THE ETHOGRAM - Institute for School...

T H E

ETHOGRAMANIMAL BEHAVIOR RESEARCH

and

Supported by a Science Education

Partnership Award from the National

Center for Research Resources,

National Institutes of Health

Janet CrewsStan Braude Carol StephensonTerrilyn Clardy

science curriculum for grades 5-8

science curriculum for grades 5-8

Supported by a Science Education

Partnership Award from the National

Center for Research Resources,

National Institutes of Health

Janet CrewsStan Braude Carol StephensonTerrilyn Clardy

T H E

ETHOGRAMANIMAL BEHAVIOR RESEARCH

and

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Authors: Janet Crews, Wydown Middle School, Clayton School District

Stan Braude, Department of Biology, Washington University

Carol Stephenson, Saint Louis Zoo

Terrilyn Clardy, Sumner High School, St. Louis Public Schools

Animal behavior films produced by Rosie Koch, BAO Productions

© Copyright 2002 Washington University in St. Louis. Teachers may copy materials as needed forclassroom use.

This curriculum was developed by A Partnership Linking Formal and Informal Education, fundedby Science Education Partnership Award R25 RR 15603 from the National Center for ResearchResources, National Institutes of Health. Principal Investigator: Ralph S. Quatrano, Professor of Biology, Washington UniversityProject Director: Victoria L. May, Director of Science Outreach, Washington University Evaluator: Jennifer L. Heim, St. Louis Science Center

Washington University Science OutreachOne Brookings Drive, Campus Box 1137, St. Louis, MO 63130(314) 935-6846, www.so.wustl.edu

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C O N T E N T S

S E C T I O N 1 Introduction and Overview of the Curriculum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

S E C T I O N 2 The Ethogram: an Introduction to the Study of Animal Behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

S E C T I O N 3 Introduction to Scientific Inquiry and Sampling Methods and Data Analysis . . . 25

S E C T I O N 4 Animal Behavior Research Projects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

S E C T I O N 5 Appendices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81

Sample of a Student Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89

Animal Behavior Magazine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99

S E C T I O N 1

INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW OF THEANIMAL BEHAVIOR CURRICULUM

5

7

The study of animal behavior is important for basic

understanding of the world around us, and has practical

applications for conservation, agriculture, and medicine. The

study of animal behavior in the classroom also provides

opportunities for teaching students about the process of

doing science, as well as developing basic skills of

observation, description, and quantification. It helps teachers

address components of all four of the Missouri Show Me

performance standards and includes content standards from

science, social studies and communication arts.

In this unit, students, will create one of the basic descriptive

tools of animal behavior, the ethogram. A complete

ethogram is a dictionary of all of the behaviors that a

particular species performs. Biologists publish ethograms of

their study species so that they can communicate with each

other about the behaviors they investigate. Generating their

own ethograms will give students multiple opportunities to

hone their skills of observation, description and

quantification. Students will make preliminary ethograms in

the classroom and at home. They will then generate an

ethogram of one exotic species at the zoo by viewing a

video of that animal. They will then use their ethograms in

completing a research project at the zoo.

This unit uses the attraction of studying exotic species at the

zoo to teach students about the process of doing scientific

research. They will explore one zoo species in depth and

then write up a research proposal.

While this unit is designed to utilize the resources of the zoo,it can be completed by using a local park, class study area oncampus, or even using a class pet. Financial resources shouldnot keep a teacher from using this curriculum.

Teachers have the option of planning one, two, or three zoo

visits. See graph Zoo visit options for Section 4, page 11.

Two visits are ideal for this unit. The preliminary zoo trip,

if taken, gives students an opportunity to make

observations that can help guide development of their

scientific research proposals.

In the second, third (or only) visit to the zoo, students will

take data that will help them test a hypothesis that follows

from a scientific question about their chosen study species

at the zoo. Depending on time available, the class may

spend part of the day visiting the sites of each study.

Students can tell their classmates about their chosen

study animal.

It is the intent of this curriculum that teachers will use

the zoo and other local resources, not just for entertainment

field trips, but for powerful field classes. The power of a

focused learning experience, coupled with intense pre- and

post-field work in the classroom, is what increases student

achievement. It is important for the teacher to wisely

decide how this curriculum can best support existing

district curriculum. Does it help you teach scientific

method? Taxonomy? Explore native species? Or is it best

suited for cross-curricular projects? Can it help you provide

a rationale for a service learning project? The choice is up

to the teacher.

Finally, it is also up to the teacher to select the best time of

the year to implement this curriculum. Testers suggest the

spring, as you have had time to work with your students,

and they have matured in their skills. It is also more

appropriate weather for outdoor field classes.

Whatever your situation, this curriculum is yours to adapt

and incorporate to help you better teach and engage your

students. The use of ethograms truly lets the students (and

teacher) feel like real scientists.

1.1 INTRODUCTION

8

S E C T I O N 2 THE ETHOGRAM: AN INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY OF ANIMAL BEHAVIOR. . . . 13

2.1 What is Behavior? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

The purpose of this activity is to capture the interest

of the students and excite them about observing and

studying animal behavior. Primate species were

selected because of the human similarities. They

were videotaped in the wild to give the students a

sense of natural behaviors. This lesson also

introduces them to asking questions, with behavior as

the focus.

2.2 Classroom Introduction to Creating an Ethogram. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

An ethogram is like a dictionary of the behaviors of a

particular species. Students have an opportunity to

interact with actual animals and observe behavior first

hand. They also will create class ethograms, learn

about the different kinds of ethograms, and discover

ways to define behavior.

2.3 Development of Individual Ethograms at Home. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

Students are now given the opportunity to use the

skills developed in class to create ethograms on

animals that they observe outside of class.

S E C T I O N 3 INTRODUCTION TO SCIENTIFIC INQUIRY,SAMPLING, AND DATA ANALYSIS . . . . . . . . . . 25

3.1 Which Sampling Method Works Best? . . . 26

Students will observe animals using two different

sampling methods with prepared data sheets. This

introduces them to the idea that scientists use

different tools for different tasks. It also encourages

them to observe different aspects of behavior.

3.2 Sample Data Analysis: Jim’s Crickets and Marshall’s Crows. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

Students participate in a sample analysis exercise to

discuss factors of analysis. They sort through useful

and irrelevant data. They look for patterns that help

them decide whether their data supports the

hypothesis in question.

3.3 How Do We Choose A Scientific Question to Investigate? Part I . . . . . . . . . . 45

Students evaluate sample questions about behaviors.

They must determine if the questions are scientifically

answerable, and what methods would be required

for testing the hypotheses that follow from these

questions. The lesson reviews writing a testable

research question, and using a scientific method.

1.2 CURRICULUM OVERVIEW

9

Zoo visit options for Section 4Teachers may choose to make one, two or three visits.

4.6 Library Exploration

4.7 How do we choosea Scientific Question?

ZOO VISIT(only or last visit)4.9 Field Study

Research: Collecting Behavioral Data

S E C T I O N 4 ANIMAL BEHAVIOR RESEARCH PROJECTS . . . 51

4.1 Introduction: Considerations for Field Classesat the Zoo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52

4.2 Choosing a Study Species for Researchon Animal Behavior at the Zoo . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

In this lesson, students will choose a zoo animal for their

research project by viewing a video.

4.3 Organism Exploration at the Zoo (Optional first visit of two or three) . . . . . . . . . 57

Students go to the zoo to observe potential species for a

behavioral study. For classes that can visit the zoo twice

(this is preferable), this visit is for preliminary exploration

and practice data gathering.

4.4 Ethogram Development of the ZooStudy Subject . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60

Students will generate an ethogram of their chosen

study species by viewing a moderate length film of the

species in the zoo. This will prepare them to develop a

research question and hypothesis that they can test

during a zoo visit.

4.8 Research Proposal

4.4 EthogramDevelopment of the Zoo Study Subject

4.2 Choosing a study species for researchon animal behaviorat the zoo

OPTIONAL ZOO VISIT(first visit of two or three)4.3 Organism exploration

at the zoo

OPTIONAL ZOO VISIT(second visit of three)4.5 Field Study Research:

Ethogram Supplementation

Note: Students may makethis visit on their own time.

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4.5 Field Study Research: Ethogram Supplementation (Optional second visit of three). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61

Students may go to the zoo to observe their chosen

study species and supplement their ethogram on the

species. Students may do this visit on their own,

after school or on weekends. This visit is for continued

exploration, practice data gathering, and familiarization

with the study species at the zoo.

4.6 Library Exploration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64

After completion of the ethogram, students will be

instructed to further explore their chosen species in

the library and on the web. This exercise will further

familiarize them with their study species and may lead

them to interesting research questions.

