The Farmers' Handbook, Part 5 - Forest, Soil and Other Topics

The Farmers' Handbook

Forest, Soil, &Other Topics

This Volume's Authors : Chris Evans, Laxman Rana, Hari Dhungana, Mrs Malati LakoulEdited, Designed & Produced by: Chris Evans & Jakob JespersenTranslated from Nepali by Chris EvansProof reading: thanks to Mike Feingold, Margaret Evans, Ted Albins, Rupert Greville, AndyLangford, Looby MacnamaraPhotos: Jakob Jespersen, Chris EvansAddional photo credits are given at the end of this VolumeCover illustration: Mr Motilal PhaujaTyping: Chris EvansComputer Coordination: Graphics Edge, KathmanduPublished by: Chris Evans, Jakob Jespersen......Distributors: .......... (see p.8 for address)Printed by: Format Printing Press, Kathmandu......First Edition (Nepali) printed June 2001, 7500 copiesThis Edition.........Farmers' Handbook, ISBN 99933-615-0-X.......This Volume : 99933-615-5-0

The Farmers' Handbook is about techniques for sustainable farming and this is the fifthof 5 volumes. There are 5 techniques and several miscellaneous topics presented here. In fivevolumes there are 40 techniques and approaches in total.

This Farmers' Handbook is meant for education and awareness raising as well aspractical gardening uses. It is permitted to photocopy for such purposes, but please rememberthat photocopying can cause pollution to the environment, is expensive & does not give a goodquality.

C O N T E N T SC O N T E N T SC O N T E N T S

Subject Chapter No:

Chapters are separated by a yellow page

Introduction to this Volume .......................... 1Forest Management ...................................... 2Soil Conservation and improvement ............ 3

A-Frame ........................................................ 4Community Fund .......................................... 5Land Design .................................................. 6Glossary ......................................................... 7Practical Literacy .......................................... 8Acknowledgements ....................................... 9Introduction to Permaculture....................... 10

Grihasthi Publications' resources ................ 11

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This is the fifth volume of a five volume production ofthe Farmers' Handbook. In all, there are forty techniques &approaches shown, of which six are in this fifth volume.Because this is the final volume, its design is slightly differentto the previous 4 volumes. At the start of this volume weintroduce you to some of the techniques used in communityforests, and for regenerating land. The chapter on LandDesign then summarises all the chapters in this Farmers'Handbook. Finally, there are some miscellaneous topics.

This Farmers' Handbook has been prepared to provideinformation about sustainable farming techniques as well asbeing a resource to run literacy programmes. Informationabout such programmes and how the Handbook can be usedis provided in this volume. As well as technical information, aglossary of new and difficult words is also provided in thisvolume.

The Farmers' Handbook -this Volume's Introduction

Aims

Background

Evaluation & Feedback

The main aim of this handbook is to help farmers maketheir own farms more successful. This is done by providinginformation about using simple methods which strengthen,rather than damage the environment, and help to createsustainable livelihoods for future generations.

Comments and questions about the techniques andapproaches described in this handbook will be most welcome.Suggestions for improvement will be used for future editionsof this handbook and other similar publications.

The techniques described in the handbook are the resultsof research made by the farmers of Surkhet and Jajarkotdistricts of Mid-Western Nepal. We believe these methods willalso work well for farmers of other countries. However,around the world there are diverse climates and soils, and sowe expect that small changes will need to be made in thetechniques according to this diversity. Similarly, it may benecessary to change plant species according to climatic region,but their function will remain the same. For example, thechapter on the Living Fence describes the use of thorny plantsas a barrier. In the low altitude, hot Tarai of southern Nepal,"Babool" (Acacia nilotica) is suitable for this. But this doesnot grow in the higher elevations. Here, species such as wildpear, wild blackberry and Sea Buckthorn make a good livingfence.

?

Thank YouWe would like to say a big thanks to all the friends who

helped us to complete this Farmers' Handbook. Apart fromthose named and pictured here, there are countless others

who have supported us throughout the task.

So on behalf of the Farmers'Handbook, here's a

very, very big Thank You !From the Producers and Designers

Chris Evans Jakob Jespersen

Forest Management 2

Grihasthi Publications' resources 11

Introduction to Permaculture 10

Picture Acknowledgements 9

Practical Literacy 8

Glossary 7

Land Design 6

Community Fund 5

A-Frame 4

Soil Conservation and Improvement 3

Techniques

Various farmers'groups have helped todevelop and evaluatethe Handbook. It isfor such groups thatthe Handbook hasbeen produced.

Printer

Proofreader

Proofreader

Computersupport

system

scioncambium

Techniques

Proofreader

Proofreader

Support for the production and printing of The Farmer'sHandbook has come from ActionAidNepal, MSNepal,

Methodist Relief & Development Fund (UK), GTZ Foodfor Work, Hill Agriculture Research Project (HARP). In

this volume, the chapter on "Soil Conservation andImprovement'' has been supported by Helvetas Nepal

email:- [email protected]

Nepal Permaculture GroupP.O.Box 8132, Kathmandu, NepalTel: +977-1- 252597

FundingSupport

Distributor andmain contact

addresses

Himalayan Permaculture Group, P.O.Box 19121, Kathmandu, Nepal

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Appropriate Technology AsiaP.O. Box 8975 EPC 849Kathmandu, Nepaltel: +977 1 [email protected]

Permaculture Association UKBCM Permaculture AssociationLondon WC1N 3XXTel: +44 845 [email protected]

Permanent PublicationsThe Sustainability CentreEast MeonHampshire GU32 1HRtel: +44 1730 [email protected]

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What is

Forest Manage-ment is the way thatforests and the treeswithin them are pro-tected and used to pro-vide forest products andother benefits. In orderto manage a forest, thedifferent objectives mustbe decided upon, and awork plan is made ac-cording to this. Just likeany farm management, the work plan to manage a forestmeans what work to do, where, when, and how. Before start-ing forest management, the capacity and working process ofthose who are to do the work and benefit from it (user group)should be considered. This may be a community, family,individual, or other organisation which will work in and ben-efit from the forest.

In Nepal, community forest is a resource of primaryimportance. That's why it's very important for communitiesand user groups to learn about forest management. In thischapter, information is given in particular about communityand private forest mangement.

The forest we keep, keeps us.

Forest Management ?Forest Management ?

The Farmers' Handbook, "Forest, Soil and Other Topics" Chapter 2 - Forest Management

WhyWhy do ForestManagement ?

2 3

This Chapter's Author :

Hari Prasad DhunganaFederation of Community Forest Users' Groups, Nepal

HowHow to do ForestManagement ?

Most people already know that the forest gives themmany direct and indirect benefits. Daily needs such as fodder,firewood, leaf litter, timber, and various herbal medicines areavailable in the forest. The forest not only protects and im-proves the environment around settlements, it even helps toprovide us with safe, clean drinking water.

This is something that people have come to understandsince early days. It is also why forest management has beenpart of the local community for a long time.

But for many reasons, the forest has been disappearingbefore our eyes. As population has continued to increase, onone hand more forest resources are needed, yet on the other

hand, population pressure has decreasedthe forest area and had a bad affect onthe environment. With efficient andappropriate ways of conserving anddeveloping forest products such as treesand medicinal herbs, the well-being andproductivity of the family and commu-nity can increase, and poverty will de-crease.

Background

A very important factor together with "how" to manageforests is "who" is managing them. Considering this, theNepali government has made various regulations. The ForestDepartment, together with non-government and other organi-sations have participated in developing a set of regulations tohelp forest user groups manage their own forests.

The forest law covers the management and use of reli-gious forests, leasehold forests, government managed forestsand protected forests. However, community forest and privateforest are considered to be the most important types of forest.

In recent years, the amount of community managedforest has increased greatly. However, user groups have stillnot been able to realise the benefits of truly sustainable forestmanagement.

Over time, there have been many ways that the foresthas been protected, developed and its products distributedamongst its users in homes and villages. These managementmethods have been improved in different places and at differ-ent times, but there is still room for improvement. We shouldnow use the lessons of experience, and take forest manage-ment forward to cater for the increasing population.

The Farmers' Handbook, "Forest, Soil and Other Topics" Chapter 2 - Forest Management4 5

This is where national forest has come under a localmanagement plan, and has been handed over from the districtforest office to a village committee responsible for the imple-mentation of the management plan.

This is where trees and forest on any private, registeredland may be managed.

By planting trees on farm land, forest products are broughtcloser to the home. This saves time and helps to protect the

forest. Read the Agroforestry chapter to learn more.

Things to consider in forest management

The forest can be managed for various objectives. Themain objective of managing community forest is often tosustainably provide for the needs of firewood, fodder, timber,etc. in the community. Management of private forest may, forexample, be for the maximum output of good quality timber.There may be many other objectives in forest management.Just as the objectives are different, the management work inthe forest will also be different.

Community Forest

Private Forest

Objectives of forest management

Some details of registering community and private forestare give on page 14.

Needs and abilities of the community or individualThe different needs of a community or individual will

determine why and how to manage the forest. In communityforestry, the needs and hopes of the community are mostimportant. But individual or family needs usually take prior-ity in private forests.

In managing a community forest, the opinions of allusers of the forest are important to create the managementplan. This may include religious or cultural reasons for pro-tecting or using the forest.

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What is a Forest Management Plan ?A forest management plan is a written or understood

agreement for a programme of work in the forest, in terms ofwho does it, and where, when and how the work is done. Incommunity forestry terms this can also be called an "actionplan", and can include issues relevant to national forest law.


The condition of the forest will differ in different places.Factors such as types and species of trees and shrubs, soil type,moisture, fertility, and aspect all cause great diversity, andaffect productivity in the forest. While preparing the forestmanagement plan, an evaluation of the growing stock of pro-ductive trees and shrubs, and their growth rates is an importantstep. Keeping good records of this will enable the user group toestimate the amount of products which can be sustainablygathered from the forest area.

Forest Site Conditions

Here you can seethe trees, but it'snot a good forest.

There are noplants in the

ground layer, sothis space has no

productivity.

There are manytypes of plants

in a good forest.

Important re-sources such as

soil are lostwithout theforest cover.

Finding the resources to manage the forestThere are various resources needed in the process of

forest management. For example, if making a plantation, orother activities, there must be good public participation toform the users' group committee, and agree on the manage-ment plan. This can be called the human resource. It costs toproduce seedlings to plant, and there are many other visibleand invisible costs that the people managing the forest willneed to bear. These human, financial and physical resourceshave a big affect on management work in the forest.

