The firms’ use and customers’ perception

of Facebook in the context of

customer-based brand equity

A case study of professional team sport organizations

Master’s thesis in Business Administration

Authors: Söndra Brand

Moritz Justus Klein

Tutor: Desalegn Abraha

Jönköping, May 2012

i

Acknowledgments

We would like to thank our supervisor, Desalegn Abraha, for his support, critical feed-

back, and his patience in discussions during the process of writing this thesis. Further-

more, we are thankful to the students in our seminar group, who commented on our

thesis and gave valuable input.

Söndra Brand Moritz Justus Klein

Jönköping International Business School, May 2012

ii

Master’s Thesis in Business Administration

Title: The firms’ use and customers’ perception of Facebook in the

context of customer-based brand equity

Authors: Söndra Brand

Moritz Justus Klein

Tutor: Desalegn Abraha

Date: 2012-05-14

Subject terms: Customer-based brand equity; professional team sport; sports

marketing; Facebook

Abstract

Purpose: The purpose of this thesis is to provide a holistic understanding of how

Facebook is used by professional team sport organizations to strengthen customer

based-brand equity and how these attempts are perceived by the customers with a focus

on the derived benefits.

Frame of reference: Customer-based brand equity is conceptualized, modified and

employed to the realm of Facebook. Moreover, a communication model is modified in

order to link marketing communications in a hypermedia environment with customer-

based brand equity.

Methodology: An abductive approach is chosen and a collective case study applied as

research strategy. The selected cases are Manchester United and Arsenal London. First-

ly, quantitative content analysis is used to analyze the Facebook pages of both cases.

Secondly, eleven semi-structured interviews are conducted to understand the customer’s

perception of and values associated with the respective club’s Facebook page.

Conclusions: The findings of this thesis show that a firm’s usage of Facebook as a me-

dium of communication can strengthen customer-based brand equity. While in both

cases most Facebook content evolves around product related posts, it is found that the

clubs communicate slightly different. Arsenal posts significantly more non-product re-

lated content involving fans than ManU. The communication tool that is most inten-

sively used by both organizations is the link, forwarding users to the official website.

The identified benefits on behalf of the interviewees embrace fan identification and

peer-group acceptance as well as socializing/companionship, emotions and

entertainment. Visuals have been identified as important among the sample. Customers

strongly value content that evolves around non-product related posts that focus on fans,

while fan integration is generally demanded in a more qualitative manner

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Table of Contents

1 Introduction .......................................................................... 1

1.1 Background ................................................................................... 1 1.2 Problem discussion ....................................................................... 2 1.3 Purpose ......................................................................................... 5

1.4 Research questions ....................................................................... 5

2 Frame of reference ............................................................... 6

2.1 Marketing communications ............................................................ 6

2.1.1 Marketing communications in a hypermedia environment .................................................................................. 7

2.2 Brand equity .................................................................................. 9 2.3 Linking marketing communications and brand equity .................. 15

3 Methodology ....................................................................... 17

3.1 Research stages ......................................................................... 17 3.2 Research philosophy ................................................................... 17 3.3 Approach to theory ...................................................................... 18

3.4 Research design ......................................................................... 19 3.5 Research strategy ....................................................................... 19 3.6 Method choice ............................................................................. 20

3.7 Time horizon ............................................................................... 21 3.8 Data collection ............................................................................. 21

3.8.1 Data collection content analysis........................................ 21 3.8.2 Data collection interviews ................................................. 22

3.9 Data analysis ............................................................................... 22

3.9.1 Data analysis content analysis.......................................... 23

3.9.2 Data analysis interviews ................................................... 24 3.10 Quality assessment ..................................................................... 25

3.10.1 Quality assessment content analysis ................................ 25

3.10.2 Quality assessment interviews.......................................... 26

4 Empirical findings .............................................................. 28

4.1 Content analysis .......................................................................... 28

4.1.1 Intra-case results Manchester United ............................... 28 4.1.2 Intra-case results Arsenal London .................................... 29

4.1.3 Inter-case results Manchester United and Arsenal London ........................................................................................ 30

4.2 Semi-structured interviews .......................................................... 31

4.2.1 Information sources .......................................................... 33

4.2.2 Symbolic brand benefits ................................................... 33

4.2.3 Experiential brand benefits ............................................... 35 4.2.4 Measures to increase the value for customers ................. 37

5 Analysis............................................................................... 39

6 Conclusions ........................................................................ 45

7 Discussion .......................................................................... 47

7.1 Contributions to research ............................................................ 47

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7.2 Future research ........................................................................... 47

7.3 Managerial implications ............................................................... 48 7.4 Limitations ................................................................................... 49

List of references ..................................................................... 50

Appendices .............................................................................. 55

Appendix 1: Findings content analysis ................................................... 55 Appendix 2: Interview guide ................................................................... 67 Appendix 3: Codebook .......................................................................... 68

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Figures

Figure 1: The communication process................................................................. 6 Figure 2: Traditional 'one to many' marketing communications model ................. 7 Figure 3: A model of marketing communications in a hypermedia environment .. 8 Figure 4: Brand knowledge ............................................................................... 11 Figure 5: Linking interactive marketing communications and customer-based

brand equity ......................................................................................... 16 Figure 6: The research onion ............................................................................ 17 Figure 7: Forms of communication ManU .......................................................... 28 Figure 8: Forms of communication Arsenal ....................................................... 29 Figure 9: Applied customer-based brand equity model ..................................... 42 Figure 10: Facebook as a means to strengthen customer-based brand equity . 43

Tables

Table 1: Overview and explanation of brand image components ...................... 14 Table 2: Coding categories: Attributes and forms of communication ................. 23 Table 4: Forms of communication overview ...................................................... 30 Table 5: Detailed frequencies of product and non-product related attributes ..... 31 Table 6: Overview of interviewee characteristics ............................................... 32 Table 7: Benefits as identified in other studies and in this thesis ....................... 41

1

1 Introduction

This section introduces the reader to this thesis by providing background information and a problem discus-sion that sheds light on the topic under study. On the basis of the problem discussion, the purpose of the the-sis and the research questions are derived.

1.1 Background

Within the field of marketing communications there have been tremendous changes in the

last ten years. As a result of rapidly increasing progress in information technology, the

forms of interaction between customers and organizations changed from a former predom-

inantly ‘indirect communication’ via mass media to a more ‘direct communication’ allowing

firms to contact the customer directly through the Internet in general, and social media in

particular (Van Bruggen et al. 2010). Moreover, customers increasingly communicate with

each other through social media sites, which leads to a growing number of companies con-

tributing – for example – actively to forums or blogs and participating in Facebook (Van

Bruggen et al. 2010). Among the growing number of companies using Facebook are the ten

most valuable brands in the world as listed in the Interbrand “Best Global Brands” ranking

2011 (Interbrand, 2012). Facebook seems so promising for companies due to the possibil-

ity of positively influencing the brand image and reaching out to a high and rapidly growing

number of (potential) customers worldwide relatively easy. As of January 2009, Facebook

had 175 million monthly active users worldwide (Kaplan & Haenlein 2010). By the end of

March 2012, this number increased to 901 million (Facebook 2012). In comparison, the to-

tal population of the EU-27 member states as of January 2011 was estimated to 502,5 mil-

lion (Eurostat 2011).

According to the number of users, Facebook is broadly accepted in today’s society. Our era

in the northern countries is characterized by individualism, which is the consequence of the

modern liberation from social bonds. This era is embodied by the ‘ordinary individual’,

which refers to individuals producing and expressing their own existence and differentia-

tion from others through personal actions (Cova & Cova 2002). As a consequence of

modernism, society nowadays is highly fragmented and became more egocentric. These

tendencies were amplified by modern technology as a catalyst for isolation, but at the same

time allows communicating with people in the virtual space. In line with this, Cova and

Cova (2002 p.4) describe our society as a “period of severe social dissolution and extreme

individualism”. While people detached from social restrains, a reverse inclination can be

observed with a shift towards a re-composition of social bonds and a return to community,

entering a postmodern era (Cova & Cova 2002; Maffesoli 1996).

According to Richelieu and Boulaire (2005), the postmodern product is characterized by

four applications: experiential, social, demographic, and an element of organization, net-

work or universe. The experiential component of the product focuses on the experience

not only during the consumption, but also before and after its consumption. The social el-

ement of the postmodern product is concerned with enabling customers to share emotions

2

in groups, transcend their social status and feel a spirit of community. The democratic no-

tion of the product emphasizes the importance of co-creation by consumers with respect

to the creation of the product’s meaning. The organization, network or universe represen-

tation aims at creating the postmodern product as a network, offering other products or fo-

rums to make the consumers live the environment related to the product and expand it. All

characteristics of the postmodern product apply well to the professional team sport prod-

uct and should be integrated into marketing and branding strategies of sport clubs (Riche-

lieu & Boulaire 2005).

Given the characteristics of postmodern societies and products, Cova and Cova (2002) de-

veloped the Latin view on marketing – an approach that takes postmodern tendencies into

account and focuses on the linking value of products. This means that marketing activities

should not focus only on the product itself, but rather on the function of connecting peo-

ple through the product, for example by initiating brandfests. One tool simplifying and fa-

cilitating the postmodern movement of maintaining and (re)-creating social ties is, as as-

sumed by the authors, Facebook. It allows consumers to interact with other consumers.

They can link by gathering in virtual groups, exchange content and share emotions. Espe-

cially in the context of sports it seems promising as Wallace et al. (2011 p.423) state: “Sport

entities are ideally positioned to use social media given existing fan bases and the ability to

encourage consumer interactions with the sport product, with athletes, and with team per-

sonnel”.

Considering the potential of social media in general and Facebook in particular, it is im-

portant for companies to understand its usage and effects. Especially in the light of brand

building and customer-based brand equity it becomes crucial to understand this in order to

gain maximum profits. The importance of gaining knowledge of social media is ascribed to

the circumstance that communication can highly influence the development and forming

of knowledge structures in the current and potential customers’ mind, which ensure a posi-

tive response to marketing activities (Keller 2009). The concept of brand equity and the in-

tangible value a brand can add to an organization is one of the most popular marketing

topics within the last years (Keller 2009). In the literature, brand equity has primarily been

regarded from two perspectives: firm-based and customer-based brand equity (Christodou-

lides & de Chernatony 2010). The firm-based perspective measures the brand as a financial

asset (Chu & Keh 2006), e.g. the Interbrand brand valuation. Customer-based brand equity

can be defined in a general sense “in terms of the marketing effects uniquely attributable to

the brand” (Keller 1993 p. 1) and is considered as a common construct to asses a compa-

ny’s brand value (Keller 2009). The attention devoted to brand equity and brand building

can be explained by the contributions a strong brand can have to an organization.

1.2 Problem discussion

All over the world, team sport has become more and more professionalized, commercial-

ized (Bauer et al. 2008) and internationalized during the last years. Despite the world eco-

nomic crisis, the European soccer market grew in 2009/2010 by 4 per cent to €16.3 billion

(Deloitte 2011). In comparison, the average American football team in the American Na-

3

tional Football League was worth $1.04 billion in 2011, which is an increase of 1,4 per cent

compared to the previous year (Forbes 2011a). The most valuable sport team brand is the

baseball team New York Yankees with a brand value of $328 million (Forbes 2011b). Ma-

son (1999) comes to the conclusion that sport has ‘delocalized’ and that it is less attached

to specific places, which is mainly due to television broadcasts to various countries, e.g. the

Irish following the English Premiere League, or the expansion of various professional

leagues to different countries, e.g. the Major League Baseball Opening Series Japan. The

tendency of national leagues expanding into foreign countries is reinforced since 1999

(Guardian 2009), one example is the Premiere League’s expansion to Asia with the Premier

League Asia Trophy (BBC 2011).

The recent developments described above, such as the growth of the team sports industry

and the expansion of professional sport leagues indicate that professional team sport is a

major part of the powerful recreation and entertainment sector, and, a fairly big industry in

itself (Mason 1999). Therefore, sport clubs have to be progressive service sellers in compe-

tition with other leisure activities (Bauer et al. 2005). Facing such competition, it is im-

portant for professional sport teams to establish relationships with their major stakeholder

groups (Bauer et al. 2005) such as fans, media, communities, and corporations that interact

with teams and leagues (e.g. through sponsorship) in order to succeed and to ensure high

economic returns (Mason 1999). A crucial factor of high importance is the brand, which

often is considered as the most important asset of a sport club (Bauer et al. 2005).

The benefits of strong brands also apply for team sport brands. However, it is undoubted

that athletic success in team sport is positively related with generated income and brand

strength. Nevertheless, studies indicate that economic success seems to be existing some-

how independently from athletic success (Gladden & Milne 1999 as cited in Wallace et al.

2011); the same accounts for brands and athletic success (Boone et al. 1995 as cited in Bau-

er et al. 2005). With their study Bauer et al. (2005 p.509) confirm Gladden and Milne’s re-

sults and state that “brand equity rather than athletic success has a high and significant ef-

fect on economic success”. They conclude that this result can be generalized to profession-

al leagues worldwide. The detachment of brand equity from athletic success legitimates and

underlines the importance of strengthening brand equity in the professional team sport in-

dustry.

In order to strengthen the brand equity of sport clubs, social media can be used to build

and shape knowledge structures in the consumers’ mind, which elicit a positive response to

the club’s marketing activities. Professional team sport organizations, which have always

been closely connected to the media, already identified the potential of social media and

Facebook in particular as a valuable part in their marketing activities as they incorporated it

into their marketing and brand management strategy, respectively (Wallace et al. 2011).

Given the high numbers of Facebook users and the increased Facebook activity of compa-

nies, the topic of how firms should make use of methods and tools within the interactive

market space is highly relevant to researchers. Joachimsthaler and Aaker (1997) claim that

traditional approaches that focus on brand building through mass media are not suitable in

today’s media environment. This claim was made even before social media existed and em-

4

phasizes the importance of understanding how such media should be used to build brands.

Today, still little consensus exists of how strong brands should be created in times of inter-

active communication (Keller 2009). Nevertheless, an increasing number of scholars rec-

ommend companies to follow their customers within the realm of social media. Kaplan and

Haenlein (2010) encourage companies to become part of the social media and state: “Busi-

nesses, take note - and don’t miss this train! [of joining social media]” (Kaplan and

Haenlein 2010 p.68). In respect to the sport industry, Coyle (2010 as cited in Wallace et al.

2011) indicates that sport teams must actively use social media in brand management

strategies to build brand equity. Hambrick et al. (2010) point out that more consumer

research and training is needed before using social media. Some authors stress the

importance of word of mouth (Coyle 2010; Kozinets et al. 2010), whereas others point out

the need to build relationships and trust instead of using social media so much for

advertisement (Williams & Chinn 2010; Wright et al. 2010). Mickle (2009) claims that social

media should be used to raise brand awereness, increase the brand image and form positive

brand associations.

However, the academic literature about social media in the context of brand equity in gen-

eral (Keller 2009) and professional team sport in particular is relatively limited and evolving

as researchers in this field call for more extensive research (Brody et al. 2010). Ioakimidis

(2007) and Rappaport (2010) propagate the need of using online media to manage and con-

trol public perception. Kim and Ko (2010) found that social media has a strong impact on

brand reputation. They also found evidence that social media in general (including web-

logs, social blogs, microblogging, wikis, podcasts, pictures, video, rating and social book-

marking) can have a positive impact on brand equity in the fashion industry (Kim & Ko

2011). Mickle (2009) suggests that social media can have an influence on brand awareness,

image and associations in general. With respect to sports marketing, Puha (2010) and

Pegraro (2010) suggest that through identification, social media can increase the fan base.

