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Unit OneUnderstanding Psychology

What is Psychology?

Psychology is the study of mental processes, behavior, and the relationship between them.

Natural & Social Science

Psychology is a natural science because it is concerned with laws of naturePsychology is a social science because it involves the study of the laws of the thoughts, feelings, and behaviors of humans and other organisms

The Evolution of Ideas

Georg Hegel 1770-1831

The evolution of thought -

dialectic

Dialectic

A continuing intellectual dialogue in which thinkers strive for increased understanding

Dialectic

AntithesisAntithesis

SynthesisSynthesis

ThesisThesis

Dialectic: Nature vs. Nuture

Thesis: Early 20th century researchers emphasized role of biological factors on behavior (nature)Antithesis: 1960s & 1970s heavy emphasis on environment (nurture) Synthesis: By the end of the century, most scientists realize both nature and nurture are important.

Historical Dialectic of Psychology

Thesis: Scientific problems are best solved by rational thought (e.g., Descartes)Antithesis: Scientific problems are best solved by empirical observations (e.g., Locke)Synthesis: Scientific problems are best solved by combination of rational thought & empirical observations (e.g., Kant)

Old Ideas = Springboards

Even when we reject ideas as outdated, they still move us forward They act as the thesis to our innovative antithesis

Four Major Themes

1. Are the mind and body separate entities or are they united?

2. To what extent can we learn about psychological phenomena by studying biology and to what extent must we learn about it by studying behavior?

Four Major Themes

3. To what extent is our developed set of skills the result of innate capabilities and to what extent are skills acquired through experience?

4. To what extent do skills and knowledge hold true across domains and to what extent are they specific to such domains?

Domain General

Knowledge and skills that are general across domains

Domain Specific

Knowledge and skills that are specific to individual domains

600-300 B.C.Ancient Greece and Rome

Roots of Psychology

Philosophy – a means of exploring and understanding the general nature of many aspects of the world, primarily through introspectionPhysiology – the scientific study of living organisms and of life-sustaining functions and processes, primarily through observation

Roots of Psychology

In ancient Greece, the two fields did not differ much. Both philosophers and physiologists believed that understanding could be reached without observations

Hippocrates 460-377 B.C.

Father of medicineDiffered from philosophers and physicians of the day through his unorthodox belief that disease was not a punishment from the gods.


Speculated that biological malfunctions, not demons, caused mental illness.


Used empirical observations to study medicineSaw the mind as a separate distinct entity that controlled the bodyThought the body was composed of physical substance, whereas the mind is ethereal (spiritual)


Proposed the mind resides in the brain.Based upon observations that when either side of the brain was injured, spasms were observed in the opposite side of the body.

Mind-Body Dualism

The philosophical belief that the mind is qualitatively different from the body.

Plato vs. Aristotle

Contemporaries of Hippocrates.Two very different views of reality

Plato on Reality

Reality does not exist in the concrete objects that we see and touch, but reality only exists in the ideal, abstract forms of the objects in a timeless dimension of pure thought—in our minds

Aristotle on Reality

Reality lies only in the concrete world of objects. Plato’s abstract forms were only derivations of the concrete objects.

Aristotle on Reality

Did not believe in dualism. Believed the mind does not exist in its own right, merely a by-product of anatomical and physiological activity.

Empiricist

One who believes that we acquire knowledge through empirical methods, obtaining evidence through experience, observation, and experimentation.

Rationalist

One who asserts that knowledge is most effectively acquired through logical methods, using philosophical analysis to understand the world and people’s relation to it.

Empiricist vs. Rationalist

Both approaches have merit. 1300-1600

The Renaissance Period

1300-1600 The Renaissance

The birth of science as we know itDirect observation was established as the basis for knowledgeTheory should guide and give meaning to observationsBut theories should be amended or abandoned, based upon observations

The Scientific Method

Identify a specific problem or questionFormulate a hypothesisCollect data through observation and experimentAnalyze the data

1600-1850The Early Modern Period

Rene Descartes (1596-1650)

French philosopherAgreed with Plato’s rationalist view that the introspective, reflective method was better than the empirical method.

Rene Descartes (1596-1650)

Believed in mind-body dualismBelieved that man has innate (versus acquired) knowledge

John Locke (1632-1704)

British empiricist philosopherBelieved humans born without knowledge and therefore seek knowledge through empirical observation

John Locke (1632-1704)

His term for the human condition is tabula rasa, meaning “blank slate” in Latin—Experience writes knowledge upon us

Immanuel Kant (1724-1804)

German philosopherBelieved the quest for understanding the mental processes required both rationalism and empiricism working together

Structuralism

First major school of thought in PsychologyGoal was to understand the mind by analyzing its elements, such as particular sensations or thoughts.Less interested in how people think than in what they think

Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920)

German, considered by many to be the founder of modern psychologyForerunner to structuralismMethod of study a form of self-observation called introspection

Wundt Laboratory in Leipzig

Wundt set up the first laboratory for the study of psychology, but was limited to introspection as the sole method of research.