8 9

In this communityforest, unwanted

species have just beencut back, and usefulthinnings harvested.

The same area 1 yearlater, the forest has

grown back well. After awhile it will be cut backagain. Such work im-

proves the forest..

Naturally regener-ated seedlings usually

grow better thanplanted seedlings.

planted

naturally regenerated

In a productiveand truly sustain-able forest there

are many types oftrees and shrubs

which fill alllayers of the for-est, from ground

layer to uppercanopy.


Bare ground, clear glades in the forest, and even terraceedges in fields can all be planted with useful trees. Appropri-ate non-timber and medicinal plants which are needed by thehousehold and community can be chosen and planted, as wellas trees grown for timber. These can be grown in a nursery, orwild plants can be collected from the forest and planted. Tolearn about species selection, planting distance, propagationand planting methods, you should seek technical advice fromthe relevant places, such as the local district forest office orappropriate NGO, and request extra training.

Work in the Forest

Plantation

Plant more use-ful plants inbare areas ofthe forest.

Weeding and FireControl

Clear weeds from around newly planted or regeneratedseedlings to help them grow, and protect the area from theharmful effects of fire and free-range livestock. Some treesmay suffer more from fire, while slow growing plants suffermore from weed competition. This work protects trees frompests and diseases, and helps the seedlings to grow faster.

Forest killersThinning

Thinning practice is different depending on the differentobjectives of the forest management plan. For example, if theobjective is only firewood production, trees can be growncloser together. But for good quality timber, the lowerbranches of selected trees may need pruning. Some types offodder tree are best cut in different ways at different times ofthe year. To make space for more valuable species, less usefultrees and shrubs can be gradually cleared. For example, ifthere is too much pine, this can be thinned out and other moreuseful or desired species planted in the gaps.

If many branches regrow from the stumps of cut trees(coppicing), a good tree can be grown by selecting the bestone or two stems and cutting the remainder.


More information about this is given in the Soil Conser-vation and Improvement, Integrated Orchard, andAgroforestry chapters.

Final HarvestFodder trees may be cut several times a year, or once

every 2 years, after which they will regrow. Harvesting timbermeans felling the whole tree. Some herbal medicines comefrom harvesting roots, some from fruit, or flowers, or bark,etc. In this way benefits are harvested according to the man-agement plan. The management should include planning andpreparation for future rotations of crops.

By selecting andthinning, useful

products areharvested as wellas improving theremaining forest.

If the futureregrowth of the for-

est is part of themanagement plan, itcan be sustainable.

For sustainable harvesting from the forest, productsshould not all be harvested at the same time. Once an estimatehas been made of the growing stock and growth rates, accord-ing to this a fixed proportion of the growth can be harvested.This will help to improve the forest without over-harvesting.

Registering a Community ForestAccording to the current forest law in Nepal, community

forest is given priority for development. The forest user com-mittee is givenresponsibility forprotection of anddistribution ofproducts from thecommunity forest.The local commu-nity forms the usergroup to manage allthis responsibility.

• The community shouldform a users' committee which can make an applica-tion to the District Forest Office.

• Taking advice from the Forest Office and/or related NGOs,the committee should prepare a clear, simple constitution.

• After registering the constitution at the forest office, aforest management plan is made.

• When the plan is approved, the forest is handed over to thecommunity.

• It's a good idea to take advice from related organisations fortechnical and management advice while managing the forest.

Bhaisepati Women's

Community Forest

Saibu-4, Bhaisepati, 1998


Registering a Private ForestFarmers' land is often left unused, for example because

they do not have the time or other resources to farm it. Byplanting trees, or by protecting naturally regenerated trees onsuch wasteland, or even on existing farmland, it is possible tomake a private forest.• Output from the private forest goes to the landowner. When

the private forest is registered, these products can be soldor traded .

• To register the forest, the land and its distribution of treesshould be described in the application to the forest office.

• The forest office will check your application against whatis on the land, then issue you a certificate of registration forthe private forest.

• Once the forest is registered, you do not need to go throughany other process of registry in order to sell products fromthe forest.

Mr Surya Adhikari ofBegnas, Nepal, changed thisland from bare ground to arich, diverse food forest. Aswell as producing fodder,

firewood, etc. for the home,he also produces fruit for

cash income.

æ

Mr AmmarBahadur Gurung

Farmers'ExperienceFarmers'Experience

From Nepal, Surkhet district,Gumi - 4, Mr AmmarBahadur Gurung is the Vice-Chairman of "Longlake Com-munity Forest". Now let'sread about his experiences.

Ammar Bahadur Gurung

Our local forest was verygood up until 1980. After that,people stopped caring. Live-stock were let loose into theforest, and people cut whereverthey liked. That led to morelandslides and floods, and evenwhole houses were washed away. Then, in 1994 this forestwas handed over to the community as Lampokhari Com-munity Forest. It is 9 hectares in area. After making a forestmanagement plan, various rules were made. Livestockaren't allowed in, and the forest is opened twice a year tocut fodder and firewood, which isn't allowed any othertime. Each person pays 2 rupees to be allowed to cut aload. Because of laws like this, the forest has grown anddeveloped very well. Dead and badly shaped branches aretaken out, and dead trees can be bought and cut for timber.The cash income from sale of forest resources goes into thelocal community fund.Æ

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Subjects Related to Forest Management

Read On !Read On !

This book provides much of the information needed tohelp manage your own forest. However, this information isalso linked to other methods. For extra benefits let's read,learn and practice from other related chapters.

Agroforestry chapterPlanting trees on farmland can bring farmersmany benefits. But you can't plant any type of treejust anywhere. This chapter gives information onhow to plant trees without affecting farm yield.

Living Fence chapterBy planting a fence made of trees, production canbe much more than just a barrier. This chaptertells how to make and manage a living fence.

Integrated Fruit Orchard chapterInformation on how to plant fruit trees with variousother multi-purpose trees to give more and quickerbenefits for less work is given in this chapter.

Soil Conservation and Improve-ment chapter

Information is given about the nature of soil, how toprotect existing soil, and lots of ideas about how toregenerate damaged soil into productive land again.

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What is

All plantlife needs soilto germinate,grow and liveits life. If thesoil and soilmanagement isgood, farmproductionwill also begood. Thecondition ofour environ-ment, societyand economy all depend on the health of the soil. If the soilcan be kept fertile, production increases, the local economy isstrong, and society is safe.

Just like skin covers our bodies, so soil covers the Earth.Just like our bodies are damaged if our skin is broken, orwounded, so the Earth is harmed, and production decreases ifthe soil is damaged or washed away. If the soil is damaged,the farming community also suffers great harm. So we needto understand the needs of soil, and what can damage it. Thischapter also gives information on how soil can be sustainablyprotected and improved.

Bare land becomes greener as thesoil recovers in Surkhet, Nepal

Soil Conservation& Improvement ?Soil Conservation& Improvement ?

The Farmers' Handbook, "Forest, Soil and Other Topics" Chapter 3 - Soil Conservation and Improvement2 3

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3

Different climates have different types of soils . Often,one type of climate will also have many different types ofsoil. But whatever the soil, they all have similar ingredients inthem. Such as :-

• mineral particles - these forms the main part of soil• air• moisture (water)• animal life (visible and microscopic)• roots of living plants• organic matter (dead plants and animals that are in the

process of being broken down)

Fertile soil givesgood production

for all thefarm's crops

The ingredients listed above are found in all soils in agreater or lesser amount. When they are in the right amount,the soil is naturally fertile.

The roots of the plantin picture 1 are shownclose up in picture 2.This is shown evencloser in picture 3.

air

mineralparticle

root

root hair(this takes upnutrients and

water for the plant)

Everything else is soil water, or moisture. In thewater are many nutrients, and countless micro-scopic organisms are also active in this water.

organicmatter

Soil and its NeedsSoil and its Needs

This booklet’s authorChris Evans, advisor,Himalayan Permaculture Group, Nepalwww.designedvisions.com


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According to the soil type, thesedifferent elements are present in dif-ferent amounts. For example, let'scompare sandy and clay soils.

Sandy Soil• mineral particles are large• air spaces between the mineral

particles are large• lots of air in the soil

As a result of this :-• soil is light and well aerated• the soil doesn't hold water, and

dries out faster• nutrients are washed out quickly

Clay Soil• mineral particles are small• space between the particles is

small• less air in the soil

As a result of this :-• the soil is heavy• as soon as it rains, the soil is

saturated and stays wet for a longtime. But when it dries, the soil isvery hard

• nutrients are held in the soil but ifthere is less air in the soil, plantscan't get the nutrients so easily

Testing Soil

Put a handful ofsoil in a jar of

water and shakewell. Leave it to

settle for 4-5days. The dif-ferent types ofmineral parti-cles will settleinto separate

layers

1. Organic matter2. Clay particles3. Loam particles4. Sand particles

Needs of the soilWhat is needed to protect and maintain fertility in the soil ?

The contents of the soil descibed above - air, minerals,organic matter, living roots, moisture and living organisms -are all essential in the right quantities for healthy soil. Whenthey are all present, soil is naturally self-fertile. Adding theright quantities as needed also maintains the quality of thesoil. But if any one ingredient is present in a lesser or greateramount than normal, the quality of the soil can be harmed, orit can also be improved.

All the different ingredi-ents in the soil work together tohelp plants to grow. But moreimportant than these minerals, living roots, organic matter,etc. are the living organisms in the soil. In particular, the tiny,invisible organisms, such as bacteria,and fungi play a hugerole in maintaining and increasing soil fertility. These arecollectively called micro-organisms.

A small wound on theskin of the Earth.....

..... can make a big landslide.This should be prevented

from starting.


Actually, micro-organisms are probably the most impor-tant life on our planet. Living in one teaspoon of fertile forestsoil there are 2 billion micro-organisms. Larger organisms,and many types of fungi are also responsible for breakingdown dead plants and animals. This forms organic matter.Then, the smaller micro-organisms - mainly bacteria andfungi - take the organic matter and change it so plant roots(the root hairs) can absorb the nutrients, as we cook breadfrom flour. Even if there is plenty of organic matter in thesoil, without the work of micro-organisms, this cannot betaken up by the roots of living plants until it is "cooked".

