THE FEATURES OF AN EFFECTIVE LEARNING · PDF fileformalized learning ·learning as a...

ALL FAITHS’ CHILDREN’S COMMUNITY SCHOOL

u:\policies\current policies\learning\learning policyfb.28.09.12.doc

LEARNING POLICY Written by: Version 1 All Staff on 07.09.09

Reviewed by Curriculum Comm: V1 January 2010

Ratified by: V1 Full Governing Body on 11 February 2010 V2 September 2012

To be reviewed: September 2014 or in the light of new advice ENCS. Appendix 1-3 SCHOOL AIMS

1. To enable all pupils to achieve high standards in all areas of the curriculum, to enjoy their learning, achieve well and make very good progress in relation to their prior attainment. (ECM3)

4. To enable all pupils to set themselves high standards, to take pride in their work and to

strive towards high achievement. (ECM4)

5. To enable all pupils to be confident and self-motivated and to take advantage of opportunities to make a positive contribution to the School and wider community. (ECM4)

6. To provide a lively, stimulating and well-organised learning environment in which staff

and pupils work co-operatively towards achieving the school’s aims. (ECM5)

9. To celebrate special aspects of the pupil’s work and life at school and cause the school to pursue excellence in all its activities. (ECM4)

AIM: For learners to be confident risk takers who are self-motivated and create opportunities to develop their own learning. (App 1) Our Learning Policy is based on sound research: Vygotsky (1978)

Children learn best when they can make links with previous learning because they can extend their existing conceptual mental map.

Vygotsky emphasizes the role of the ‘senior learner’, who interacts with the young learner in order to negotiate meaning and understanding. The major tool for interaction is language.

He also stresses role models. Responses, attitudes, emotions and thoughts are ‘caught’ rather than taught. Therefore, the ethos, atmosphere and styles of behaviour within the classroom are vitally important.

He views the processes of mediation and transformation as dynamic; making the learner always open to change and growth.



Sternberg (1985)

We can all learn to use a range of thinking skills and strategies.

We can be taught how to reflect on our thinking processes in order to improve them.

We can be assisted in the retention of what we know and how we are learning.

Using our experiences and with help, we can transfer the skills and strategies we learn to new situations and contexts.

The key processes of metacognition are: reflect, consolidate and transfer.

Jerome Bruner (1966)

To instruct someone…. is not a matter of getting him to commit results to mind. Rather, it is to teach him to participate in the process that makes possible the establishment of knowledge. We teach a subject not to produce little living libraries on that subject, but rather to get a student to think for himself, to consider matters as an historian does, to take part in the process of knowledge-getting. Knowing is a process not a product. (1966: 72)

At All Faiths’ we recognize that our mental models influence the way we think about events. Pupils have a variety of mental models, based on previous experiences which will affect their learning, these are linked to emotions. There is no thought without emotion – thoughts are connected to and provoke emotional responses. To enable our pupils to learn effectively, adults must, therefore, recognize and adapt to pupils’ individual learning styles and take account of what their mental models may be. To improve progress we recognize the key processes of metacognition: reflect, consolidate and transfer (Sternberg). See App 2 – Assessing the quality of learning. All adults at All Faiths’ need to remember and apply the following to their practice:-

Expert thinkers, think again!

There are no mistakes, no failures – ideas cannot be wrong! Always encourage ideas

For pupils to think for themselves they need to be “in the driving seat”. Could you successfully learn to drive without being in the driving seat?

We need to hear our thinking – encourage children to think out loud. Model the thought processes which lead to decision making – even immediate, every day decisions – share the thought processes which lead to them as they are happening.

Solving problems is a key life requirement – intelligence is the extent to which WE CAN!

Give pupils reasons why they need to learn what you are teaching – boys in particular, need to know “what’s in it for me?”

A shared understanding of language (vocabulary) is vital.



At All Faiths’ learning will:

be based on first hand experiences that are relevant and meaningful to our pupils

be challenging, captivating, exciting and enjoyable for our pupils

make links with culture and identity

take place outside the classroom as well as inside

involve a balance of activities, some being child initiated and others initiated by adults

offer opportunities to collaborate (to discuss with others, clarify ideas, raise questions and solve problems) and to work independently

be personalised to suit the needs of the individual

provide pupils with intrinsic reward

enable pupils to investigate and solve problems in a range of contexts

enable learners to learn how to think, how to learn

be for a purpose which is related to prior learning and future experiences

offer opportunities for pupils to become absorbed, sustaining concentration and enabling them to persevere

enable pupils to acquire and deepen knowledge and understanding

At All Faiths’ we expect learners to:

be successful and have a positive attitude

always try

be confident and take risks

be proud of their achievements

review and assess their learning

work independently and co-operatively

listen to ideas

share ideas and expertise

have high expectations of themselves

celebrate the achievements of others

be self motivated

be able to talk about their learning and set their own goals

evaluate their learning

enjoy learning

apply the knowledge and skills they have learned

be able to present their learning in a variety of ways

We expect all learning facilitators to:

ensure opportunities for learning are relevant to the age and experience of the learner

teach, guide, model, encourage and scaffold learning (App 3)

teach a range of thinking skills and strategies

teach and model how to be reflective

be supportive

set challenges

make learning enjoyable

celebrate success and achievement

foster a “can do” attitude

see challenges as opportunities to learn

make accurate assessments (ongoing, informal, formative, summative) and use these to plan future learning

be sensitive to the needs of the learner

provide a safe, motivating learning environment where all contributions are valued



listen and observe

be an enabler

provide opportunities for learners to apply new skills and knowledge

provide stimulating, relevant, exciting and motivational learning opportunities

promote learners’ self-esteem

encourage ideas and use them to promote learning.

