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The Family's Influence onReligious Orientation ofWomen in MalaysiaMubarak Ali aa Universiti Sains MalaysiaPublished online: 25 Apr 2012.

To cite this article: Mubarak Ali (1998) The Family's Influence on ReligiousOrientation of Women in Malaysia, Asia Pacific Journal of Social Work andDevelopment, 8:2, 16-29, DOI: 10.1080/21650993.1998.9755791

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Asia Pacific Journal of Social Work, Vol 8 (2), September 1998

The Family's Influence on Religious Orientation of Women in Malaysia

Mubarak Ali

This study aims to analyze the family's influence on the religious orientation of women in Malaysia. In all, 276 Malay, 225 Chinese and 249 Indian women participated in the study. The study revealed three family-related variables, namely, expressiveness, conflict and moral-religious emphasis as having major influences on the religious orientation of the sample. Among the three cultural groups, Chinese respondents indicated extrinsic religious orientation, and the Malays and Indians revealed intrinsic religious orientation. The implications of these observations on social work are discussed.

Introduction

Looking at the social history of the human race we see many milestones of social change. Of these milestones, we can convincingly argue that family and religion are the two major institutions that have helped to shape mankind. They provide humanity with a social and moral framework. As closely linked and interdependent agents of socialization, family and religion have had ample occasions to influence each other and undergo changes within themselves. Thornton ( 1985) highlights this reciprocal relationship between the family and religious institutions, and the importance of looking at them as both independent and dependent variables. D'Antonio ( 1983) argues that given the current changes in social situations, it is likely that religion and family will have to modify their respective positions and roles in order to accommodate each other and society.

Pertaining to the changes that occur in religion in relation to the family, there is an accumulation of interesting studies that review the declining control of religion in family-related matters, such as divorce and birth control (Noonan, 1966; Bush, 1976), public opinion and governmental policy (Lesthaeghe, 1983 ), shaping of individual behaviour and attitude towards family (Lenski, 1963; Greeley, 1977;

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The Family's Influence on Religious Orientation • 17

Westoff, 1979, McCarthy, 1979), and divorce and the labour-force participation of women (Bumpass and Sweet, 1972, Bahr, 1979; Bahr and Goodman, 1981). These studies suggest an increasing need for religion to undergo modifications within itself.

On the other hand, studies seem to indicate that the family is still the major influence on the role of the family in relation to religion. According to recent literature on this subject, the family has been traditionally conceptualized as the principal agent of religious socialization (Erikson, 1950, Freud, 1933 ); religiosity in members of the family is treated as a dependent variable subject to the influences of multidimensional family forces (Cornwall, 1988, Hoge et al., 1980); religion is perceived as a cultural system, a world view and subjective reality, which are strongly influenced and maintained by conversations with significant family members (Berger, 1969). Glass et al. (1986) hold the view that parental socialization involves the successful inter­generational transmission of class, religious affiliation, marital status and other prominent social indicators that structure life experiences and mould social attitudes; and Cornwall ( 1989) argues that parental attendance and home religious observance have a significant direct impact on adult beliefs and commitment for they channel individuals into friendship networks during the teenage years and young adulthood, which support and sustain the religious values taught in the home.

Social work as a helping profession is obligated to be sensitive to these reciprocal changes that occur within these two major agencies of socialization. The origin of this obligation can be traced back to the basic philosophy of the profession itself, which stresses the importance of"starting from where the individual is". Hamilton (1951) propagated this phenomenon with the "client's own story" as the starting point for social work practice. Perlman (1957) asserted that "the client's problem can only be taken hold of from where he or she stands". Religious orientation merits detailed study as it provides basic guiding principles in human life and helps mould human nature. Religion also plays a significant role in determining one's reaction to various life situations and offers a rich variety of coping strategies. These patterns and strategies form the guiding principles for social workers to plan effective social work interventions. In a review of the contribution of religion to social work practice, Spenser (1957) advocated that a mature understanding of religion, a working knowledge of basic religious beliefs

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18 • Asia Pacific Journal of Socia[ Work

and tenets of clients, and the signals that denote spiritual problems would help social workers for the purposes of assessment. However, there seem to be conflicting views concerning the relevance of religion to social work. Martin (1980) views religion as less relevant in a social work context vis-a-vis Canada ( 1988); Loewen berg ( 1988) and joseph { 1988) argue for the importance of understanding religion in the social work context.