Leaves and branches, dead animals, etc. fall on the soiland are broken down. Micro-organisms eat them. Then, it istheir waste in the soil which plant roots absorb as nutrients.This allows the plants to grow and continue the cycle of life.

Cycle of nutrientsand the work ofmicro-organisms

Soil organismsbreak down

organic matter

organic matter ismade into nutrients

Soil life and micro-organisms

Plants take thenutrients and

grow

micro-organismseat the nutrients and

excrete them aswaste

Soil fertilitySoil fertility

Life in the Soil

earthworm

Larger organisms which can be seen willbreak down larger pieces of organic matter,and help to get air into the soil. The smaller

micro-organisms eat their waste.

fungi

When soil is left bare, it can be damaged very easily.Many things can damage bare soil, such as :-• sun :- strong sun will dry out the soil. Dry soil hardens and

cracks the soil. Micro-organisms will die in dry, hard soil.• water :- when it rains on bare soil, the top layer will set

hard. On slopes, the topsoil is washed away downhill.• wind :- wind will dry out all the moisture from bare soil,

and can actually blow the top soil away.

Plants absorb the waste frommicro-organisms

bacteria

How soil is damaged


On these 2 pages the effects of mulching and not mulch-ing are compared together. The left page diagram (a) showswhat happens with no mulch on the soil, while the right pagediagram shows the example of a mulched soil. The top diagramshows water 1 lost to evaporation, 2 running off the soil, and3 soaking into the soil. The cycle below each drawing alsoshows the effects of mulching or not mulching on soil quality.

Cultivated, un-mulched soil

Rain washesaway fertilesoil, more

water is lostto the sun,less nutri-

ents are heldin the soil,plants are

weak.

Comparing soil with and without mulch

a

rain

sun

weak plant1

23

less soil life less moisture small roots

b soilploughed,left bare

lessorganicmatter

less airin soil

lessmoisture

fewerearthwormshard soil

difficult tocultivate

more needto plough

Spiral ofdestruction

rain

sun

weak plant

less soil life less moisture small roots

Protected from the sun, wind and rain, the organic matter,soil moisture and beneficial micro-organisms all benefit frommulching the soil. You need to consider where resources formulching can be found, such as leaf litter, straw, etc. Leavescan be brought from the forest, but this takes time. To producemore resources for mulching, its best to use Agroforestry anda Living Fence - see these chapters for more details. Learnmore about the methods and benefits of mulching in theMulching chapter.

1

2

3rain

sunstrongplant

moresoil life more

moisture bigger roots

rain

sunstrongplant

moresoil life more

moisture bigger roots

a

b

Mulched, un-cultivated soil

Soil is deep,fertile, andwell pro-

tected. Moremoisture,

more soil life,plants are

healthy andstrong.

Spiral ofproductivity

healthysoil

lots ofplants

lots ofmulch

moremoisture

richersoil

moreearthworms

softersoil

roots growdeeper


• Chemical fertilizers :- these harm the soil micro-organisms and so cause the soil structure and nutrientuptake to be damaged.

• Artificial poisons :- as well as killing pests, these kill manybeneficial insects and organisms which work in the soil.

• Big, heavy machinery :- big machines such as tractorscompress the soil so that there is less air space. Theydestroy the structure of the soil, as well as damaging soilorganisms.

• Large livestock :- on wet soil, the feet of large livestocksuch as cows and buffaloes also compress the soil anddamage soil structure.

Nutrient management for plant growthSymptoms of lack of certain nutrients

nitrogen

potassium

magnesium

manganese

phosphate

lack of

Other things which damage the soil

Symptoms seen on mature leaves

Leaves yellow, starting from tips

Leaves die from the edges

Leaves yellow between the veins

Grey/white spots on fruit and grain

Leaves and stems turn red colour

Symptoms seen on young leaves lack of

Yellow spots on leaves & veins yellow

Yellow spots on leaves & veins green

Grey spots on seed, pods and fruit

Newest leaves die back or have white tips

sulphur

iron

manganese

copper

So, what to do if nutrient deficiencies are recognised bythese symptoms ? The chart below gives examples of plantswhich accumulate greater amounts than usual of certainnutrients. These can be used in mulch, compost or liquidmanure so those nutrients which are lacking can be added tothe soil. They are called dynamic accumulators.

plantmustardbuckwheatcarrot (leaf)comfreylegumesmarigoldnettleamaranth

The main thing to consider in soil conservationand improvement :-

We need to understand what benefits the soil as well aswhat that damages the soil, and plan our work according to this.

There are 3 main strategies :-

contains lots ofphosphate, nitrogen, iron

phosphate

potassium, magnesium

nitrogen, potassium, magnesium, iron

nitrogen

phosphate

nitrogen, potassium, iron, sulphur, copper

nitrogen, phosphate, potassium, manganese

1. We need to feed the soil micro-organisms, and allow agood habitat for them to live and work in.

2. The soil should not be bare. We need to keep it covered asmuch as possible. Especially, take care to cover and protectthe soil when there is strong sun, rain and wind.

3. Stop water from running off down a slope for any distance -it runs faster, and carries off much soil and nutrients with it.


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3

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Methods of soil conservation and improvement ?1. For the micro-organisms :- mulching, good compost,

liquid manure, green manures, agroforestry, afforestation.2. To cover the soil :- mulching, green manures (when land is

fallow), agroforestry, afforestation, etc.3. To stop water running off :- mulching, green manures,

agroforestry, afforestation, use A-frame to make contourditches, terrace maintenance.

CompostMulching

A-FrameGreenmanures

Agro-forestry

Liquidmanure

Read about howthese methods

improve the soilin each chapter

In this chapter, up till now we have read about soil,what it needs and how we can increase its fertility.

Now, we look more at regeneration of damaged soil.

Let's SeeLet's See how to conserveand improve the soilhow to conserveand improve the soil

Bare land becomesdried out and

wounds start toappear on theEarth's skin.

These woundscan be healed by

protecting theland and planting

extra trees.

In 1989, this landwas bare - 13

years later it is arich, fertile anddiverse orchard.

CompostMulching

A-Frame

LiquidmanureAgro-

forestry

Greenmanures

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The Farmers' Handbook, "Forest, Soil and Other Topics" Chapter 3 - Soil Conservation and Improvement

Bare and unproductiveland on the river edge....

....whenprotected, canproduce manyof a farmer's

needs.

Outside the wall theland is degraded,while inside has

grown green

Here seedlingshave been planted

and the siteprotected

Napiergrass

planted

After 1 year theNapier is bigenough to cut

for fodder

Ipomea (MorningGlory) planted onthe river bank toprevent erosion


11

13

12

A high altitudeResource

Centre farmbeing started in

1990 inJajarkot, Nepal

The canal, madeusing an A-

frame, allowsthe water to

infiltrate the soil

This means bareland improves

very quickly (thispicture in 1993)

Maize stalks areused to strengthen

the terrace andstop soil erosion

Repair of Damaged Land

Up until now in this chapter, information has been givento assist in good soil management. If there is good soil on thefarm, it is not difficult to maintain and increase soil quality.Where soil has become degraded, the difficult work is toimprove it again. But this is very important work - nocommunity can claim it is poor as long as it has degradedland in its region , because they can improve productivitysimply by repairing this land.

All the things discussed above will help in the repair ofdamaged soil. But before putting much work into landregeneration, we should first understand how nature does the job.

This is a poorvillage. No

forest, no soil, nowealth.

But the abilityto improve theland is in thecommunity's

hands. Naturealso wants to

improve itself.


Soil Improvement and SuccessionImproving the soil doesn't take so much work. It's often

enough just to prevent it degrading. Left alone, soil willgradually improve itself, in a process called succession. Forexample, when any bare land is protected, special groundcover plants called pioneers will start to grow first. They willstart the soil improvement process. Then, larger shrubs andtrees will start to grow. Eventually, a mature forest willdevelop, and the soil will get a new life.

So the first need for improving the soil is protection. Theeasiest type of protection is a "community fence" - thecommunity decides to protect an area of land, and preventlivestock going into it. After that, stone walls, thorny brush, etc.can be used to make a fence. Most difficult is the individualprotection of trees, by surrounding them with thorny branches.

Communally protected landgrows through succession

A walled area

Each tree is protectedby thorny branches

The seeds of many pioneer plants are already in the soil.Many types of fruit, such as Ficus, mulberry, etc. are eaten bybirds and spread on the land through their manure.

We can speed up this process by providing perches overa bare area for birds to sit on. Bury tall posts on a contourline, and tie string between them. Under the string wherebirds sit, the seed they carry will germinate.

On bare land, it's much easier to work with nature. Witha few years' protection, naturewill plant the best speciesto improve the soil.Then people can plantthe larger species theyneed, such as walnut, oak,etc., and they will survive,and grow much better.

This improvement doesn't cost much and the land willimprove sustainably. The right plants will grow according tosite and climate. Making a plantation on a bare site is veryexpensive, and more trees will fail. It's much cheaper andmore effective to use succession for soil improvement.

Land improvement - who benefits?The aim of improving community land is to prevent

erosion, and produce more fodder, firewood, etc. But wemust consider who benefits from this work. There aremany examples where resource-poor people gain lessthan they should. So we must make sure from early onthat benefits from land improvement are shared equally

amongst the community.


1

5

4

3

2

Whenland is bare, thereare no benefits excepta few handfuls of grass forlivestock. In fact, the soil will be

degrading in the opposite direction. Atfirst it's most important to protect the site.

By allowing natural plants to grow thesoil will improve by itself.

Succession on bare land

When anarea is protectedfrom grazing, within 1-2 years grasses and smallshrubs will start to grow. Thesecover the soil, conserve moisture, and start

to improve the soil. Livestock must be fed athome. Grasses which grow on the

protected site can be used asfodder for them.

Afteranother 1-2 yearsother seed will bebrought to the land by thewind or by birds, and start togrow. As well as providing fodder,these shrubs and trees can also provide smallfirewood.

Within 3-4 yearssmall trees willstart to grow on the land.The soil will have improvedwell by this time. Now wecan start planting large types oftree. In between, smaller, shade loving species suchas coffee, pineapple, cardamon, medicinal herbs, etc. can

be planted.

Eventually, bothnature and thecommunity can providefor more of their needs.Nature is protected, andhuman benefits also increase. Whennature and the community work together, suchbenefits are sustainable.