While the use of social media is recommended by some authors (Kaplan & Haenlein 2010;

Keller 2009), little is known about how companies are using social media in respect to

building customer-based brand equity. In regard to the professional team sport industry the

situation is similar. While Wallace et al. (2011) examine the use of Facebook among two

college team sport leagues and come to the conclusion that both leagues make use of it dif-

ferently, little is known about the use of social media in professional team sport. Therefore,

this thesis is unique as it provides a holistic understanding as it, on the one hand, studies

how firms’ use Facebook and, on the other hand, sheds light on how these efforts are per-

ceived by the firms’ customers.

In conclusion, prior studies indicate that social media as a whole may have a positive im-

pact on brand equity in general. In respect to professional team sport, researchers recom-

mend sport organizations to engage in social media but little is known about the effects and

current usage of the relatively new media. While, in the context of social media, mostly so-

cial media is addressed as a whole, the effects of Facebook in particular on customer-based

brand equity are not studied extensively. Little is known about how Facebook is used by

5

professional team sport organizations and how it is perceived by customers liking the Fa-

cebook page of a team.

1.3 Purpose

The thesis aims at providing a holistic understanding of how Facebook is used by

professional team sport organizations to strengthen customer-based brand equity and how

these attempts are perceived by the customers with a focus on the derived benefits.

1.4 Research questions

RQ1: How do firms strengthen customer-based brand equity by using Facebook as

a channel of communication?

RQ1a: What type of communication tool is used to strengthen customer-based

brand equity?

RQ1b: Which product and non-product attributes are used to strengthen customer-

based brand equity?

RQ2: How is the Facebook presence perceived by its customers and which benefits are derived from it?

6

2 Frame of reference

This chapter provides an overview of the background of marketing communications and brand equity. First-

ly, it describes the communication process and outlines how social media, and particularly Facebook, has in-

fluenced marketing communications. Secondly, customer-based brand equity is discussed and conceptualized

by offering a brief discussion of relevant literature, as well as various items constituting brand equity in the

context of professional team sport are depicted. Thirdly, a framework of how marketing communications

and brand equity are connected is developed to be applied in the thesis.

2.1 Marketing communications

A conceptual model that describes the human communication process relies on infor-

mation theory by Shannon and Weaver (1949). However, their model is not suitable in de-

scribing interactive communication processes because it implies a passive receiver at the

end of the communication process. Shannon and Weaver’s model has been modified and

simplified to an interactive communication process that identifies the stages through which

the communication processes pass and incorporates the concept of feedback on behalf of

the receiver, which is presented in Figure 1. This communication model can be described

as a so-called transmitter-receiver process (Jobber 2010). A ‘source of information’ (e.g. an

organization) encodes a ‘message’ by translating the information to be communicated,

which may consist of pictures, written or spoken characters. Hence, the ‘sender’ (transmit-

ter) turns it into a signal that is transmitted over a communication channel to a ‘receiver’.

By sources of interference (noise sources such as information overload or fatigue, compet-

ing messages, cultural factors, etc.), the original signals might be distorted and may prevent

transmission to some of the target group. The receiver decodes the message by analyzing

and interpreting the symbols conveyed by the sender, while the aim is that the receiver’s

decoding and the sender’s encoding process should coincide; hence, the receiver interprets

the message as aspired by the transmitter (Jobber 2010). Feedback is an important aspect

within the communication process as it is the receiver's response made known to the send-

er; hence, it is essential for successful communication.

Figure 1: The communication process

Source: Jobber 2010 p.466

7

2.1.1 Marketing communications in a hypermedia environment

“Perhaps no other area of marketing is changing so profoundly as marketing communica-

tions, creating both exciting and scary times for marketing communicators“ (Armstrong &

Kotler 2011 p.405). This can mostly be ascribed to technology and the Internet, which in

essence changed the way in which the world interacts and communicates (Keller 2009).

Particularly social media represents a revolutionary new trend that has changed marketing

communications tremendously. The term social media can be defined as ”a group of Inter-

net-based applications that build on the ideological and technological foundations of Web

2.0, and that allow the creation and exchange of User Generated Content” (Kaplan &

Haenlein 2010 p.61). In essence, social media denotes a platform in which ideas are dis-

cussed, experiences communicated, and knowledge exchanged among its users resembling

a high degree of interactivity (Wallace et al. 2011). The advantages of social media for or-

ganizations can be ascribed to it being a targeted, cost-effective, interactive, and engaging

medium; hence, a more timely and direct end-consumer contact, in contrast to traditional

media, is likely (Kaplan & Haenlein 2010). This is particularly important due to consumers

being selective towards the many advertising stimuli they are exposed to in order to prevent

being overwhelmed by the advertising clutter (Solomon et al. 2010). Yet, the effectiveness

of social media differs as the various types (e.g., collaborative projects, blogs, content

communities, and social networking sites) vary in terms of the degree of media richness

they possess, which relate to the quantity of information they are able to convey at specific

interims (Kaplan & Haenlein 2010). Further, the social presence plays an important role;

the higher the social nature of a specific media, the greater the social influence that the

communicating parties have on each other’s behavior.

Figure 2: Traditional 'one to many' marketing communications model

Source: Hoffman & Novak 1996 as cited in Hoey 2000 p.237

In contrast to the simplified traditional ‘one to many’ communication model as depicted in

Figure 2, whereby “a firm reaches many current and potential customers […] through mar-

keting efforts that allow only limited forms of feedback from the customer”(Novack 1996)

as cited in Hoey 2000 p.237), the Internet – and social media in particular – put marketing

communications in a hypermedia environment. This environment incorporates hypertext, a

software system that enables users to connect information by means of various links, and

8

multimedia, which enables users access to interactive static content (e.g., text, images,

graphics) and dynamic content (e.g., audio, video, animation). This interactivity “with the

medium and through the medium” (Hoffman & Novak 1996 as cited in Hoey 2000 p.238)

lead to the emergence of a marketing communications model in a hypermedia environment

as illustrated in Figure 3.

Figure 3: A model of marketing communications in a hypermedia environment

Source: Hoffman & Novak 1996 as cited in Hoey 2000 p.239

The model of marketing communications in a hypermedia environment by Hoffman and

Novak (1996) provides a perspective in which a more active role is given to a number of

actors (e.g., consumers and firms). Hence, communication has an interactive ‘many-to-

many’ nature within a given medium (e.g. social networking sites) that makes the user land-

scape more complex. It is not merely any particular organization transmitting messages;

consumers – for example – are actively contributing to the development of content and

meaning. This also implies that the networking and communicating consumer is now in-

creasingly in control within the hypermedia environment.

When considering the various types that embrace the term social media, social networking

sites are of high popularity – or, as Armstrong and Kotler (2011 p.408) outline: ”Social

networking has proliferated at a pace that is unheard of”. More specifically, social network-

ing sites refer to applications that allow its users (e.g. private persons, organizations, etc.) to

create a profile and connect to others – such as friends, colleagues or organizations – in or-

der to gain access to their profiles, and exchange (instant) messages with each other

(Kaplan & Haenlein 2010). Today, the most popular social networking site is Facebook

(Kaplan & Haenlein 2010), which is an online community for creating, operating, and

maintaining social networks. Some statistics that evidence the boost of this social network-

ing site to underpin its popularity seem adequate: Facebook had more than 483 million dai-

ly active users on average as of December 2011 and more than 425 million monthly active

9

users who used Facebook mobile products (Facebook 2012). On average, a Facebook user

is connected to 130 people and spends more than 55 minutes per day on Facebook (Wal-

lace et al. 2011). Registered users within this network can create profiles that can embrace –

among others – any type of information, photos, videos, audio files, or notes/blogs. Some

of the many features offered by Facebook are – for example – the possibility to invite

‘friends’ (meaning two people being connected within the network) to groups and events,

or a ‘newsfeed’ that informs users about any updates, such as new posts on the profile pag-

es of friends. Facebook is long interesting to professional organizations, for example within

the sport industry (Facebook 2012). In fact, this medium goes far beyond a platform aimed

at building, operating, and maintaining social networks and can be described as a modern

interactive marketplace (Keller 2009). Given these possibilities and the number of active

users – a business profile on Facebook is seemingly mandatory for any company. Upon

registration, organizations and groups have the possibility to create and customize a Face-

book page in order to represent their business and product(s) and communicate and inter-

act with users. Users can follow such pages by clicking ‘like’, which enables them to be in-

formed about updates on the business profile in the ‘newsfeed’. Administrators of firm

pages are informed about user engagement and interaction as well as users demographic

characteristics by means of statistics (Wallace et al. 2011).

To sum up, the Internet – and the active and fast-moving domain of social media in partic-

ular – has changed the way firms can communicate with their customers in real time, which

is now characterized by a hypermedia environment. This “revolutionary new trend […]

should be of interest to companies operating in online space – or any space, for that mat-

ter” (Kaplan & Haenlein 2010 p.59).

2.2 Brand equity

The role of branding for an organization is of utmost importance as strong brands can

have numerous benefits to an organization. The strength of a brand and the consumer re-

sponses that are triggered by different marketing activities reflect brand equity. The con-

cept of brand equity has been widely discussed in the literature. Yet, no universal definition

of this term exists, which is mainly due to researchers approaching the concept of brand

equity differently. Keller (2009) outlines a general concurrence among researchers with re-

gard to the definition of brand equity as it is the added value provided by the brand to a

product or service. Hence, brand equity are the outcomes and effects of marketing accu-

mulated to a product or service for a particular brand in comparison to those outcomes

and effects that would accumulate for the identical, yet unbranded, product. More precise-

ly, Aaker (1991 as cited Christodoulides & de Chernatony 2010 p.46) defines brand equity

as „a set of assets and liabilities linked to a brand, its name and symbol, that add to or sub-

tract from the value provided by a product or service to a firm and/or that firm’s custom-

ers“. Other authors describe the term brand equity in a similar way; some of the manifold

descriptions of brand equity in the literature (as cited in Kaynak et al. 2008 p.339) are:

10

the establishment of a long-term relationship with customers (Wood)

the value added to a product by the virtue of its name (Farquhar)

the value of a company and brand names (Lamb et al.)

the totality of the various values different persons ascribe to a brand, hence, the

sum embraces feelings or thoughts that consumers, dealers, distributors or compet-

ing businesses attach to a brand (Nicolino)

Hence, brand equity is an intangible asset of a corporation that can – for example – posi-

tively (or negatively) influence “consumer preference and purchase intention (Cobb-

Walgren et al. 1995); market share (Agarwal & Rao 1996); consumer perceptions of prod-

uct quality (Dodds et al.); shareholder value (Kerin & Sethuraman 1998); consumer evalua-

tions of brand extensions (e.g. Aaker & Keller 1990); consumer price insensitivity (Erdem

et al. 2002); and resilience to product-harm crisis (Dawar & Pillutla 2000)” as previously re-

vealed in research as cited in Christodoulides and de Chernatony (2010 p.44). However,

consumers are also recipients of brand value in terms of the reduced perceived risk of a

branded product or service, the reduced information search costs as well as the creation of

favorable attribute perceptions (Erdem & Swait 1998 cited in Christodoulides & de Cher-

natony 2010). It must therefore be a management priority to build strong brands in order

to accrue the benefits of brand equity (Aaker & Joachimsthaler 2000; Kapferer 2005 as cit-

ed in Keller 2009).

In the literature, brand equity has primarily been regarded from two perspectives: the firm-

based and the customer-based brand equity (Christodoulides & de Chernatony 2010). The

former considers the financial value that is obtained on behalf of the corporation (e.g.

when included on a balance sheet), while the latter is derived from the market’s perception,

which is impelling any rise in market share and profitability of the brand. In fact, the value

of a brand – its equity – is dependent on the decisions of the consumers. More precisely, it

is the consumer that decides upon the factors that are considered as important and who

judges which brand has more equity, which ultimately drives the consumption choice.

Therefore, Hoeffler and Keller (2003) argue that despite the differing definitions of brand

equity, a principal common ground can be depicted among them as they are implicitly or

explicitly based on brand knowledge on behalf of the consumers – whether they are indi-

viduals or organizations – as the starting point of brand equity.

Aaker (1991 as cited in Bauer et al. 2008) established a conceptual model of brand equity

from the consumers’ perspective in which five dimensions are depicted that drive value

creation: brand awareness, brand associations, perceived quality, brand loyalty, and other

proprietary brand assets that embrace patents, trademarks and channel relationships. Aaker

(1991 as cited in Bauer et al. 2008) suggests that brand equity is the sum of advantages and

disadvantages a consumer ascribes to a branded product or service, which propel equity.

However, in order to understand the role of Facebook in building brand equity, a more

comprehensive and cohesive model of customer-based brand equity is required. Keller

draws on Aaker’s conceptualization and examined customer-based brand equity from the

perspective of consumer psychology (Christodoulides & de Chernatony 2010). According

to Keller (1993; 1998 as cited in Hoeffler & Keller 2003 p.421), brand equity denotes “the

11

differential effect that brand knowledge has on consumer response to marketing activity”.

Keller’s model regarding brand knowledge as the main driver in creating brand equity as

shown in Figure 4 is one of the most prevalent conceptual frameworks (Bauer et al. 2008).

His conceptualization provides a number of benefits in comparison to other models: it pre-

sents considerably more detail on the various factors to examine; it contributes to a deeper

understanding of the various elements of consumers’ knowledge structures that establish

brand equity, and some of the main ideas as proposed in the model have been modified to

the context of team sport (e.g., Gladden & Funk 2001, 2002 as cited in Bauer et al. 2008).

Figure 4: Brand knowledge

Source: Keller 1993 adapted by Kaynak et al. 2008 p.341

Brand knowledge is composed of two distinct pillars: brand awareness and brand image.

Brand awareness is made up of the components brand recall and brand recognition, which

are attained though marketing stimuli. More precisely, it indicates the power of the brand

node or trace as expressed by the consumers’ capability to recall or recognize a brand in

varying circumstances (Keller 2009). Hence, brand awareness is the antecedent of brand

image as brand associations cannot be shaped and a desire for consumption cannot arise

unless brand awareness has prevailed (Bauer et al. 2008). The pillar of brand image can be

characterized as being of a more complex nature. Brand image is the outcome of the favora-

bility, strength, uniqueness and the various types of brand associations in the consumers’

memory. Hence, customer-based brand equity occurs once the consumer is acquainted

with a branded product or service and recollects favorable, strong and unique brand associ-

ations (Kaynak et al. 2008). In line with Bauer et al. (2008 p.209), the thesis focuses on

brand image instead of brand recall and recognition “as brand awareness is usually high for

professional clubs in popular sports like soccer”. This holds particularly true for the Premi-

ere League clubs that are subject to strong media exposure. Further, Bauer et al. (2008) out-

line that the team sport product can be characterized by unpredictability and instability (e.g.

the outcomes of games), and therefore, brand image is likely to epitomize a constant in

fans’ perceptions. This, in turn, provides those responsible for marketing a sports club with

12

the opportunity to focus on a consistent and stable club appearance in order to reap maxi-

mum rewards.

In the context of the team sport industry, brand image has been conceptualized and opera-

tionalized by Ross et al. (2006 as cited in Bauer et al. 2008), who developed the Team

Brand Association Scale (TBAS) and by Gladden and Funk’s (2001, 2002 as cited in Bauer

et al. 2008) team association model (TAM). The TBAS embraces eight brand association

dimensions that are measured using 41 items. However, the model does not distinguish be-

tween product-related and non-product related attributes, brand benefits, and brand atti-

tudes; and likewise, the favorability or uniqueness of the components is not measured.

Bauer et al. (2008 p.210) indicate that from the practical and theoretical standpoints this

limitation “could be a problem because we do not learn if the association is positive or

negative”. In contrast, the TAM is more complex and – according to Bauer et al. (2008

p.210) – “compromises its utility as a research tool”. The TAM builds on Keller’s concep-

tualization and identifies 13 dimensions of brand associations that are classified into attrib-

utes, benefits and attitudes. Yet, the model does not measure the uniqueness, favorability,

or strength of brand associations as demanded in Keller’s model. In the following, the au-

thors draw on the research that has been conducted to conceptualize and operationalize

brand image in the team sport industry and modify various components, which will be em-

ployed in order to fulfill the research purpose.