The influence of family on religiosity and its relevance to social work requires an in-depth review in the Asian context. A majority of Asians, as members of collectivist cultures (Hofstede, 1983 ), assign utmost importance to the spiritual and moral values propagated by their religions. Simultaneously, they are under the constant influence of modernization that has brought about certain modifications to their religious orientation. Since this dual influence on Asians has been an on-going process, it is very important that periodic reviews on the religious orientations of Asians and the implications on their life are carried out.

Malaysia is particularly useful for such reviews because it has been undergoing rapid economic development, resulting in major industrialization and urbanization. Families have been responding to these trends by creating changes and modifications within themselves. The reciprocal influence of these changes on religiosity will reveal interesting and useful data. Also, the multi-ethnic population groups in Malaysia add an interesting dimension to this issue. Therefore, the present study was conducted to analyze the impact of the family on the religious orientation of married women from the three major cultural groups, namely the Malays, Chinese and Indians.

Method and Material

The respondents of the present study were selected from two districts, Kuala Muda and George Town in West Malaysia. A group 276 Malay, 225 Chinese and 249 Indian married women participated in the study. Stratified random sampling method was used and the socio-economic status of the respondents and their husbands were considered in our selection process. Hollingshead's (1975) Four Factor Index was used to assess the socio-economic background of the respondents and the Family Environment Scale {FES) {Moos,

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The Family's Influence on Religious Orientation • 19

1974) was administered to analyze the social environment in the families of the respondents. The FES assesses the social environment of the family in 10 areas - cohesion, expressiveness, conflict, independence, achievement orientation, intellectual-cultural orientation, active-recreational orientation, moral-religious emphasis, organization and control.

Four questions were chosen from Allport's (1967) Religious Orientation Scale (ROS) to ascertain the intrinsic and extrinsic religious orientations of the respondents:

1. I try hard to carry my religion over into all my other dealings in life.

2. Religion is specifically important to me because it answers many questions about the meaning of life.

3. It does not matter so much what I believe as long as I lead a moral life.

4. I pray chiefly because I have been taught to pray.

Items 1 and 2 measure intrinsic religious orientation and items 3 and 4 assess extrinsic religious orientation.

Extrinsic religious orientation describes those who make use of religion for their own ends. The term is borrowed from axiology to designate an interest that is held because it serves other ultimate interests. Extrinsic religious values are always instrumental and utilitarian. Persons with this orientation may find religion useful in a variety of ways - to provide security and solace, sociability and distraction, status and self­justification. The intrinsic orientation characterizes those who find their master motive in religion. Other needs, strong as they may be, are regarded as of less ultimate significance, and they are, as far as possible, brought into harmony with the religious beliefs and prescriptions. Having embraced a creed, the individual endeavours to internalize it and follow it fully. It is in this sense that he "lives" his religion (Allport & Ross, 1967).

The questions of both the FES and ROS were translated from English into Bahasa Malaysia by the back-translation technique. Pre­testing of these translated versions with 50 individuals revealed certain drawbacks in the translation that were subsequently rectified. The interviews with the study samples were conducted by a team of trained investigators at the homes of the respondents.

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Table 1 Background Characteristics

Background

Characteristics

Age

Years of Education

Number of Children

Types of Family

Religion

Results

Race

Malay

Chinese

Indian

Malay

Chinese Indian

Malay

Chinese

Indian

Malay

Chinese

Indian

Malay

(All Muslims)

Mean

33.37

35.57

34.74

8.11

7.16 6.16

3.27

2.72

3.09

Nuclear

216 (78%) 196 (87%)

168 (68%)

Chinese

Buddhist 134 (60%)

Christian 12 ( 5%)

Others 79 (35%)

SD

6.84 6.60

6.42

3.11

3.28

3.86

1.99

1.41

1.76

Extended

60 (22%) 29 (13%)

81 (32%)

Indian

Islam 22 ( 9%)

Christian 14 ( 6%)

Hindu 211 (85%)

Others 2 ( 1%)

Table 1 depicts the background characteristics of the study respondents. On average, the respondents were of the age-range 33-35 years with 6-8 years of schooling. The majority of the respondents from all three races came from nuclear families. All Malay respondents were Muslims and the majority of Chinese and Indians were Buddhists and Hindus respectively. The results of the FES and ROS are tabulated in Table 2. The Malay respondents had the highest mean scores in most of the FES domains and the lowest scores in 'conflict' and 'control'. The Chinese sample had the lowest mean scores in most of the FES domains except cohesion and expressiveness in which they had the highest scores. Indian respondents had the lowest scores on cohesiveness, expressiveness and active-recreational orientation and the highest scores on conflict, control and achievement orientation. In the case

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The Family's Influence on Religious Orientation • 2!