One piece of land improvement

A stone wallprotects the landwhere seedlings

have been planted

Some trees willgrow easily from

cuttings whenplanted at the right

time. These areFicus cuttings.

After just 2years, the

area is greenand

productive

It is important to prevent water from running off a bareslope. This can be done by using an A-frame to mark outcontour ditches, or swales. This is described in the A-Framechapter. Let's see how the A-frame can be used.

The A-frame is used to mark horizontal lines.These make swales for soil improvement.

Swales made withthe A-frame hold

water, soil andnutrients on the

land. These can beused by growingplants, instead of

being washedaway.


1

3

2

The distance between swalesdepends on the steepness ofthe slope. The steeper theslope, the closer together theswales should be. In diagram1 the slope is steeper, and theswales are dug deeper andmore narrow. In diagram 2the slope is less steep, swalesare less deep, and wider. Indiagram 3 the soil dug fromthe swale is put above ratherthan below the ditch. This canbe used to make terraces forcultivation as the soil accumulates above the ditch.

Instead of diggingswales, rocks or

branches can be laidout on the contour

lines marked by theA-frame to preventsoil erosion. Smallshrubs can also be

planted. Their rootswill bind the soil andwon't fall over andcause more erosion,as big trees may do.

Planting of fodderspecies will

increase compostproduction....

....or the trees can becut and leaves put

directly on the land(mulching).

Soil will collect abovetrees planted like this, andslowly level land will be

formed for easier farming.

By stopping soilerosion in this way,hill farmers can canmake their own land

more fertile andproductive.

The Farmers' Handbook, "Forest, Soil and Other Topics" Chapter 3 - Soil Conservation and Improvement

ç ç26 27

• livestock compost• compost made of sweepings from the house and yard• legumes to fix nitrogen• earthworms• silt from ponds, streams, etc.• silt and dust collected from the run-off of the first rains• deep-rooting trees to cycle fertility• mulch using leaf litter to cover the soil• dead insects, birds, etc• soil and leaves blown in by the wind• human excrement• laying turf• green manures• rotation cropping• keeping land fallow• no-tillage, to allow natural soil fertility

Ways to increase soil fertility

If farmers can use as many of these various localresources as possible to increase fertility, they can help toprotect and improve the soil themselves. In this way they canincrease production locally and make the homestead strongand productive.

The soil is our life.Protect it and be happy !!!

Mr Surya PrasadAdhikari


From Nepal, Kaski district,Lekhnath - 10, Begnas vil-lage, Mr Surya PrasadAdhikari has worked toimprove the soil on his ownfarm. Now let's read abouthis experiences.

Surya Prasad Adhikari

I started my mixedorchard in 1988. My aim wasto work with nature to improvethe soil and make it moreproductive. The area is 1.5acres, and it was completelybare and degraded, with hardlyany grass. First I plantedseedlings and mulched all theland with leaves and compost. In the second year I sowedlegumes and planted bananas. I cut the bananas and usedthem for mulch. Then I planted oranges, pineapple, foddertrees, broom grass, and so on. In total there are 55 species I'veplanted. It's all protected from livestock. The annualproduction has increased each year, and I even sell seedlingswhich grow there. There are 800 fruiting coffee seedlings,and I sell oranges and pineapple too. I produce all the fodderand firewood needed at home as well.

Gri

hast

hi C

omm

unic

atio

ns

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AA

Subjects Related to Soil Conservationand Improvement

Read On !Read On !

Mulching chapterMulching protects and improves the soil

Compost chapterMake good compost for the soil faster and easier

Living Fence chapterMake not just a fence, but a productive part of the farm

Forest Management chapterGood forest management is essential for the soil

Agroforestry chapterPlant more trees on farmland to increase productionwithout affecting yields of field crops

A-frame chapterAn easy method of saving soil and water on sloping land

Green Manures chapterA method of increasing soil fertility and crop production

Sweepings Pit chapterMake great compost from domestic waste resources

Double Digging chapterDig twice as deep to get 4 x the vegetable production

The Farmers' Handbook, "Forest, Soil and Other Topics" Chapter 4 - A-Frame4 5

1 32

1

3

2

4

Let's SeeLet's See

These pictures show how the A-Frame is puttogether. More details are given along with

the colour photos.

The A-Frame is constructed by joining the legs, levelstick and string as in drawings 1, 2 and 3 above. It is NOTessential that the long sticks which make the legs of the A-frame are exactly the same length, nor that the middle stick isexactly horizontal. It doesn't matter if lengths are different, orif the sticks are not exactly straight. As in the drawing below,some A-frames can be more uneven, but they all do the samework.

The most important part of the A-frame, so it can markout contours accurately, is the relationship between thestring and the horizontal stick. The way that this is done

is shown in detail in colour photos 7 to 14

Now the A-Frame is ready to use

how to makean A-Frame

Lay the sticks outin the shape of theEnglish letter "A"

To join the piecesuse nails or string

how to makean A-Frame

Th

e F

arm

ers'

Ha

nd

bo

ok

- "

Fo

rest

, S

oil

an

d o

ther

To

pic

s",

Ch

ap

ter

5 -

Co

mm

un

ity

Fu

nd

What is a

A CommunityFund can be started byvillage men and womenagreeing to make agroup, and collectingmoney from all themembers of the groupaccording to their capac-ity. When the group hasan objective of makingloans and charging inter-est as needed from thisfund, this is usuallycalled a savings andloans group. Thesegroups can be made upof men and women, some are made up of women only. Themembers of the group discuss and decide on when to meet andhow much money to collect. Usually they meet once a month,on the first Saturday, or any other day they decide on. Every-one agrees to pay an equal amount, which can increase overtime. Members can then take a loan according to their needs. Arate of interest is payable on the loan, which increases thefund. This has proved to be very successful in allowing com-munities to control and improve their own local economy.

Controlling your own finance

Community Fund ?Community Fund ?

The Farmers' Handbook, "Forest, Soil and Other Topics" Chapter 5 - Community Fund

WhyWhy make aCommunity Fund ?


HowHow

Materials Needed to make a Community Fund

2 3

to make aCommunity Fund ?

Mrs Malati LakoulWorld Education,Kathmandu, Nepal

• protection from the high interest rates of merchants• to have access to funds at times of emergency• to be able to pay for family committments, such as wed-

dings, school fees, funerals, etc.• to be able to take loans easily whenever needed• so that marginal families with minimum incomes can get

access to credit and cash• to make managing the household's finances easier

Discussing the business of the Community Fund

In this chapter, first we'll look at selecting the group andhow it manages itself. Then we'll look at examples of simpleways of keeping and managing accounts. Finally, we'll brieflylook at some good ways of investing the fund, and see casestudies of successful women's groups and their funds.

Where does savings money come from ?

• from a certain percentage of income taken at the start,before any spending (produce, save, and then spend)

• from increasing the fund by income-earning work• from giving up being lazy and improving work habits• reducing unnecessary expenses• reducing consumption of damaging items such as alcohol

and cigarettes• from community or social work, such as festivals, cultural

programmes, bulk buying and marketing, etc.

"piggy bank"

moneytrustingfriends

accountsbooks

pens

The Farmers' Handbook, "Forest, Soil and Other Topics" Chapter 5 - Community Fund4 5

How to start a group

The variousresponsibilities ofthe groupshould bedivided up, sothat savingsand creditgroups can man-age themselveseffectively. Noteveryone has the sameskills, and it should be decided and agreed who is best to dowhich job.

• able to lead the group• able to manage the group successfully• able to listen, and understand inputs from the group• able to explain about the group and how it works to other

people and groups.

Things to consider when selecting members

Group leader (Chairperson)

Treasurer• able to read and write• able to keep accounts

Secretary• able to read and write• able to explain about the group to

others• able to network with other groups

Goodleadership

The groupchooses the chair-person, treasurerand secretary byconsensus,election, or bywhatevermethod is ap-propriate. Forexample, here are 2methods of selecting the posts:

Method 1

The group selects people with the right qualities to playthe leadership roles, who then state whether they wish to havethe post. When there is consensus and everyone agrees, theposts are given.

Method 2

A selection of suitable candidates are presented orpresent themselves. There is a vote, and whoever gets themost votes gets the post.

How to keep the group's accounts ?

The keeping of the group's accounts means the group cankeep a record of funds saved, loans given and interest earned,so the total amount of the fund is always known. The treasurerhas the responsibility to keep the accounts clear and transpar-ent. On the following pages are samples of a group's accounts.

Choosing the group's leaders

Groupparticipation


Keeping the group's accounts

To keep accounts of the group's savings, the chairpersonrecords the names and savings of the group members, witheach signing their name against the account. Everybodywatches as accounts are written, and the accounts are read outas well. Below is an example of the records kept.

Savings and loans pass book

It's best to have a pass book for each member of thegroup. This can be copied from any other group or organisa-tion who are keeping similar accounts. An example of theway accounts can be kept of savings and loans is given below.

S.No:

Date Name Item In-come

Loantaken

Loanleft torepay

Amountin

bank

Amountin

Group

Signature

1. 1.4.01 Lastmonth’s

items

200/-

2. 1.4.01 Dhanmaya April’ssaving

10/-

3. 1.4.01

1.4.01

1.4.01

Sunmaya April’ssaving

10/-

210/-

220/-

15.

21.

Sita

Phulmaya April’ssaving

April’ssaving

400/-

note : due to lack of space not all accounts are written. AfterDhanmaya and Sunmaya there are another 12 members

whose savings are not shown, but the method is the same.

Here, the accounts of members 16 to 20 are not shown

340/-

Group LedgerMonth April

Phulmaya is the Treasurer

S.No:

Date Item Loantaken

Signature

1. 1.4.01

2. 1.5.01

Savingsdeposited

TotalSavings

3. 1.6.01

April

May

June

10/-

10/-

10/-

-

-

-

10/-

20/-

30/-

Savings Passbook

S.No:

Date Item

1. 1.4.01 April 180/-

Loantaken

Interestto pay

Paid back

Loan Interest

Signature

Leftto

pay

Loans Passbook

9/-

Saving andloan passbook

Group ledger


Providing loans from the fund

• Decide what type of work loans can be given for.• Decide the amount of interest to charge, depending on the

type of loan.• Decide how and when the loan will be repaid.• Prioritise which types of loan are available.• Discuss and decide regularly how to keep the group and its

finances running well.