Brand associations are broken down in attributes, benefits and attitudes. Attributes are the

features that characterize a brand; hence, they are the intrinsic properties that symbolize the

benefits consumers experience when purchasing or consuming the product or service

(Bauer et al. 2008). Attributes are categorized in two groups: product-related attributes and

non-product-related attributes. Product-related attributes are associated with the physical com-

position of a product or service, which in essence vary depending on the product or service

category (Kaynak et al. 2008). In the context of professional team sport, Bauer et al. (2008)

draw on the work of Gladden and Funk (2001 & 2002 as cited in Bauer et al. 2008) and

suggest five dimensions of product-related attributes: success, star player(s), head coach,

team and team performance/team play. Hence, Bauer et al. (2008) view these components

as the contributors to the actual performance of the team. As these product-related items

embody the core product as they embrace the people and the outcomes that are directly

connected to the actual game.

Keller (1993 as cited in Bauer et al. 2008) defines non-product related attributes as the external

aspects that are associated with the purchase and consumption of a product or service. In

contrast to the aforementioned product related attributes, non-product-related attributes

are not directly related to the actual game and therefore do not affect performance when

putting them in the context of professional team sport. In essence, these attributes have an

effect on the perception of a club’s brand, while Bauer et al. (2005; 2008) include the fol-

lowing items: management, logo and club colors, stadium, stadium atmosphere, club histo-

ry and tradition, club culture and values, fans, sponsor or owner, and regional provenance.

The inclusion of the latter four items is subject to careful thoughts as outlined by Bauer et

al. (2008): (1) there is no physical core product that conveys underlying values, hence, the

13

organizational culture and the behavior of its members is strongly influencing the percep-

tion of service brands (De Chernatony & Segal-Horn 2001 as cited in Bauer et al. 2008); (2)

fans play an important role in creating the team sport product as they can undoubtedly

have an effect on the club’s brand image; (3) the sponsor or owner of a club, and more

specifically their image, can have positive consequences such as spillover effects on the

club’s brand image; and (4) the attribute of regional provenance relates to country-of-origin

effects on a local, regional, or national level.

Benefits relate to the personal value that an individual ascribes to the product or service at-

tributes and the advantages that can be gained from such benefits. Hence, benefits are an

indication of the psychological meaning and value that is attached to a brand (Keller as cit-

ed in Kaynak et al. 2008). Benefits are categorized into functional, symbolic and experien-

tial benefits. Symbolic benefits “fulfill internally generated needs for self-enhancement, role

position, group membership or ego-identification” that are linked to non-product-related

attributes (Kaynak et al. 2008 p.349). Therefore, these benefits are extrinsic and motivated

by a persons need for belongingness and social acceptance as well as self-esteem. In sports,

such benefits can be related to fan identification and peer-group acceptance. In essence,

positive associations with a professional sports team are dependent on the individuals strive

for belongingness and self-esteem. Experiential benefits are associated with brands that pro-

vide sensory pleasure, variety and cognitive stimulation and therefore relate to the feelings

individuals ascribe by using or consuming a product or service (Kaynak et al. 2008). These

benefits are mostly related to product related attributes, while in a sport context they could

relate to nostalgia, socializing/companionship, emotions or entertainment. Upon satisfying

such needs, consumers develop strong brand associations. Functional benefits relate to the

search for products or services that deal with and solve consumption-related problems.

Thus, they are intrinsic advantages that meet the needs for basic motivations such as physi-

ological and safety needs as identified in Maslow’s hierarchy of needs (e.g. solving or avoid-

ing problems) (Kaynak et al. 2008). In sports, fans are mostly motivated to satisfy their ex-

periential and symbolic needs instead of functional needs given that professional team

sport is not associated with solving consumption-related problems (Bauer et al. 2008). In

line with Bauer et al. (2008), functional benefits are not employed as components within

this thesis.

Attitudes embody the basis for consumer behavior and therefore relate to an individual’s

overall evaluation of a branded product or service. Hence, “brand attitudes can be associat-

ed with beliefs about product-related attributes and the functional and experiential bene-

fits” (Zeithaml as cited in Kaynak et al. 2008 p.439). Given the abstract nature of attitudes

coupled with the difficulty to operationalize them for the purpose of the topic at hand, they

are not employed as a component in this study.

This thesis applies a customer-based brand equity model, which is built on Keller’s cus-

tomer-based brand equity model, as well as on adaptations of Keller’s model by Bauer et al.

(2008), Kaynak et al. (2008), Ross et al. (2001), and Wallace et al. (2011). Table 1 provides

an overview and an explanation of the employed types of brand associations in this thesis.

Moreover, it indicates which authors have previously employed the various items in other

14

studies within the context of team sports.

Table 1: Overview and explanation of brand image components

Component/item Explanation Applied by

Attributes

Product-related brand attributes

Success Winning and competing (athletic success)

Gladden & Funk (2001)1, Ross et al. (2008), Wallace et al. (2011)

Star player(s) Outstanding, likeable and admirable player’s presence

Gladden & Funk (2001)1, Ross et al. (2008), Wallace et al. (2011)

Head coach Successful and/or charismatic head coach’s presence Gladden & Funk (2001)1, Wallace et al. (2011)

Team (members) The team itself as an important success factor Bauer et al. (2008), Wal-lace et al. (2011)

Team performance / team play

A team can be unsuccessful despite good performanc-es; any mention of specific characteristics that a team displays upon the field of play such as personality (e.g., dedicated, hard work), distinct qualities (e.g., intensity, commitment) or unique characteristics (e.g., trusted, responsive)

Bauer et al. (2008), Ross et al. (2008), Wallace et al. (2011)

Non-product-related brand attributes

Management Management of the team Bauer et al. (2008), Ross et al. (2008), Wallace et al. (2011)

Nonplayer personnel Nonplayer personnel associated with a particular pro-fessional team (other than the management and head coach)

Ross et al. (2008)

Logo & club colours The identifying marks, colours and uniforms associat-ed with a specific sport team to convey and strengthen image

Bauer et al. (2008), Ross et al. (2008), Wallace et al. (2011)

Stadium Place, where consumers experience the consumption, to intensify consumption experience (e.g. arena, coli-seum, stadium, field, or any mention of the facility)

Gladden & Funk (2001)1, Ross et al. (2008), Wallace et al. (2011)

Stadium atmosphere Any mention of the stadium atmosphere and that the arena enhances the enjoyment

Bauer et al. (2005)

Club history & tradition The history and traditions of a particular sport team (e.g. history of winning, success in the past, rich histo-ry, etc.)

Bauer et al. (2008), Ross et al. (2008), Wallace et al. (2011)

Club culture & values Any mention of clear values that consumers and em-ployees understand and live; distinct club cultures (e.g. ‘celebrity club’ or ‘working class clubs’)

Bauer et al. (2008), Wal-lace et al. (2011)

Fans Supporters not just as customers but because they form part of a unique joint product

Bauer et al. (2008), Wal-lace et al. (2011)

Sponsor or owner The image of a sponsor or owner can have spillover effects on the club’s brand image

Bauer et al. (2008), Wal-lace et al. (2011)

Regional provenance Corresponds to country-of-origin effects on a local, regional, or national level (e.g. image of club influ-enced by their respective neighborhoods)

Bauer et al. (2008)

Benefits

15

Symbolic brand benefits

Fan identification Capability to provide a vehicle (often representing success) with which consumers can affiliate

Gladden & Funk (2001)2

Peer-group acceptance Ability to provide a vehicle to spawn a broad social approval when followed

Wakefield & Sloan2

Pride in place Capability to provide a uniting point for town pride Gladden & Funk (2001)2

Experiential brand benefits

Nostalgia Capability to summon feelings from the past and fond memories

Holbrook (1993)2, Gladden & Funk (2001)1

Socializing / companionship

Associating with others such as friends and other fans of the team; online or face to face, discussion with fans or questions, pictures of fans or group

Bauer et al. (2008), Wal-lace et al. (2011)

Emotions Any mention of particular feelings that characterize such a state of mind (e.g. joy, anger, love, hate, etc.)

Bauer et al. (2008)

Entertainment Subjective excitement and level of entertainment pro-vided to spectators

Bauer et al. (2008)

1 As cited in Bauer et al. (2008) 2 As cited in Kaynak et al. (2008)

Source: Modified by authors from Kaynak et al. 2008

Keller’s customer-based brand equity model has been subject to criticism among research-

ers. Low and Lambs (as cited in Kaynak et al. 2008), for example, criticize Keller’s hypoth-

esis that the perceptions of brands among consumers are multi-dimensional by arguing that

the various dimensions within this conceptualization appear to be almost identical. Howev-

er, as the components that are employed in this study have been subject to empirical valida-

tion by – for example – Bauer et al. (2005; 2008), Gladden and Funk (2001) and Wallace et

al. (2011), the categories are employed as presented above.

2.3 Linking marketing communications and brand equity

The emergence of the Internet – and especially social media – has created new opportuni-

ties for targeting consumers as it attempts “to bridge the gap between the organization and

audience” (Yan 2011 p.689). In fact, social networking sites have become an essential part

of the daily life for many people. Hence, interactive marketing communications such as so-

cial media – and Facebook in particular – indicate an increasingly relevant realm for brand

building. It is essential for brands to establish a connection with consumers, so that a feel-

ing of belonging through engagement is achieved, for which according to Yan (2011

p.690), “Facebook [is] helpful in revealing the thinking of the people behind the brands”.

According to Keller (2009 p.141), marketing communications enable an organization ”to

link their brands to other people, places, events, brands, experiences, feelings and things”.

This, is in line with the concept of customer-based brand equity as it relates to the out-

comes and effects of marketing accumulated to a product or service for a particular brand.

Hence, marketing communications can help in order to achieve customer-based brand eq-

uity. Figure 5 presents a framework that links interactive marketing communications

through the medium Facebook and customer-based brand equity, while providing exam-

ples from the professional team sport industry. This framework helps to answer the re-

search questions of the thesis.

16

Figure 5: Linking interactive marketing communications and customer-based brand equity

Source: modified by authors as cited in Jobber 2010 p.466

17

3 Methodology

This chapter introduces the authors’ underlying philosophical worldview and the chosen approach to theory,

research design, strategy, the time horizon of the research, and subsequently outlines the methods of data col-

lection and analysis.

3.1 Research stages

The goal of the thesis is to answer the research questions of the study. In order to do so, it

is important that the choices during the research process are taken in respect to the re-

search questions. The research can be classified into six stages, which Saunders et al. (2009)

present in the form of a ‘research onion’. The stages are divided into philosophies, ap-

proaches, strategies, choices, time horizons, techniques and procedures as depicted in Fig-

ure 6.

Figure 6: The research onion

Source: Adapted by authors from Saunders et al. 2008 as cited in Saunders et al. 2009 p.108

3.2 Research philosophy

The thesis is based on a pragmatic philosophy. In a pragmatic approach the most im-

portant factor determining which research philosophy is applied depends on the purpose

and the research question of the study (Cresswell 2003 as cited in Armitage 2007; Saunders

et al. 2009). Research is often multi-purpose and therefore this approach allows mixing dif-

ferent philosophical viewpoints within one study and ultimately applying a mixed research

approach and mixed methods (Armitage 2007). Thus, a pragmatic approach is not based on

18

one pre-determined worldview about the relationship between knowledge and the process

by which it is developed (Saunders et al. 2009).

The authors do not advocate either a puristic positivistic nor a puristic interpretivistic phil-

osophical worldview but hold the belief that was formulated by Tashakkori and Teddlie

(2003). They hold the opinion that the philosophical debate should not be understood as a

‘paradigm war’, but that the philosophies applied should be understood as a continuum in-

stead. This thesis combines a more positivistic and a more interpretivistic view. RQ1 is

based on a more positivistic philosophy, which is rooted in the belief that research is based

on an “observable social reality and that the end product of such research can be law like

generalizations […]” (Remenyi et al. 1998 as cited in Saunders et al. 2009 p.113). Hence,

the study aims at a high objectivity and generalizability and emphasizes very structured

methodologies in order to allow replication (Eisenhardt 1989). To answer RQ2, an inter-

pretivistic standpoint is taken. From an interpretivistic point of view, human (social) action

is inherently meaningful. In order to understand a social action, it is important to identify

and understand the meaning that constitutes this action (Schwandt 2003). Meaningful ac-

tion has either an intentional component that indicates the action and/or the meaning of

the action can be caught only in relation to its context (Fay 1996). The paradigm is built

upon a constructivist ontology (the view of the nature of reality). However, due to the

scope of RQ2, the focus in the thesis is laid on the interpretivistic paradigm.

3.3 Approach to theory

The thesis is based on an abductive approach to theory. This approach combines both

inductive and deductive reasoning, yet the focus is on the inductive approach (Johansson

2003). In the deductive approach, the process of developing the research question is strictly

theory guided, the data collected are analyzed in respect to a prior established theoretical

framework and it is orientated towards a positivistic research philosophy (Malhotra & Birks

2006). In contrast, the inductive approach to theory does not necessarily rely on a

theoretical framework, the theory is infered from the collected data and it is oriented more

towards an interpretivistic research philosophy (Malhotra & Birks 2006). It allows accessing

the participant’s logic and gaining an understanding of their subjective perception of reality

(Shaw 1999). Furthermore, the researcher develops a conceptual understanding from the

gathered knowledge (Malhotra & Birks 2006).

Firstly, the theory of customer-based brand equity and the function of Facebook from a

communication theory perspective is presented. Then, based on the customer-based brand

equity model and categories derived from the literature, a content analysis of the club’s

Facebook page was conducted (deductive). With the findings of the content analysis in

mind, semi-structured interviews were developed in order to explore the customer’s

perception and the derived benefits of the Facebook page (inductive).

19

3.4 Research design

RQ1 is based on a descriptive design, which aims at describing a phenomenon (Malhotra &

Birks 2006). However, the main focus of the thesis is based on an explorative design, be-

cause RQ2 discovers a new, rather unexplored area of research (De Vaus 2001; Zhang

2010). The objective of the explorative design is to provide insights into and understanding

of a rather unknown area of research and it is characterized by a flexible, relatively loose

structure, and the possibility of using qualitative and quantitative methods (Malhotra &

Birks 2006). The combination of both designs enables to gain a deeper understanding of

the research field that is to be explored through the exploratory study.

3.5 Research strategy

The employed research strategy is a case study, which allows analyzing a problem compre-

hensively by taking a holistic perspective (Stake 1995). This can be achieved through the

strongly rooted use of mixed methods within the research strategy (Baxter & Jack 2008).

The case study strategy was chosen because the goal of the thesis is to gain a deep and ho-

listic understanding of the observed phenomena. Due to the circumstance that the focus of

the thesis is directed more towards RQ2 and consequently the enquiry leans more towards

an interpretivistic philosophy, Stake’s approach to case study research is chosen. Stake

(1995 p.7) values the learning experience over the representativeness in some cases and

states: “Cases study seems a poor basis for generalization […]. The real business of case

study is particularization”. Therefore, the research aims at understanding the chosen cases

in detail and the cases are not studied primarily to understand other cases (Stake 1995).