4.7 How Do We Choose A Scientific Question to Investigate? Part II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66

Students will apply the tools of developing scientific

questions, hypotheses and tests to their own study

species at the zoo.

4.8 Research Proposal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68

Too often student research projects fail because of

lack of preparation and feedback before the data

collection begins. In this lesson, students will develop

or refine a scientific question about their animal.

Students will generate a hypothesis to answer the

question and choose a sampling method to help

them test the hypothesis. Then they will write a

research proposal that outlines the scientific

framework for their research project.

4.9 Field Study Research: Collecting Behavioral Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73

Students will visit the zoo to observe their selected

species and collect the data to attempt to answer their

research question.

4.10 Analysis of Results and Write-up of Research Project. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74

Students will synthesize the skills and information

they learned in this unit by writing up a report of their

zoo research project.

4.11 Reflection/Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78

Students have the opportunity to reflect over their

conclusions and what they have learned during this

project. This could also include students evaluating

their peers’ presentations.

4.12 Further Investigations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80

Students or teachers may choose to continue with this

topic in a variety of extension activities.

The following transparency master may be useful in giving

your students an overview of the unit.

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What is animal behavior?

What can we observe?

How do we study it scientifically?

What is an ethogram?

Practice in developing an ethogram in class

Practice in developing an ethogram at home

What other scientific tools do we need to conduct

behavior research?

Since we can’t observe everything, how do we take

a sample of observations that gives a fair

representation of what the animals are doing?

What is the difference between a scientific question,

a hypothesis, and a prediction?

How do we use data to test a hypothesis?

How do we choose a scientific question for

an independent project?

How do we conduct an independent research project

at the zoo?

Choosing an animal species

Developing an ethogram of your chosen species

Learning about your chosen species in the library

Asking your scientific question, proposing a

hypothesis to answer the question, making

predictions to test the hypothesis

Writing a scientific research proposal

Collecting your behavioral proposal

Presenting the results of your research.

T H E E T H O G R A M A N D A N I M A L B E H A V I O R

Missouri Show Me Standards

Performance Standards

1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.5, 1.8, 2.2,

2.3, 2.7, 3.3, 3.5, 4.6

Knowledge Standards

SC 3, 7; SS 7, CA 4, 6

Framework Standards

Science 5-8; I.A.1-4, I.B.1-2,

VII.A.3, VII.C.1-2

Total time, if unit is done in its entirety, is approximately

19 class periods. It is possible to use many lessons in a

stand-alone capacity.

2.1 One period

2.2 Two periods

2.3 Week-long homework assignment

3.1 One period

3.2 Two periods

3.3 Two periods

4.2 One period

4.3 One period

4.4 Week-long homework assignment

4.5 Optional

4.6 Two-three periods

4.7 Two periods

4.8 Three periods plus week-long homework

4.9 Field trip

4.10 Week-long homework

4.11 One period

1.4 TIME EXPECTATIONS

1.3 STANDARD L INKS

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S E C T I O N 2

S E C T I O N O V E R V I E W

These three lessons are designed to give

students an introduction to creation of an

ethogram and the study of animal behavior.

The lessons use inquiry methods to help

students discover the need for ethograms

and other scientific research tools. The

"Animal Whys” magazine explains why

scientists study animal behavior, and

activities introduce the basic methods

for study.

THE ETHOGRAMAN INTRODUCTION TO THE

STUDY OF ANIMAL BEHAVIOR

14

Lesson Overview

The purpose of this activity is to capture the interest of

the students and excite them about observing and

studying animal behavior. Primate species were

selected because of their human similarities. They

were videotaped in the wild to give the students a

sense of natural behaviors. This lesson also introduces

students to asking questions, with behavior as the focus.

Student Objectives

After completing this activity, students will be able to:

1 compare the behavior of two primate species from

observational data they collect.

2 generate questions about a species, its behavior,

and observations of its behavior based on data

they collect.

Timeline

1 class period

Group size

Whole class observation and teacher led discussion

Materials

— TV with DVD player, or computer with CD-ROM or

DVD and overhead projector

— “The Wild Ones: Vervet Monkeys and Olive

Baboons” — CD-Rom or DVD video, included with

curriculum

— Dry erase or chalk board

— Copies of Animal Behavior Self-Assessment for

each student, or an overhead transparency

2.1 WHAT IS BEHAVIOR?

15

Procedure

1 Give out the Animal Behavior Self Assessment. Ask

the students to answer the questions as best they can.

This will allow you to see what they already know, and

for the students to think about the question before you

ask them.

2 Ask the students, What is behavior? Ask them to

generate examples of behavior they have observed. List

on board or chart.

3 Tell them they will observe two species of primates:

olive baboons and vervet monkeys. Ask them to write

down all behaviors they observe in the video. You can

offer the challenge: Who can find the greatest number

of different behaviors?

4 After 10 minutes (or shorter intervals), pause the

video and ask students to share observations. Create

a class list. Write down questions they have, as well as

problems they are having. This allows you to address

concerns, as well as model appropriate answers for

students. Refrain from telling them they are right or

wrong about their behavioral names or interpretations.

Simply facilitate the discussion.

5 Continue with the video. Stop at the end of the baboon

section. Discuss behaviors, questions, observational

problems.

6 Tell the students they will look at a second species.

Ask them to focus on similarities and differences.

Show the second primate video, the vervet baboons.

7 Again, collect class data.

8 Ask the students if they see any categories of

behavior arising (e.g. feeding, play, conflict, sleeping,

locomotion). List possibilities.

9 Ask the students if they observed similar behaviors in

both species. List those. Similarities and differences

can be organized in a Venn diagram.

10 Ask “Why are the monkeys doing the things they are

doing?” “Do we know why?”

11 Ask what the students want to know about behavior.

Create a master list of questions about the species,

about behavior, about observing behavior based on

their experiences in this activity.

12 Now ask, How would we go about answering any of

these questions using the tools of science? Facilitate

a group discussion. Your students may or may not be

able to infer a way to measure behavior.

WHAT IS BEHAVIOR?2.1

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Teacher Tips

• There is no sound on the video to keep the students

focused on the behavior. Soundtracks often influence

how we interpret behavior. (Think movie music!) Show

some samples from other videos with and without the

sound to see how it influences our interpretation.

• The teacher should stop and model the thinking

process after the first 2-3 minutes of the video the first

time around. Model what behaviors you notice and

how you would record them.

• Remember to honor ALL answers AS GIVEN, no

matter how wrong they are. Let the students find out

they are wrong as the unit develops.

• If you are working with younger students, stop more

often — every 2-3 minutes and let them record.

• To increase participation, you may want to stop after

2-3 minutes and let students collaborate on a group

list of behaviors. Continue to repeat this process.

• Discuss how real scientists must develop the skill of

patience, as observation can become tedious work!

• Keep a class question list to refer to during the unit.

• For special needs children, you may print a list of

behaviors and have students check off those that

they see.

• Some teachers have preferred to use Penguin

Odyssey or films from the Trials of Life series for this

introductory exercise. While the diversity of species

may be more attractive to students, the dialogue can

be very distracting and can stifle independent

thinking. Therefore, be sure to turn off the sound if

you use a commercially available film.

• You may also ask the students to work in small groups

of 3-4 for this lesson.

WHAT IS BEHAVIOR?2.1

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Scientists study behaviors of animals in order to better understand how our world works. In this

project, you will be asked to study the behavior of a number of different animals.

Describe how you would gather information on an animal’s behavior, and how you would record that

information so that it will be useful in answering scientific questions.

nameACTIVITY

ANIMAL BEHAVIOR SELF-ASSESSMENT

2.1

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Pre-Class Preparation

Assign for homework or read together: “What is Animal

Behavior” and “Why do Scientists Study Animal

Behavior?” in the Animal Whys magazine.

Overview

Students have an opportunity to interact with actual

animals and observe behavior first hand. They also will

create class ethograms, learn about the different kinds

of ethograms, and discover ways to define behavior.

Student Objectives


1 correctly develop an ethogram from observational

data.

2 explain the ways in which the ethogram is a basic

tool of animal behavior studies.

3 describe and categorize behaviors they observe.

Key Terms

ethogram – a list of behaviors performed by an animal

species, along with precise definitions and detailed

descriptions of each behavior.

data – information collected during an observable

event

anthropomorphism – attributing human characteristics

to a non-human object or organism.