Edward Titchner (1867-1927)

Studied under Wundt, then later at Cornell UniversityBecame a leader in structuralism with views similar, but not identical to Wundt’s


And too rigidly tied to a single methodology: introspectionStructuralism died out, but gave rise to functionalism


He changed his mind about structuralism later in lifeIt proposed too many elementary sensations, no means for understanding thought processes

THE BLIND MEN AND THE ELEPHANT

It was six men of IndostanTo learning much inclined,Who went to see the Elephant(Though all of them were blind),That each by observationMight satisfy his mind.By John Godfrey Saxe


The First approach'd the Elephant,And happening to fallAgainst his broad and sturdy side,At once began to bawl:"God bless me! but the ElephantIs very like a wall!"

By John Godfrey Saxe


The Second, feeling of the tusk,Cried, -"Ho! what have we hereSo very round and smooth and sharp?To me 'tis mighty clearThis wonder of an ElephantIs very like a spear!"



The Third approached the animal,And happening to takeThe squirming trunk within his hands,Thus boldly up and spake:"I see," quoth he, "the ElephantIs very like a snake!"



The Fourth reached out his eager hand,And felt about the knee."What most this wondrous beast is likeIs mighty plain," quoth he,"'Tis clear enough the Elephant Is very like a tree!"



The Fifth, who chanced to touch the ear,Said: "E'en the blindest manCan tell what this resembles most;Deny the fact who can,This marvel of an ElephantIs very like a fan!"



The Sixth no sooner had begunAbout the beast to grope,Then, seizing on the swinging tailThat fell within his scope,"I see," quoth he, "the ElephantIs very like a rope!" By John Godfrey Saxe


And so these men of IndostanDisputed loud and long,Each in his own opinionExceeding stiff and strong,Though each was partly in the right,And all were in the wrong!


Functionalism

First U.S.-born movement in PsychologyFocuses on active psychological processes rather than on passive psychological structures or elementsAsk the questions: What do people do, and why do they do it?

Functionalism

Functionalists view humans as actively engaged in processing their sensations and formulating their actionsAgree on questions to ask, but are widely diverse in the methods for finding those answers and in the answers they find.

William James (1842-1910)

Leader in the functionalist movement, guided functionalism toward pragmatism (a view of science and psychology that asserts that knowledge is validated by its usefulness).

William James (1842-1910)

Author of the very influential book Principles of Psychology (1890)

Influence of Functionalism

Functionalism, like structuralism did not survive as an organized school of thoughtHowever, its influence remains widespread today, particularly in specializations that stress flexibility in research or the practical use of results.

Associationism

More an influential way of thinking than a rigid school of psychologyMainly interested in middle- to higher-level mental processes such as learning.Opposite of structuralism that insisted on studying only elementary sensations

Associationism

Associationism examines how events or ideas can become associated in the mind, thereby resulting in learning.

Hermann Ebbinghaus (1850-1909)

First experimenter to apply associationist principles systematically. Studied the effect of repetition on memory and learning.

Hermann Ebbinghaus (1850-1909)

He only used himself as a subjectMade break-through discovery about the role of active rehearsal (conscious repetition) in recollection.

Edwin Guthrie (1886-1959)

Guthrie did further work on Ebbinghaus’ideas, testing animals.Showed that two observed events become associated through temporal contiguity

Edward Lee Thorndike (1874-1949)

Held that “satisfaction”rather than Guthrie’s temporal contiguity is the key to forming associations.Called this principle the Law of Effect

The Law of Effect

Over time the actions (“the effect”) for which an organism is rewarded (“the satisfaction”) are strengthened and therefore more likely to occur again in the future.In contrast, actions that are followed by punishment, are weakened, less likely to occur again in the future.

Influences of Associationism

Ebbinghaus, Guthrie & Thorndike followed functionalist tradition of using various methods in research.Associationism in its strictest form has not survived because too simplisticHas had an influence on behaviorism

Psychology In the 20th Century

Mary Whiton Calkins (1863-1930)

A forerunner of cognitivism. Argued that the self should be studied in its social context.Unable to attain a PhD because most schools refused to allow women at the time. Attended classes at Harvard & Clark as non-student.