The chosen type of case study is a collective case study (Stake 2005). It allows comparison

within one case, as well as between cases and was chosen because it is the appropriate type

to study a “phenomenon, population, or general condition” (Stake 2005 p.445). According

to Stake (1995), cases have to be chosen carefully to ensure variety or similarities among

them instead of being based on representativeness. Stake suggests choosing cases that ena-

ble the best learning experiences: “My choice would be to choose that case from which we

can learn the most. That may mean taking the one most accessible or the one we can spend

the most time with” (Stake 2005 p.451). The selected cases are Manchester United (in the

following referred to as ManU) and Arsenal London (in the following referred to as Arse-

nal). Both teams are playing in the Premiere League. The Premiere League was chosen first-

ly, because it is the financially most successful soccer league in the world (Deloitte 2011)

and enjoys extensive global popularity. Secondly, due to the fact that this league is operat-

ing worldwide through pre-season games (Premiere League 2012), both chosen clubs are

known internationally, which is important because the sample for the qualitative study is

expected to be very international. The cases are chosen because of the similarity between

them as both teams are the Premiere League teams with the most and second most ‘likes’

on their Facebook pages (ManU: 23,9 mil; Arsenal: 9,7 mil as of April 16th 2012). When

choosing the most successful Facebook pages (measured in ‘likes’), the learning outcome is

20

expected to be bigger, opposed to analyzing smaller clubs with fewer fans. This is based on

the assumption that the chosen clubs seem to be most successful in reaching out to people

on Facebook and therefore it is assumed that they can be seen as a benchmark for how to

use a Facebook page. In order to prevent the cases from becoming too extensive to man-

age, the case is restricted (Stake 1995) by analyzing only the content posted during the

2011/2012 Premier League season.

3.6 Method choice

The thesis is based on a triangulation approach, which is defined as “the combination of

methodologies in the study of the same phenomenon” (Denzin 1978 as cited in Jick 1979

p.602). Thus, a qualitative as well as a quantitative approach of data collection and analysis

is applied. In this thesis the focus is directed towards RQ2, which is embedded in a con-

structivistic ontology. Hence, triangulation is used with a constructivistic background.

“This version of triangulation […] gets away from the idea of convergence on a fixed point

[validation] and accepts a view of research as revealing multiple constructed realities, some-

thing that triangulation, now conceived as the revelation of difference, is well suited to ex-

pose” (Seale 1999 p.474). Consequently, the use of triangulation is adequate because it suits

the purpose of the study of gaining a comprehensive understanding of the research prob-

lem at hand.

In order to answer RQ1, quantitative data are analyzed through quantitative data analysis

methods. Quantitative data are, very simplified, numbers. This type of data is clearly meas-

urable and useful for summarizing large samples (Priest 2010). More precisely, an analysis

of the posted content of the ManU and Arsenal Facebook page will be conducted. It can

be examined most sufficiently through the use of content analysis, which is defined as “the

systematic study of what is actually contained in media messages” (Priest 2010 p.84) and is

reported to be appropriate to analyze social media content (Zhang 2010). Because the

companies under investigation upload numerous posts per day, the amount of content that

is be to analyze is huge. Therefore, a quantitative form of content analysis was chosen as it

has the advantage that a vast amount of data can be reduced and investigated, which

otherwise could not be analyzed in detail qualitatively (Riffe et al. 2005).

RQ2 is most sufficiently answered by collecting and analyzing qualitative data. Qualitative

data are data which cannot be easily summarized numerically and the analysis of these data

relies heavily on interpretation (Priest 2010). A qualitative approach of data analysis allows

analyzing a problem from various perspectives and has the advantage that very complex

contexts and correlations can be approached amenable (Flick 2009). It is intended to pro-

vide insight and understanding, which suits the research design of the study (Malhotra &

Birks 2006).

The data collection is done through semi-structured interviews, which are characterized by

a general open, only partly structured guideline that allows the interviewee to articulate his

or her own opinion freely. The structure serves as a guideline to ensure that the main

aspects of the research question are covered, whereupon the interviewer has the freedom

to choose the wording and sequence of the questions as well as additional questions

21

(Gläser & Laudel 2010). The interviews are mainly based on open ended questions, which

allow the interviewee to answer freely, describe and define certain mechanisms and to un-

derstand the underlying effects of the club’s Facebook activities (Malhotra & Birks 2006).

Because semi-structured interviews offer the possibility of analyzing openly situational

meanings and investigating complex problems holistically, such as the effects of Facebook

acitivites on brand equity, this method is chosen as an appropriate method (Gläser &

Laudel 2010; Malhotra & Birks 2006). It has the strength that the interviewer can

situtionally decide when to ask which question, has the opportunity to pose follow up

questions (Sekaran 2002), and can ensure that misunderstandings are cleared (Wrenn et al.

2006).

All interviews were conducted on a face-to-face level, which allows the interviewer to no-

tice any discomfort, stress or problem that is not directly communicated verbally but that is

expressed through body language (Wrenn et al. 2006).

3.7 Time horizon

The research at hand is a representation of a specific period of time, which is the Premiere

League season 2011/2012. Hence, the research can be characterized as a cross-sectional

study (Saunders et al. 2009). Because the amount of data posted within one Premier League

season is tremendous, the data for the quantitative study were only collected within three

time periods in order to handle the abundance of information. The chosen time periods

ensured that the dates fall in a period during which both clubs had scheduled matches

(ManU 5; Arsenal 6 matches throughout all three periods):

Period 1: 13th – 23rd September 2011

Period 2: 13th – 23rd December 2011

Period 3: 13th – 23rd March 2012

3.8 Data collection

Firstly, the data collection procedure for the content analysis is presented, followed by the data collection through semi-structured interviews.

3.8.1 Data collection content analysis

The type of data collected for the content analysis (the posts of the team on its official

Facebook page) is secondary data. Secondary data are defined as “data that have already

been collected for purposes other than the problem at hand“ (Malhotra & Birks 2006 p.83).

Both ManU’s and Arsenal’s Facebook pages were accessed on April 10th 2012 and the con-

tent produced by the organizations, relating to any technological form including status up-

dates, links, pictures, videos, and polls within the defined periods were copied from the Fa-

cebook page by taking screenshots. The credibility of the Facebook accounts was verified

22

as the Facebook pages were accessed via links from each club’s official website. The

screenshots were printed and a number was assigned to every post in order to keep track of

every item.

3.8.1.1 Sampling content analysis

The sample was generated through systematic sampling. Starting at the first day of the

Premiere League season 2011/2012, three periods, each being three months apart and ten

days long, were taken during which data were collected. This ensured that posts throughout

the whole season are part of the sample.

3.8.2 Data collection interviews

The type of data collected through semi-structured interviews is primary data. Primary data

are defined as “data originated by the researcher for the specific purpose of addressing the

problem at hand” (Malhotra & Birks 2006 p.83).

During the interview the questions from the guideline were adapted to the statements of

the interviewees, whereas in case answers deviated from the posed question, the interview-

ers tried to re-focus the conversation through follow-up questions and specifications

(Gläser & Laudel 2010). At the end, open questions were discussed. The interviews were

individual face-to-face interviews, ranging between 15 and 20 minutes.

3.8.2.1 Sampling interviews

The interviewees were approached based on a mix of the convenience and snowball sam-

pling technique. Firstly, the authors searched for interviewees based on convenience. When

visiting the official Facebook page of ManU and Arsenal, Facebook enables users to see

which acquaintances and friends ‘like’ these pages. Users that were identified and present in

Jönköping were approached accordingly. After an interview was conducted, interviewees

were asked to refer to further respondents, who also possess the desired target group char-

acteristics (Malhotra & Birks 2006). This way, the sample group grows like a ‘rolling snow-

ball’. The chosen sampling techniques allowed approaching people of interest for the study

within a relatively short time frame and efficient way.

3.9 Data analysis

After the relevant data were collected, they were analyzed. First, the procedure and the ap-

plied methods for the content analysis are introduced, followed by the presentation of the

analysis of the semi-structured interviews.

23

3.9.1 Data analysis content analysis

The first step in the data analysis is to code the collected data from the Facebook pages for

further analysis purpose (Priest 2010). In other words, qualitative content is transformed

into quantitative content by counting it and assigning it to categories.

3.9.1.1 Coding

The coding categories employed within this thesis are derived deductively through adapta-

tion from previous research published in peer-reviewed journals. The detailed list of cate-

gories employed can be found in Table 2. The coding was conducted independently by

both authors to increase reliability (Peetz & Reams 2011) and disagreements in coding was

resolved by discussion among the coders (Zhang 2010). Before conducting the analysis, a

pilot study was carried out to test the coding system and to determine whether there are

any concerns during the coding process. According to Kaid and Wadsworth (1989 as cited

in Peetz & Reams 2011), a pilot study of five to seven per cent of the total sample is suffi-

cient for assessing reliability. The pretest was conducted using a subsample of 9 per cent of

the sample. The overall percentage of agreement between the raters for the pretest ac-

counted to 89 per cent, succeeding the 80 per cent limit that indicates the reliability of re-

sults according to Frey et al. (2000). Further details about the quality assessment of the re-

search can be found in section 3.10. Hence, the results of the pretest can be assessed as re-

liable, which indicates that both coders assigned the same content to the categories.

Table 2: Coding categories: Attributes and forms of communication

Attributes

Success

Star player(s)

Head coach

Team (members)

Team performance / team play

Management

Nonplayer personnel

Logo & club colours

Stadium

Stadium atmosphere

Club history & tradition

Club culture & values

Fans

Sponsor or owner

Regional provenance

Forms of communication

Link

Picture(s)

Status update

Poll

Video

Other

Product-related brand attributes

Non-product-related brand attributes

Source: Summary of chapter 2.2 ‘Brand equity’

24

3.9.1.2 Statistical analysis

The analysis of the data obtained through the content analysis was conducted with SPSS

version 20. To analyze differences in used communication tools (RQ1a), descriptive

statistical analysis was used. More precisely, frequency distribution, including both absolute

and relative frequencies, was conducted. For analysing the differences between product and

non-product related attributes (RQ1b) within one case, a two by one contengincy analysis

(also referred to as two by one Pearson chi-square analysis) was applied. To compare

differences between product and non-product related attributes between cases a two by

two contengincy analysis (also referred to as two by two Pearson chi-square analysis) was

used. The chi-square test is used to investigate differences in frequencies of the sample, is

applicable for all scale types (Bortz 2005) and can therefore be characterized as an adequate

test. It is a hypothesis testing method, based on the comparison of observed and estimated

frequencies. More precisely, it is testsing the null hypothesis that there is no significant

difference between the expected and observed result (Bortz 2005). According to Wallace et

al. (2011), the assumed distribution between the characteristics of the attributes under

analysis is expected to be equally spread. Differences are statistically significant if the null

hypothesis is rejected based on a < 0,05 propability level (Plichata & Kelvin 2012).

Requirements for a two by one chi-square test are that the sample is chosen randomly, that

the applied categories are mutually exclusive, and that at least five occurences exist in each

category under investigation (Kaid & Wadsworth 1989). All three requirements are fulfilled

within this thesis.

3.9.2 Data analysis interviews

The analysis of the primary data that was collected through interviews aims at answering

RQ2. The vast amount of collected data must be organized so that “the essential content

will be sustained and provides a manageable corpus that embodies an image of the basic

material” (Mayring 2002 as cited in Hiermansperger & Greindl 2005 p.6). This is achieved

through the process of coding. According to Strauss (as cited in Neuman 2003) the process

of coding consists of three sequential steps. The first phase of coding is open coding, fol-

lowed by axial coding and finalized by selective coding. In order to evaluate the content of

the interviews comprehensively and accurately, all interviews were recorded on tape re-

corders and transcribed subsequently (O’Connell & Kowal 1995).

3.9.2.1 Open coding

During the first phase of coding the vast amount of information is broken down by assign-

ing codes to the data (Neuman 2003). By doing so, a system of codes is developed, which is

partly based on the theoretical framework but mostly driven through the detected pattern

and themes in the transcribed text. As the adjective open suggests, the process is not re-

stricted to categories derived from theory, instead categories can be extended and added,

depending on the analyzed data (Gläser & Laudel 2010). Therefore, a restriction to already

existing categories in theory can be avoided and instead new insight into the phenomenon

25

can be explored, according to the explorative research design. The categories are developed

based on specific characteristics, terms, incidents, events, or feelings articulated by the in-

terviewees, which are relevant to the research question (Neuman 2003). In general, it is not

specified how detailed coding should be carried out, however the goal of the authors is to

minimize the amount of data as much as possible, while at the same time form as many

valuable categories as possible. Thus, in some cases sentences, in other cases whole para-

graphs were assigned to a code. The codes were organized and summarized in a codebook,

which is detailed in Appendix 3.

3.9.2.2 Axial coding

The second phase of the coding process is axial coding, which is based on the categories

generated through open coding (Neuman 2003). Hence, this step of the coding process

does not focus on the entire transcribed data, but instead focuses on the initial codes. This

step breaks down the generated codes further and organizes the initial codes into common

clusters or themes. Axial coding links the different initial codes generated in the open cod-

ing process and thereby identifies “the axis of key concepts in the analysis” (Neuman 2003

p.444). The axial codes can be found in Appendix 3.

3.9.2.3 Selective coding

The third and final phase in the coding process is selective coding, during which the codes

generated within the axial coding phase are organized based on major themes, concepts, or

generalization (Neuman 2003). The selective codes can be found in Appendix 3.

3.10 Quality assessment

In order to ensure the research quality of the thesis, various quality measures are employed.

According to the general structure of the thesis, first the applied quality criteria for the

quantitative study are presented, followed by the criteria for the qualitative study.

3.10.1 Quality assessment content analysis

The purpose of the quality assessment of the data within the positivistic, quantitative de-

sign, in which results are treated as ‘law-like generalizations’. It is crucial to ensure that the

study produces generalizable results, which are consistent if the study were to be repeated

(reliability), and that it is ensured that the study measures what it intends to measure

(validity) (Malhotra & Birks 2006).

26

3.10.1.1 Reliability

To assess the coding quality between the two coders, two different tests were used to

measure the interrater reliability: Percentage of agreement between the raters and Cohen’s

kappa. The percentage of agreement is derived by calculating how much per cent of the

posts of both raters are classified in the same coding category. Cohen’s kappa is “a popular

index for measuring chance-corrected agreement between two observers analyzing nominal

data” (Peetz & Reams 2011 p.211). According to Frey et al. (2000), a percentage of agree-

ment above 80 per cent and a Cohen’s kappa score above 0.7 is sufficient to judge a result

as reliable. If the requirements are met, the results of the study can be reproduced.

The percentage of agreement between the two coders in the first case of ManU is 89,6 per

cent and Cohen’s kappa accounts for 0,854. The percentage of agreement between the

coder in the case of Arsenal is 86,8 per cent and Cohen’s kappa is 0,837. Hence, the inter-

rater reliability criteria are met and the results of the coding process are reliable.

3.10.1.2 Validity

For the content analysis, face validity is used to assess the study’s validity (Peetz & Reams

2011). Face validity is a form of validity, in which it is checked if the variables intended to

be measured actually appear to be measured (Anastasi 1988). Face validity was ensured by

using established models and categories that were applied to the context of professional

team sport in prior research and published in peer-reviewed journals (Peetz & Reams

2011).

3.10.2 Quality assessment interviews

The quality assessment in qualitative research differs substantially from the criteria used in

quantitative research. Universally accepted criteria of quality assessment do not exist

(Golafshani 2003). Because the qualitative study of this thesis is based on a constructivistic

approach, it is believed that reality is socially constructed, fluid, and - among other factors -

influenced through the social and cultural context (Saunders et al. 2009). From the inter-

pretivistic point of view, validity or truth cannot be grounded in an objective reality (Angen

2000). As a consequence, existing measures of reliability and validity from the positivist,

quantitative research paradigm cannot be transferred. Hence, criteria especially designed for

qualitative research are applied (Angen 2000; Steinke 2004). From various, parallel existing

criteria, Steinke (2004) derives seven core criteria to assess the quality of qualitative

research from which she recommends to use ‘several’.