TASC – Thinking Actively in a Social Context

To encourage our pupils to take responsibility for their learning, teachers plan activities with the following thinking processes in mind :-

gather and organize known information

identify and understand the task

generate ideas about how to tackle the task

decide which is the best idea

implement the decision

evaluate how well the task has gone

communicate the learning

evaluate the learning that has taken place

Further information available from www.tascwheel.com

THE IMPACT OF THIS POLICY

A. A positive impact is explicitly intended and very likely.

http://www.tascwheel.com/



Appendix 1

ideas ∙ thinkers ∙ practice

learning theory What is learning? Is it a change in behaviour or understanding? Is it a process? Here we survey some common models.

contents: introduction · learning as a product · task-conscious or acquisition learning, and learning-conscious or formalized learning ·learning as a process · the behaviourist orientation to learning · the cognitive orientation to learning · the humanistic orientation to learning · the social/situational orientation to learning · further reading · how to cite this article

I want to talk about learning. But not the lifeless, sterile, futile, quickly forgotten stuff that is crammed in to the mind of the poor helpless individual tied into his seat by ironclad bonds of conformity! I am talking about LEARNING - the insatiable curiosity that drives the adolescent boy to absorb everything he can see or hear or read about gasoline engines in order to improve the efficiency and speed of his 'cruiser'. I am talking about the student who says, "I am discovering, drawing in from the outside, and making that which is drawn in a real part of me." I am talking about any learning in which the experience of the learner progresses along this line: "No, no, that's not what I want"; "Wait! This is closer to what I am interested in, what I need"; "Ah, here it is! Now I'm grasping and comprehending what I need and what I want to know!" Carl Rogers 1983: 18-19

For all the talk of learning amongst educational policymakers and practitioners, there is a surprising lack of attention to what it entails. In Britain and Northern Ireland, for example, theories of learning do not figure strongly in professional education programmes for teachers and those within different arenas of informal education. It is almost as if it is something is unproblematic and that can be taken for granted. Get the instructional regime right, the message seems to be, and learning (as measured by tests and assessment regimes) will follow. This lack of attention to the nature of learning inevitably leads to an impoverishment of education. It isn't simply that the process is less effective as a result, but what passes for education can actually diminish well-being.

Here we begin by examining learning as a product and as a process. The latter takes us into the arena of competing learning theories - ideas about how learning may happen. We also look at Alan Roger's (2003) helpful discussion of task-conscious or acquisition learning, and learning-conscious or formalized learning.

Learning as a product

Pick up a standard psychology textbook - especially from the 1960s and 1970s and you will probably find learning defined as a change in behaviour. In other words, learning is approached as an outcome - the end product of some process. It can be recognized or seen. This approach has the virtue of highlighting a crucial aspect of learning - change. It's apparent clarity may also make some sense when conducting experiments. However, it is rather a blunt instrument. For example:

Does a person need to perform in order for learning to have happened?

Are there other factors that may cause behaviour to change?

Can the change involved include the potential for change? (Merriam and Caffarella 1991: 124)

http://www.infed.org/ideas/index.htm

http://www.infed.org/thinkers/index.htm

http://www.infed.org/practice/index.htm

http://www.infed.org/biblio/b-learn.htm#intro

http://www.infed.org/biblio/b-learn.htm#product

http://www.infed.org/biblio/b-learn.htm#task

http://www.infed.org/biblio/b-learn.htm#task

http://www.infed.org/biblio/b-learn.htm#process

http://www.infed.org/biblio/learning-behavourist.htm

http://www.infed.org/biblio/learning-cognitive.htm


http://www.infed.org/biblio/learning-humanistic.htm

http://www.infed.org/biblio/learning-social.htm

http://www.infed.org/biblio/b-learn.htm#further reading

http://www.infed.org/biblio/b-learn.htm#cite

http://www.infed.org/biblio/b-learn.htm#cite



Questions such as these have led to qualification. Some have looked to identifying relatively permanent changes in behaviour (or potential for change) as a result of experiences (see behaviourism below). However, not all changes in behaviour resulting from experience involve learning. It would seem fair to expect that if we are to say that learning has taken place, experience should have been used in some way. Conditioning may result in a change in behaviour, but the change may not involved drawing upon experience to generate new knowledge. Not surprisingly, many theorists have, thus, been less concerned with overt behaviour but with changes in the ways in which people 'understand, or experience, or conceptualize the world around them' (Ramsden 1992: 4) (see cognitivism below). The focus for them, is gaining knowledge or ability through the use of experience.