Coordinating the group's activities

1.The group meets regularly to make decisions.2.Work is divided among the

group.3.Bylaws are made :-

• how much to save ? (permember)

• when to save it ? (monthly, etc.)All decisions are recorded.

Usually, the groupmembers will meet

once a month.

There are benefits to thegroup and the individual.

4. Managing the fund's ledger :• How much does each member

have?• How much loan have they

taken?• How much is kept in the bank ?

8. Plan for thefuture. Discusshow to get accessto relevant tech-niques and re-sources to makeprogrammesconnected toareas of health,education, farm-ing, etc.

7. When will loan repayment start ?• How will the loan be paid off ?• When will the loan be paid off ?

6. Agree interest rates :• How much interest is charged

on different types of loan ?

5. Keeping the savings :• Hold formal meetings;• Provide details of accounts to

the group.

By using the loan tostart a business, the

local economy benefits,while loan repayment

also increases the fund.

weaving

fruit

skillstraining

vegetablegrowing

shop


Joining in community work related to the fund

Why should anactive and well runsavings group only

manage a fund ?They can also beinvolved in com-munity work such

as maintainingpaths, drinking

water systems andplantations.

Women's ability and awarenessincreases. They can participate in making

decisions about various communityissues along with the men.

A success story of a community fund

In 1994 in Gauripara village in Bardiya district, of West-ern Nepal, the women started a savings and credit group. Atfirst the members raised 5 rupees a month and invested this invarious activities. They grew a potato crop, and raised pigssuccessfully. Then they rented some land and grew rice,which also produced well. Now they have started to build acommunity hall, and plan to open a community shop. Eventhough they invested this much, as of 2000 they still had over50,000/- rupees left in the fund. Now this active and success-ful group also advises and teaches other groups.

Members of Gauripara Group

Gri

hast

hi C

omm

unic

atio

ns

Æ

æ

Mrs PurnakalaGharti


From Nepal, Surkhet district,Gumi - 5, and chairperson of"Protect the Forest" women'sgroup, Mrs Purnakala Ghartihas experience in running herlocal group's communityfund. Now let's read aboutwhat she says.

Mrs Purnakala Gharti

We learned how to form thegroup from the Homestead Pro-gramme (JPP). First all themembers raised 4 kg each ofgrain, then on the first of every month we meet and each pay10 rupees into the savings. We give loans if someone hassickness, or runs out of food, and the loan is collected with asmall interest. Up until May the interest was 2 rupees perhundred. Since May it's now one and a half rupees per hun-dred. At the moment we have 500 rupees in the fund, and7000 rupees is out in loans. This has made things very easyfor us. There's no need to take loans from the merchants, whocharge interest at least 5 rupees per hundred. For one thing,we don't have to go searching for a loan, and we canuse our fund. For another, when we pay the interest,it increases our own fund.

Th

e F

arm

ers'

Ha

nd

bo

ok

- "

Fo

rest

, S

oil

an

d o

ther

To

pic

s",

Ch

ap

ter

5 -

Co

mm

un

ity

Fu

nd

What is a

A CommunityFund can be started byvillage men and womenagreeing to make agroup, and collectingmoney from all themembers of the groupaccording to their capac-ity. When the group hasan objective of makingloans and charging inter-est as needed from thisfund, this is usuallycalled a savings andloans group. Thesegroups can be made upof men and women, some are made up of women only. Themembers of the group discuss and decide on when to meet andhow much money to collect. Usually they meet once a month,on the first Saturday, or any other day they decide on. Every-one agrees to pay an equal amount, which can increase overtime. Members can then take a loan according to their needs. Arate of interest is payable on the loan, which increases thefund. This has proved to be very successful in allowing com-munities to control and improve their own local economy.

Controlling your own finance

Community Fund ?Community Fund ?

The Farmers' Handbook, "Forest, Soil and Other Topics" Chapter 5 - Community Fund

WhyWhy make aCommunity Fund ?


HowHow

Materials Needed to make a Community Fund

2 3

to make aCommunity Fund ?

Mrs Malati LakoulWorld Education,Kathmandu, Nepal

• protection from the high interest rates of merchants• to have access to funds at times of emergency• to be able to pay for family committments, such as wed-

dings, school fees, funerals, etc.• to be able to take loans easily whenever needed• so that marginal families with minimum incomes can get

access to credit and cash• to make managing the household's finances easier

Discussing the business of the Community Fund

In this chapter, first we'll look at selecting the group andhow it manages itself. Then we'll look at examples of simpleways of keeping and managing accounts. Finally, we'll brieflylook at some good ways of investing the fund, and see casestudies of successful women's groups and their funds.

Where does savings money come from ?

• from a certain percentage of income taken at the start,before any spending (produce, save, and then spend)

• from increasing the fund by income-earning work• from giving up being lazy and improving work habits• reducing unnecessary expenses• reducing consumption of damaging items such as alcohol

and cigarettes• from community or social work, such as festivals, cultural

programmes, bulk buying and marketing, etc.

"piggy bank"

moneytrustingfriends

accountsbooks

pens


How to start a group

The variousresponsibilities ofthe groupshould bedivided up, sothat savingsand creditgroups can man-age themselveseffectively. Noteveryone has the sameskills, and it should be decided and agreed who is best to dowhich job.

• able to lead the group• able to manage the group successfully• able to listen, and understand inputs from the group• able to explain about the group and how it works to other

people and groups.

Things to consider when selecting members

Group leader (Chairperson)

Treasurer• able to read and write• able to keep accounts

Secretary• able to read and write• able to explain about the group to

others• able to network with other groups

Goodleadership

The groupchooses the chair-person, treasurerand secretary byconsensus,election, or bywhatevermethod is ap-propriate. Forexample, here are 2methods of selecting the posts:

Method 1

The group selects people with the right qualities to playthe leadership roles, who then state whether they wish to havethe post. When there is consensus and everyone agrees, theposts are given.

Method 2

A selection of suitable candidates are presented orpresent themselves. There is a vote, and whoever gets themost votes gets the post.

How to keep the group's accounts ?

The keeping of the group's accounts means the group cankeep a record of funds saved, loans given and interest earned,so the total amount of the fund is always known. The treasurerhas the responsibility to keep the accounts clear and transpar-ent. On the following pages are samples of a group's accounts.

Choosing the group's leaders

Groupparticipation


Keeping the group's accounts

To keep accounts of the group's savings, the chairpersonrecords the names and savings of the group members, witheach signing their name against the account. Everybodywatches as accounts are written, and the accounts are read outas well. Below is an example of the records kept.

Savings and loans pass book

It's best to have a pass book for each member of thegroup. This can be copied from any other group or organisa-tion who are keeping similar accounts. An example of theway accounts can be kept of savings and loans is given below.

S.No:

Date Name Item In-come

Loantaken

Loanleft torepay

Amountin

bank

Amountin

Group

Signature

1. 1.4.01 Lastmonth’s

items

200/-

2. 1.4.01 Dhanmaya April’ssaving

10/-

3. 1.4.01

1.4.01

1.4.01

Sunmaya April’ssaving

10/-

210/-

220/-

15.

21.

Sita

Phulmaya April’ssaving

April’ssaving

400/-

note : due to lack of space not all accounts are written. AfterDhanmaya and Sunmaya there are another 12 members

whose savings are not shown, but the method is the same.

Here, the accounts of members 16 to 20 are not shown

340/-

Group LedgerMonth April

Phulmaya is the Treasurer

S.No:

Date Item Loantaken

Signature

1. 1.4.01

2. 1.5.01

Savingsdeposited

TotalSavings

3. 1.6.01

April

May

June

10/-

10/-

10/-

-

-

-

10/-

20/-

30/-

Savings Passbook

S.No:

Date Item

1. 1.4.01 April 180/-

Loantaken

Interestto pay

Paid back

Loan Interest

Signature

Leftto

pay

Loans Passbook

9/-

Saving andloan passbook

Group ledger


Providing loans from the fund

• Decide what type of work loans can be given for.• Decide the amount of interest to charge, depending on the

type of loan.• Decide how and when the loan will be repaid.• Prioritise which types of loan are available.• Discuss and decide regularly how to keep the group and its

finances running well.

Coordinating the group's activities

1.The group meets regularly to make decisions.2.Work is divided among the

group.3.Bylaws are made :-

• how much to save ? (permember)

• when to save it ? (monthly, etc.)All decisions are recorded.

Usually, the groupmembers will meet

once a month.

There are benefits to thegroup and the individual.

4. Managing the fund's ledger :• How much does each member

have?• How much loan have they

taken?• How much is kept in the bank ?

8. Plan for thefuture. Discusshow to get accessto relevant tech-niques and re-sources to makeprogrammesconnected toareas of health,education, farm-ing, etc.

7. When will loan repayment start ?• How will the loan be paid off ?• When will the loan be paid off ?

6. Agree interest rates :• How much interest is charged

on different types of loan ?

5. Keeping the savings :• Hold formal meetings;• Provide details of accounts to

the group.

By using the loan tostart a business, the

local economy benefits,while loan repayment

also increases the fund.

weaving

fruit

skillstraining

vegetablegrowing

shop


Joining in community work related to the fund

Why should anactive and well runsavings group only

manage a fund ?They can also beinvolved in com-munity work such

as maintainingpaths, drinking

water systems andplantations.

Women's ability and awarenessincreases. They can participate in making

decisions about various communityissues along with the men.

A success story of a community fund

In 1994 in Gauripara village in Bardiya district, of West-ern Nepal, the women started a savings and credit group. Atfirst the members raised 5 rupees a month and invested this invarious activities. They grew a potato crop, and raised pigssuccessfully. Then they rented some land and grew rice,which also produced well. Now they have started to build acommunity hall, and plan to open a community shop. Eventhough they invested this much, as of 2000 they still had over50,000/- rupees left in the fund. Now this active and success-ful group also advises and teaches other groups.

Members of Gauripara Group

Gri

hast

hi C

omm

unic

atio

ns

Æ

æ

Mrs PurnakalaGharti


From Nepal, Surkhet district,Gumi - 5, and chairperson of"Protect the Forest" women'sgroup, Mrs Purnakala Ghartihas experience in running herlocal group's communityfund. Now let's read aboutwhat she says.