Group Size

Small groups and then full class

Timeline

1-2 class periods

Materials

— At least two types of common classroom/school

yard animals: crickets, isopods, fish, worms,

hissing cockroaches, mice, etc. (1-2 organisms

for every 2-4 students)

— Hand lenses

— Containers for organisms (petri dishes, bug boxes,

margarine tubs, paper box lids, deep trays,

aquaria)

— Animal Whys magazine for each student

Procedure

1 Ask the students, “What is behavior?” Ask them to

generate examples of behavior they have observed.

List on board or chart.

2 Read and discuss articles “What is Animal Behavior”

and “Why do Scientists Study Animal Behavior?” in

the Animal Whys magazine.

3 Distribute animal cages or aquaria, and ask students

to log behaviors of the animals for 10 minutes.

4 Stop the observation; ask students to switch animals

with a group that has a different organism. Ask

them to log behaviors of the second organism while

focusing on similarities and differences between the

organisms.

5 Again, collect class data.

2.2 CLASSROOM INTRODUCTION TO CREATING AN ETHOGRAM

19

6 Ask the students if they see any categories of behavior

arising (e.g. feeding, play, conflict, sleeping, locomotion).

List possibilities.

7 Ask the students if they observed similar behaviors in

both species. List those.

8 Ask “Why are the animals doing the things they

are doing?”

9 Introduce the word anthropomorphism. Discuss the

perils of inferring emotions, preferences, etc. (Can you

really tell that this is why they are doing this? Is

that something you can measure?) Compare this to

unidentified variables in an experiment.

10 Ask the students “What do you want to know about

these animals?” Create a master list of questions about

the species, about behavior, about observing behavior

based on their experiences in this activity.

11 Now ask, “How would we go about answering any of

these questions using the tools of science?” Facilitate a

group discussion. Your students may or may not be

able to infer a way to measure behavior. List questions

or ask students to do so.

Suggested Stopping Point — Day 2 Start

12 Allow students to collect cages or aquaria of one

species they observed the day before.

13 Ask students to revisit the behavior logs from the

previous day. Ask them if they observed the behavior or

inferred what they thought was happening. Remind the

students about anthropomorphism.

14 Give the students time to adjust/change their behavior

labels based on this information.

15 Continue collecting behaviors, discussing and adding

to everyone’s list.

16 Ask the students to group the behaviors into categories.

Ask them to define the category names they select.

Do any behaviors need to be combined or renamed?

17 Share this data.

18 Help the students to turn these categories into a tallying

sheet. Introduce the word ethogram. Refer to “What is

an Ethogram” and “Categories of Animal Behavior” in

the Animal Whys magazine.

19 Discuss the importance of defining the behaviors.

Others must be able to specifically recognize what

behaviors you are talking about (this is similar to being

able to understand the procedures in a reliable

experiment). In their groups or as a class, ask students

to write definitions for each category and each distinct

behavior.

20 Ask the students to explain how ethograms are useful

to scientists.

21 Once finished, give the students 10 minutes to pool

their information (tally the number of times each

behavior is observed) and add this information to their

ethograms.

22 Have students test the validity of their ethograms.

Have them exchange and try using the descriptions in

each other’s ethograms and see if they recognize the

specific behaviors.

23 Share and discuss findings/problems. Ask them if this

is enough data to draw solid conclusions. Explain that

ethograms are the basic tool of animal behavior.

Homework: Read the Behavioral Research at the

Saint Louis Zoo section in Animal Whys. What

question did the zoo researchers have to answer

in each study? This leads to the next section.

CLASSROOM INTRODUCTION TO CREATING AN ETHOGRAM2.2

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Teacher Tips

Which animals work best? Well, that is up to

you, but here is a list of pros and cons for

each animal…

Crickets • Cheap and easy to buy

• Perform a variety of behaviors

(mating, fighting, laying eggs, singing)

• Release when finished with them

• Hard to tell apart

• Students less motivated to like them

Isopods • Easy to find — free

(roly poly) • Students usually less “creeped out”

• Easy to mark them

• You have to go find them yourself

• Smaller range of behaviors

Fish • Cheap and easy to buy

• No handling necessary

• Usually easy to tell apart

• Often found in classrooms

• Set up and maintenance required

• Harder to set up individual stations

Worms • Cheap and easy to buy

• Have to stay moist

• Smaller range of behaviors

Hissing • Easy to observe (large)

Cockroaches • Larger range of behaviors

• Easy to tell male from female

• Harder to find/buy

• Sometimes less active

Rodents • Often in classroom

• Furry and familiar

• Easy to tell apart

• Wide range of easily identifiable behaviors

• Mice and gerbils are social, but hamsters

are solitary

• Males and females often need to be

separated

• All are more active at night

• Regular cleaning is required

• More care is required

**Select a species that you have or will study anyway, or

that you have access to in your classroom or school.

Just consider the pros/cons of each species.

CLASSROOM INTRODUCTION TO CREATING AN ETHOGRAM2.2

Overview

Students are now given the opportunity to use the

skills developed in class to independently create

ethograms on animals that they observe outside of

class.

Student Objectives

After completing this activity, students will be able to

observe, describe and categorize behaviors of animals

they choose and use this information to independently

develop an ethogram.

Timeline

Homework can be done over a weekend or over a one

week period. Students can work on section 3 materials

in class while working on this assignment at home.

Materials

— Student notebooks, binoculars, watches

— Ethogram Development worksheet

— Optional – Sample Flow Chart

Procedure

1 Ask students what study species they can observe

outside of the classroom. You may require them to

sign up for their study species to promote thinking

about the project ahead of time. Have them read

pages 5 and 6 in the Animal Whys magazine.

2 Hand out the Homework Assignment: Ethogram

Development.

3 Discuss pages 5-6 in Animal Whys. The sample

ethograms are models and can help extend students’

thinking. Let students know the Dog Ethogram in the

magazine is a very basic version. Ethograms often

have much more detail.

4 Students will hand in their work after one weekend or

one week.

5 After the assignment is turned in, you may give

feedback on descriptive definitions and ask students

to elaborate on their work.

6 Discuss ways of quantifying different behaviors.

7 Discuss questions that students now have about their

study species after observing them.

2.3 DEVELOPMENT OF INDIVIDUAL ETHOGRAMS AT HOME

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Teacher Tips

• You may want to break this assignment down into multiple days. (i.e., assign 1-3 first, come back

and discuss — then assign 4-5, etc.) Use your students as a guide for this decision.

• You may want to use the chart from 4.3 as a tool for kids who need help framing their assignment.

It gives categories to start with when observing.

• Help students focus on the process — not the product. It is more important that they notice that each

animal has unique behaviors. They don’t need to identify them ALL.

DEVELOPMENT OF INDIVIDUAL ETHOGRAMS AT HOME2.3

23

1 In class we have discussed the variety of questions

about animal behavior that we can scientifically

investigate. Your homework assignment is to develop

an ethogram for a species that you can readily observe

at home. Now you must choose a study species to work

on outside of class.This could be a pet (dog, cat,

goldfish, etc), a household pest (ant, cockroach,

mouse, etc.), or neighborhood wildlife (cardinal, crow,

gray squirrel, bumblebee, etc.). While pets have the

advantage of being readily available for observation, you

are likely to be limited to only being able to observe one,

or few, individuals of the species. On the other hand,

although you may have to spend more effort finding

local wildlife to observe, you should be able to obtain

observations of multiple individuals, including both

sexes and even different ages.

2 Observe your species for five to ten minute blocks of

time spread out over the course of the days you have

to work. Try to make your observations at different

times of day and, if possible, on different individuals

of the species. Remember, you will NOT see a full

range of behaviors for the organism you are observing

in this in this limited observation.

3 Name and list all of the behaviors you observe. Be as

specific as possible. For example, a rabbit eating

lettuce isn’t just eating. First she bites off the leaf at

the base using her incisors, next she may strip out the

rib or vein. Finally, she chews the leaf with her molars,

perhaps while holding the leaf in her front paws.

4 Carefully describe what you mean by each named

behavior. Your description must be complete and precise

enough that any other person reading your ethogram will

be able to picture the behavior you are describing and

distinguish it from any other behavior.

5 Organize your behaviors into functional categories so

that behaviors which achieve a common function will

be grouped together (e.g., holding food, biting,

chewing, and looking for food can all be grouped

together as foraging). Functional categories may

include: foraging behaviors, resting behaviors, play

behaviors, predator avoidance, reproductive behaviors,

care of young. Note that these are each vast categories

that include many different behaviors! Refer to Animal

Whys and the domestic dog ethogram if necessary.

6 Supplement entries by noting whether behaviors are

common or rare and perhaps begin to quantify the

frequency with which you see each behavior.

7 Supplement entries by creating a flow chart of

different behaviors and which ones are linked. (See

sample chart on page 24.)