3.10.2.1 Core criteria of quality assessment

The core criteria developed by Steinke (2004) are: 1) inter-subject comprehensibility, 2)

indication of the research process, 3) empirical foundation, 4) limitations, 5) coherence of

the enquiry, and 6) relevance of the research questions.

27

Inter-subject comprehensibility

This criterion emphasizes the comprehensibility of the research process, on the basis of

which results can be evaluated. This criterion is subdivided into three sub-criteria:

Documentation of the research process

The aim of a comprehensive documentation of the research process is to allow an

external public to follow the study in detail in order to evaluate it based on their

own criteria, independently from fixed, predetermined criteria. In this thesis, im-

portant decisions and the research process are documented in detail. Hence, this

criterion is met.

Interpretations in groups

By ensuring the interpretation of the data by more than one person, inter-

subjectivity and comprehensibility can be achieved. Because all interviews are inter-

preted by both authors and the results synchronized, this quality criterion is also

met.

Use of codified procedures

This criterion requires the use of a standardized methodological process, taking into

account that qualitative research can be standardized to a certain extend. With the

use of standardized methods and established approaches to data analysis, coding,

and transcription these standards are fulfilled as much as possible within the quali-

tative setting. Steinke (2004 p.188) argues that “[i]f codified procedures are used,

the reader of a given publication has access to information that facilitates checking

or replication of the investigation”.

Indication of the research process

This criterion aims at the appropriateness of the methodological choices taken in

respect to the research issue. This criterion is fulfilled by the choices taken and the

argumentation can be followed in the method part of this thesis.

Empirical foundation; limitations of the thesis and the findings; coherence of the enquiry; relevance of the

research questions

The criteria three, four, five, and six (empirical foundation, limitations of the thesis

and the findings, coherence of the enquiry, relevance of the research questions) are

self-explanatory, very basic criteria that should be fulfilled in any study and, as

argumented throughout the thesis, are met in the enquiry at hand.

The criteria can be summarized as aiming at the goal that the research is coherent, reflected

upon, transparent and that decisions within the research process are justified. Through the

chosen structure, the discussion and the limitations part, as well as through explicit

argumentation these criteria are met.

28

4 Empirical findings

This chapter presents the empirical findings of this study, which embrace data gathered from primary and secondary sources. Firstly, the findings of the content analysis (secondary data) that are relevant for RQ1 will be illustrated, followed by the findings of the interviews (primary data) that are used to answer RQ2.

4.1 Content analysis

The findings of the content analysis are divided into an intra-case result reporting of ManU

and Arsenal, respectively and an inter-case comparison between both cases. In every case

the reporting of the results will be carried out in respect to RQ1a, followed by the report-

ing relevant to RQ1b.

4.1.1 Intra-case results Manchester United

RQ1a aims at answering the question what type of communication tools are used by organ-

izations on Facebook. The size of the ManU sample consists of 106 posts. ManU makes

mostly use of links (41,5 per cent/ 44 posts), which in the most cases (90 per cent) forward

the user to the official club website, followed by pictures (27,4 per cent/ 29 posts), status

updates (23,6 per cent/ 25 posts), and polls (7,5 per cent/ 8 posts). Videos or other com-

munication tools are not used in the sample. The findings are visualized in Figure 7.

Figure 7: Forms of communication ManU

RQ1b aims at answering the question what content is posted by organizations with respect

to product and non-product related attributes. 83 per cent (88 posts) of the posted content

produced by ManU is product related and 17 per cent (18 posts) non-product related. The

two by one chi-square analysis revealed that ManU posts significantly more often product

29

related content (83 per cent) than non-product related content (17 per cent) χ² (1, N = 106)

= 46,226, p = 0,000).

When examining the product and non-product related content in more detail, it is revealed

that ManU puts the strongest emphasis on team and team member related posts (41,5 per

cent or 44 of all 106 posts including non-product related postings), followed by a focus on

the success of the team (33 per cent/ 35 posts). The star player (4,7 per cent/ 5 posts), the

team play (2,8 per cent/ 3 posts), and the head coach (0,9 per cent/ 1 post) are emphasized

less. Non-product related content focuses on various subjects without setting a strong fo-

cus to any particular kind. Such content is related to the stadium (3,8 per cent/ 4 posts),

club history and tradition (2,8 per cent/ 3 posts), fans (2,8 per cent/ 3 posts), and the sta-

dium atmosphere (0,9 per cent/ 1 post). An overview of the used form of communication

as well as the product and non-product related attributes can be found in Table 3 and Ta-

ble 4, respectively.

4.1.2 Intra-case results Arsenal London

In the case of Arsenal, a sample of 114 posts was analyzed. The most frequently used

communication tools are links (79,8 per cent/ 91 posts), followed by pictures (7,9 per cent/

9 posts), status updates (7 per cent/ 8 posts), videos (2,6 per cent/ 3 posts), polls (1,8 per

cent/ 2 posts), and others (0,9 per cent/ 1 post). With almost 80 per cent of the posted

links, Arsenal mostly uses its Facebook page in an attempt to direct users to the official Ar-

senal website (in 80 per cent of the cases). Additionally to linking the users to the official

club website, links are used to integrate Twitter into Facebook (4 per cent of the links di-

rect the user to the Arsenal Twitter page). Fans are occasionally given the opportunity to

send questions to star players via Twitter, which are answered in a live stream. The visuali-

zation of the findings can be found in Figure 8.

Figure 8: Forms of communication Arsenal

30

In regard to RQ1b it was found that Arsenal posts significantly more product related con-

tent (59,6 per cent/ 68 posts) than non-product related content (40,4 per cent/ 46 posts) χ²

(1, N = 114) = 4,246, p = 0,039.

When examining the posted content on the Arsenal Facebook page in detail, it was found,

that 28 posts (24,6 per cent), are focused on the team or team members and 22,8 per cent

(26 posts) on the success of the team. Other product related posts are focused on the team

play (6,1 per cent/ 7 posts), the head coach (4,4 per cent/ 5 posts), and on the star player

(1,8 per cent/ 2 posts). However, the highest percentage of all posts across both content

categories is non-product related and focused on the fans of the club (25,4 per cent/ 29

posts). Arsenal tries to integrate fans into the club through the live chat or polls but also

through encouraging fans to post pictures about a special theme or similar activities. Other

non-product related posts are about the club history and tradition (5,3 per cent/ 6 posts),

the stadium atmosphere (0,9 per cent/ 1 post), the sponsor of the club (0,9 per cent/ 1

post) and other subjects (7,9%/ 9 posts). An overview of the used form of communication

as well as the product and non-product related attributes can be found in Table 3 and Ta-

ble 4, respectively.

4.1.3 Inter-case results Manchester United and Arsenal London

When comparing the use of communication forms between the two teams, it was found

that Arsenal makes significantly more often use of links than ManU compared to other

forms of communication χ² (1, N = 220) = 34,011, p = 0,000). While Arsenal puts a strong

emphasis on links, ManU posts pictures (27,4 per cent) and status updates (23,6 per cent)

more heavily. A more detailed comparison of the used form of communication is present-

ed in Table 3.

Table 3: Forms of communication overview

When comparing the clubs in respect to RQ2b, the two by two contingency analysis, which

tests the association between soccer club and posted content, revealed that a dispropor-

tionately large number of ManU posts are product related posts compared to Arsenal posts

χ² (1, N = 220) = 14,542, p = 0,000). A comparison of the detailed posts of product and

non-product related content can be found in Table 4. Furthermore, it is found that Arsenal

Form of

communication

Frequency Per cent Frequency Per cent

Link 44 41,5% 91 79,8%

Picture(s) 29 27,4% 9 7,9%

Status update 25 23,6% 8 7,0%

Poll 8 7,5% 2 1,8%

Video 0 0,0% 3 2,6%

Other 0 0,0% 1 0,9%

Total 106 100,0% 114 100,0%

ManU Arsenal

31

puts a stronger emphasis on fans by trying to integrate them to a higher extend than ManU,

while ManU uses the Facebook page more for communicating about the team as well as

single team members and the club’s success. In both cases it is quite distinct that the Face-

book page is mainly used as a teaser for information, in an attempt to link the users to the

club’s official website where more detailed information is presented. Detailed results of all

tests carried out can be found in Appendix 1.

Table 4: Detailed frequencies of product and non-product related attributes

4.2 Semi-structured interviews

In the following part the findings from the interviews will be presented, while the analysis

through which the findings are connected with the applied models in order to answer the

research questions will be presented in the ‘Analysis’ section in Chapter 5.

Before explaining the findings with respect to RQ2 in greater depth, some key features that

are derived from the interviews and the respondents are outlined. All eleven interviewees

were males between the age of 20 and 26, while five of them ‘liked’ the Manchester United

and six ‘liked’ the Arsenal Facebook page. An overview of the interviewees’ characteristics

can be found in Table 5. In general, all interview participants are in agreement that the affil-

iation towards the club has been relatively strong for a substantive amount of time. Yet,

some of the interviewees possess a stronger connection to one of the clubs than others. In-

terviewee No. 1, for example, indicated his affiliation by outlining that the specific club is

“part of [his] heart”, interviewee No. 10 indicated that the club is “a big part of [his] life”,

whereas interviewee No. 8 points out that he is “not the biggest fan ever; on a scale from one to ten

I would say I am a six till seven”. The duration for which the interviewees ‘liked’ the Facebook

page of the specific club has varied from approximately five years to one month. Table 5

provides a brief overview of the interview partners.

Attributes

Frequencies Per cent Frequencies Per cent

Product related Team(Members) 44 41,5% 28 24,6%

Success 35 33% 26 22,8%

Star Player(s) 5 4,7% 2 1,8%

Team Performance/Team Play 3 2,8% 7 6,1%

Head-Coach 1 0,9% 5 4,4%

Non-prodcut related Fans 3 2,8% 29 25,4%

Other 7 6,6% 9 7,9%

Stadium 4 3,8% 0 0%

Club History & Tradition 3 2,8% 6 5,3%

Stadium Atmosphere 1 0,9% 1 0,9%

Sponsor or Owner 0 0% 1 0,9%

Total 106 100% 114 100%

ManU Arsenal

32

Table 5: Overview of interviewee characteristics

Among the interviewees, two types of Facebook users were identified: active users – those

regularly sharing, commenting and liking content on Facebook – and, rather inactive users

– those merely occasionally doing so. According to the respondents, Facebook is mainly

used to socialize and further functions by means of enabling its user to be up to date with

differing content. The interviewees had – to a certain degree – similar motivation to like the

official Facebook page of Arsenal or ManU. Among the motivational forces signaling to

friends and the circle of acquaintances, being up to date, marketing purposes (e.g. for a

branch or student organization), fan communication, socializing within a community as

well as purely coincidence were prominent.

In the following it is shed light on how the interviewees perceive the clubs presence on Fa-

cebook and its use of this medium for communication and particularly outlines which kind

of values and benefits they derive – whether consciously or unconsciously. Despite the

slightly differing content and forms of communication that is used by both clubs, the inter-

view findings of both cases revealed considerable similarities. Due to the findings being

very similar for both clubs, they are not presented in separate sections, whereas those find-

ings that differ between the cases will be outlined in discrete sections. The findings are un-

derlined by quotes extracted from the interview transcripts that represent thoughts and re-

markable points by interviewees, as the authors perceive that they embody the backbone

and strength of this research. The sequence of the components that embrace some of the

categories as outlined below does not resemble their importance or value. In addition, each

interviewees perception or derived benefits may only be adherent to some of the compo-

nents.

Interview ClubCountry of

origin Age Gender Occupation

'Like'

since…

year(s)

1 Arsenal Sweden 25 Male Student 3

2 Arsenal Netherlands 23 Male Student 1

3 Arsenal Bulgaria 23 Male Student 2

4 Arsenal Netherlands 22 Male Student 1/12

5 Arsenal Germany 23 Male Student 1

6 Arsenal Canada 20 Male Student 1

7 ManU Hungary 26 Male Student 2

8 ManU Mexico 23 Male Student 1

9 ManU Sweden 21 Male Student 1

10 ManU Germany 23 Male Student 3

11 ManU Ukraine 23 Male Student 5

33

4.2.1 Information sources

In an attempt to answer how the firm’s Facebook presence is perceived by its customers,

the dimension of information gathering has been identified as important. In general, all in-

terview partners indicated a positive overall satisfaction with the specific club’s Facebook

presence. Most interviewees indicated to be passively receiving updates as the content that

is posted by the professional team sport organization automatically appears on their

newsfeed, whereas very few indicated to be actively looking for such content on the

respective Facebook page. Those looking for information actively mainly do so prior,

during or after a match as a quote by interviewee No. 2 shows.

No. 2: “I usually do it right before a match to come.”

It has been detected that, in order to gather further information, the official websites of the

professional team sport organizations is visited either never, very rarely, occasionally or

regularly by the interviewees that were included in the sample. The findings of the content

analysis of both clubs showed that the firms aim at directing its users from their Facebook

presence to their official website by posting links. Among the interviewees the use of such

links can be defined as ambivalent. Some interviewees outlined that such posts did not

stimulate them for further information gathering from the club’s official website due to

Facbeook, while some respondents indicated that they are occasionally stimulated by them.

4.2.2 Symbolic brand benefits

Symbolic brand benefits, as outlined prior, are extrinsic and strongly motivated by an indi-

vidual’s need for belongingness, social acceptance and self-esteem. The majority of inter-

viewees revealed various perceived benefits that can be categorized into fan identification

and peer-group acceptance, which are two of the three components of symbolic brand

benefits in sports according to the applied customer-based brand equity model.

Fan identification

In general, sport fan identification can be related to the degree to which a fan feels a psy-

chological connection to a team or sport (Murrell & Dietz cited in Dietz-Uhler & Lanter

2008). Fan identification is therefore rather affecting the mental or emotional state of a

person. The feeling of fan integration by means of Facebook has been mentioned as an ef-

fect among some of the interviewees. Interviewee No. 2 talks about the passion, interaction

between the club and its fans, and their sharing of emotions that is communicated on Fa-

cebook.

No. 2: “I love to feel the passion and, uh, the Facebook page allows that as the fans can interact and share their

joy or pain with each other.”

Further, the majority of interviewees have pointed out the psychological connection to the

club in reference to the Facebook presence. In particular, the closeness to the club has in-

creased, as indicated by interviewee No. 5.

34

No. 5: “Simply showing the public that I like the club made a kind of closer connection to it. Not the newsfeed on

Facebook or whatsoever.”

Interview partner No. 2 even expresses particular experiences. He encounters through fol-

lowing the club on Facebook, namely being a shorter distance away or apart in space and

time.

No. 2: “You are in a different country and yet you still feel a bit the presence of really, really being there through the

Facebook you know by these passionate fans who are sharing their whole life. It does give you a different feeling even

though you are in a different country; you are not even in the stadium yourself. So it does contribute and it does help

in my opinion and I do feel it. So it does affect, it does help – in a good way of course.”

Further, such closeness as experienced on the Facebook page may stimulate the desire to

attend matches, as outlined by interviewee No. 1.

No.1: “Of course, when you see pictures of the game with hardcore fans, of course you want to go to the game.”

However, feeling closer to the club as an effect of ‘liking’ the club on Facebook is not de-

noted by all interview participants, as interviewee No. 10 exemplifies.

No. 10: “But, no, I do not think that Facebook makes me feel closer to the club.”

Given the fact that the posted content by the clubs appears on the newsfeed of the indi-

viduals that ‘like’ the Facebook page, the awareness of the club increases, e.g. for interview-

ee No. 8. However, interview partner No. 9 also indicated that despite the increase in

awareness, the affiliation towards the club has not changed.

No. 8: “Well, I see it every day, so I guess there is at least some effect.”

No. 9: “I guess my awareness is better now, but it did not really increase my affiliation towards the club.”