The depth or nature of the changes involved are likely to be different. Some years ago Säljö (1979) carried out a simple, but very useful piece of research. He asked a number of adult students what they understood by learning. Their responses fell into five main categories:

1. Learning as a quantitative increase in knowledge. Learning is acquiring information or ‘knowing a lot’.

2. Learning as memorising. Learning is storing information that can be reproduced.

3. Learning as acquiring facts, skills, and methods that can be retained and used as necessary.

4. Learning as making sense or abstracting meaning. Learning involves relating parts of the subject matter to each other and to the real world.

5. Learning as interpreting and understanding reality in a different way. Learning involves comprehending the world by reinterpreting knowledge. (quoted in Ramsden 1992: 26)

As Paul Ramsden comments, we can see immediately that conceptions 4 and 5 in are qualitatively different from the first three. Conceptions 1 to 3 imply a less complex view of learning. Learning is something external to the learner. It may even be something that just happens or is done to you by teachers (as in conception 1). In a way learning becomes a bit like shopping. People go out and buy knowledge - it becomes their possession. The last two conceptions look to the 'internal' or personal aspect of learning. Learning is seen as something that you do in order to understand the real world.

'knowing that' and 'knowing how'

A man knowing little or nothing of medical science could not be a good surgeon, but excellence at surgery is not the same thing as knowledge of medical science; not is it a simple product of it. The surgeon must indeed have learned from instruction, or by his own inductions and observations, a great number of truths; but he must also have learned by practice a great number of aptitudes. (Ryle 1949: 48-49)

Learning how or improving an ability is not like learning that or acquiring information. Truths can be imparted, procedures can only be inculcated, and while inculcation is a gradual process, imparting is relatively sudden. It makes sense to ask at what moment someone became apprised of a truth, but not to ask at what moment someone acquired a skill. (Ryle 1949: 58)



In some ways the difference here involves what Gilbert Ryle (1949) has termed 'knowing that' and 'knowing how'. The first two categories mostly involve 'knowing that'. As we move through the third we see that alongside 'knowing that' there is growing emphasis on 'knowing how'. This system of categories is hierarchical - each higher conception implies all the rest beneath it. 'In other words, students who conceive of learning as understanding reality are also able to see it as increasing their knowledge' (Ramsden 1992: 27).

Learning as a process - task-conscious or acquisition learning and learning-conscious or formalized learning

In the five categories that Säljö identified we can see learning appearing as a process - there is a concern with what happens when the learning takes place. In this way, learning could be thought of as 'a process by which behaviour changes as a result of experience' (Maples and Webster 1980 quoted in Merriam and Caffarella 1991: 124). One of the significant questions that arises is the extent to which people are conscious of what is going on. Are they aware that they are engaged in learning - and what significance does it have if they are? Such questions have appeared in various guises over the years - and have surfaced, for example, in debates around the rather confusing notion of 'informal learning'.

One particularly helpful way of approaching the area has been formulated by Alan Rogers (2003). Drawing especially on the work of those who study the learning of language (for example, Krashen 1982), Rogers sets out two contrasting approaches: task-conscious or acquisition learning and learning-conscious or formalized learning.

Task-conscious or acquisition learning. Acquisition learning is seen as going on all the time. It is 'concrete, immediate and confined to a specific activity; it is not concerned with general principles' (Rogers 2003: 18). Examples include much of the learning involved in parenting or with running a home. Some have referred to this kind of learning as unconscious or implicit. Rogers (2003: 21), however, suggests that it might be better to speak of it as having a consciousness of the task. In other words, whilst the learner may not be conscious of learning, they are usually aware of the specific task in hand.

Learning-conscious or formalized learning. Formalized learning arises from the process of facilitating learning. It is 'educative learning' rather than the accumulation of experience. To this extent there is a consciousness of learning - people are aware that the task they are engaged in entails learning. 'Learning itself is the task. What formalized learning does is to make learning more conscious in order to enhance it' (Rogers 2003: 27). It involves guided episodes of learning.

When approached in this way it becomes clear that these contrasting ways of learning can appear in the same context. Both are present in schools. Both are present in families. It is possible to think of the mix of acquisition and formalized learning as forming a continuum.

At one extreme lie those unintentional and usually accidental learning events which occur continuously as we walk through life. Next comes incidental learning - unconscious learning through acquisition methods which occurs in the course of some other activity... Then there are various activities in which we are somewhat more more conscious of learning, experiential activities arising from immediate life-related concerns, though even here the focus is still on the task... Then come more purposeful activities - occasions where we set out to learn something in a more systematic way, using whatever comes to hand for that purpose, but often deliberately disregarding engagement with teachers and formal institutions of learning... Further along the continuum lie

http://www.infed.org/biblio/inf-lrn.htm



the self-directed learning projects on which there is so much literature... More formalized and generalized (and consequently less contextualized) forms of learning are the distance and open education programmes, where some elements of acquisition learning are often built into the designed learning programme. Towards the further extreme lie more formalized learning programmes of highly decontextualized learning, using material common to all the learners without paying any regard to their individual preferences, agendas or needs. There are of course no clear boundaries between each of these categories. (Rogers 2003: 41-2)

This distinction is echoed in different ways in the writings of many of those concerned with education - but in particular in key theorists such as Kurt Lewin, Chris Argyris, Donald Schön, or Michael Polanyi.