Your final ethogram should include 1) a list of 15 – 20

different named behaviors. 2) These should be organized into

functional categories. 3) Each behavior should be described

in detail so that the reader can picture the behavior in his/her

mind. 4) Any additional information on the context (where or

when the behavior occurs) or frequency (e.g., 5 times in an

hour, or every minute) of the behaviors should be included.

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HOMEWORK ASSIGNMENT: ETHOGRAM DEVELOPMENT

2.3

24

The arrows flowing from a particular behavior represent all the behaviors that follow it.

You can make some arrows darker to represent more frequent sequences.

Sleeping

Grooming

Playing

Feeding

Walking

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A BEHAVIORAL FLOW CHART

2.3

25

S E C T I O N 3


These lessons are designed to give students

an introduction to scientific inquiry,

including data collection and data analysis.

The activities give students an opportunity

to compare sampling methods, interpret

data, and identify the questions for which

they are appropriate.

INTRODUCTION TOSCIENTIFIC INQUIRY, SAMPLING,

AND DATA ANALYSIS

26

Lesson Overview

Students will observe animals using two different

sampling methods with prepared data sheets. This

introduces them to the idea that scientists use different

tools for different tasks. It also encourages them to

observe a variety of aspects of behavior.

Student Objectives


1 describe two sampling methods used in animal

behavior research.

2 choose the most appropriate sampling method to

answer a given research question.

3 explain the difference between behavior states

and behavior events.

4 plan, use and analyze a time budget.

5 use prepared sheets to collect behavioral data.

Key Terms

all occurrences sampling – recording each time a

behavior is performed, either on a focal animal or

among all animals present.

events – behaviors that last for a very brief time. It is

occurs, and who each behavior involves (e.g. bite,

vocalize, approach).

focal animal sampling – collecting data focusing on

one, individual animal at a time, noting every behavior

that animal performs, and then pooling the data for a

number of different animals. Video is a useful tool for this

type of sampling. Working in teams is also useful.

interval – one segment of time designated by the

researcher for making observations.

quadrant – one part of an area marked off in fourths,

or four quadrants.

scan sampling – collecting data at specified time

intervals, and noting what each animal is currently

doing or where they are located. Still photos may be

useful in doing this sampling.

states – behaviors that last for some period of time.

They have a clear beginning and end, and some period

of time lapses in between (e.g. rest, play, feed).

tally – record data by making hash marks; indicates

numbers or counts.

time budget – a record of how an organism spends

its time.

Timeline

1 class period

Group size

Whole class discussion and analysis; some time spent

in small groups

Materials

— Dry erase or chalk board

— 1 classroom rodent (mouse, hamster, gerbil, etc.)

in a cage

— Empty aquarium with bedding and rodent supplies.

Tape the bottom edge of the cage and label each

corner with letters A–D, creating quadrants.

— Stopwatch

— All Occurrences Sampling data sheet

— Scan Sampling data sheet: Habitat use

— Scan Sampling data sheet: Marked individuals

— Focal Sampling data sheet

— Looking for Patterns handout (optional)

— Which Sampling Method Works Best? worksheet

3.1 WHICH SAMPLING METHOD WORKS BEST?

27

Procedure

1 Ask students how we could find out how middleschool students spend their time. Write possibleanswers on the board.

2 Ask students what a time budget might be. Writepossible answers on the board.

3 Ask them what a time budget for a middle school studentmight look like. As a class, design one on the board.

4 Hand out the All Occurrences Sampling data sheet.Discuss how to tally. What does all occurrences mean?What does tally mean? What is a focal behavior? Referto key terms. Why are the behaviors defined? Discussany unclear parts.

5 Position the students in a circle with the rodent cage inthe center on a desk. Start the time and have studentstally all occurrences of behavior for 5-7 minutes.

6 Have students total the tallies. To find the percentage,divide the total of each behavior by the total of alloccurrences, then multiply by 100 (e.g., 5 sniffs of fooddivided by 52 total behavior occurrences multiplied by 100 = 9.6% of the time spent sniffing food). Discuss problems or questions. Many students find this part difficult.

7 Hand out the two Scan Sampling data sheets. Discusshow to tally on these sheet. What does scan mean?What is a quadrant? What are intervals? What area isA? B? C? D? Refer to key terms.

8 Again, group the students in a circle. Place the quadrantlabeled cage into the center of the circle. Move therodent into the new cage. Begin the time as soon as it isinside. Speak or ring a bell every 20 seconds to remindstudents to tally data. Students can work in cooperativegroups with a timekeeper, an observer who calls out theobservations, a recorder who writes, and one who takescare of the materials and sets up the quadrants.

9 Ask students to total tallies and find percentages.Discuss problems.

10 Have students look over their data and see if they caninfer anything about rodents from the data theycollected. What is missing? Can any clearunderstanding or answer come from these twosamplings of data? Does it need to be compared tosomething else?

11 Point out the different questions on the worksheets.How is each type of sampling suited to each question?

12 Explain that all animals are engaging in some type ofbehavior all the time –- even if it doesn’t look like itand only one kind of behavior at a time.

13 Scientists use two terms to separate types ofbehaviors — states and events. Write these terms anddefinitions on the board or overhead.

14 Have students look at the two different Scan Samplingdata sheets. Are the behaviors listed mostly states orevents? (These are mostly events. Eating andgrooming can be states — depending on length oftime) What if the rodent was sleeping? Would this type of sampling method be helpful? (not for only 5 minutes — but it would for longer periods of time)

15 Now look at the All Occurrences Sampling data sheet.Are you recording states or events? (This should bemostly states – it is likely that an event could be lost ifit is between recording times. Ask students if this wasobserved by anyone.)

16 How do scientists decide which type of ethogram to use? (It is determined by the question they seek to answer.)

17 Hand out Which Sampling Method Works Best? or write the questions on the board. As a group, discusswhich sampling methods would provide the mostuseful information in answering the questions, orassign the worksheet as homework.

18 Have students summarize their understanding ofeach sampling type in their science journals.

WHICH SAMPLING METHOD WORKS BEST?3.1

28

Teacher Tips

SAMPLING METHOD DEFINITION CONSIDERATIONS

All Occurrences Recording each time a Especially useful for studying rare or infrequent

Sampling behavior is performed, either behaviors. Also useful if you are interested in

on a focal animal or among whether a behavior occurs more in one setting, by

all animals present. one sex, by one age class, etc. Time budgets cannot

be derived from this type of data. Not useful if

you are interested in the amount of time spent in a

given state; more useful in studying behavioral events.

Focal Animal Collecting data focusing Video is a useful tool for this type of sampling.

Sampling on one individual animal Working in teams is also useful. This is the only type

at a time, noting every of sampling that gives us data with which we can

behavior that animal generate a flow chart. Time budgets can be derived

performs, and then pooling from this type of data. Especially useful if you are

the data for a number of interested in the amount of time spent in a given state;

different animals. less appropriate if you are studying behavioral events.

Scan Sampling Collecting data at specified Still photos may be useful in doing this sampling.

time intervals, and noting This method is useful in asking question about habitat

what each animal is preference, food preference, or preferred nearest

currently doing or where neighbor. Time budgets can be derived from this type

they are located. of data. The fraction of time spent in a given state

can be derived from this data. If you are studying

behavioral events, you are likely to miss them with

this sampling method.

Different sampling methods can be used to answer the same question. It can be an interesting

exercise for advanced students to compare the answer they get from collecting observations with

different sampling methods.


All Occurrences: Recording each time a behavior is performed, either on a focal animal or

among all animals present.

Uses: Especially useful for studying rare of infrequent behaviors. Also useful if you are

interested in whether a behavior occurs more in one setting, by one sex, by one age class,

etc. Time budgets cannot be derived from this type of data. Not useful if you are interested

in the amount of time spent in a given state; more useful in studying behavioral events.

What activity does a classroom animal spend most of its time doing?

Prediction: ____________________________________________________________________

Species: ______________________________________________________________________

Start Time: _____________ End Time: _____________

Tally all occurrences of selected focal behaviors.

POSSIBLE BEHAVIORS OCCURRENCES TOTAL PERCENTAGE

Sniffs food

Looks around cage

Enters shelter

Climbs on object

Self grooms

Eats

Runs on wheel

Other

Total behaviors 100%

DEFINITIONSAdd to this list or change it as necessary for your species.