Peer-group acceptance

As shown above, almost all interviewees were motivated to ‘like’ their respective club’s Fa-

cebook page by signaling to their friends and circle of acquaintances, which team they sup-

port. Interviewee No. 8 indicates that ‘liking’ his favorite club on Facebook provides him

with an identity.

No. 8: “I wanted to show my friends and other people that I like ManU. I think it shows who you are, therefore I

liked it on Facebook.”

Interviewee No. 1 and No. 6, for example, indicate positive friend’s reactions as a conse-

quence of ‘liking’ the club on Facebook and sharing some posts with friends.

No. 1: “I guess my other Arsenal friends liked that I ‘like’ their Facebook.”

No. 6: “So yeah, I like to post it and my friends are like “yeeeah!” – so I share some funny stuff with some friends.”

However, the empirical findings reveal that peer-group acceptance, which sports in general

– and being part of a Facebook fan profile in particular – can provide to consumers, is ex-

perienced merely by few interviewees.

35

4.2.3 Experiential brand benefits

A number of effects that can be related to experiential brand benefits, which are associated

with brands that relate to feelings that individuals ascribe to the consumption of a branded

product or service, were identified. More precisely, interviewees referred to benefits that

embrace socializing and companionship, emotions, and entertainment.

Socializing and companionship

Some of the interviewees referred to the benefit of socializing and companionship with

other friends, fans, or the club and/or the team itself throughout the interviews. Most of

the interview partners occasionally interact with the club on Facebook by means of online

discussions with other fans, commenting on questions or posts and pictures of players, the

match, or fans, which were uploaded by the club. The interview partners showed differing

interest in interacting with the club itself, while it varied from interacting rather heavily to

infrequently, or, on the other side of the continuum no interaction at all. The following

quotes provide examples of the differing attitudes towards the interaction with the club.

No. 4: “Yeah, comment, like that also sometime especially players birthdays, weddings, whatever. I always congrat-

ulate, after big victories against big rivals I tend to post there on the page, show support.”

No. 2: “But on the page itself I do put likes here and there, but I do not comment on other comments.”

No. 8: “No, I never do. The comments I see are usually very, uhm, shallow. It is only like ManU, ManU,

ManU or something like this. So I feel it does not really make sense to post there. And I do not have the feeling

that the stuff they are posting is something I feel like I can really interact there. And then, there are thousand posts

on one picture or status update, so for me it does not really make sense to post there, it does not make any difference

if I post or not, no one will see it anyway, I guess, and ManU does not care anyway.”

Those who do not interact with the club, in fact, indicated that they do not do so because

of the vast amount of comments by other fans. On the one hand, they do not feel that

commenting as well would add any value, and, keeping up with the content that is pro-

duced by other fans is very time-consuming. Despite of this, some of the interviewees not

keen on interacting with the club have referred to a feeling of fan community that they de-

rive from seeing other fans interacting with the club as interviewee No. 1 indicates.

No. 1: “I mean that is of course nice to see that they have a lot of fans, like a big family.”

Some interviewees have referred to especially socialize in terms of mocking friends that

support rival teams, while interviewee No. 2 exemplifies this.

No. 2: “[…] back home in Holland [and] I have a friend who is just as much into football as I am, and I have

another friend who is a rival, of the rival team Chelsea. So, uhm, when the two teams meet […] I interact with

them. So it is always fun to mock each other a bit. We do that over Facebook and those type of things.”

Some of the interviewees, however, indicate that they do not ascribe socializing or compan-

ionship to posting club-related content, rather they perceive sharing such content as dis-

turbances towards the friends and acquaintances on Facebook as interviewee No. 11 points

out.

No. 11: “I do not really want to disturb people with such things. It is just my interest.”

36

Emotions

Emotions also play a role for some of the interviewees as depicted throughout the inter-

views. Some of the content that is posted by the clubs clearly features intense feelings such

as joy, anger, love, and etcetera. Interviewee No. 6, for example, describes such emotional

posts as being motivating and inspiring for his own sports career.

No. 6: “For example what players individually accomplishing, it inspires you a little bit, you know. Like for ex-

ample how Robben Van Percey scored his 150th goal for the club or something like this. It motivates you in a sense,

I am a football player myself, you know.”

Further, some interviewees revealed that the passion that is conveyed in many of the con-

tent on the club’s Facebook page has also lead to a slightly different perception of the club

itself, as pointed out by interviewee No. 2.

No. 2: “Uhm, you could say a little bit differently because of the updates, the status updates and the fans being

mostly really passionate about it.”

Interviewee No. 7 expressed that ‘liking’ his favorite club on Facebook has increased his

feeling of fondness towards it.

No. 7: “Yeah, it gets more affection for the club if you follow it for a while how much effort they put in, contacting

the fans, keep them updated.”

However, not all interviewees feel an increase in the affiliation towards the club due to ‘lik-

ing’ their Facebook page.

No. 8: “No, I mean I was a fan before anyway, so I think it does not really affect me. And as I said, I mostly

wanted to signal that I like the club.”

Entertainment

Most of the interviewees also indicated at least some entertainment value in ‘liking’ one of

the clubs on Facebook. This especially relates to the excitement of events, performances

and activities on behalf of the club that is posted on the Facebook profile. Interviewee No.

10 points out the real-time updates that are to be found on the club’s Facebook as well as

in the newsfeed.

No. 10: “Well, I can get the official information straight away and really fast. And you know, when you go to the

ManUnited.com, to the website, it is like a few hours late, so the Facebook is faster.”

In fact, all interviewees have repeatedly referred to the value being up to date with the club,

its players and activities, which is achieved by ‘liking’ the club on Facebook and having in-

side information.

No. 2: “So you are up to date and you know what is going on and that is great especially if you do not have time

always to watch the game you can at least follow it on Facebook and they keep you up to date so I, I enjoy that and

its nice at the time as well.”

No. 11: “Those posts that actually give information about the club or even posts about rumors like one other player

would come to the team – that is interesting.”

37

However, none of the interviewees makes use of the Facebook applications provided by

the clubs (e.g. ‘Match day live’ or the ‘360° panorama’ of the Arsenal stadium) that offer

further entertainment value. In fact, the interview partners were not aware about the exist-

ence about such functions.

4.2.4 Measures to increase the value for customers

The interviewees were asked what kind of improvements they would like to see on the

Facebook page of the respective club they like on Facebook. The findings revealed that the

respondents had differing opinions about this, which can partly be related to the fact that

both clubs communicate sightly differently on their Facebook page. Hence, the findings are

seperated for both cases.

Manchester United

Among the ManU sample, some interviewees have pointed out that they like further

Facebook pages that support the respective club, which are not operated by the official

team sport organization, for example the ManU Hungarian or ManU Supporters Trust

Facebook page. This could indicate that the information on ManU’s official Facebook page

is not sufficient for them. Further points of improvement that were mentioned were the

inclusion of posts in multiple languages as was outlined by an interviewee, while another is

drawn to content that is more ‘unofficial’ and rather focuses on posts driven by ‘hatred’

and rivalry. Interviewee No. 10 indicates that the official Facebook page can be trusted, yet

there is a wish for more content that relates to such rivalry between clubs.

No. 10: “[…] the ManUnited official page does not do it so much because they are official and they have

to be formal, but maybe they should do it in a bit more polite way, you know.”

Despite the fact that the feeling of fan integration by means of Facebook has been referred

to as an effect among some of the interviewees, the wish for an even bigger focus on fans

became prominent. This could be, for example, achieved by more interactive posts. The in-

terviewees wish for more fan integration is in line with a very low percentage (2.8 per cent)

of non-product related posts that focus on fans as revealed by the content analysis. More

personal information of the players and behind the scene information is valued by some

interviewees as stated by interviewee No. 6.

No. 11: “[…] just see some behind the scene pictures, which make it a little bit more personal so that we see that

they are not machines – that they are humans as well.”

Some interviewees pinpointed the variety of information sources available in today’s media

landscape, and that there are too many things to read and absorb from different sources.

This can lead to confusion and inefficiency, as outlined by interviewee No. 7. According to

his opinion, it would increase the value much more if all information would be available

from a single source.

No. 7: “[…] when you have so many sources, like the website, Facebook, Twitter, it is kind of difficult

like‚ okay, I have to go to this one to find this information and go to the other one to do that’. So if they

38

would have like all those pages or all those websites with like the same information with the same func-

tions in one that would be great.”

This is in line with some interviewees ‘liking’ the ManU Facebook as they suggested that

the merchandise shop should be integrated with in the official Facebook page, which is – in

contrast – already the case for the Arsenal Facebook page. One interviewee mentioned the

idea to integrate the homepage more into the Facebook page.

Arsenal London

In contrast to ManU, the sample that ‘likes’ the Arsenal Facebook page does not mention

the desire for more fan integration, which may be due to the club already having a strong

focus on non-product related posts that center fans (25,4 per cent). Many interviewees in-

dicate that they would like to see more visuals, e.g. pictures and videos, included in the

club’s posts. When comparing this to the percentage rate of pictures as revealed in the con-

tent analysis, it becomes apparent that relatively few pictures are posted (7,9 per cent),

while videos are posted even less (2.6 per cent).

No. 2: “More videos are always nice. People like visuals, so more videos, more images is always a

nice thing.”

In general, the interviewees indicated that content should be produced in real-time. In line

with some ManU interviewees, an Arsenal interviewee indicated that the Arsenal Facebook

page should focus more on international fans. One interviewee would like to see the club

to use Facebook increasingly for discounts, such as ticket discounts.

39

5 Analysis

This chapter connects the empirical findings with the applied models in the thesis in order to answer the re-

search questions.

The analysis chapter is structured according to the research questions. Hence, the collected

data are analyzed with respect to RQ1a/b, followed by the analysis in regard to RQ2. By

doing so, it is firstly answered which type of communication tools and which brand associ-

ations (product and non-product related attributes) are used by the organizations that are

subject to analysis. Secondly, it is answered how the Facebook presence is perceived by

customers with a particular focus on the derived benefits.

Research question 1a

With respect to RQ1a, the cases that were studied quantitatively showed differing results in

reference to the used communication tools on Facebook. The content analysis revealed

that ManU (27,4 per cent) more often uses pictures than Arsenal (7,9 per cent), while both

clubs barely make use of videos (ManU 0 per cent; Arsenal 2,6 per cent). ManU relatively

often posts status updates (23,6 per cent) and polls (7,5 per cent), while Arsenal rarely

makes use of status updates (7 per cent) or polls (1,8 per cent). Instead, both clubs mostly

make use of links that forward users to the official website (ManU 41,5 per cent; Arsenal

79,8 per cent). Yet, through the interviews it was found that the links presented on the Fa-

cebook page are not encouraging the fans to click them. Instead, customers would rather

like to see more photos and videos being posted. This accounts especially for the case of

Arsenal as pictures are less extensively used in comparison to the ManU Facebook page on

which links were by far the most frequently used tool of communication. In both cases, the

interviewees revealed that the use of visuals is far below the optimum level. In line with

Mehdizadeh (2010 as cited in Wallace et al. 2010), pictures and videos have greater capacity

for fan involvement and interaction in a manner that is remarkably different from that of

other communication instruments. Therefore, the use of more visuals could potentially lead

to more fan involvement and interaction, which could ultimately foster an organizations ef-

forts in strengthening customer-based brand equity.

Research question 1b

In regard to RQ1b, the brand attributes that are displayed in the posted content on the Fa-

cebook page were analyzed quantitatively. Attributes are categorized in two groups: prod-

uct-related attributes (e.g., success, star player, team members) and non-product-related at-

tributes (e.g., fans, club history and tradition, stadium atmosphere). It was revealed that Ar-

senal focuses more on non-product related content (40 per cent of all content) and in par-

ticular on the fans. In contrast, the content of ManU is – as a whole – more informative

and emphasizes more on product related associations (83 per cent of all content) in which

mostly single team members or the team as such is presented. Through the content analysis

it was discovered that 25,4 per cent of Arsenal posts were directed at fans and 5,3 per cent

were about the club history and tradition, while 24,6 per cent of all posts were about the

team (members) and 22,8 per cent about success. When taking a closer look at the content

40

of ManU, it becomes apparent that 41,5 per cent of the posts are about the team (mem-

bers) and 33 per cent about success, while the non-product related posts merely account to

3,3 per cent for the stadium and 2,8 per cent each for club history and tradition as well as

fan directed posts. The findings of the thesis, which are illustrated in the modified custom-

er-based brand equity model that is presented in Figure 11, show the differences in product

and non-product related posts in more detail. The variations in content that is posted indi-

cate that the cases that were studied in this thesis employ a slightly different communica-

tion strategy. According to Kaynak et al. (2008), product related attributes are related with

higher purchase intentions that ultimately influence consumption behavior. Since most of

Manu’s content is based on product related attributes, ManU’s strategy can be identified to

be aiming strongly at increasing purchase intention in order to influence their fans con-

sumption behavior. The amount of posts that relate to the stadium category could further

indicate that ManU tries to increase the fan’s desire to attend a game, which would again

influence the consumption behavior. However, the findings show that fans do not neces-

sarily like to see a club’s Facebook page content merely filled with product related attrib-

utes, which will be reviewed in the following.

Research question 2

As has been shown in this thesis, the awareness and affiliation towards the club among the

interviewees within the sample has been relatively strong for a substantive amount of time

before ‘liking’ the club on Facebook. This affirms the authors’ reasoning for excluding

brand awareness as a component of brand knowledge in the applied customer-based brand

equity model. Therefore, Keller’s original customer-based brand equity model – in which

brand image and brand awareness form the two main pillars – was modified in line with

Bauer et al. (2006; 2008), as the Premier League’s strong media exposure allows to focus

merely on brand image. Hence, the aim of Premiere League professional team sport organ-

izations when communicating within the realm of Facebook is to create positive associa-

tions/attitudes towards the brand, instead of increasing brand recall and recognition as they

can be assumed to be relatively strong already. As outlined by Bauer et al. (2008) brand im-

age is likely to epitomize a constant in fan’s perceptions when keeping in mind that the

team sport product can be characterized by unpredictability and instability (e.g. the out-

comes of games). By ensuring a consistent and stable club appearance, a professional team

sport organization can gain maximum rewards.

In order to answer RQ2, how the customers perceive the clubs Facebook presence and its

communication approach within this medium, the qualitative data collected through semi-

structured interviews were analyzed. According to Keller’s original customer-based brand

equity model, brand benefits are categorized into symbolic, experiential and functional

benefits, while the latter was not employed as a component within this thesis as outlined

prior. The empirical findings have shown that some of the components that embrace sym-

bolic and experiential brand benefits according to the herein applied customer-based brand

equity model are adherent among the interviewees as illustrated in Figure 10.

The analysis shows that components, constituting symbolic and experiential brand benefits

as identified in studies conducted in domains other than Facebook, do not entirely hold

41

true in the enquiry at hand. While symbolic brand benefits are made up of the components fan

identification, peer-group acceptance and pride in place, merely two of these components

have been identified within this study. More precisely, fan identification and peer-group ac-

ceptance have been pinpointed within both the Arsenal and ManU case, whereas no indica-

tion for pride in place was found. This also applies to the experiential brand benefits, which are

made up of four components, however, merely socializing/companionship, emotions and

entertainment could be identified in this research. The fourth component – nostalgia – was

not found to be relevant among the sample. The absence of these components can, on the

one hand, partly be linked to the content that is produced by the clubs as there are few to

none posts that are associated with nostalgia or pride in place, and on the other hand, part-

ly to the composition of the sample. As the sample is composed of students from countries

other than the United Kingdom – for which the Premiere League is the primary soccer

competition – it can be assumed that there is relatively few pride in place (town pride) in

the first place. In general, the interviewees revealed that fan identification, peer-group ac-

ceptance and socializing/companionship were the benefits having greater relevance among

the sample, while entertainment and emotions have also been identified, yet to a much

weaker extend. This underpins the importance that customers value the social component

of Facebook, which will be explored in the following. The components constituting brand

benefits as identified in prior studies and in this thesis are summarized in Table 6.