Mary Whiton Calkins (1863-1930)

She became first female president of both the American Psychological Association and the American Philosophical Association

Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936)

Nobel prize-winning Russian physiologistDiscovered classical conditioning while studying digestion in dogs

Classical Conditioning• Discovered accidentally

in 1927 by Ivan Pavlov while studying the process of digestion in dogs.

• Wanted to understand how a dog’s stomach prepares to digest food when something is placed in its mouth.

Classical Conditioning• Discovered that the

mere sight or smell of food was enough to get the dog to start salivating.

Pavlov’s Experiment

• Pavlov rang a tuning fork and then immediately placed meat powder on the dog’s tongue.

• After a few repetitions, the dog would salivate as soon as it heard the tuning fork, even if the meat powder was not placed on his tongue.


• Neutral stimulus – The tuning fork, something that had nothing to do with the response to meat prior to conditioning


• Unconditioned stimulus (UCS) – an event that leads to a certain, predictable response without prior training. Food leads to salivation without the dog needed to be trained to salivate when smelling meat.


• Unconditioned response (UCR) – a reaction that occurs naturally and automatically when the unconditioned stimulus is presented.

• Conditioned stimulus (CS) – an ordinarily neutral event that, after training, leads to a response such as salivation.


• Conditioned response (CR) – the response to a conditioned stimulus

classical conditioningControlling an animal’s or a person’s responses in such a way that an old response becomes attached to a new stimulus

Classical Conditioning

• Occurs gradually• Each pairing of the CS with the UCS

strengthens the conditioning• Timing is an issue. Conditioning is

strongest when the CS is introduced just before the UCS

+

Behaviorism

Psychology should focus only on the relationship between the observable behavior and the environmental events or stimuli.Conjectures about internal thoughts and ways of thinking are just speculation

John Watson (1878-1958)

American founder of radical behaviorismAny behavior can be shaped or controlled

John Watson (1878-1958)

"Give me a dozen healthy infants, well formed, and my own specified world to bring them up in and I'll guarantee you to take any one at random, and train him or her to become any type of specialist I might select - doctor, lawyer, merchant chief and, yes, even beggar man or thief, regardless of his talents, penchants, tendencies, abilities, vocations, and the race of his ancestors."

B.F. Skinner (1904-1990)

Radical behaviorism in modern times most closely tied to the work of SkinnerDistinguished between two kinds of learned behavior: respondent & operant

B.F. Skinner (1904-1990)

Respondent behavior, the type studied by Pavlov, elicited by a definite stimulus, involuntary

B.F. Skinner (1904-1990)

Operant behavior, cannot be certainly elicited, largely voluntary, probability of behavior repeated when reinforced

Gestalt Psychology

Psychological phenomenon are best understood when viewed as organized, structured wholes—that is, holistically—not when analyzed into myriad components.Movement grew as a reaction to behaviorism and structuralism

Max Wertheimer (1880-1943)

Started the Gestalt movement with fellow German psychologists Kurt Koffka and Wolfgang Köhler.

Gestalt Psychology Criticism

Has produced an abundance of theory and very little data.Experimentation under the Gestalt approach tends to lack careful experimental controls.Unprecise definition of terms

Cognitivism

Emphasizes the importance of thought as a basis for understanding much of human behaviorThe study of how people learn, structure, store, and use knowledge (Neisser, 1967)

Cognitivism

How is knowledge acquired, stored, transformed, and used?What is consciousness, and where do conscious ideas originate?What is the nature of perception and memory?What is thought?How do these abilities develop?

Biological Psychology

Also called psychobiologyAttempts to study behavior by carefully studying physiology (the scientific study of living organisms and life-sustaining functions) and anatomy (the study of the structures of living organisms)


Not really an organized school of thought but rather the affirmation that biological theorizing and experimentation are desirable bases for studying psychological problems


One psychobiological approach is to study what parts of the brain are responsible for the origination, learning and expression of particular behaviors, feelings, or kinds of thoughts


Behavioral genetics attributes behavior and underlying traits in part to the influence of particular combinations of genes as expressed in a particular environment


For example, a behavioral geneticist may attempt to identify which genetic elements contribute to mental illness, creativity, etc.Molecular genetics—attempting to find specific genes that contribute to mental processes and behavior. Human Genome Project


The biopsychosocial model – A paradigm for health care in which the focus is on the understanding of the various psychological, social, and biological factors that contribute to illness, recovery from illness, and promotion of wellness.