Table 2 Family Environment and Religiosity

Characteristic Domain Race Mean SD

Family Environment Cohesion Malay 7.58 0.99

Chinese 7.89 1.15 Indian 7.25 1.96

Expressiveness Malay 5.53 1.20 Chinese 5.72 1.28 Indian 5.42 1.71

Conflict Malay .02 0.99 Chinese 4.50 1.18 Indian 4.64 1.21

Interdependence Malay 5.91 1.06 Chinese 4.36 1.04 Indian 5.10 1.40

Achievement Orientation Malay 7.51 1.20 Chinese 6.65 1.26 Indian 7.51 1.28

Intellectual-Cultural Orientation Malay 3.68 1.60 Chinese 6.06 1.80 Indian 3.20 1.77

Active-Recreational Orientation Malay 4.85 1.28 Chinese 4.80 1.44 Indian 4.22 1.77

Moral-Religious Emphasis Malay 7.70 0.96 Chinese 5.53 1.27 Indian 6.51 1.57

Organization Malay 7.53 1.17 Chinese 6.92 1.17 Indian 7.09 1.53

Control Malay 3.57 1.14 Chinese 3.18 1.32 Indian 4.16 1.64

Religiosity Intrinsic Orientation Malay 7.97 0.25

Chinese 5.15 2.08 Indian 7.16 1.26

Extrinsic Orientation Malay 2.10 0.46 Chinese 4.30 1.91 Indian 3.45 1.33

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22 • Asia Pacific Journal of Social Work

of religious orientation, Malay and Indian respondents had higher scores on intrinsic religious orientation and lower scores on extrinsic religious orientation. The Chinese sample, on the other hand, obtained higher scores on extrinsic religious orientation and lower scores on intrinsic religious orientation.

Table 3 indicates the correlation coefficients of the variables. For the Malay group, expressiveness and intellectual-cultural orientation had statistically significant negative correlations with extrinsic religious orientation. Among the Chinese, expressiveness and conflict had significant negative and positive correlations with their intrinsic and extrinsic religious orientations respectively. Independence and control had statistically significant positive and negative correlation with the intrinsic and extrinsic religious orientations respectively. Moral religious emphasis in Chinese families had significant positive correlations with both intrinsic and extrinsic religious orientations.

Table 3 Correlation for Family Environment vs. Religious Orientation

Malay Chinese Indian

Intrinsic Extrinsic Intrinsic Extrinsic Intrinsic Extrinsic

Cohesion 0.03 -0.01 0.04 -0.18** 0.16* -0.06

Expressiveness -0.05 -0.20** -0.23** 0.26** 0.64 0.08

Conflict 0.05 0.02 -0.14* 0.14* -0.29** 0.13*

Independence -0.01 0.06 0.18** -0.23** 0.14* -0.05

Achievement Orientation 0.03 -0.08 0.04 -0.16* 0.15* -D.IO

Intellectual-Cultural

Orientation 0.10 -0.12* 0.15* -0.11 0.26 -0.17

Active-Recreational

Orientation -D.! I -0.08 0.05 -0.03 0.18** -0.10

Moral-Religious Emphasis 0.07 -0.05 0.32** 0.16* 0.40** -0.27**

Organisation -0.08 0.03 0.12 -0.10 0.33** -0.14*

Control 0.05 -0.05 0.35** -0.35** 0.14* 0.01

Note: * p<0.05 ** p<O.OI

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The Family's Influence on Religious Orientation • 23

Cohesion and achievement orientation had statistically significant negative correlations with their extrinsic religious orientation. For the Indian group, three variables, namely conflict, moral religious emphasis, and organization had significant negative and positive correlation with intrinsic and extrinsic religious orientations respectively. The remaining variables, namely cohesion, independence, achievement orientation, active recreational orientation, and control had statistically significant positive correlation with intrinsic religious orientation.