Mrs Purnakala Gharti

We learned how to form thegroup from the Homestead Pro-gramme (JPP). First all themembers raised 4 kg each ofgrain, then on the first of every month we meet and each pay10 rupees into the savings. We give loans if someone hassickness, or runs out of food, and the loan is collected with asmall interest. Up until May the interest was 2 rupees perhundred. Since May it's now one and a half rupees per hun-dred. At the moment we have 500 rupees in the fund, and7000 rupees is out in loans. This has made things very easyfor us. There's no need to take loans from the merchants, whocharge interest at least 5 rupees per hundred. For one thing,we don't have to go searching for a loan, and we canuse our fund. For another, when we pay the interest,it increases our own fund.

Th

e F

arm

ers'

Ha

nd

bo

ok

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Des

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What is

Land Design ?Land Design ?Farming is

part of the body ofrural communities.Everybody wants tomake these commu-nities more sustain-able. Permacultureis the direct applica-tion of the princi-ples of nature in thedesign of sustain-able human habitats.Design can make afarming system which relies on the observation of nature andthe adaptation of nature's stability, fertility and resilience tocreate a sustainability which benefits not only people, but thewhole earth. Permaculture is a way of designing which usesmainly local resources to help individuals and communities beself reliant and abundant. It is also a design system which helpsus to run our lives and cultures in a sustainable way .

Permaculture combines the best of natural systems, tradi-tional skill and wisdom, community values, and modern tech-nology. In this chapter we give an introduction to Permacultureand its principles, and how it is used in design. This chapteralso combines all the other chapters of the Farmers' Hand-book to help make households more sustainable.

Permaculture designer GovindaSharma in his kitchen garden

The Farmers' Handbook, "Forest, Soil and Other Topics" Chapter 6 - Land Design2 3

Benefits of using Permaculture design

• To repair degraded land and make itproductive again

• to produce more benefits from lessland

• to protect basic natural resources ofsoil, water, biodiversity, etc.

• to reduce the cost of farm production• to create sustainable life systems• to design a sustainable agriculture.

What is "Sustainable" ?

Nowadays the word "sustainable" is widely used, like"sustainable development", "sustainable economics", and soon. But we must only use this word when we understand it.What is a sustainable place like ? What do we gain from it ?

A "sustainable" system is permanent, stable, resilient andself sustaining, never breaking down and always meeting theneeds of its populations of plants and animals.

Actually, in modern times people have never made atruly sustainable system, so where do we get our "sustain-able" vision from ?

If we wish to be truly sustainable, where can we go tolearn how, when we have never done it ourselves ? Moderndevelopement has given us billions of dollars and thousandsof politicians and scientists, but still we are not sustainable.

So where to go and what to do, to be sustainable ?

If we really want to create a sustainable lifestyle forourselves, and for future generations, we must learn fromplaces where systems are sustainable. These are the self-reliant, self sustaining, resilient, stable and productive naturalsystems of the world.

An example of a sustainable natural system can be seenin a natural forest. But traditionally the forest is a dark, for-bidding place, where crops can't be grown and tigers hide totake our livestock. That's why we are more accustomed toclearing forest in order to grow crops. But at the same time,most people understand that without the forest there is no life,because so much of what we need in life comes from theforest.

Where can we see sustainability ?

But have we ever thought how theforest is a teacher of sustainability ?

These training participants learnabout sustainability from the forest


Go to the forest and see !• The Forest needs no work but is always productive.• The Forest never degrades itself, and is always growing.• The Forest does not need fertilizing or irrigating, but it is

always fertile and moist.• The Forest is warm when it's cold, and cool when it's hot.• The Forest is permanent, resilient, and self reliable.

So how would it be if we could make our homes, com-munities and economies as sustainable as the forests ? Tomake our homesteads as sustainable as nature, we need tounderstand the importance of natural systems, and use thatunderstanding in our lives. Permaculture is a way of design-ing the land using this knowledge.

PermacultureEthics

(1) Care of the Earth(2) Care of People(3) Recycling of Wealth

by design

And the forest is sustainable !

Natural Systems and Permaculture Design

How is a Natural System Sustainable ?

What is a Natural System ?

A Natural system is made up of living and non-living ele-ments.

In a natural system there are various elements, such astrees, shrubs, insects, ponds, rocks, birds, etc. These elementshave their own different characteristics, habits and qualities.Some trees are short, some tall. Some are thick, some thin.Some need full sunlight, some grow in the shade. All theelements, with their own habits, live in a functional relation-ship to the other elements around them in any place. That iscalled a natural system.

Natural System

In some languages, a system may have adifferent name if it is made by people,

e.g. a farming system.

elementelement

local

environmentlocal

environment

elements'characteristics

elements'characteristicsrelationships

between elementsrelationships

between elements


Principles of Natural Systems

Natural Systems follow a group of principles whichenable them to be sustainable. By using the same principles inthe design of farming systems, the objective is to work to-wards a sustainable agriculture. Permaculture is used as adesign system to enable this.

There is infor-mation about

the history andfounders of

Permaculture atthe end of thisfifth volume.

Principles of Natural Systems andPermaculture Design

❁ Succession

❃ Beneficial, functional relation-

ships between elements

✽ Diversity

❁ Cycles and Re-cycling

❃ Use of local resources

✽ Each element performs multiple functions

❁ Each function is supported by multiple elements

❃ Stacking for efficient use of space

✽ Use of biological (living) resources

❁ Use of microclimate

❃ Energy efficient planning

Permaculture design uses these principles to make agri-culture more productive and sustainable. That's why the prin-ciples are the same for permaculture as for natural systems.

4

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3

❁ SuccessionBare, degraded land will improve itself naturally. This proc-

ess of regeneration is called succession. For example, when anybare land is protected, special ground cover plants called pioneerswill grow first. They will start the soil improvement process.Then, larger shrubs and trees will grow. Eventually, a matureforest will develop, and the soil will have a new life. This princi-ple is used to regenerate unproductive land into productive sys-tems quickly, successfully, and at low cost. We can also use spe-cies that follow this principle, but are more useful for human needs.

The Farmers' Handbook, "Forest, Soil and Other Topics" Chapter 6 - Land Design

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•

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❃ Beneficial, functional relationships

nettle

bee

grape

neem

fish

garl

ic

bean

bank

wormwood

cauliflower

marigold

kitchen

mint

cow

peach

lem

on g

rass

In nature, living and non-living elements are connectedto each other. This is a relationship of cooperation, not com-petition. For example, birds eat seed and disperse it elsewherein their manure. Also, bees take nectar from flowers, so help-ing pollination.

In farming systems also, different elements can be re-lated to each other. Anything that any one element needs canbe provided by another element, and the outputs of that areused by something else. In the diagram below are examplesof sixteen elements in a homestead. There are various connec-tions linking the needs of one element to the outputs of an-other, in a way that helps the system to be sustainable.

For example, thebee takes nectar fromthe peach flower, andthe peach can producebetter fruit from thepollination. Wormwoodand nettle can help thebean, garlic, cauliflowerin the kitchen garden bybeing used for mulch.Newly sprouting shootsof the peach can berubbed on the cow toprevent skin parasites, while the cow provides manure tomany elements in the system. Garlic, wormwood, nettle,marigold, etc. are all useful in the vegetable garden and or-chard for companion planting, liquid manure and pest control.

Design looks to put the right elements together in theright place, so that needs and outputs are met within the sys-tem. This reduces work and waste, and the need for externalinputs, while increasing production. The right elements in theright place will create their own beneficial connections.

✽ DiversityNature is diverse, with many types of plants, animals

and habitats. For example, though Nepal is a small country ithas a huge diversity of climates and wildlife. The more diver-sity there is, the more beneficial relationships there are be-tween the various elements in the system. This helps thesystem to be sustainable.

An example of using diversity in farming is with mixedvegetable gardening, the integrated orchard, and agroforestry.


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Fodder and leaflitter are given to

livestock toproduce compost.

Cycle Tree leaves arecut and mulched

on the land

Compostgoes back on

the fields.

Excess nutrients aretaken up by the roots of

the trees below the crops.

Treesuse thenutri-ents togrow.

❁ Cycles and Re-cyclingIn nature, living things die and rot down. The nutrients

they are made of are released back into the system for use bythe plants. This cycle always runs, so elements which theforest needs, such as water and soil nutrients, are alwaysmade available, and never run out. In farming systems, thecycle of nutrients in agroforestry is shown below.

Another example can be seen in the kitchen garden.Waste water from washing can be used for irrigating the veg-etables, and sweepings from the house and yard can be recy-cled as compost for the kitchen garden. Without cycles likethis, it is very difficult to be sustainable.

❃ Use of local resources

✽ Each element performs multiple functions

The forest doesn't need to travel anywhere to find itsbasic resources. There are no transport costs to bring in itsneeds. The more a farming system relies on external inputs,the more are its costs of production, and the less sustainablethe system is. This is a very important principle in achievingsustainability.

In nature, each element perfoms several functions. Asingle tree will provide leaf litter,habitats for birds and insects tolive in, a support for climb-ing plants, protects thesoil, and so on. Treesplanted on the farm canalso provide many ben-efits according to theircharacteristics, suchas fodder, mulch,medicine, etc. Extrabenefits come by plant-ing them in the rightplace and in relation toother elements, suchas giving shade. Indesign, each ele-ment should pro-duce at least 3different benefitsor functionswithin the system. Trees can meet all our needs

medicine

fibres

fruitfodder

firewood

windbreak

conservewater

timber

soilprotection

shade

fence

honey

leaf litter

The Farmers' Handbook, "Forest, Soil and Other Topics" Chapter 6 - Land Design12

❁ Each function is supported by multiple elements ❃ Stacking for efficient use of spaceIn nature, many elements combine to support any one

function. For example, the function of maintaining soil fertil-ity in the forest is provided by the leaves of trees, by soilbacteria, earthworms, bird droppings, dead animals, fungus,the wind blowing dust, etc. This principle is also related todiversity.

In farming, this principle can be seen in the living fence,or hedge. The single function is for protection, and this ismade up of many species of trees and shrubs (elements). So ifone species of the fence is unsuccessful for any reason, otherspecies will continue the function, so the protection is notlost. In mixed vegetable gardening, there are many varietiesof vegetable growing together which all provide food. Ifinsects attack one type, there will always be others to providefood, so production is not lost. This principle is used to re-duce risk in the system.