Evolutionary Psychology

Based upon Darwin’s theory of natural selection and evolution (1859), the goal is to explain behavior in terms of an organism’s evolved adaptations to a constantly changing environmental landscape

Psychodynamic Psychology

One of the oldest and most controversial and influential schools of psychology.Emphasizes the importance of conflicting unconscious mental processesStresses the importance of early childhood experiences on the adult personality

Sigmund Freud (1856-1939)

Developed by Austrian neurologist Sigmund FreudMajor contributions• Significance of

unconscious and dreams

• Free association• Defense mechanisms

• Conscious - current awareness• Preconscious - not aware of material but

it’s retrievable (via ordinary retrieval)• Unconscious - not aware of material but it’s

not retrievable (via ordinary retrieval)

Levels of Consciousness Conscious = Tip of Iceberg

ID EGO

SUPEREGO

The Structure of Personality

The Id – Reservoir of Psychic Energy

Most primitive part of the mind; what we are born withSource of all drives and urgesOperates according to the pleasure principle and primary process thinking


The Ego- Executive of Personality

The part of the mind that constrains the id to realityDevelops around 2-3 years of ageOperates according to the reality principle and secondary process thinkingMediates between id, superego, and environment


The Superego-Upholder of Values and Ideals

The part of the mind that internalizes the values, morals, and ideals of societyDevelops around age 5Not bound by reality


Neo-Freudians

Several of Freud’s disciples who rebelled and formulated their own versions of the theory.A greater emphasis on conscious as opposed to unconscious processingInfluence of key human relationships on how one views the world

Humanistic Psychology

In response to that rather negative view of psychodynamic theory which sees man controlled by environmental events in his childhoodHumanistic psychology emphasizes free will and the importance of human potential


Holistic rather than analytical approachEmphasizes conscious rather than unconscious experience in developmentAn analytic approach like that of Freud’s attempts to break down a personality into its constituent components


Humanistic approach doesn’t attempt to divide a personality into smaller elementsArgues that the essence of the personality is lost through such divisions

Abraham Maslow (1908-1970)

A leading humanistic psychologistProposed that all people possess an innate drive toward self-actualization (striving to reach their potential)

Self-Actualized have in common

An objective view of reality, acceptance of their nature (both of their strengths and their weaknesses)A commitment to their workA need for autonomy, coupled with empathy for humankindResistance to blind conformity, and drive to be creative in work and in life

Carl Rogers (1902-1987)

Followed Maslow’s emphasis on self-actualization, but stressed that it was dependent upon the relationship between the mother and child

Carl Rogers (1902-1987)

If the mother meets the child’s need for unconditional love (unconditional positive regard), the child will probably be well-adjusted.Many of the problems we have as adults are due to a lack of positive regard


Humanistic approach has provided valuable insight into human natureIt’s theories are somewhat less comprehensive than some other approachesResearch base supporting this approach is somewhat limited

Fields of Study Today in Psychology

Psychobiology

Biological structures and processes underlying thought, feeling, motivation, and behavior• What neurochemicals are active in the brain

when a person feels depressed or pleasure?• What brain structures active when people

perceive a three-dimensional object?• How messages are sent to and from the brain

Cognitive Psychology

How people perceive, learn, rememberHow one remembers and forgetsThinking during problem-solvingHow people use language

Developmental Psychology

How people develop over time through the processes of maturation and learningDevelopment of mental abilities and social skillsAt what age is it easiest/hardest to learn a second language?

Neuropsychology

Bases of behavior in the nervous system, particularly the brainBiological bases of perception, learning, memory, emotion, motivation and other phenomena

Social Psychology

How people interact as individuals and in groupsAttraction, prejudice, persuasion, conformity, violence

Personality Psychology

Personal dispositions that lead people to behave the way they doPinpoint and measure personality traitsHow much does personality change over time?

Clinical Psychology

Understanding and treating abnormal behaviorMay offer therapy or do research

Cultural Psychology

Extends the study of psychological topics to all culturesCompare behavior in multiple cultures

Health Psychology

Seeks to understand the reciprocal interaction between the psychological processes of the mind and the physical health of the bodyHow does a positive or negative attitude effect recovery from an illness?

Educational Psychology

Uses psychology to develop and improve curricula, testing, school administration and classroom teaching techniques

School Psychology

Uses psychology to diagnose psychologically based problems of children in school and to recommend, where possible, means of correcting or at least coping with these problems

Organizational Psychology

Applies psychology to the workplace, understanding organizations and making decisions about employees and hiring

Engineering Psychology

Deals with human interaction with machines and how to manufacture machinery, instrumentation and computers to make them user-friendly.

Forensic Psychology

Applies psychology to the legal systemValidity of eyewitness testimonyJury selectionRelevance of psychological disorders to guilt or innocence

Political Psychology

Applies principles of social psychology to political issues such as voter behavior in elections, behavior of political leaders, and mass political movements

Positive Psychology

Very new field which studies valued human experiences such as well-being, contentment, optimism and happiness.

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