Discussion

The above results suggest certain significant trends of the family's influence on the religious orientation of women in Malaysia. The religious orientation of the respondents revealed predominantly extrinsic and minimal intrinsic orientation among the Chinese respondents vis~a~vis the Malay and Indian samples whose religious orientations were characterized more by intrinsic than extrinsic values. To further analyze this striking variation between the Chinese and the other respondents, the correlation between the religious orientation and family environment variables was analyzed. The social environment in Malay families indicated moderate levels of cohesion and expressiveness and the lowest level of conflict. On the other hand, the data on Chinese families revealed the highest levels of cohesion and expressiveness with most of the other cultural groups revealing lower levels of cohesion and expressiveness. Indian respondents displayed the highest level of conflict in families with the lowest cohesion, expressiveness and active recreational orientation.

The correlation analysis revealed that the extrinsic religious orientation of the Malay sample was negatively correlated with expressiveness and intellectual cultural orientation. This implies that expressiveness in the Malay families could possibly serve as the medium for inculcating religious orientation in the Malay women. The negative correlation points to inadequate opportunities for the free expression of emotions, feelings and cultural values but there are possibilities for the women to develop an extrinsic religious orientation. For the Chinese respondents five variables, namely expressiveness, conflict, independence, moral~religious emphasis and

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24 • Asia Pacific Journal of Social Work

control showed several interesting trends. Expressiveness and conflict had significant negative and positive correlation with intrinsic and extrinsic religious orientations respectively. This implies that expressiveness and conflict in the Chinese families contribute to the extrinsic religious orientation of the respondents. Independence and control in these families had the likelihood of inculcating an intrinsic religious orientation but even a moral­religious emphasis showed its inadequacy in reinforcing the religious orientation among the Chinese women. Their moral-religious emphasis indicated significant positive correlations with both intrinsic and extrinsic religious orientations that demonstrates the likelihood of moral-religious emphasis influencing both extrinsic and intrinsic religious orientations equally.

With regard to the Indian families, conflict had significant negative and positive correlations with both intrinsic and extrinsic religious orientation. This indicates that conflict in the Indian families was a major contributing factor in the deterioration of intrinsic religious orientation of Indian women. The moral-religious emphasis and organization within the Indian families showed significant positive and negative correlations with intrinsic and extrinsic religious orientations respectively, implying that the Indian families with a more effective moral-religious emphasis and organization had inculcated adequate intrinsic religious orientation among their female members.

Overall, based on the correlation analysis, it could be said that the family-related variables, such as expressiveness, conflict, independence, moral religious emphasis and control played significant roles in the inculcation of religious orientation among the study samples. This study revealed several interesting cross-racial variations in the family's influence on religious orientation of women. Expressiveness in the family accounted for the wide contrast in its influence on religious orientation. The Malay samples showed that expressiveness in their families significantly reduced their extrinsic religious orientation, which means that their families encouraged the expression of positive religious values, which could contribute to the intrinsic religious orientation among the members. However, for the Chinese respondents, expressiveness within their families had negative correlations with intrinsic religious orientation and positive correlations

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The Family's Influence on Religious Orientation • 25

with extrinsic religious orientation, which points to the possibility that Chinese families are not as serious about encouraging their members to express positive orientations towards religion. Ultimately, the members of the family might have developed an extrinsic religious orientation, which is evident in the results of the present study. This implies a wide variation in the meaning attributed to expressiveness between the Malay and Chinese families.

Similarly, significant variations in moral religious emphasis within the Chinese and Indian families are noted. Moral religious emphasis within the Chinese families had significant positive correlations with both intrinsic and extrinsic religious orientations implying that these families emphasized both religious orientations equally. Whereas in the Indian families, the moral religious emphasis had significant positive and negative correlations with intrinsic and extrinsic religious orientation, implying that their emphasis is purely intrinsic religious orientation. Therefore, it indicates the possibility that the Indian families played a significant role in inculcating religious orientation among the participants.

Conflict is another area which showed a definite family influence on the religious orientation of the Chinese and Indian respondents. It had significant negative and positive correlations on intrinsic and extrinsic religious orientations respectively, which implies that conflict within these families might have brought about unhealthy moral and religious orientations among their members and further aggravated conflicts, which then perpetuated a vicious cycle.