Learning as a process - learning theory

The focus on process obviously takes us into the realm of learning theories - ideas about how or why change occurs. On these pages we focus on four different orientations (the first three taken from Merriam and Caffarella 1991).

the behaviourist orientation to learning

the cognitive orientation to learning

the humanistic orientation to learning

the social/situational orientation to learning

As with any categorization of this sort the divisions are a bit arbitrary: there could be further additions and sub-divisions to the scheme, and there a various ways in which the orientations overlap and draw upon each other.

The four orientations can be summed up in the following figure:

Four orientations to learning (after Merriam and Caffarella 1991: 138)

Aspect Behaviourist Cognitivist Humanist Social and situational

Learning theorists

Thorndike, Pavlov, Watson, Guthrie, Hull, Tolman, Skinner

Koffka, Kohler, Lewin, Piaget, Ausubel, Bruner, Gagne

Maslow, Rogers Bandura, Lave and Wenger, Salomon

View of the learning process

Change in behaviour

Internal mental process (including insight, information processing, memory, perception

A personal act to fulfil potential.

Interaction /observation in social contexts. Movement from the periphery to the centre of a community of practice

http://www.infed.org/thinkers/et-lewin.htm

http://www.infed.org/thinkers/argyris.htm

http://www.infed.org/thinkers/et-schon.htm

http://www.infed.org/thinkers/polanyi.htm









http://www.infed.org/thinkers/et-lewin.htm

http://www.infed.org/thinkers/bruner.htm

http://www.infed.org/thinkers/et-rogers.htm

http://www.infed.org/biblio/communities_of_practice.htm




Locus of learning Stimuli in external environment

Internal cognitive structuring

Affective and cognitive needs

Learning is in

relationship between people and environment.

Purpose in education

Produce behavioural change in desired direction

Develop capacity and skills to learn better

Become self-actualized, autonomous

Full participation in communities of practice and utilization of resources

Educator's role Arranges environment to elicit desired response

Structures content of learning activity

Facilitates development of the whole person

Works to establish communities of practice in which conversation and participation can occur.

Manifestations in adult learning

Behavioural objectives Competency -based education

Skill development and training

Cognitive development Intelligence, learning and memory as function of age

Learning how to learn

Andragogy Self-directed learning

Socialization Social participation

Associationalism

Conversation

As can seen from the above schematic presentation and the discussion on the linked pages, these approaches involve contrasting ideas as to the purpose and process of learning and education - and the role that educators may take. It is also important to recognize that the theories may apply to different sectors of the acquision-formalized learning continuum outlined above. For example, the work of Lave and Wenger is broadly a form of acquisition learning that can involve some more formal interludes.

Further reading

For this listing I have tried to bring together a selection of books that look to the main themes arising in the literature around learning (and education). For those familiar with Tennant (1997) (which is a set text on a course I teach!), the writers can be grouped as follows:

humanistic orientations - here I chosen Maslow and Rogers.

psychoanalytical approaches - Salzberger-Wittenberg et al provide a useful introduction.

the cognitive orientation - with Piaget, Gagné and Bruner

learning styles - Witkin on field dependence and independence; and Kolb on experiential learning.

behaviourism - represented here by Skinner.




building learning communities - Dewey on group investigation; Lave and Wenger on situated learning.

critical awareness - Mezirow on the transformative dimensions of learning; Freire on 'conscientization'.

Overviews can be found in Tennant (1997), and Joyce et al (1997).

Overviews

Hartley, J. (1998) Learning and Studying. A research perspective, London: Routledge. 178 + xii pages. A well written and entertaining introduction to studying and learning in higher education. The focus is very much on practice.

Hergenhahn, B. R. and Olson, M. H. (1997) An Introduction to Theories of Learning 5e, Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall. 502 + x pages. Good, standard psychology text on the subject that takes an approach via ‘thinkers’. Part one contains three short chapters examining the nature of learning, different approaches to study; and early notions of learning. Part two looks at the predominantly functionalist theories of Thorndike, Skinner and Hull. Part three turns to ‘associationalist’ theorists: Pavlov, Guthrie and Estes; and part four looks at predominantly cognitive theorists: Gestalt, Piaget, Tolman, Bandura, Norman. Part five explores Hebb as a neurophysiological theorist. A concluding section examines implications for educators.

Illeris,K. (2002) The Three Dimensions of Learning. Contemporary learning theory in the tension field between the cognitive, the emotional and the social, Frederiksberg: Roskilde University Press. Interesting, but at times debatable exploration.