Table 6: Benefits as identified in other studies and in this thesis

This thesis applied a customer-based brand equity model adopted by the authors in the

domain of professional team sport and social media communication, which is built on Kel-

ler’s customer-based brand equity model, as well as on adaptations of Keller’s model by

Bauer et al. (2008), Kaynak et al. (2008), Ross et al. (2001), and Wallace et al. (2011). As laid

out above, some of the components of the adopted model could not be identified in the

analysis. The findings of the content analysis and the semi-structured interviews are com-

bined in a new customer-based brand equity model, which is illustrated in Figure 9.

Benefits  Components identified byIdentified components in

this thesis

Fan identification Gladden & Funk (2001)2 Identified

Peer-group acceptance Wakefield & Sloan2 Identified

Pride in place Gladden & Funk (2001)2 Not identified

Nostalgia Holbrook (1993)2, Gladden & Funk (2001)

1 Not identified

Socializing / companionship Bauer et al. (2008), Wallace et al. (2011) Identified

Emotions Bauer et al. (2008) Identified

Entertainment Bauer et al. (2008) Identified

 Source

Symbolic brand benefits

Experiential brand benefits

1 As cited in Bauer et al. (2008)

2 As cited in Kaynak et al. (2008)

42

Figure 9: Applied customer-based brand equity model

Source: modified by authors; based on Keller (1993) and adaptations by Bauer et al. (2008), Kaynak et al. (2008), Ross et al. (2001) & Wallace et al. (2011)

43

The findings of this thesis show that a firm’s usage of Facebook as a medium of communi-

cation can strengthen customer-based brand equity. Hence, the author’s modification of

the communication model as cited in Jobber (2010) that links interactive marketing com-

munications and customer-based brand equity (Figure 10) holds true. The two cases that

were considered have aroused the customer’s strength of brand associations by means of

communicating on and through their Facebook page.

Figure 10: Facebook as a means to strengthen customer-based brand equity

Source: modified by authors as cited in Jobber 2010 p.466

As shown in Figure 10, the modified model has various elements, which – applied to the

context of professional team sport organizations – looks as follows:

A source, such as a professional team sport organization, which produces a message

An encoded message, which means that the message is translated into signals (e.g. the use of a product or non-product related status update, picture, video, link or poll)

A transmission, which is the Facebook channel in which signals are adapted for transmission

A decoded message, which translates the message from the signal

A receiver, which is the customer or market to which the message arrives

Interactivity is a further component of the model that indicates a communication nature that

is characterized by ‘many-to-many’ as Facebook allows firms as well as customers to active-

ly contribute to the development of content and meaning. Upon reaching the receiver of

the message, the effect is an increase in customer-based brand equity. Hence, this simpli-

fied model provides an overview of how firms strengthen customer-based brand equity by

using Facebook as a channel of communication. However, it must be outlined that Face-

book is a medium that is subject to a large amount of sources of interference (‘noise’),

which might prevent its users from decoding messages properly. This is particularly due to

the newsfeed, as it displays current activities of a user’s friends and groups he/she belongs

to in real time.

Despite the general overall positive satisfaction with the club’s Facebook presence among

the interviewees it became apparent that the integration of fans within this social network is

44

important. The findings of this thesis show that ‘just being’ on Facebook is not enough.

ManU fans – for example – would like to see their club focusing more on the fans and in-

tegrate them more. Arsenal fans – on the other hand – are relatively satisfied with regard to

the focus on fans, which can be ascribed to the club’s content frequently focusing on fans.

In both cases, interviewees wished for more qualitative fan integration. This is in line with

Bauer et al. (2008 p.221) who indicate that “fans have a long fan history, they have all expe-

rienced ups and downs of their team such as player and coach changes […]. Perhaps for

that reason contextual factors (i.e., the stadium atmosphere, other fans, club history and

tradition) have greater relevance to them”. Hence, professional team sport organizations

would provide value to its customers when emphasizing more on non-product related con-

tent that strongly focuses on fans.

The fan’s claim for more fan integration is in line with Richelieu and Boulaire’s (2005) cate-

gorization of the postmodern sport product and Cova and Cova’s (2002) concept of tribal

marketing as described in the background section of the thesis. According to Richelieu and

Boulaire (2005), the postmodern sport product is characterized, among other attributes, as

a social product in which – for example – an experience beyond the mere consumption,

sharing emotions in groups and feeling a spirit of community as well as the co-creation by

consumers with respect to the product’s meaning are important. Tribal marketing focuses

on establishing a connection between consumers through marketing activities. In fact, the

claim for more fan integration can be described using Cova and Cova’s terminology of

‘linking value’, which focuses on supporting social interaction among customers of a prod-

uct. It is important to “consider the product or service from its linking value rather than its

use value” – and firms should therefore focus their marketing not merely on the actual

product or service, but also try to connect people through it (Cova & Cova 2002 p.608).

Firms seem to realize the linking value of products, yet the potential of Facebook that ena-

bles and possibly increases such linking value is not yet exploited by the organizations that

have been studied in this thesis. Levy (1959 p.118) indicated that “people do not buy prod-

ucts for what they can do but also for what they mean”, which could very well relate to the

linking value of products. As the hypermedia environment – and Facebook in particular –

gives a more active role to a number of actors such as consumers, this medium has the ca-

pability to create meaning and the linking value between the firm and its products or ser-

vices and the consumer as well as between consumers themselves. This, in turn, provides

professional team sport organizations with a means to strengthen customer-based brand

equity.

45

6 Conclusions

This chapter presents the main findings that correspond to the research questions with the intention of an-swering and fulfilling the purpose.

The purpose of this thesis is to provide a holistic understanding of how Facebook is used

by professional team sport organizations to strengthen customer based-brand equity and

how these attempts are perceived by the customers with a focus on the derived benefits.

The findings of this thesis show that a firm’s usage of Facebook as a medium of communi-

cation can strengthen customer-based brand equity. In order to fulfill the purpose, each

research question that is underlying this thesis is briefly concluded in the following.

RQ1: How do firms strengthen customer-based brand equity by using Facebook as

a channel of communication?

RQ1a: What type of communication tool is used to strengthen customer-

based brand equity?

The communication tool that is most intensively used by both organizations is the link that

forwards users to the official website, while Arsenal (80 per cent) uses this form more fre-

quently than ManU (41,5 per cent). Both cases show some differences in the use of com-

munication tools, as ManU makes considerable more use of pictures, status updates and

polls in comparison to Arsenal. In contrast, Arsenal occasionally posts videos, while ManU

does not make use of this form of communication. Other social media tools like Twitter or

YouTube are rarely (Arsenal) or not at all (ManU) integrated into the Facebook page.

RQ1b: Which product and non-product attributes are used to strengthen

customer-based brand equity?

The content of ManU strongly evolves around product related posts (83 per cent of all

content), while the focus lies on success and the team (members). Arsenal’s product related

posts also focus on success and the team (members), while their posts are generally more

balanced as significantly more non-product related posts (40 per cent of all content) involv-

ing fans are created in comparison to ManU.

RQ2: How is the Facebook presence perceived by its customers and which benefits are derived from it?

The findings show a positive overall satisfaction with the specific club’s Facebook presence

among the sample. Most interviewees indicated to be passively receiving information as the

content that is posted by the professional team sport organization is shown in their

newsfeed, while very few indicated to be actively looking for such content on the respective

Facebook page. The interviewees derive differing benefits from ‘liking’ the club’s Facebook

page. The symbolic brand benefits that were identified embrace fan identification and peer-

group acceptance, while the experiential brand benefits comprise socializing/

companionship, emotions and entertainment. The Arsenal sample is satisfied with the

focus on fans but pointed out a desire for more visual content, which parallels a very low

46

coverage of pictures or videos on the club’s Facebook page. The ManU sample, in contrast,

demands a stronger focus on content that involves fans, which is in line with the low

coverage of fan related posts. Hence, customers strongly value content that evolves around

non-product related posts that focus on fans, while such fan integration is generally de-

manded in a more qualitative manner.

In this thesis a modified communication model that links interactive marketing communi-

cations and customer-based brand equity has been visualized and found to hold true ac-

cording to the findings. Hence, a professional team sport organizations’ usage of Facebook

as a medium of communication can strengthen customer-based brand equity, while it must

also be outlined that this medium is subject to a large amount of sources of interference.

47

7 Discussion

This chapter outlines the contributions to research, provides suggestions for future research, insights for man-agerial implications as well as methodological issues and limitations that are adherent to this thesis.

7.1 Contributions to research

In times of fast growing numbers of Facebook users and organizations increasingly using

Facebook as a communication channel (Kaplan & Haenlein 2010), it is important to under-

stand how Facebook is used by companies and which effects the usage might have on cus-

tomers. Especially with respect to brand management as it is a key marketing priority for

most firms (Keller 2009). This thesis addressed these prevailing issues and contributes to

the existing stream of communication and brand management research. The possible con-

tributions of the study are especially rooted in the holistic approach of analyzing the firms’

use and customers’ perception of Facebook in strengthening customer-based brand equity,

which was not studied in prior research. Although prior research found that social media –

in general – has a positive influence on customer-based brand equity in the fashion industry

(Kim & Ko 2011), not much was known about the role of Facebook in the context of pro-

fessional team sport. This thesis could show that Facebook in particular can have a positive

impact on customer-based brand equity. Moreover, this thesis contributes to research by

describing how Facebook is used by professional team sport organizations, an area of re-

search that has not been explored so far. Furthermore, the thesis supports the communica-

tion research in the domain of Facebook, which proposes that Facebook should be used in

order to actively integrate customers (e.g. Kaplan & Haenlein 2010; Keller 2009; Yan 2011).

The strength of the applied holistic approach is that the implications of the research are

based on both, on the analysis of the kind of content that is actually produced by the or-

ganizations and the customers’ perception of such content. It allows – for instance – to un-

cover the insight that the most frequently used communication tool – the link – is not or

rarely used by the customers and, therefore, the company’s strategy of using Facebook to

forward users to the official website should be critically reassessed.

7.2 Future research

This thesis has merely investigated data from the Facebook profile of both clubs for 30

days within the Premiere League season 2011/2012. This data was collected in September,

December and March. For future research a more extensive longitudinal study could cap-

ture trends over a longer course of time than those presented in this thesis. Since this thesis

has merely examined the content that was posted by the organization, it could be interest-

ing to analyze the content on the club’s Facebook page that is posted by fans in further

studies. Specifically, it would be interesting to examine which kind of content and form of

communication is more likely to lead to a ‘like’, comment or sharing on behalf of the cus-

tomer. This is particularly interesting as any kind of content that is liked, commented or

48

shared is more likely to appear in the fan’s and even the fan’s Facebook friend’s newsfeed

and, hence, becomes visible to an even greater audience that could lead to an increase in

brand awareness among this audience.

The results of the content analysis have shown that both ManU and Arsenal have a differ-

ent strategy in operating their Facebook page – for example in regards to product related

and non-product related content. Future research could also shed light on the communica-

tion strategies of organizations in the realm of social media, the goals associated with such

strategies as well as measure its effectiveness from the perspective of firms’ in order to un-

derstand the differences. Moreover, the thesis has merely focused on the use of Facebook

as a medium of communication; another possibility for future research would be to exam-

ine an organization’s Twitter or YouTube channel. Even more interesting would be the

analysis of the complete integrated media channels used by an organization.

Further research could also take the form of a quantitative study, in which the effects of an

organization’s communication through Facebook on customer-based brand equity is ana-

lyzed. This thesis has provided a holistic understanding of how Facebook is used by

professional team sport organizations to strengthen customer based-brand equity and how

these attempts are perceived by the customers with a focus on the derived benefits. The

findings of this thesis are slightly different to prior studies that have been conducted in the

context of professional team sport, which is most probably due to the fact that this study

has been conducted in the realm of Facebook. Hence, the findings as depicted in Figure 9

could be tested quantitatively. Furthermore, it could be analyzed how a firm’s marketing

communication via Facebook influences brand loyalty. Of particular interest would be the

examination of differences in customer-based brand equity (and loyalty) between an

‘online’ (those liking the club’s Facebook page) and an ‘offline’ sample (those who do not

‘like’ the club’s Facebook page). Moreover, future studies should not be restricted to stu-

dents around the same age but instead make use of more representative samples including

differing age groups and professions.

7.3 Managerial implications

First and foremost, a practical implication for organizations is that Facebook as a medium

of communication can increase customer-based brand equity. Although the organizations

that have been studied within this thesis already put efforts into place to make their respec-

tive Facebook page attractive, the findings show areas in which the clubs need to improve

in order to leverage the potential of this medium in strengthening customer-based brand

equity even more. It became apparent that the clubs should put more emphasis on non-

product related attributes that strongly focus on the integration of fans when posting con-

tent on Facebook in order to strengthen customer-based brand equity. In fact, fans wish

for a certain quality when being integrated, instead of being exposed to very shallow con-

tent. This, in turn, could provide the fans with an incentive to contribute to particular con-

tent and increases the likelihood of a mutual firm-customer value. A further implication

that was prominent among the sample was the wish for more visual content such a pictures

49

or videos. The coverage of more visuals could potentially lead to more fan involvement

and interaction, which could ultimately foster an organization's efforts in strengthening

customer-based brand equity. Kaplan and Haenlein (2010 p.65) indicate that “being active

[in the realm of social media] is one key requirement of success”, while the findings of this

thesis do not fully confirm this. This does not imply that being active is not important, but

rather the type of content that is produced is of even greater significance. The findings

have shown that efforts are needed to balance the breadth of content, which – in particular

– relate to an increasing use of non-product related attributes and visuals in the creation of

content. Being active, however, is the means that allows transmitting such content to the

customers. However, Facebook also has its pitfalls, which organizations have to keep in

mind. These relate, for example, to the large amount of sources of interference that cus-

tomers are subject to.

7.4 Limitations

This thesis cannot be assumed to be free from limitations. Thus, the following briefly out-

lines the main shortcomings the authors find most relevant to this thesis. In general, an ar-

ea of potential research bias can be ascribed to the authors. The researcher should avoid

subjectivity in the research process and in particular throughout the interviewing and cod-

ing process, which was emphasized during the entire enquiry. However, particularly the

coding process is based on the interpretation of the researchers, which may imply that bias

is adherent to the thesis. The bias was reduced through systematic coding and interpreta-

tion in groups, as well as the fact that both authors are not soccer fans in general and there-

fore were able to approach the very emotional subject rather neutral. Another general limi-

tation can be seen in the fact that Facebook is merely one part of a broad media landscape

influencing customer-based brand equity, which was not further considered.

Moreover, the results of the study cannot – or merely to a very limited extend – be general-

ized due to the circumstance that only two organizations were subject to the analysis.

However, this does not mean that generalization is impossible, but rather that generalizing

findings has to be done extremely carefully. Furthermore, the generalization is limited by

the fact that the chosen cases are restricted to English Premiere League clubs. The findings

might not be applicable for organizations in different professional team sports other than

soccer, especially companies outside the realm of professional team sport.

With particular respect to the quantitative study, the clubs’ posts on their Facebook page

are not controlled for any covariate such as time of day or time of the season in order to

get a more detailed insight of the usage.

With particular respect to the qualitative study, the chosen sample is subject to limitations

in regard to its composition. Though the sample in this thesis constitutes very differing na-

tionalities, the findings account for a particular fan group as all interviewees were university

students between the ages of 20 to 26. Hence, a more representative sample that includes

differing age groups and professions might strengthen future research.