In nature one reason why there is such great productionwith such small input is that space is used very efficiently, andthere are many elements in a small space. By stacking onespecies on top of another, more species can grow. In one forest,up to 7 layers can be seen :- a ground or weed layer, shrublayer, lower, mid and upper canopy layers, a climbing plantlayer, and a root layer. Different species are stacked into thissystem, giving production from 10-20 metres below the groundto 30-40 metres above the ground. No space is wasted.

Planting layers of trees and shrubs in farming systems isvery productive. In the living fence, agroforestry and the inte-grated orchard, species are planted according to their size andshape, and whether they need shade or sun, to make manylevels and produce many more benefits than a field of grain,which only uses a metre of vertical space.

There are manytypes of tree in the

living fence

top layer ofbig trees

lower canopylayer

groundlayer

mid canopylayer

shrub layer

13

To recognise the state of the land, many things must beunderstood. What are the problems ? Where are importantresources such as soil, water, fertility, money or time beinglost from the homestead, or damaged ? If so, before tryingout any new methods to increase production, a first priority

is to protect and conserve those resources being lost.

here is soil erosion

low fertility for crops

fertile soilcollects at the

bottomno fruit

damage from wind

no toilet

washingwater

wasted

What are the resources on the land ? What techniques can be added to the farm ?Which resources need to be increased to get better production for less cost ?

How can natural principles be used to do this ? There are many such questions.As design experience increases, it becomes easier to answer the questions, and

farmers' capacity to make systems more sustainable will increase.

livestock can get in here

soil erosion here

raw compost no vegetablessoil is bare


??16 17

2

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12

Examples of fruit and multi-purpose species for lowlandand highland, suitable for different stacked layers

Big trees :- mango, jackfruit, avocado, walnut, neem, chest-nut, soapnut, oak, etc. Mid-canopy trees :- apple, pear,peach, plum, apricot, persimmon, etc. Low-canopy trees :-orange, lime, banana, custard apple, guava, coffee, sea buck-thorn, papaya, Gliricidia, mulberry, hazel, Lucaena, elder,etc. Bush layer :- cardamon, pineapple, napier grass, lemongrass, tumeric, broom grass, Crotalaria, Sesbania, etc.Ground layer :- sweet potato, taro, bean, groundnut, clover,comfrey, wormwood, chamomile, etc.

✽ Use of biological (living) resources

❁ Use of microclimate

In nature, it is the living, organic resources which areresponsible for running the system. Important functions suchas making the soil fertile, distributing seed, conserving mois-ture, etc. are all served by living things. Trees, birds, wormsand bacteria all work for the development of the system.

For fertility and crop protection in sustainable agricul-ture, benefits from green manures, liquid manure, legumes,predator insects and companion planting are greater thanchemical fertilisers and pesticides.

Urea Legumes

UREA

Which is best ?

The climate inside and around the forest is different tothe surrounding climate. There are areas of different moisture,temperature, and light levels. These small areas of diversetemperature, light and moisture are called microclimates. Infarming, use can be made of microclimates by growing thetype of plant that grows best in that particular place. Micro-climates can also be created, for example by planting wind-breaks or making ponds. Species are then selected accordingto their site needs. This also brings diversity onto the farm.

Inside a mixed vegetablebed. Because plants aredensely planted the tem-perature at the ground 1is cooler than at the top2 . This is an example ofa microclimate.

The sun side of thehouse 1 is hotter anddryer than the shadedside 2 . So, differentplants can be grownhaving different lightand water needs.

There's nothing new about using microclimates. The ter-races in front of houses are traditionally kept on the sunny side.That makes them ideal for drying seed and vegetables, makingpickles, etc. The sun gives free energy in this place. The shadeside is good for shade-loving crops, or a nursery can be made.


1

2

1

1

2

3

4

4

3

❃ Energy-efficient planning

0. Insidethe house

1. N

ear

the

hous

e2/

3. T

he fi

elds

4. G

razi

ng la

nd5.

For

est

In this diagram, the relationship of the house to other parts ofa well designed farm is shown by the different thickness ofthe arrows. A thick arrow shows a frequent connection, and

thinner arrow shows where less visits are needed.

Areas of the farm are divided by zone. Inside the house is zone0 and close to the house is zone 1. Zone 1 has techniques andsystems that need more maintenance, such as the kitchen gar-den, which is visited 2-3 times a day for maintenance andharvesting. Various nurseries also belong in zone 1, becausethey need extra care, such as daily watering. By placing themnear the house, less time and energy are used for harvesting ormaintaining these systems. Below are more examples :-

zone

1 - nearthe house

2 & 3 -the fields

4 - graz-ing area

5- forest

The principles descibed above are necessary to design asustainable system, but most important is the attitude of thedesigner and user. As long as people don't have a deep desireto achieve the goals of sustainability within ethical guidelines,then no type of design can help to reach these goals. Somepeople feel that they can't make a difference by themselves, orare scared of making a change, or of losing resources.

numberof visits suitable technologies and systems

manykitchen garden, nurseries, waste water,sweepings pit, toilet, bees, etc.

fewer

agroforestry (fodder, firewood, timberproduction, fruit trees, mixed with fieldcrops, orchard, green manures, etc.

lessstill

soil erosion control, soil improvement,plantation, integrated orchard, etc.

veryrarely

forest management, wild and culti-vated herbs, education, etc.

Having the right Attitude


But good design can solve many problems. With the rightattitude, problems can become solutions, and a progressivedesign will develop. We can also design to learn. People needto work together to find the right techniques and resources tosolve their own problems and meet their own needs, as wellas those of nature.

Building Blocks of DesignWhen designing land to be more productive and sustain-

able, it is very important to understand the factors which canboth limit, or aid, the progress of the design. Then the designcan be adapted and changed in the early stages, so that nomistakes will prevent the objectives of sustainability beingreached. Factors which can affect the design are divided into2 groups - those which are visible, and those which are invis-ible. This is shown below :-

livestock

buildings

culture

political

social

climate

water

belief

communications

traditions

economic

vegetation

soil

landscape

visible factors

invisible factors

BuildingBlocks of

Design

visible factors

invisible factors

The effects of some of these factors are illustrated belowin the farming system's cycle of rice production.

planting

consumption

preparation

Many of the visible and invisible factors shown on theprevious page will affect the crop production, and so they willdetermine the strategy which needs to be used in design. Inthe monsoon, there is more heat and water, and so sickness ismore common. Yet this is the time when most human labouris required, and also when there are more pest problems. Ifcommunal oxen are not available, ploughing, planting andweeding work is delayed. When all these issues are sortedout, there may be a good crop, but then rats can destroy thecrop in storage, or the price in the bazaar may be low, and allthe work can again be wasted.

So when making a design, all these factors must be con-sidered. Which factors, at what stage, and where they maycause problems for production should be considered at thevery start of the design process. Whether the solution to thatproblem can be solved with local resources or not, shouldalso be considered early on.

growth

harvest

storage

processing

marketingdistribution

There are manyparts to the cycle of

crop production

energy


The Design Process

The process of creating the design, and then implement-ing it, is a step by step approach which enables the design toreach its goals more easily. Following the design processhelps with many decisions :- what to do first, which areas aremost important, how to use the available technologies andany other resources, how the design grows in a natural way,and so on. A summary of the main steps in the design processis given below :-

1. Gathering information about the people and theland involved in the design.

• Collect informationabout the people'svision and goals, theirresources, needs, con-straints, capacity, costs,problems, skills, in-come, etc.• In the same way,collect informationabout the site - the soil,water, climate, aspect,slope, vegetation,microclimate, live-stock, pests and dis-eases, erosion, expo-sure to wind, and anyother relevant informa-tion about problems and resources.

that place isvery windy there is less

fertility

there iserosion

there isover

grazed

When creating and implementing a design, it is a priorityto repair damaged systems, and stop loss of resources fromthe existing system - this will give immediate results. Beloware examples of how we can lose resources from farming :-

Farm losses

• compost dries outin the sun

nitrogenis lost tothe air

• nutrients in the soil arelost if not used (leaching)

all typesof nutri-ents arelost deepin the soil

• nutrients leak from compost

all types ofnutrients

can be lost

• much time is wastedgathering from the far

away forest

• waste water is notused at home

• soil is washed awayby rain

• wind dries outmoisture in the soil

• fire destroys nutrients inthe soil

• nutrients in sweepings are lost

So we should discover leaks to the system early in thedesign process. Then, it can be decided what techniques areneeded, when and where, to find the solutions and preventvaluable resources being lost.


dnvfbToxf“

24 25

2. Deciding which functions are neededAccording to what we have found out about the people

and the site, what are the needs of the design ? For example,increasing fodder and firewood production, growing morenutritious food, protecting from livestock, preventing soil ero-sion, protecting from wind, increasing fertility, earning morecash, etc. are all examples of the types of functions needed.

3. Selecting techniquesTo carry out the functions identified in 2, what methods

are needed ? For example, agroforestry, living fence, bee-keeping, fruit production, kitchen garden, compost making,mulching, home nursery, improvement in livestock manage-ment, seed production, green manures, etc. are all methods ofproviding for the identified needs of the farmer and the site.

kitchengardenthere

livingfence there

fruit treesthere

agroforestrythere

path there

livestockshedthere

compostthere

irrigationcanalthere

4. PlacementWhere should the systems be placed for them to give

maximum benefit ? They should be placed in beneficial rela-tionship to each other, so that the needs of one are met by theoutputs of another, instead of competing. The principles ofnature can be used to help with this. For example, the nurseryshould be placed where there is shelter, water is near, and it iseasy to care for the site. In the same way, the best places areselected for the compost, fruit orchard, fodder trees, etc.

5. Species' selectionFinally, the best species to fulfil the needs of the site and

the functions required are selected and placed, understandingtheir characteristics, yields and needs. For example, whenselecting trees for the orchard, ask the following questions :-

how to protectme from pests ?

do you know myflowering and

fruiting times ?

how much spacedo I need to grow ?

what are themarketing

arrangements ?

what otherproblems may I

face ?

where is the bestsoil and climate

for me ?

what can beplanted under-neath me for

companions ?


1

2

3

6. TimetableThis work of implementing the design can't all be done at

the same time. So it's good to arrange the work according topriority. Some systems can wait until later to establish. Thiswill make the design much easier to implement. The most impor-tant systems to design and implement first are usually for siteprotection, access, water and soil improvement, as they all allowother parts of the design to develop.