Joyce, B., Calhoun, E. and Hopkins, D. (1997) Models of Learning - tools for teaching, Buckingham: Open University Press. 205 + viii pages. Slightly quirky, but very useful outline of different models of learning The writers isolate four 'families' of teaching based on the the types of learning they promote: information processing; social/building a learning community; personal; and behavioural. They have chapters on learning: to think inductively, to explore concepts, to think metaphorically; mnemonically, through co-operative disciplined enquiry, to study values, through counselling and through simulations. Concluding chapters exami integrating models, and teaching and learning together.

Merriam, S. and Caffarella (1991, 1998) Learning in Adulthood. A comprehensive guide, San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. 528 pages. Now pretty much the standard text, Merriam and Caffarella provide a good overview of learning theory. In the new edition, part two deals with adult development and learning; and part three with the learning process.

Murphy, P. (ed.) (1999) Learners, Learning and Assessment, London: Paul Chapman. 352 + xiii pages. One of four readers for the Open University MA in Education course Learning, Curriculum and Assessment. This volume has a useful collection of pieces on views of the mind; curriculum implications; and learning and assessment processes. See, also, Leach, J. and Moon, B. (eds.) (1999) Learners and Pedagogy, London: Paul Chapman. 280 + viii pages; and McCormick, R. and Paetcher, C. (eds.) (1999) Learning and Knowledge, London: Paul Chapman. 254 + xiv pages.

Ramsden, P. (1992) Learning to Teach in Higher Education, London: Routledge. 290 + xiv pages. Ramsden's text can be profitably read by those teaching in other arenas. It provides a focused introduction to learning and the implications for programme design and encounters in the classroom.



Rogers, A. (2003) What is the Difference? A new critique of adult learning and teaching, Leicester: NIACE. 85 pages. Short and very helpful exploration of the nature of learning (with particular attention to current debates around informal learning) and the extent to which adult learning and the teaching of adults is the same or different from that of younger persons.

Tennant, M. (1988, 1997) Psychology and Adult Learning, London: Routledge. 182 + xii pages. Good discussion of the relevance of psychological theory to adult education. Includes material on humanistic psychology and the self-directed learner; the psychoanalytical approach; adult development; cognitive developmental psychology; learning styles; behaviourism; group dynamics; critical awareness. New edition includes helpful material on situated learning plus updates on the literature

Tennant, M. and Pogson, P. (1995) Learning and Change in the Adult Years. A developmental perspective, San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. 218 + xvii pages. Examines relationships between development and learning in adulthood; intellectual and cognitive development; practical intelligence and expertise; theories of the life course; autonomy and self-direction; experience; and teacher-learner relationship. Provides a helpful series of insights drawn from a developmental psychology tradition.

Key texts

Bruner, J. (1960, 1977) The Process of Education, Cambridge Ma.: Harvard University Press. 97 + xxvi pages. Argues for 'the spiral curriculum' with a discussion of the importance of structure; readiness for learning; intuitive and analytical thinking; motives for learning; and aids to teaching.

Dewey, J. (1933) How We Think 2e, New York: D. C. Heath. Classic and highly influential discussion of reflective enquiry, with Dewey's famous five elements: suggestion, problem, hypothesis, reasoning, testing. For a discussion that focuses on learning communities see, J. Dewey (1915) The School and Society, 2e., Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

The introduction of active occupations, of nature-study, of elementary science, of art, of history; the relegation of the merely symbolic and formal to a secondary position; the change in the moral school atmosphere, in the relation of pupils and teachers - of discipline; the introduction of more active, expressive, and self-directing factors - all these are not mere accidents, they are necessities of the larger social evolution. It remains to but to organize all these factors, to appreciate them in their fullness of meaning, and to put the ideas and ideals involved into complete, uncompromising possession of our school system. To do this means to make each one of our schools an embryonic community life, active with types of occupations that reflect the life of the larger society and permeated throughout with the spirit of art, history, and science. When the school introduces and trains each child of society into membership within such a little community, saturating him with the spirit of service, and providing him with the instruments of effective self-direction, we shall have the deepest and best guaranty of a larger society which is worthy, lovely, and harmonious.

John Dewey (1915) The School and Society, 2e., Chicago: University of Chicago Press, pages 28-9.

Freire, P. (1972) Pedagogy of the Oppressed, Harmondsworth: Penguin. Classic account of Freire's position. See, also, P. Freire and A. Faundez (1989) Learning to Question. A



pedagogy of liberation, Geneva: World Council of Churches. Gives an account of learning through problem-posing.

Gagné, R. M. (1985) The Conditions of Learning 4e, New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston. 308 + viii pages. Important study, first published in 1965, that 'attempts to consider the sets of circumstances that obtain when learning occurs, that is, when certain observable changes in human behaviour take place that justify the inference of learning' (p. 5). Basically a systems approach with chapters on varieties of learning (8 types); basic forms of learning (signal, stimulus response); chaining: motor and verbal; concept learning; problem solving; learning structures; the motivation and control of learning; learning decisions.

Jarvis, P. (1987) Adult Learning in the Social Context, London: Routledge. 220 pages. Important attempt to ground thinking about adult learning in a sociological perspective. A useful addition to thinking around reflection and experiential learning.