Appendices

50

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Appendices

55

Appendices

Appendix 1: Findings content analysis

Statistics

Attributes_ManU Form_of_Com_ManU

N Valid 106 106

Missing 0 0

Frequency Table

Form_of_Com_ManU

Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent

Valid

Status Update 25 23,6 23,6 23,6

Picture(s) 29 27,4 27,4 50,9

Link 44 41,5 41,5 92,5

Survey 8 7,5 7,5 100,0

Total 106 100,0 100,0

Frequency Percent Valid PercentCumulative

Percent

Success 35 33 33 33

Star Player(s) 5 4,7 4,7 37,7

Head-Coach 1 0,9 0,9 38,7

Team(Memb

ers)44 41,5 41,5 80,2

Team

Performance/

Team Play

3 2,8 2,8 83

Stadium 4 3,8 3,8 86,8

Stadium

Atmosphere1 0,9 0,9 87,7

Club History

& Tradition3 2,8 2,8 90,6

Fans 3 2,8 2,8 93,4

Other 7 6,6 6,6 100

Total 106 100 100

Attributes_ManU

Valid

Appendices

56

Bar Chart

Frequencies

Statistics

Rater_1_Attributes_ManU

Rater_2_Attribute_ManU

Recod-ed_Product_Non_Product_attributes_Ma

nU

N Valid 106 106 106

Missing 0 0 0

Appendices

57

Frequency Table

Recoded_Product_Non_Product_attributes_ManU

Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent

Valid

Product 88 83,0 83,0 83,0

Non-Product 18 17,0 17,0 100,0

Total 106 100,0 100,0

Frequency Percent Valid PercentCumulative

Percent

Success 35 33 33 33

Star Player(s) 5 4,7 4,7 37,7

Head-Coach 1 0,9 0,9 38,7

Team(Memb

ers)44 41,5 41,5 80,2

Team

Performance/

Team Play

3 2,8 2,8 83

Stadium 4 3,8 3,8 86,8

Stadium

Atmosphere1 0,9 0,9 87,7

Club History

& Tradition3 2,8 2,8 90,6

Fans 3 2,8 2,8 93,4

Other 7 6,6 6,6 100

Total 106 100 100

Rater_1_Attributes_ManU

Valid

Frequency Percent Valid PercentCumulative

Percent

Success 33 31,1 31,1 31,1

Star Player(s) 5 4,7 4,7 35,8

Head-Coach 1 0,9 0,9 36,8

Team(Memb

ers)45 42,5 42,5 79,2

Team

Performance/

Team Play

1 0,9 0,9 80,2

Stadium 4 3,8 3,8 84

Stadium

Atmosphere1 0,9 0,9 84,9

Club History

& Tradition3 2,8 2,8 87,7

Fans 4 3,8 3,8 91,5

Other 9 8,5 8,5 100

Total 106 100 100

Rater_2_Attribute_ManU

Valid

Appendices

58

Crosstabs

Chi-Square Test Frequencies

Recoded_Product_Non_Product_attributes_ManU

Observed N Expected N Residual

Product 88 53,0 35,0 Non-Product 18 53,0 -35,0 Total 106

Test Statistics

N Percent N Percent N Percent

Rater_2_Attri

bute_ManU *

Rater_1_Attri

butes_ManU

106 100,00% 0 0,00% 106 100,00%

Case Processing Summary

Cases

Valid Missing Total

ValueAsymp. Std.

Errora Approx. T

b Approx. Sig.

Measure of

AgreementKappa 0,854 0,041 15,597 0

106

b. Using the asymptotic standard error assuming the null hypothesis.

Symmetric Measures

N of Valid Cases

a. Not assuming the null hypothesis.

Appendices

59

Recoded_Product_Non_Product_attributes_ManU

Chi-Square 46,226a

df 1

Asymp. Sig. ,000

a. 0 cells (,0%) have expected frequencies less than 5. The minimum expected cell frequency is 53,0.

Frequencies

Statistics

Attributes_Arsenal Form_of_Com_Arsenal

N Valid 114 114

Missing 0 0

Frequency Percent Valid PercentCumulative

Percent

Success 26 22,8 22,8 22,8

Star

Player(s)2 1,8 1,8 24,6

Head-

Coach5 4,4 4,4 28,9

Team(Me

mbers)28 24,6 24,6 53,5

Team

Performan

ce/Team

Play

7 6,1 6,1 59,6

Stadium

Atmosphe

re

1 0,9 0,9 60,5

Club

History &

Tradition

6 5,3 5,3 65,8

Fans 29 25,4 25,4 91,2

Sponsor

or Owner1 0,9 0,9 92,1

Other 9 7,9 7,9 100

Total 114 100 100

Attributes_Arsenal

Valid

Appendices

60

Form_of_Com_Arsenal

Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent

Valid

Status Update 8 7,0 7,0 7,0

Picture(s) 9 7,9 7,9 14,9

Video 3 2,6 2,6 17,5

Link 91 79,8 79,8 97,4

Survey 2 1,8 1,8 99,1

Other 1 ,9 ,9 100,0

Total 114 100,0 100,0

Frequency Percent Valid PercentCumulative

Percent

Success 26 22,8 22,8 22,8

Star

Player(s)2 1,8 1,8 24,6

Head-

Coach5 4,4 4,4 28,9

Team(Me

mbers)28 24,6 24,6 53,5

Team

Performan

ce/Team

Play

7 6,1 6,1 59,6

Stadium

Atmosphe

re

1 0,9 0,9 60,5

Club

History &

Tradition

6 5,3 5,3 65,8

Fans 29 25,4 25,4 91,2

Sponsor

or Owner1 0,9 0,9 92,1

Other 9 7,9 7,9 100

Total 114 100 100

Valid

Attributes_Arsenal

Appendices

61

Bar Chart

Appendices

62

Frequencies Statistics

Rater_1_Attributes_Arsenal

Rater_2_Attributes_Arsenal

Recod-ed_Attributes_Arsen

al

N Valid 114 114 114

Missing 0 0 0

Frequency Table

Frequency Percent Valid PercentCumulative

Percent

Success 26 22,8 22,8 22,8

Star

Player(s)2 1,8 1,8 24,6

Head-

Coach5 4,4 4,4 28,9

Team(Me

mbers)28 24,6 24,6 53,5

Team

Performan

ce/Team

Play

7 6,1 6,1 59,6

Stadium

Atmosphe

re

1 0,9 0,9 60,5

Club

History &

Tradition

6 5,3 5,3 65,8

Fans 29 25,4 25,4 91,2

Sponsor

or Owner1 0,9 0,9 92,1

Other 9 7,9 7,9 100

Total 114 100 100

Rater_1_Attributes_Arsenal

Valid

Appendices

63

Recoded_Attributes_Arsenal

Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent

Valid

Product 68 59,6 59,6 59,6

Non-Product 46 40,4 40,4 100,0

Total 114 100,0 100,0

Crosstabs

Case Processing Summary

Cases

Valid Missing Total

N Percent N Percent N Percent

Rater_2_Attributes_Arsenal * Ra-ter_1_Attributes_Arsenal

114 100,00% 0 0,00% 114 100,00%

Frequency Percent Valid PercentCumulative

Percent

Success 26 22,8 22,8 22,8

Star

Player(s)3 2,6 2,6 25,4

Head-

Coach6 5,3 5,3 30,7

Team(Me

mbers)30 26,3 26,3 57

Team

Performan

ce/Team

Play

5 4,4 4,4 61,4

Stadium

Atmosphe

re

1 0,9 0,9 62,3

Club

History &

Tradition

6 5,3 5,3 67,5

Club

Culture &

Values

2 1,8 1,8 69,3

Fans 27 23,7 23,7 93

Other 8 7 7 100

Total 114 100 100

Valid

Rater_2_Attributes_Arsenal

Appendices

64

Chi-Square Test Frequencies

Recoded_Attributes_Arsenal

Observed N Expected N Residual

Product 68 57,0 11,0 Non-Product 46 57,0 -11,0 Total 114

Test Statistics

Recod-ed_Attributes_Arsenal

Chi-Square 4,246a

df 1

Asymp. Sig. ,039

ValueAsymp. Std.

Errora Approx. T

b Approx. Sig.

Measure of

AgreementKappa 0,837 0,038 19,387 0

114

Symmetric Measures

N of Valid Cases

a. Not assuming the null hypothesis.

b. Using the asymptotic standard error assuming the null hypothesis.

Appendices

65

a. 0 cells (0,0%) have expected frequencies less than 5. The minimum expected cell frequency is 57,0.

Crosstabs

Clubs_total * Form_of_Com_Link Crosstabulation

Count

Form_of_Com_Link

Total 0 Link

Clubs_total_4 ManU 62 44 106

Arsenal 23 91 114 Total

85 135 220

Chi-Square Tests

Value df Asymp. Sig. (2-

sided) Exact Sig. (2-sided) Exact Sig. (1-sided)

Pearson Chi-Square 34,011a 1 ,000

Continuity Correctionb 32,414 1 ,000

Likelihood Ratio 35,001 1 ,000 Fisher's Exact Test ,000 ,000

Linear-by-Linear Association

33,857 1 ,000 N of Valid Cases 220 a. 0 cells (,0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is 40,95. b. Computed only for a 2x2 table

Symmetric Measures

Value Approx. Sig.

Nominal by Nominal Phi ,393 ,000

Cramer's V ,393 ,000 N of Valid Cases 220

N Percent N Percent N Percent

Clubs_total *

Attributes_total220 100,00% 0 0,00% 220 100,00%

Cases

Valid Missing Total

Case Processing Summary

Appendices

66

Symmetric Measures

Value Approx. Sig.

Nominal by Nominal Phi ,257 ,000

Cramer's V ,257 ,000 N of Valid Cases 220

a. Not assuming the null hypothesis. b. Using the asymptotic standard error assuming the null hypothesis.

Correlations

Correlations

Attributes_total Clubs_total

Attributes_total

Pearson Correlation 1 ,257**

Sig. (2-tailed) ,000

N 220 220

Clubs_total

Pearson Correlation ,257** 1

Sig. (2-tailed) ,000

N 220 220

**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

Product Non-Product

Count 88 18 106

Expected

Count75,2 30,8 106

Count 68 46 114

Expected

Count80,8 33,2 114

Count 156 64 220

Expected

Count156 64 220

Total

Attributes_totalTotal

Clubs_total

ManU

Arsenal

Clubs_total * Attributes_total Crosstabulation

Value dfAsymp. Sig.

(2-sided)

Exact Sig. (2-

sided)

Exact Sig. (1-

sided)

Pearson Chi-

Square14,542

a 1 0

Continuity

Correctionb 13,432 1 0

Likelihood Ratio 14,954 1 0

Fisher's Exact Test 0 0

Linear-by-Linear

Association14,476 1 0

N of Valid Cases 220

Chi-Square Tests

a. 0 cells (0,0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is 30,84.

b. Computed only for a 2x2 table

Appendices

67

Appendix 2: Interview guide

FB General - What do you use Facebook for? - How many likes do you have in general?

Image of club

- How do you perceive the club in general? - What do you think about the club’s presence on Facebook?

General website

- How often have you visited the club’s official website? - Did/do you access it because of a Facebook-link?

Club’s Facebook page

- How long have you liked the fan page? - How do you like the clubs Facebook page? - What was your motivation to like the Facebook page? - Are the posts visible on newfeed? - Do you actively look for content produced by the club? If so, how often? - Do you use/look at other function on the Facebook page?

(For example Arsenal: 360° stadium panorama, matchday live application) Attributes (product & non-product)

- What kind of content do you notice that the club produces? - What kind of content do you notice the most?

Form of communication

- What kind of communication tools do you notice that the club uses? (Pictures, videos, polls, etc.)

Interaction with FB page

- Do you interact with the club via Facebook? If so, how do you interact with the club? (Like, comment, share links, etc.)

Awareness

- Does the Facebook page increase the awareness of the club and the brand? Image

- Do you perceive the image of the club differently after liking the Facebook page? And if so, how?

Benefits

- What benefits do you perceive from „liking“ the Facebook page? (Symbolic brand benefits; experiential brand benefits)

- What do you value the most from the club’s Facebook presence? Ideas for improvement

- Do you miss anything on the Facebook page? What would you improve?

Appendices

68

Appendix 3: Codebook

Arsenal London

Open, axial and selective codes

Open codes Axial codes Selective codes

Feeling of fan community/integration No feeling of fan community Noticing of club’s desire to integrate fans

Increase in closeness to the club Desire to attend match Stimulating purchase desire

Fan identification Symbolic brand benefits

Positive friends reaction Signaling to friends

Peer-group acceptance

Socializing No interaction with club’s Facebook page Occasionally interaction with club’s Facebook page Curiosity about fan discussions on club’s Facebook page Occasionally posting club related content

Socializing/companionship Experiential brand benefits

Inspiration & motivation Slightly different club perception due to Facebook No change of club perception due to Facebook If club would increase the number of posts: feeling of annoy-ance

No change in affiliation towards the club

Emotions

Being up to date No usage of club’s Facebook applications No knowledge of further Facebook functions

Entertainment

General external information gathering Retrieving further information from the website Stimulation for further information from the website due to Facebook No stimulation for further information gathering from the website due to Facebook Decrease of website visits because of Facebook

Occasionally general external information gathering No (further) information gathering from club’s website Regular (further) information from the website Reliable information on official Facebook page Passively receiving information

Passively receiving information & actively information gather-ing

Information gathering Information sources

Focus more on international fans Written interviews

More visuals Real-time Ticket discounts & chat Notification of missed posts through lists

Improvement of the Face-book page

Measures to im-prove value for customer

Fan communication, community & being up to date Signaling to friends

Being up to date Socializing

Motives to like the Face-book page

Motivation

Active Facebook user Rather inactive Facebook user Facebook usage: Socializing & being up to date Strong affiliation towards the club Positive overall satisfaction with club’s Facebook presence

Usage and attitude towards the club

General infor-mation

Appendices

69

Manchester United

Open, axial and selective codes

Open codes Axial codes Selective codes

Feeling of fan community No feeling of fan community Facebook page brought about an identity Different club perception due to Facebook

No benefits of liking the club on Facebook Increase in closeness to the club No increase in closeness to the club

Fan identification Symbolic brand benefits

Signaling to friends Peer-group acceptance

No interaction with club’s Facebook page Occasionally interaction with club’s Facebook fan page Occasionally gathering information actively No need for further information from the website

Socializing/companionship Experiential brand benefits

Increases of club awareness due to Facebook No change in affiliation towards the club No change of club perception due to Facebook No benefits of liking the club on Facebook No change in affiliation towards the club due to Facebook

Emotions

Being up to date Fast & real-time No usage of Facebook applications

Entertainment

Information gathering from the website Stimulation for further information from the website Occasionally gathering further information from the club’s of-ficial website No need for further information from the website Specific external information gathering Passively receiving information

Passively receiving information & actively information gather-ing Reliable information on official Facebook page Likes also unofficial Manchester United Supporters Trust (MUST) site Likes also unofficial Hungarian ManU site

Information gathering Information sources

Behind the scene posts & integrate fan shop

Integrate homepage more into Facebook page, more interac-tive posts & multilingual Personal information of players & behind the scene infor-mation Connect Facebook page to merchandise shop & focus more on fans Statistics, facts & rivalry between clubs

Improvement of the Face-book page

Measures to im-prove value for customer

Coincidence & interest Signaling to friends Being up to date Marketing for branch

Motives to like the Face-book page

Motivation

Facebook usage: -Being up to date -Socializing & being up to date Active Facebook user: Sharing, commenting, liking Rather inactive Facebook user

Strong affiliation towards the club Relatively strong affiliation towards the club Affiliations towards the club: Strong brand & multicultural

Positive overall satisfaction with the club’s Facebook presence

Usage and attitude towards the club

General infor-mation