Cohesion, independence, achievement orientation and control are the other aspects of families which showed significant associations with the religious orientation of the paticipants. Specifically, the results generated from the Chinese and Indian respondents were similar in all these areas. High mean values in all these categories of family environment variables indicated a greater intrinsic religious orientation within their members. This implied that families which were cohesive exercised sufficient control over their members and encouraged adequate independence and achievement orientation among them. This could significantly reduce an extrinsic religious orientation and instil an intrinsic religious orientation among their members. Thus the role of the family in encouraging the formation of positive religious orientation among their members is again emphasized.

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26 • Asia Pacific Journal of Social Work

Implications for the Social Work Profession

The earlier observations underscored a few important issues for the consideration of social work professionals in Malaysia.

First, the study highlighted the significant changes that had occurred in the social environment of the Chinese families and the implications of these changes on the religious orientation of Chinese women. According to literature on the relationship between religious orientation and mental health, extrinsic religious orientations are closely associated with various negative personality characteristics, such as authoritarianism, external locus of control and lower levels of education and academic aptitude. For instance, Fagin ( 1964) and Allport and Ross (1967) observed a close association between extrinsic religious orientation and racial, ethnic and other prejudices. Kahoe (1974, 197 5) found that extrinsic religious orientation showed a consistent relationship with authoritarianism. Some of the recent studies demonstrated that an extrinsic religious orientation is positively related to symptoms of mental illness, such as trait anxiety (Peterson & Roy, 1985; Sturgeon & Hamiley, 1979; Baker & Gorsuch, 1982) and various psychological problems (Ryan, 1982). Therefore, based on these observations, the Chinese samples revealed a very high vulnerability to various personality and psychological deficits, mainly caused by their social environment. The Malaysian social work professionals have to be aware of this and be more sensitive while analyzing and understanding their Chinese clients and families.

Second, an interesting trend on expressiveness within the families and their impact on the religious orientation of women from various cultures emerged. For the Malay respondents, expressiveness within their families helped to inculcate an intrinsic religious orientation. For the Chinese respondents, however, expressiveness correlated with their extrinsic religious orientation. Free expression of feelings and freedom in the choice of activities within the family has traditionally been regarded as one of the major means for achieving therapeutic goals in social work practice. Furthermore, expressiveness in the families has been held as an asset for the family. For example, it has been reported to contribute significantly to healthy temperaments (Plomin & Defries, 1985), fewer behaviour problems (McGee et al., 1984, 1985), better mental health of the children (Haddad, 1985) and building of high self~ esteem among adolescents (Hirsch, 1985). The impact of expressiveness

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The Family's Influence on Religious Orientation • 27

on the religious orientation of the three Malaysian racial groups, as found in this study, suggests a need for some modifications in the emphasis placed on expressiveness within the families, specifically the Chinese families.

Third, the discovery of a directly proportional relationship between the level of conflict and its negative impact on the intrinsic religious orientation of the Indian women has implications for social work practice. Conflict and conflict-resolution are keywords in the lexicon of social work. The professional understanding of these conflicts and their impact on each family member will greatly help social workers in assessing Indian families in Malaysia.

Lastly, variations in the impact of socio-cultural forces on the diverse racial groups living within Malaysia are clearly evident. Even though the three cultural groups encounter the same changes within a similar context, each group is affected in different ways. Therefore, Malaysian social workers are cautioned against making generalizations in their analysis of circumstances surrounding these cultural groups and are urged to treat each case from any group on its own basis instead.

Conclusion

A cross-racial comparison of the family's influence on the religious orientation of 276 Malay, 225 Chinese and 249 Indian women revealed significant roles played by three family-related variables, namely expressiveness, conflict and moral-religious orientation. Among the three ethnic groups, Chinese respondents were found to have the greatest extrinsic religious orientation while the Malays and Indians were more intrinsically religious. Further analysis in this regard indicated that expressiveness and a moral-religious emphasis in the Chinese families predicted extrinsic religious orientation among the Chinese women. Conflict in the Indian families contributed negatively to an intrinsic religious orientation. Variations in the levels of social change occurring within Asian families and their impact on women from different racial groups are clearly evident. The implications of these observations on the social work profession have been noted and the need for further study on this subject is recommended.

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Thornton, A. (1985). Changing attitudes toward separation and divorce: Causes and consequences. American Journal of Sociology, 90, 856-872.

Westoff, C.F. (1979). The Blending of Catholic Reproductive Behaviour. The Religious Dimensions: New Directions in Quantitative Research, R.Wuthnow, New York Academic Press.

Mubarak Ali is a Lecturer at the Universiti Sains Malaysia.

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