Kolb, D. A. (1984) Experiential Learning, Englewood Cliffs, NJ.: Prentice Hall. 256 pages. Learning is approached as a process leading to the production of knowledge. Substantial discussion of the ideas underpinning Kolb's well-known model.

Lave, J. and Wenger, E. (1991) Situated Learning. Legitimate peripheral participation, Cambridge: University of Cambridge Press. 138 pages. Significant exploration of learning as participation in communities of practice. Participation moves from the periphery to the 'centre'. Learning is, thus, not seen as the acquisition of knowledge by individuals so much as a process of social participation. The nature of the situation impacts significantly on the process. Chapters on legitimate peripheral participation; practice, person, social world; specific communities of practice.

Maslow, A. (1968) Towards a Psychology of Being 2e, New York: Van Nostrand. In which he argues for the significance of self-actualization. His 'theory of motivation' moves from low to high level needs (physiological, safety, love and belongingness, self-esteem, self-actualization). See, also, A . Maslow (1970) Motivation and Personality 2e, New York: Harper and Row. for a full discussion of the model.

Mezirow, J. (1991) Transformative Dimensions of Learning, San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. 247 + xix pages. Exploration of some of the processes by which people can free themselves from 'oppressive ideologies, habits of perception, and psychological distractions'. Draws on psycho-analytical, behaviouristic and humanistic theories.

Newman, F. and Holzman, L. (1997) The End of Knowing. A new developmental way of learning, London: Routledge. 185 + viii pages. Looks at learning as performed activity.

Piaget, J. (1926) The Child's Conception of the World, London: Routledge and Kegan Paul. It is difficult to know which of Piaget's 50 or more books to choose here - but this and The Origin of Intelligence in Children are classic starting points. H. E. Gruber and J. J. Voneche (1977) The Essential Piaget: an interpretative reference and guide, London is good collection. See, also, M. A. Boden's (1979) Piaget, London: Fontana for a succinct introduction.

Retallick, J., Cocklin, B. and Coombe, K. (1998) Learning Communities in Education, London: Cassell. 248 pages. Explores the theory and practice of learning communities from an international perspective. Covering primary/elementary, secondary and tertiary levels in a variety of educational contexts, leading researchers discuss: theoretical issues and debate; processes and strategies for creating learning communities; and learning communities in action.



Rogers, A. (2003) What is the difference? a new critique of adult learning and teaching, Leicester: NIACE. Very helpful, short discussion that distinguishes between task-conscious or acquisition learning and learning-conscious or formalized learning

Rogers, C. and Freiberg, H. J. (1993) Freedom to Learn (3rd edn.), New York: Merrill. Reworking of the classic Carl Rogers text first published in 1969. Looks at how person-centred learning can be used in schooling and other situations and the nature of facilitation. See, also, H. Kirschenbaum and V. L. Henderson (eds.) (1990) The Carl Rogers Reader, London: Constable. 526 + xvi pages.

Salomon, G. (ed.). Distributed Cognitions, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Path-breaking collection of pieces that explore the extent to which learning lies in the resources to which people have access.

Salzberger-Wittenberg, I., Henry, G. and Osborne, E. (1983) The Emotional Experience of Learning and Teaching, London: Routledge and Kegan Paul. 155 + xii pages. While largely focused on adult-child interactions, this book demonstrates the power of psychoanalytical insight into a range of learning relationships.

Skinner, B. F. (1973) Beyond Freedom and Dignity, London: Penguin. Probably the most accessible entry into Skinner's work and provides a classic account of his all embracing vision of behaviourism.

Wenger, E. (1999) Communities of Practice. Learning, meaning and identity, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 318 + xv pages. Substantial exploration of situated learning and communities of practice.

Witkin, H. and Goodenough, D. (1981) Cognitive Styles, Essence and Origins: Field dependence and field independence, New York: International Universities Press. Account of Witkin's very influential exploration of the impact of context on perceptual judgements.

Other references

Krashen, S. D. (1982) Principles and Practice in Second Language Acquisition, Oxford: Pergamon.

Säljö, R. (1979) 'Learning in the learner's perspective. I. Some common-sense conceptions', Reports from the Institute of Education, University of Gothenburg, 76.

Links

Explorations in Learning & Instruction: The Theory Into Practice Database - TIP is a tool intended to make learning and instructional theory more accessible to educators. The database contains brief summaries of 50 major theories of learning and instruction. These theories can also be accessed by learning domains and concepts.

Picture - The picture of Carl Rogers is believed to be in the public domain via Wikipedia Commons [http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Carl_Ransom_Rogers.jpg]

How to cite this article: Smith, M. K. (1999) 'Learning theory', the encyclopedia of informal education, www.infed.org/biblio/b-learn.htm, Last update: June 18, 2009

© Mark K. Smith 1999, 2003

http://tip.psychology.org/

http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Carl_Ransom_Rogers.jpg

http://www.infed.org/biblio/b-learn.htm

http://www.infed.org/hp-smith.htm



This page has intentionally been left blank

ALL FAITHS’ CHILDREN’S COMMUNITY SCHOOL Appendix 2


Assessing the quality of learning:

The learners’ response will be evaluated regularly by teachers using the following criteria:

Inadequate Satisfactory Good Outstanding

Learners in general or particular groups do not make adequate progress and achievement is low. Some groups may make adequate progress due to the good attitude of the learner.