Sniffs food – nose within two centimeters and pointing toward food

Looks around cage – both paws are up on side of cage

Enters shelter – all four feet are under roof of shelter

Climbs on object – all four feet are on object

Self grooms – lick, scratch or rub any part of own body

Eats – chew on food in any way

Runs on wheel – all four paws are on the wheel and it turns

Other – any behavior not mentioned (specify)

29

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ALL OCCURRENCES SAMPLING DATA SHEET

3.1

30

QUADRANTSTIME A B C D

153045

1:00153045

2:00153045

3:00153045

4:00153045

5:00153045

6:00153045

7:00TOTAL%age

Scan Sampling: Collecting data at specified time intervals, either on focal animal or group.

Uses: This method is useful in asking questions about habitat preference. If you are studying behavioral

events, you are likely to miss them with this sampling method.

How does your chosen species explore a new environment? Which substrate does the animal prefer?

Prediction: _____________________________________________________________________________

Species: _______________________________________________________________________________


Scan by quadrants at 15 second intervals. Record the number of animals in each quadrant or the behaviors

observed in each quadrant.

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SCAN SAMPLING DATA SHEET: HABITAT USE

3.1

What does your data tell you? Explain in a few sentences what you have learned about where your animal

prefers to be.

31

Scan Sampling: Collecting data at specified time intervals, either on focal animal.

Uses: This method is useful in asking questions about habitat preference, food preference, or preferred

nearest neighbor. Time budgets can be derived from this type of data. The fraction of time spent in a given

state can be derived from this data. If you are studying behavioral events, you are likely to miss them with

this sampling method.

How do different classroom animals behave?

Prediction: _____________________________________________________________________________

Species: _______________________________________________________________________________


Scan by quadrants at 15 second intervals. Record the behavior of each animals at the moment of the scan.

Use the behaviors identified on the All Occurrences sheet.

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SCAN SAMPLING DATA SHEET: MARKED INDIVIDUALS

3.1

INDIVIDUAL ANIMAL IDENTIFIER (FILL IN BELOW)TIME

153045

1:00153045

2:00153045

3:00153045

4:00153045

5:00153045

6:00153045

7:00TOTAL%age

What does your data tell you? Explain in a few sentences what you have learned about how these animals

spent their time.

32

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FOCAL SAMPLING DATA SHEET

3.1

TIME Behaviors

Focal Sampling: Collecting data focusing on one individual animal at a time.

Uses: This is the only type of sampling that gives us data with which we can generate a flow chart. Time

budgets can be derived from this type of data. Focal Sampling is especially useful if you are interested in

the amount of time spent in a given state; less appropriate if you are studying behavioral events.

How does your chosen individual behave?

Prediction: _____________________________________________________________________________

Species:____________________________________ Individual ID:______________________________


Focus your observations on one individual for the given period of time. Record every behavior the animal

performs during the observation period. Different students may focus on different individuals.

What does your data tell you? Explain in a few sentences what you have learned about how your

animal behaves.

33

FOR EACH OF THE FOLLOWING QUESTIONS:

• Write in the sampling method that would best measure the behavior, and indicate the reason.

• Use your notes and work together as a group.

1 Which part of the yard does my dog use the most?

2 How do birds spend their time?

3 Which area of a cat’s body is groomed the most?

4 What kind of dog food does my dog like best?

5 What does a squirrel do most — eat or play?

6 Does the male cardinal take part in parenting?

7 How much of a duck’s time is spent preening (grooming)?

8 When is a mouse most active?

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WHICH SAMPLING METHOD WORKS BEST?

3.1

all occurrences sampling: recording each time a behavior is performed, either on a focal

animal or among all animals present.

events: behaviors that last for a brief time. It is usually important to know how often each

behavior occurs, and who each behavior involves. (e.g., bite, vocalize, approach)

focal animal sampling: collecting data focusing on one individual animal at a time. Video

is a useful tool for this type of sampling. Working in teams is also useful.

interval: one segment of time designated by the researcher for making observations.

quadrant: one part of an area marked off in fourths, or four quadrants.

scan sampling: collecting data at specified time intervals, either on focal animal or

group. Still photos may be useful in doing this sampling.

states: behaviors that last for some period of time. They have a clear beginning and end,

and some period of time lapses in between. (e.g., rest, play, feed)

34

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LOOKING FOR PATTERNS: DEVELOPING A BEHAVIORAL FLOW CHART

3.1

Look over your focal sample observations. Do you see any patterns? Does one behavior

almost always lead to another behavior? Create a flow chart that shows the order in which

behaviors occur and how often each behavior follows another. Explain a few of the major

trends that your flow chart illustrates.

Sample flow chart

The arrows from a particular behavior represent all the behaviors that occur after it. The

percentage shows how often the behavior is followed by each other behavior. In this

example sleeping is followed by walking 77% of the time, and by grooming 23% of the

time. Playing is always followed by grooming. In order to generate a flow chart like this,

you need focal sample data, because it records sequences of events.

Sleeping

Grooming

Playing

Feeding

Walking

77%

23%

76%

82%

13%

18%

91%

100%

11%9%

35

Answers to W h i c h S a m p l i n g M e t h o d W o r d s B e s t ?

1 Which part of the yard does my dog use the most?

Scan sampling, because it determines location.

2 How do birds spend their time?

Focal sampling, because long-term observations are needed.

3 Which area of a cat’s body is groomed the most?

All occurrences of grooming behaviors will answer this, or the cat’s body

can be divided into different quadrants and a scan sample can be taken

during grooming.

4 What kind of dog food does my dog like best?

Focal sampling, because data is needed on one animal, or if a number of

food bowls are available, scan sample can get at how often the dog is eating

each food.

5 What does a squirrel do most – eat or play?

Focal sampling, because information about one animal over a period of time

is needed.

6 Does the male cardinal take part in parenting?

All occurrences, because you are trying to determine if parental behavior

occurs in males. You are not looking for a frequency just whether the

behavior occurs.

7 How much of a duck’s time is spent preening (grooming)?

Focal sampling can give you data on how much of their time is spent in

preening, or you could take all occurrences data for just preening in a flock

of ducks.

8 When is a mouse most active?

Scan sampling determines time of activity. All occurrences data on active

vs. inactive could also give you data with which to answer this question.


36

S t u d e n t R e s e a r c h S a m p l e s

Read the following descriptions of student animal research. Decide which sampling method

was used in their experiment.

A After observing the channel-billed toucan at the zoo, Emily wondered which parts of the exhibit

the bird used the most. She thought maybe the toucans spent most of their time in trees, so she

predicted that the toucan would spend most of its time in the part of the exhibit with a tree in it.

What sampling method should Emily use to answer her question? _______________________

B Kit was observing a group of white storks. He wondered how storks spend their time.

He predicted that they spent most of their time standing.

What sampling method should Kit use to answer his question? __________________________

C Duane was studying the spectacled owl. It didn’t seem to be moving around much the afternoon

he made his observations. He wondered if the owl was more active morning, afternoon, evening,

or night. He predicted that it was most active at night.

What sampling method should Duane use to answer his question?_______________________

D Keesha was watching the gorals at the zoo. She thought they groomed themselves right after

playing with each other on the rocks.

What sampling method should Keesha use to answer her question?______________________

Answers to S t u d e n t R e s e a r c h S a m p l e s

A Scan sampling

B Either focal or a scan sample can give data on the frequencies of behaviors. If individuals are hard

to follow because animals move away, scan samples may work better. Otherwise pooling the focal

sample data from multiple individuals will give an answer.

C Focal sampling would give Duane this data on a single individual.

D Only focal sampling will give Keesha the sequence data which she needs to answer her question.


37

Lesson Overview

Students participate in a sample analysis exercise to

discuss factors of analysis. They sort through useful

and irrelevant data. They look for patterns or trends

that help them decide whether their data support the

hypothesis in question.

Student Objectives


1 determine whether data support or refute a

hypothesis.

2 calculate the mean, median and mode of data

they collect.

3 accurately graph quantitative data.

4 identify whether a data set they collect has

incomplete or missing data.

Key Terms

analyze – to examine in detail, to break a whole into parts

descriptive statistics – quantitative data pooled together

and organized to describe the characteristics of a group

statistical tests – methods for determining whether

trends, relationships, or differences in groups or

treatments are the result of random variation in nature

or indicate real patterns

mean – the average

median – the middle number of a list of numbers

mode – the most frequent number in a list of numbers

axis – the horizontal or vertical lines on a graph

hypothesis – the answer to your scientific question

about the outcome of your experiment

prediction – an explanation of your hypothesis; the why

Timeline

1 – 2 class periods

Groups Size

Small groups

Materials

— Jim’s Crickets handout

— Marshall’s Crows handout

— Calculators

— Graph paper

3.2 SAMPLE DATA ANALYSIS: J IM’S CRICKETS AND MARSHALL’S CROWS

38

Procedure

1 Discuss the ideas of: scientific question, hypothesis,

and specific prediction.

