The First Generals

1970

Elizabeth Hoisington, Director WAC

Anna Mae Hays, Chief Army Nurses

Some A, B, Cs

Eighty-five per cent of the military are men and eighty-five per cent of military women are enlisted. Thus, women officers are a little over two per cent of those in uniform.

Every officer starts as an O-1 and moves through the ranks. It takes more than 20 years to even become eligible for a star

Evaluation for promotion follows a schedule and is an up or out system

Rules Change and Differ

The rules change over time. Women who enter at different times have different opportunities and different demands, e.g. sea duty rotation

The services offer different opportunities– Army– Navy……Marines– Air Force– Coast Guard

Civilian Influences

Civil Rights Act of 1964

Equal Pay Act 1963

ERA passes Congress 1972

Concurrent majority ends the draft 1973

Court decisions– 1973 Frontiero v Richardson– 1976 Crawford v Cushman– 1978 Owens v Brown

Equality Norm and “Use

• The military knows it needs to respond to the new equality norm

• The end of the draft means a new pool (women) for recruiting is welcomed

• But how are women to be “used” if combat remains off the table

The Brass Ceiling

The giant step is colonel/captain (O-6)to general/admiral (O-7,8,9,10)

Percent of active duty officers who are womenArmy 15%, Navy 15%, Air Force 18%, Marines 6%

Percent of women officers who are O-6s.(Many are nurses) Army 12%, Navy 12%, Air Force 12%, Marines 3%

Small Numbers

Total Authorized Generals and Admirals About 880

Total Women Generals or AdmiralAbout 55 or about 6%

Big fall off from roughly 12%

Particular rank goes with particular jobs; if not eligible for top jobs, not eligible for top rank

Intersectionality?

Women OfficersWhite 69%Black 17%Hispanic 5%Others 9%

Women Generals and Admirals White 87%, 9% Black, Others 4%

Promotion System

• Central board considers “whole officer” based on fitness reports (and a picture)

• Reviews are regular and based on time in service and time in rank

• Some are promoted “below the zone”• Total number of generals and admirals set by

law—a “vacancy” is required• Recommendations for senior rank are reviewed

by the President and then go to the Senate for confirmation

Difficulties for Women

Navy and Air Force women eligible for combat less than 20 years

Ground combat still officially prohibited for Army and Marine women

Deployments--“Always ready”

Family– Majority of senior women have been or are

married and around 30% have given birth

Conclusion

• Nurses distort the picture. They are numerous but only the heads of each corps is likely to win a star

• More and more women have the experience to be eligible for a star

• Getting the right assignments and mentors are important

• Women officers have supportive networks

Ann Dunwoody First Four Star

2009

Every Day Special Day