Most learners make expected progress.

Virtually all children make appropriate progress and can apply their skills and knowledge.

Learners thrive and make exceptional progress (may be “wider” progress)

Learners are passive and may not be enjoying their work. They do not exhibit appropriate behaviour.

Most learners enjoy their work and are motivated to do well. They behave appropriately.

Children are well behaved, engaged, motivated and on task. They exhibit good learning behaviour. Children are eager to learn.

All learner highly motivated, enthusiastic and engrossed in their work.

Learning is often teacher dependent.

Children are engaged in some independent work.

Children will exhibit independent and collaborative learning.

Individual learners are challenged and extended through self-evaluation.

Learners may not be able to explain their current work or the next step in their learning.

Learners can simply explain their work. Learners know their targets.

Children engaged and can talk about learning. Children understand own targets/learning outcomes and can identify next step in learning

Learners are making connections and links between areas of learning and are able to discuss this.

Learners may show negative attitudes to learning

Generally children display positive attitudes towards their learning and their work

All children display positive attitudes towards their learning and their work

Learners are keen to evaluate their work and decide how to take their learning further and use their own initiative

Teachers will take responsibility to regularly evaluate the quality of learning of their pupils and change their teaching strategies accordingly. Differentiated questioning to promote progress and learning – see App 3.



This page has intentionally been left blank.



Are you asking the right questions?

N.C. Subject Specific Differentiated/Levelled

Questions

Please use these when assessing and planning pupils’ learning



This page has intentionally been left blank



English Maths Science

Literal (Level 1)

Where …? What …? When…? Who…? How…? Find… Which…? What did … say?

Can you put these in order? Where would… number go? Where would … shape go? What is… add …? Which number comes next? How do you find … add …? What number is this? How many sides does … have? Where is the triangle? Which object is bigger/smaller/taller etc.?

What can you see/feel/smell? Describe… What happened? What can we do? What do you think will happen? Can you put these in order?

Organisational (Level 2)

What type of writing is this? Tell me in your own words. Describe the … What do you think of…? Describe the character. Where in the text would you find…? What are the key features of this text? What happens when …? Does … always do…? How are they different? How are they the same?

What does this symbol show/ mean? What is the pattern? Tell me in your own words… Does… always have …? How are shapes different/ same? Why is this answer correct? What goes with… to make…? What is the value of… in this number? Which operation would you use? Describe how you would do this in your head. Describe the properties of the shape.

If we want information about…how can we collect it? What happened when…? What are the differences between…? Describe what happened. What scientific words can you use? Is this what you expected? Which one is bigger, shorter etc? Looking at this block graph what can you tell me? Why is this fair/unfair?




Evaluative (Level 3)

Are the words on the page what the author really means? Explain the differences between the two characters. Why did … do …? Find an example that shows…? What do you think of the characters and why? Explain why … happened. What do you think will happen if…? Can you prove it? What is shown by…? Can you explain the differences between … Can you explain the main ideas in the text? Explain which character you prefer. Explain the organisation of the text?

Explain how you reached your answer. Can you prove that …? What method could you use to find the answer? How can you measure carefully? Can you see any patterns? What have you learnt? Why did… do…? Which operation would you use and why? Explain how you would do this in your head. Can you prove it? Find an example that shows… What do you think will happen if…? What is shown by…? Can you explain the difference between…? Explain the pattern. Explain the organisation of the calculation.

Explain how you reached your answer. Can you prove that …? Can you suggest a way to find the answer? Why do we need to collect this information? How can you make this test fair? How can you measure carefully? Can you see any patterns? Can you find this information on this page? How do you know that this is a fair test? Can you record your observations in…? Name one way to improve your work.




Inferential (Level 4)

What alternative strategies could the author have used? Which piece of information would provide evidence for…? In my opinion… because… What does this symbolise? How are the characters similar or different? Write two facts which show… Find two reasons why… Find two reasons which make you think… How did the character feel when…? Explain in your own words what this phrase tells you about…? Who thinks ….? Why? What does the author think about… and how do you know? Predict with evidence. What is being suggested by … (smaller units of text)? Summarise the main ideas/themes. What is the purpose of this character? What is happening from … point of view? Why has the author chosen this setting? Is this fact or opinion? Why? Why did … do … and what were the consequences? What were some of the motives? What can you learn from the story?

Make a general statement about… How accurate are your measurements? Can you find more than one way to solve the problem? What are the most suitable units for this measurement? Is there an alternative answer to…? How would you present your information? What improvements could you make and why? What do you predict the answer is and why? Write two facts which show… Find two reasons why… Predict with evidence… Does the answer seem reasonable? Why/Why not? Why has … chosen this method? Can you present information in a different way? How do you know your answer is correct?