2 Hand out Jim’s Crickets.

3 Read the directions together.

4 You might want to divide this exercise into two parts.

The first three questions help students understand the

differences between scientific question, hypothesis,

and specific prediction. These can be discussed in

one period. The remaining questions lead them

through data analysis and can be discussed in a

subsequent class period.

3 Discuss how to go about analyzing the data. Take

suggestions from the students. Discuss what analysis

means. What statistical information would help?

What do you do with the data? (mean, mode, median,

patterns, or trends)

6 Give the students time to analyze the data in small

groups.

7 Go over the answers to the exercise. See if students

can spot the irrelevant data (courtship occurrence).

8 Discuss the importance of planning your data analysis

before beginning your research project.

9 Hand out Marshall’s Crows. Either use this as an

opportunity to test students’ understanding or as a

second example of data analysis for more practice.

Teacher Tips

• Depending on the level of your students, you can use

these activities in a variety of ways. You can work on

them as a class, break them into parts and work on them

in small groups as guided practice (#1-3, #4-6), or have

students work on the whole thing independently.

• Go through the description as a class and underline

clue words like wondered and maybe to help students

identify the question and prediction.

• Give your students cues as to how to read the data chart.

Discuss any unknown terms (ovipositor, courtship). They

could highlight the data that is relevant to Jim’s question

and hypothesis.

SAMPLE DATA ANALYSIS: J IM’S CRICKETS AND MARSHALL’S CROWS3.1

39

Jim has been studying crickets all month. First he created a detailed ethogram of more than 40 cricket behaviors,

including 5 different songs.

During the long hours of observation, Jim thought he noticed distinct differences between the time budgets of

different females. He wondered whether older females might have different priorities and constraints on their

behavior. He thought that older females would need to consume more calories to maintain their larger bodies. He

also expected that they would have to spend more time feeding than smaller, younger females. Jim marked individual

females with tiny dots of paint and began collecting data on their behaviors. Here is a table from Jim’s journal. Your

job is to decide whether his predictions were met and whether he should accept or reject his hypothesis.

1 5 Y 2 0 X X 14 7 4 732 6 Y 2 3 X X 13 5 2 76

4 8 Y 3 2 X X 12 6 4 736 3 N 1 0 X X 21 0 0 75

7 6 Y 2 1 X X 15 4 2 749 3 N 1 0 X 14 0 0 8012 3 N 1 0 X X 19 0 0 79

15 4 N 2 0 17 0 0 8116 6 Y 2 1 X X 15 6 4 7117 3 N 1 0 X X X 18 0 0 75

FemaleCricket # Wings

CourtshipObserved Apple Cat Food Lettuce

FeedingBehaviors Courtship Oviposition Hiding

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JIM’S CRICKETS

3.2

Food Items Observed Eaten Behavioral Time Budget (%)

WING BUDS ARE PRESENT IN JUVENILECRICKETS, BUT FULL SIZE WINGS L IKETHESE ARE SEEN ON ADULTS.

THE OVIPOSITOR IS THE ORGAN WITHWHICH THE FEMALE CRICKET LAYSEGGS. IT EXTENDS STRAIGHT BACKFROM THE ABDOMEN.

Ovipositorlength(mm)

Weight(grams)

40

1 Clearly state Jim’s general research question.

2 Clearly state Jim’s hypothesis.

3 Clearly state Jim’s prediction. (What does he expect to see if his hypothesis is correct?)

State Jim’s hypothesis and specific prediction in an if-then form:

If _________________________________________ then _________________________________________

4 Highlight or circle the data that is relevant to testing Jim’s prediction. How can you decide whether Jim’s data

supports his hypothesis or not? Present his data graphically to demonstrate whether it supports his hypothesis or not.

5 What statistics can you calculate to help decide whether Jim’s hypothesis is supported or not? How do

statistical tests help us decide?

6 How might you modify or rephrase Jim’s prediction? Explain your reasoning.

7 What else does Jim’s data suggest to you? Why can’t we just collect lots of data and decide what they tell us

after the fact? What risk do we run if we make our hypotheses and predictions after we see the data?

8 What should Jim do next? What other information does he need or what other data should he collect to test his

hypothesis? Why? What other questions might these data point him to further investigate?

9 Write any words or phrases you don’t understand.

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JIM’S CRICKETS QUESTIONS

3.2

41

Answers to J I M ’ S C R I C K E T S

1 Clearly state Jim’s general research question.

Do older female crickets have different priorities than

smaller, younger female crickets?

2 Clearly state Jim’s hypothesis.

If older female crickets need to consume more calories

than younger female crickets in order to maintain their

larger bodies.

3 Clearly state Jim’s prediction.

…Then older females have to spend more time feeding

than smaller, younger females.

4 How can you decide whether Jim’s data supports

his hypothesis or not? Present his data graphically

demonstrate whether it supports his hypothesis or not.

Identify what is a large and a small cricket.

5-8 mm for ovipositor and >2 grams of weight)

Find the mean, median and mode of the percent of

time for feeding behaviors of large and small crickets.

(graph the mean)

5 What statistics can you calculate to help decide

whether Jim’s hypothesis is supported or not?

How do statistical tests help us decide?

Large: Small:

Mean 13.8% Mean 17.8%

Median 14% Median 18%

Mode 15% Mode n/a

The larger percentage of feeding behaviors for small

crickets indicates that they spend more time eating

than larger ones, which is opposite of Jim’s prediction.

6 How might you modify or rephrase Jim’s prediction?

Explain your reasoning.

The smaller crickets spend more time eating because

they are still growing.

7 What else does Jim’s data suggest to you?

Maybe the type of food makes a difference. Only small

crickets ate lettuce.

Why can’t we just collect lots of data and decide what

they tell us after the fact?

If we don’t know what we are looking for, we may not

collect the kind of data that will best answer the

question. Also, some variables may not have been

controlled.

What risk do we run if we make our hypotheses and

predictions after we see the data?

If you make your hypothesis and predictions before

seeing the data, the experiment is a real test of the

hypothesis. It is possible to find patterns and trends in

any large data set. Some of those are just accidents of

random sampling. So if you collect data, and make a

hypothesis and prediction afterwards, you are likely to

make false conclusions.

8 What should Jim do next? What other information does

he need or what other data should he collect to test his

hypothesis? Why? What other questions might these

data point him to further investigate?

Conduct additional trials — more crickets.

Test specific food types.

Is male feeding behavior similar or different?

Why do crickets spend so much time hiding?

Is there a relationship between feeding times and

courtship times?


42

Marshall has decided to study the trade-offs that crows need to

make when feeding. He knows that if crows did not have to feed,

they could stay very safe up in trees and always be looking

around for dogs, cats, and other predators. But they do have to

feed. And when a crow is busy eating, it cannot be looking

around for dogs at the same time.

Marshall has hypothesized that crows may get around this

problem by staying in large groups or mobs. Even though this

may lead to more competition for food, a crow in a mob might

benefit from the early warning caws of its neighbors.

Marshall has made the prediction that the larger the mob size, the more time each crow can spend feeding and less time

each needs to spend watching for predators.

Marshall made this hypothesis and prediction after watching crows in Forest Park for a total of 15 hours over four

weekends. He has generated an ethogram which describes more than 30 different crow behaviors. Among the feeding

behaviors are: perching on trash can, pecking at French fry bag, perching on roadkill, pecking at guts, flipping tidbit in

the air, swallowing tasty morsel. Among the predator avoidance behaviors are: stretch neck and stand on tippy toes,

look left, look right, hop onto higher perch and look around.

Marshall has decided to spend his Thanksgiving break collecting data with which to test his hypothesis. Aside from the

two hours he needs to spend at his grandparents’ house, he will be in Forest Park from dawn to dusk each day. He wants

to collect data on at least ten different mobs of crows.

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MARSHALL’S CROWS

3.2

43

1 What group characteristics will Marshall need to note about each of the mobs that he plans to observe?

2 What data will Marshall have to collect on individual crows in each mob? What type of sampling will he need to do?

3 What will Marshall have to do to pool the behavioral data he collects for each different mob of crows? How many crows in

each mob should he observe?

4 Make a data sheet that Marshall can use to collect his data on each of his mobs.

5 Did Marshall use anthropomorphism? Why/Why not?

6 Even before he has the data, we know what the axes of Marshall’s final graphs should be. What type of graph should he

use (bar graphs, scatter plot, pie chart)? Draw the axes of his graphs and label the axes.

