothers?


Referencing Fathers (cont.)

Fathers tend to:Be more encouraging of infant explorationEngage in more physical, noisy, emotional playEngage in teasing

Infants tend to:Comply with father’s commands more often


Infant Day Care

As more infants spend time in nonparental care, the question of the effects of that care on child development continues to be debated.

The most comprehensive study to date is conducted by the NICHD Early Child Care Research Network


Types of Infant Day Care Family day care: children cared for in

home of a paid caregiver

Center day care: several paid providers care for children

Our textbook author suggests that center care may be the best option, but even licensed centers vary in quality!


Some Results of the NICHD Study

Even 40 hours a week of infant child care had considerable less influence than the mother-infant relationship on child outcomes.

Secure attachment was just as likely among infants in center care as those raised at home.


More Results

Quality of child care is important.

How time is spent when the infant is home is important as well.


Infant Day Care…Who can afford it?

Infant day care is often more expensive than care for a toddler or preschooler.

Higher-income homes are more likely to use center care, due to the cost.

Some countries (not the U.S.) have government funded care for all children.

The First Two Years: Psychosocial Development Slides prepared by Kate Byerwalter, Ph.D., Grand...

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