As the design is being created and implemented, timeshould be spent evaluating progress against the aims and needsof the people and site. The design can be changed and adaptedas necessary. Are the principles being applied ? What haschanged ? What problems have been solved ? Will more prob-lems be created ? Will the design help the people to reach theirgoals ? Questions like this should constantly be evaluated, andall stakeholders in the design should be consulted.

sustainable

future

Evaluation

Design cyclechange and

improveevaluate

changeand improve

design

evaluate implement thedesign

make thedesign

observation andgathering of information

There are 2 types of place to implement a design :-1. Where there is no production - like a degraded, bare site.2. Where there is on-going production - e.g. a working farm.

1. Where there has been no production (such as de-graded land), the design will definitely create productivity onthat site. The design will help to create the best regenerationand production, in the shortest time. There are more detailsabout this in the Soil Conservation and Improvement chapter.

How to tell if the design is working ?

At first there ismore work andless output fromthe investment

gradually, thework is less and

productionincreases

later there is verylittle work andhigh, diverseproductivity

2. Where there is on-going production (such as a workingfarm), that existing production should not decrease as the designis implemented and other types of production begin. Otherwise,the farmer or the community may have problems meetingbasic needs in the short term. The design will help to improveand increase resources, reduce costs, and diversify production.

Gri

hast

hi C

omm

unic

atio

ns

æ

Æ

Mr GovindaSharma


From Nepal,Kavrepalanchowk district,Patlekhet VDC, Mr GovindaSharma has usedpermaculture design on hisown farm. Now let's readabout his experiences.

Govinda Sharma

I took a Permaculture de-sign course in 1991. After that Istarted to learn from friends,then started to put all that expe-rience into practice. Now, I alsohelp other organisations to makeand implement designs. A farming system which is plannedusing this method is very productive, and easy to use. Insteadof having just one crop, many diverse crops can be grown.Instead of just growing corn, I find it's better to mix beans,pumpkins, and plant fodder around the edges to give a highertotal yield. At first, the other local farmers didn't accept whatI was doing, but when they saw the crops I was growing, withonly small extra inputs and mainly local resources after thestart, they became interested, and have started copying someof the methods. They are understanding that you can reap thefruits of your investment, and that investment isn't juststrength and sweat, it's also design.

? ?GlossaryGlossaryThis Farmers' Handbook can also be used by people who

have just started to learn how to read and write, to help themincrease these skills. That's why there may be some wordsused in the Handbook which are more difficult to understand.We have evaluated the books with many groups, and below isa list of some of the words they found difficult. Discuss thewords and try to write down what they mean. You can addany other words that you and your group don't understand inthe space available.

Word Meaning

FallowMonocultureHabitatLegumeTap rootCambiumElementNutrientShrubTerraceSecateursMicro-organismBacteriaetc.

The Farmers' Handbook, "Forest, Soil and Other Topics" Chapter 7 - Glossary and Other Topics

?2 3

SeaBuckthorn Adhatoda

vasica

Velvetbean Comfrey Clover

Horse-tail

Some newplants

Scion

PollinationBiomassMulchPruningSystemIntegratedNatureMicro-climateetc.

Word Meaning Word Meaning

EconomicDiversityBio-diversityEvaluationScionBudRootstocketc.


Here you can add any of your own words which aredifficult to understand, and keep a list to ask someone whomay know what they mean.

word in the book meaning

Your own word listPractical LiteracyPractical Literacy

1.Why Literacy ?To learn to read, write and calculate is a priority to many.

There are good reasons for this. If you are literate you cancorrespond with friends and relatives who live far away, youcan read labels, books, signs, contracts, and you can makebigger calculations if you know how to write them down onpaper. Furthermore, for many people being literate makesthem more respected by others who believe that beingilliterate means being ignorant. You never need to ask othersto read for you, and you can't be cheated by being made tosign something you don't understand. It will also increaseyour self confidence.

4 5


2. Production

However, for many small farmers, learning to read andwrite may not be their highest priority. Their main concern isto make ends meet - to produce enough to meet the needs oftheir family. This means that poorer farmers often drop out ofadult literacy classes (and many children drop out of school),because most people believe that literacy isn’t the solution totheir daily problems.

3. Why Practical Literacy ?

In Practical Literacy we combine meeting the basic needsof the family with the benefits of learning to read and write.During a Practical Literacy Programme (PLP) the participantswill learn both reading, writing and calculation skills, andlearn about farming and household techniques. This meansthat they can improve their farm production, and their generalwell-being.

4. How ?The PLP course starts by participants describing their own

situations, past and present, using maps, trend lines, ranking etc.From these descriptions words are chosen by the participants, andtheir spelling is learnt. Very basic reading and writing skills arelearnt at this stage. On one day participants will learn and practicehow to establish and manage various techniques such as waste watermanagement, grafting, terrace improvement, etc. That evening, oron the next day, they can read about the method from the Handbook,and write their own words about what they have done. These cangradually be formed into sentences as comments and evaluations ofthe method, or to make stories, proposals and reports.

Hot Bed Nursery

Classwork

Discussing words

Practical work6 7

12

3

The Farmers' Handbook, "Forest, Soil and Other Topics"

Though most illustrations for the handbook are made by GrihasthiCommunications, some illustrations have also been taken from :

We hope that we have remembered all & not violated any corpyright rules. We trust thatusing these illustrations for a non-profit publication to benefit farmers worldwide andpublished on a limited scale will not offend any of the illustrations' copyright owners.

* Clip Art Book, CERID* A Farmer's Primer on Growing Soybean on Riceland, IRRI* Management of Forest Nurseries, HMG/UNDP/FAO* Religious and Useful Plants of Nepal and India, Majupuria & Joshi* A Handbook of Gravety-Flow Water Systems, IT Publications* Common Tree Species, HMG/UNDP/FAO* Tropical Leaf vegetable in Human Nutrition, Kononklijk Instituut voor Tropen* Focus, GAD, Denmark* Agroforestry in Dryland Africa, ICRAF* Regeneratice Agriculture Technologies for the Hill Farmers of Nepal, NERRA & IIRR* The Grafter's Handbook, CASSEL* Plant Propagation, Royal Horticultural Society, UK* Instant Illustrations, UNICEF/Nepal* Tropical Field Crops, Evan Brothers Limited* The Fruit Expert, ExpertBooks* Monocotyledons, Longman* Dicotyledons, Longman* Farm Implements for arid and tropical regions, FAO* Permaculture, A Designers Manual, Tagari Publications* Queen Rearing Simplified, Cook* Beekeeping for Honey Production in Sri lanka, R W K Punchihewa* Zambian beekeeping Handbook, GVS* Beekeeping Trainer's Resource Book, ICIMOD, Nepal* Pollination Management of Mountain Crops through Beekeeping, ICIMOD* World Education, Kathmandu, Nepal.* United Mission to Nepal, Kathmandu* Christine A. Sobel, ECHO, U.S.A.* World Neighbours, Kathmandu* Roland Bunch, COSECHA, Honduras, Central America.* Green Manures p.22 photo © Eric Holt-Gimenez* Mike Feingold, Bristol, UK* Volume Cover drawings by Motilal Pauja, Thati Gaun, Lekh Pharsa VDC, Surkhet

8 9

Can talk withanyone

Can write letters,notes, ideas, etc.

Can read books,labels, signs,letters, etc.

Can listen andunderstand

IllustrationsThe producers of the Farmers' Handbook gratefully acknowledge

the work of the following individuals and institutions whoseillutrations have been used in the publication.

Empowered andself confident

Empowered andself confident

The Farmers' Handbook, "Forest, Soil and Other Topics" Chapter 7 - Glossary and Other Topics10 11

What is Permaculture ?Permaculture ?

The word Permaculture was first used in 1973 byBill Mollison and David Holmgren, from Australia. Perma-culture is an English word, made up from the wordsPermanent and Agriculture. Because agriculture is ourprimary producer of food, clothing and shelter made fromnatural resources, and these are the material and economic basefor society as a whole, it can also be taken to mean apermanence in culture itself. Permaculture is a system ofdesign. It takes it's methods from observation of the stability,diversity, resilience and productivity of natural systems, tobenefit people and all living and non-living things in asustainable way.

Permaculture makesexcellent use of local andbiological resources tocreate systems whichfoster self reliance,through an ecologicalagriculture,balanced with thelocal economy andsociety.

In fact, there is notmuch new in permaculture. It's a synthesis of theunderstanding of natural systems, traditional wisdom, andmodern scientific and applied knowledge. It takes the best of

all of these to assist in creating/living a life with morequality and choice.

NaturalSystems

ModernKnowledge

TraditionalWisdom

PermacultureDesign

Nepal Permaculture Group

Nepal Permaculture Group :- registered in 1995 topromote sustainable development, NPG is a national networkof over 250 individual and 8 organisational members. Itworks in education, research, capacity building andnetworking of permaculture related activities.

If readers of this Handbook are interested to learn moreabout any of these, or other, technology information, they cancontact NPG through any of the following regional member-contacts.

Regional Contact Addresses

Eastern RegionDurga Niroula,Women's DevelopmentOrganisation, [email protected]

Mid RegionBasanta Ranabhat,Ecological Service Centre,ChitwanTel: 053-23663, 24574Fax: 20135, [email protected] Region

Padya Kiran Rana, TOLI,Pokhora. Tel: [email protected] Mid and Far

Western Region

1.

4.

3.

2.

5. 1.4. 3. 2. Map ofNepal

Own country'snetworks

Himalayan PermacultureGroup, P.O. Box 19121,

Kathmandu, Nepalc/o ATA (01) [email protected]

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GrihasthiCommunications

The following useful educational materials for farmers arealso published in Nepal and available from GrihasthiCommunications,

Posters on Health• Herbs for Health• Herbs for Women's

Health• Let's Stop Using

Poisonous Chemicals

Books on Health• Common Local Herbal

Medicines for Health• Herbal Medicines for

Women's Health

"Our Seeds, Our Life"Farmers' Workshop on Lossof Genetic Biodiversity and

Seed Saving

Video Video"Ancient Futures"The effects of modern

development on traditionalsystems in Ladakh

ContactDistributors :-Nepal Permaculture Group,P.O. Box 8132, Kathmandu,Nepal.Tel: + 977 1 [email protected]

The Farmers' Handbook, Part 5 - Forest, Soil and Other Topics

Design

Transcript of The Farmers' Handbook, Part 5 - Forest, Soil and Other Topics