7 Draw what you expect to see if the data supports Marshall’s hypothesis. (Use red.)

8 Draw what you could see if Marshall’s hypothesis is not supported by the data. (Use blue.)

9. State another prediction that would follow from Marshall’s hypothesis.

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MARSHALL’S CROWS QUESTIONS

3.2

44

7 Draw what you expect to see if the data supports

Marshall’s hypothesis. (Use red.)

Indicated by solid lines

8 Draw what you could see if Marshall’s hypothesis is

not supported by the data. (Use blue.)

Indicated by dashed lines

9 State another prediction that would follow from

Marshall’s hypothesis.

Predator avoidance behavior vs. feeding is at

approximately the same ratio, no matter how large

the mob is.

Answers to M A R S H A L L’ S C R O W S

1 What group characteristics will Marshall need to note

about each of the mobs that he plans to observe?

He will need to note the size of each mob.

2 What data will Marshall have to collect on individual

crows in each mob? What type of sampling will he need

to do?

Marshall wants to know how much time crows in

different size mobs spend feeding and looking for

predators. He should do focal sampling on different

individuals and quantify what percentage of their time is

spent feeding versus looking around.

3 What will Marshall have to do to pool the behavioral

data he collects for each different mob of crows?

How many crows in each mob should he observe?

He needs to take an average or mean of the percent

of time spent feeding and looking around. He should

observe as many crows as possible per mob and at

least 10 mobs of each size.

4 Make a data sheet that Marshall can use to collect

his data on each of his mobs.

Mob number _________

Crow #1 (5 min.) List all behaviors and time spent at each.

Crow #2 (5 min.) List all behaviors and time spent at each.

5 Did Marshall use anthropomorphism?

Yes: tasty morsel, tippy toes

6 Even before he has the data, we know what the axes

of Marshall’s final graphs should be. What type of graph

should he use (bar graph, scatter plot, pie chart)? Draw

the axes of his graphs and label the axes.

He should use bar graphs. (See graph axes after no. 8.)

large mob small mobav

erag

e tim

e sp

ent

look

ing

large mob small mob

aver

age

time

spen

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edin

g


45

Lesson Overview

Students evaluate sample questions about behaviors.

They must determine if the questions are scientifically

answerable and what methods would be required for

testing hypotheses that follow from these questions.

Reviews how to write a testable research question, as

well as the scientific method.

Student Objectives

1 Students will be able to distinguish a scientific

question from a hypothesis.

2 Students will be able to accurately identify scientific

research questions.

3 Students will be able to describe appropriate tests of

hypotheses.

Key Terms

scientific question – a question that can be answered

by observing and analyzing data

prediction – An estimate of what will happen in an

experiment.

quantifiable – able to be measured or counted

variables – range of situations or circumstances that

could affect the outcome of an experiment such as

temperature, sunlight, time, noise from the hall).

Timeline

2 class periods

Group Size

Whole class

Materials

—Dry erase or chalk board (or overhead projector)

—Homework: Scientific or Not worksheet; Testable

or Not worksheet

Procedure

1 One of the most difficult steps for students doing

independent research projects is the choice of a

research topic and framing of a research question.

The topics and questions most interesting to the

student might be either inappropriate for scientific

investigation or impossible to investigate given their

time, experience and resources.The following work-

sheets are designed to help students distinguish

scientific questions from unscientific questions and

testable hypotheses from untestable hypotheses

(either inherently untestable or untestable given the

students’ experience and resources).

Before they begin on the worksheets, a class

discussion of successful scientific investigations

should get them thinking along productive lines.

3.3 HOW DO WE CHOOSE A SCIENTIF IC QUESTIONTO INVESTIGATE? PART I

46

a You can ask your class the open ended question: What

are necessary and/or desirable features of a scientific

question that we want to investigate?

Scientific questions are typically:

Interesting to the Researcher

If you don’t care about the answer, your data is apt to

be less detailed.

Simple and Straightforward

Too many variables makes the test harder to control

and the results harder to analyze.

Answerable and Practical

You need to have access to the necessary tools and

have time to complete the experiment.

Quantifiable

Results that are measured and/or counted are helpful

to other researchers. Questions about feelings,

motivations or purposes are harder to measure.

b Alternatively, you can organize the class discussion

around comparison of the following questions, and

discuss whether they would be good choices for an

independent research project. Try to determine if a

middle school student could reach the question at our

zoo, and what each student would have to do next:

i Randy wants to know if koala bears enjoy eating

only eucalyptus leaves.

Since we can’t interview the koalas, it is difficult to

determine whether they enjoy something.

ii Aubri wants to know if eucalyptus leaves provide

enough nutrition for the koalas.

Aubri might be able to answer this with library

research, but we cannot test the nutritional needs

of a species by behavioral observations in a zoo.

iii Nathan wants to know if koalas prefer any particular

part of the eucalyptus leaf.

Nathan can observe the koalas eating and see if

they eat certain parts first, or if they discard certain

parts of the leaves.

iv Azaria wants to know if koalas can digest other green

foods like lettuce, cabbage, cucumber, spinach.

Perhaps this could be tested by examining the stool

of koalas who ate these foods and determining

how far these different foods were digested.

However, the koalas are unlikely to even taste foods

and the zoo certainly wouldn’t allow Azaria to

tamper with their diets.

v Christopher wants to know why koalas only eat

eucalyptus leaves.

Like Aubri, he might be able to find the answer to

this question in the library, but not by taking his

own data at the zoo.

2 Ask students to work through the Scientific Question?

worksheet in groups of 2-3.

3 Discuss their small group answers in the full class.

4 Ask students to work through the Testable Hypothesis

worksheet in groups of 2-3.

5 Discuss the small group answers in the full class.

HOW DO WE CHOOSE A SCIENTIF IC QUESTION TO INVESTIGATE? PART I3.3

47

FOR EACH OF THE FOLLOWING QUESTIONS:

• Indicate whether or not the question is a scientific question, and why.

• If the question is not scientific, revise it.

1 Are otters in danger?

2 Do naked mole rats like to eat carrots?

3 Why do meerkats stand up?

4 Are chimps closely related to humans?

5 Do male and female hornbills have different physical characteristics?

6 Is there any relationship between colors and behaviors of lizards?

7 Are storks social?

8 Why do honeybees like flowers?

9 Are sea lions lions?

10 If a boa constrictor and a tarantula fought, who would win?

11 Where do flamingos spend their time in the flight cage?

12 Do the rainbow lorikeets interact with other kinds of lorikeets in the aviary?

13 Why are cheetahs in trouble?

nameACTIVITY

SCIENTIFIC QUESTION?

3.3

48


Answers to S C I E N T I F I C Q U E S T I O N ?

1 Are otters in danger? Not scientific. Are otters endangered?

2 Do naked mole-rats like to eat carrots?

Not scientific. Do naked mole-rats eat carrots in

preference to other foods?

3 Why do meerkats stand up?

Scientific.

4 Are chimps closely related to humans?

Scientific.

5 Do male and female hornbills have different

physical characteristics?

Scientific.

6 Is there any relationship between colors and

behaviors of lizards?

Scientific.

7 Are storks social?

Scientific.

8 Why do honeybees like flowers?

Not scientific. Why do honeybees visit flowers?

Why do honeybees prefer to visit some flowers

over other lowers? Like is an

anthropomorphic term.

9 Are sea lions lions?

Not scientific. How are sea lions related to lions?

10 If a boa constrictor and a tarantula fought, who

would win?

Not scientific. How do tarantulas and boa

constrictors defend themselves and capture

their prey? These species don’t fight each other

because they don’t compete for the same food.

11 Where do flamingos spend their time in the

flight cage at the zoo?

Scientific.

12 Do the rainbow lorikeets interact with other

kinds of lorikeets in the aviary?

Scientific.

13 Why are cheetahs in trouble?

Not scientific. Why are cheetahs endangered?

49

nameACTIVITY

TESTABLE HYPOTHESIS?

3.3

FOR EACH OF THE FOLLOWING HYPOTHESES:

• Indicate whether or not the hypothesis is testable using quantitative data that you

could collect by observing animals at the zoo.

• If the question is not testable, revise it.

• What data would you collect to test the hypothesis?sis?

1 Otters enjoy swimming.

2 Naked mole-rats like to eat carrots.

3 Meerkats stand up in order to look out for predators.

4 Chimps are closely related to humans.

5 Male and female hornbills act the same.

6 Green lizards live in the crowns of trees and brown lizards live

on the trunks of trees.

7 Storks are social animals.

8 Honeybees visit flowers that are likely to have the most nectar.

9 Sea lions are a kind of lion.

10 A boa constrictor could beat a tarantula in a fight.

11 Flamingos spend most of their time in the northeast corner of

the flight cage at the zoo.