What equipment should you use for your investigation? How accurate are your measurements? What are the most suitable units for measurement? Can you find a pattern in the results? What do you predict will happen if…? What improvements could you make and why? How could you record your information? How could you present your results? Explain what your results show. Can you think of another way to investigate this question? Why do you think that…? What evidence supports your thinking? Which piece of information would provide evidence for?




Appreciative (Level 5)

Can you explain the differences between …? How could you improve it? How did the author achieve…? How effective were the author’s strategies? How would a change in a strategy have affected the piece? What different ways could the information be interpreted? How effective is the use of …? Can you evaluate an example of…? Justify your interpretations by reference to the text. How does the writer build up the sense of …? Summarise key characteristics of character relationships. Depending on your point of view, how could you interpret the …? Can you identify multiple levels of meanings? What is implied and why has it been used? What assumptions have you made? What was the underlying theme of…? How would you prove/disprove…? How would you evaluate?

What are all the solutions to…? How precise do your measurements need to be and why? What criteria would you use to…? How could you improve the accuracy of your work? Which is the best way to solve this problem…? Based on these examples, how would you explain…? Can you predict the outcome if…? Find the necessary information and solve this problem. What evidence do you need to prove your hypothesis? What conclusion can you draw? How could you check your solutions? Explain any differences in your findings. Could you put this into a general formula? Can you create your own problem based on this? Can you create an easier/harder version of this question?

How could you improve your investigation? Can you explain the differences in your results? What do your results suggest? How could you present your findings graphically? What different ways can the results be interpreted? How would you evaluate…the results? The results of your investigation? How would you answer this question scientifically? How would you prove/disprove…? Can you predict the outcome if…? Which is the best way to investigate this? What question could you ask about this? What might have affected your data? How can you change your investigation to stop this? How precise do your measurements need to be? How can you make sure your results are accurate? What are the key factors to be considered to make sure that this is a fair test? Now that you know this what else do you know? How would you check your findings? Explain what you found out using scientific language.



History/Geography Music Art

Literal (Level 1)

Can you put these in order? What are the stages in…? What are the features of…? When…? Who…? What did… say?

What instruments can you hear? What is this instrument called? Which family does it belong to? Who wrote this piece of music? How many instruments can you hear? Find an instrument from the … family. What tempo is this piece? Where is this music from?

What colours does the artist use? What is it a picture of? How do we use the equipment? Find… in the picture

Organisational (Level 2)

Explain in your own words what life was like in … times? Describe features of… buildings.

What type of music is this? Describe how this music makes you feel. What do you think of the composer’s choice of instruments? How are these pieces of music the same and different? What are the key features of this type of music? Does this tempo always stay the same? How can this piece of music make you move?

What do you think of the colours the artist uses? Describe the picture. What are the key features of the artist’s style, use of paint etc? Does … always do… that way? Compare two artists. Which media is used? What do you think of the painting?

Evaluative (Level 3)

What is the same/different…? Why did …? Why do we have…? Explain which idea you prefer. Find examples that show… What do you think of people in this time and why? Can you prove that…? Explain why…

Why did the composer choose the instruments? How does this piece tell the story of…? Find an example that shows change in pitch/tempo? Can you explain the differences between two pieces of music? Explain your favourite piece and why. What is shown by…?

Explain what is happening in the picture. What is the artist trying to show/tell me? Explain why there are differences between two artists. Explain how you would improve your work. Explain how an effect can be created. Which media do you prefer to use? Which part would you do first and why?



History/Geography Music Art

Inferential (Level 4)

Describe characteristics of… What changed during the … era? Who were the key individuals in this era/ field? In your own opinion, explain how you feel about… Which piece of information would provide evidence for…? How would you present your information? Can you find more than one way to solve the problem? Which is the most reliable source?

What other instruments could the composer choose to create a similar/ different effect? Summarise the main structure. How can you improve your composition? What would be a more appropriate instrument?

Make a general statement about the media/artist. What would be the most suitable media for the artwork? Can you find suitable ways to recreate a piece of art? How would you change the way you have worked? Why have you chosen this “subject”? What mood has been created? How do you know? What can you learn from the artist’s work?

Appreciative (Level 5)

Can you explain the differences between…? Based on the evidence, how can you explain…? What would the effect of … be? How effective is/ was the use of…? Describe the features of the … era and make links between them. Identify relevant sources of information. Why is “somewhere” dependent on “somewhere”? Choose and combine different sources to … Give reasons for and against… How reliable is the source that you’re using? How do you know? What conclusions have you come to?

How does this piece of music reflect time/ place? Analyse and compare musical features. What is the most appropriate type of music for… occasion/purpose? Depending on your point of view, how could you interpret this piece of music? How does the composer build up a sense of …? How effective is the use of…?

How could you use materials to create…? How would you evaluate…? How does your work take its purpose into account? Which artists are reflected in your work? Whose work would be most appropriate to help you fulfil the task? What qualities does your work need? What qualities does your work have? How could you interpret … in the picture? Justify your answer.

THE FEATURES OF AN EFFECTIVE LEARNING · PDF fileformalized learning ·learning as a...

Documents

Transcript of THE FEATURES OF AN EFFECTIVE LEARNING · PDF fileformalized learning ·learning as a...