12 Rainbow lorikeets don’t like to interact with other kinds of lorikeets in

the aviary.

13 Cheetahs are hunted for their furs because people think they

are the most beautiful wild cat.

50

Answers to T E S TA B L E H Y P O T H E S I S ?

1 Otters enjoy swimming.

Not testable; we cannot know what they like.

Alternative: Otters spend most of their time

swimming. Generate a time budget for otters.

2 Naked mole rats like to eat carrots.

Not testable; we cannot know what they like.

Alternative: Naked mole-rats will eat carrots in

preference to other foods. Compare time spent

eating different foods, or numbers of animals

eating different foods.

3 Meerkats stand up in order to look out for

predators.

Testable. Plot the number of meerkats standing

and the number of people in front of their

exhibit. Compare the number of meerkats

standing when the foxes or sand cat are active

versus when those predators are sleeping.

4 Chimps are closely related to humans.

Testable, but not with observations at the zoo.

Chimps and humans spend similar proportions

of their time feeding, resting and moving.

Generate time budgets or the two species at

the zoo using focal sampling.

5 Male and female hornbills are the same.

Not testable because the question is so vague.

Male and female hornbills spend the same

proportion of their time feeding young. Focal

sampling and time budgets for the males and

females would allow you to test this hypothesis.

6 Green lizards live in the crowns of trees and

brown lizards live on the trunks of trees.

Testable. Scan sample and tally proportion of

time spend on different surfaces.

7 Storks are social animals.

Testable. Develop ethogram and determine

whether they perform social behaviors such as

alarm calling and allogrooming. Scan sample

and determine whether animals are clumped,

randomly distributed or evenly distributed.

8 Honeybees visit flowers that are likely to have the

most nectar.

Testable, but not at the zoo. Honeybees rest in

the nest after bringing home a crop full of

nectar. Focal sampling of bees that have just

returned to the hive will answer the question.

9 Sea lions are a kind of lion.

Not testable with observations at the zoo. Sea lions

and lions spend the same proportion of their time

resting and moving around their enclosures.

10 A boa constrictor could beat a tarantula in a fight.

Not testable with observations at the zoo. Most

predators will “stalk” their prey, even if they are not

fed live food. Focal sampling of various predatory

species during feeding time will answer the question.

11 Flamingos spend most of their time in the

northeast corner of the flight cage at the zoo.

Testable by scan sampling.

12 Rainbow lorikeets don’t like to interact with other

kinds of lorikeets in the aviary.

Not testable, because we cannot determine

what they like or dislike. Rainbow lorikeets

avoid interaction with other kinds of lorikeets

in the aviary. Scan sampling and comparison

of interspecific pairs versus intraspecific pairs

interacting in the aviary will answer the question.

13 Cheetahs are hunted for their furs because people

think they are the most beautiful wild cat.

Partly testable. Interview zoo visitors about which

is the most beautiful wild cat.


S E C T I O N 4

ANIMAL BEHAVIORRESEARCH PROJECTS


This section contains activities centered

around conducting an independent research

project at a zoological park. Students will

write up a proposal for their zoo research

project, which will lay out the question,

hypothesis, prediction and sampling method

before the research begins. The final project

will include a report or presentation of their

results and analysis after completion.

51

52

Animals on Exhibit

Because zoos exhibit live animals, please understand

that sometimes there are circumstances beyond

zookeepers’ control, and that animals may not

always be on exhibit. As such, please have your

students plan for alternatives. The zoo information line

can often give you a heads-up on what is happening

with different species around the zoo.

Student Considerations

In order to make the best of your students’ visit, there

are several things to keep in mind.

1 You will be much better able to direct students if

you are familiar with the areas your students are

visiting. You may want to visit the zoo ahead of time.

Know where to direct students needing to find the

nearest restroom. Are there students in wheelchairs or

using crutches? What is the most accessible route to

get to the exhibit?

2 When observing animals, students often want to

facilitate the animal’s behavior. By the time they are

visiting the zoo, they should understand they are trying

to observe the most natural behaviors. Also, if other

visitors are doing things to try and get the animals

to respond, they should note this occurrence in

comments on their data collection pages. They may

want to not include data collected during this time.

3 Consider how the students will move around the zoo.

How will you group them? Will you move as one big

group? Will small groups go to designated areas and

meet at a central location at a specified time? Do you

need additional adult supervision?

4 Provide students with a written outline of the day’s

activities, including times and meeting locations.

This could be a small strip that they glue into their

science journal.

5 Discuss proper behavior prior to arriving at the zoo.

Remind students that the zoo is a museum, and the

behavior they exhibit should be appropriate for any

type of museum. They are not the only visitors, and

should be respectful of others. Encourage them to pay

particularly close attention to small children. Middle

school students occasionally run over others, as they

can be self-absorbed.

4.1 INTRODUCTION: CONSIDERATIONS FOR F IELD CLASSES AT THE ZOO

53

VISITING THE SAINT LOUIS ZOO

The Saint Louis Zoo is free and open to the public. Your

group does not need to register for a zoo visit unless you are

interested in classroom programs or tours (for which

preregistration is necessary). To visit the zoo for the activities

in this section, simply come to the zoo — there is no need to

call ahead. Contact the education department at

(314) 768-5466 with questions about the zoo visit, or to

learn more about programs, tours or curriculum resources

available through the teacher resource center. You can also

call ahead and have a member of the education department

meet your class and give them an introduction to the zoo.

Your students can also send questions to education

department staff by clicking on the WRITE US button on the

zoo web page, www.stlzoo.org..

HoursThe Saint Louis Zoo is open daily, year-round, except

for Christmas Day and New Year’s Day. The zoo

grounds open at 8 a.m., buildings open at 9 a.m. The

zoo closes promptly at 5 p.m. in the winter and 7 p.m.

in the summer (Memorial Day to Labor Day). Zoo

entry is always free. The Children’s Zoo, Insectarium

and Butterfly house are free between 9 and 10 a.m.

Fridays are VERY busy at the Zoo — you may want to

avoid visiting on Fridays.

Bus TrafficPlease ask bus drivers to heed the following

guidelines to help assure both a safe and convenient

arrival and departure. Buses may not unload or load

across the street from either of our two entrances.

This practice is unsafe for students and creates traffic

congestion. Further, by entering the park in the

correct orientation, buses will not have to turn around,

thus preventing traffic tie-ups and delays in the start

of your visit.

1 If you plan to have students dropped off at The Living

World, direct the bus driver to enter Forest Park from

Skinker Blvd. at Wells Drive. Turn left on Government

Drive and approach The Living World traveling

eastbound. Unload students in front of The Living World.

2 If you plan to have students dropped off at our South

Gate Entrance, direct the bus driver to enter Forest Park

from northbound Hampton Ave., turning west (left) at

Wells Drive. Unload students in front of the South Gate

at the tall ZOO pylon.

3 To assist both you and any zoo staff directing traffic

to identify your bus, be sure your school name is

clearly marked in the front passenger-side window.

Please note that the heaviest school visitation occurs

in April and May. Consequently, you will need extra

time to allow for heavy bus traffic. Please plan your

schedule accordingly.

ParkingLimited parking is available on the streets surrounding

the zoo. Parking is available on either of our two lots. We

charge $7 per car to park on our lots. Bus parking is $14,

and is available on the South Lot only. Parking fees are

subject to change.

Food Service In order to make the most of your zoo visit, you may

want to eat lunch at the zoo. There are a variety of

opportunities, including having students bring their

own lunch, pre-ordering meals through the zoo, or

ordering that day from our food concessions.

INTRODUCTION: CONSIDERATIONS FOR F IELD CLASSES AT THE Z004.1

54

1 You are welcome to bring your own sack lunches.

Please note, however, the zoo is unable to store lunches

for you. Be prepared to carry your lunches or store them

in your bus or vehicle(s). Perhaps you could have your

students carry backpacks with their own lunches. You

are welcome to eat your sack lunches at any of our

outdoor tables, except those on the terrace outside the

Painted Giraffe Cafe.

2 Zoo concessions offer a variety of fare including

burgers, hot dogs, pizza, salads and more. The

Painted Giraffe Cafe is located in The Living World,

and Lakeside Cafe is located in the Central Plaza.

3 Bring your hungry herd and let us satisfy your appetites

with sack lunches. Discounts are available for groups of

15 or more. To order, call our group sales office at (314)

781-0900, ext. 345, for menu and prices. Payment

arrangements are to be made at the time of reservation.

We accept cash, checks, American Express, Discover,

MasterCard and Visa.

Staff Assistance

It is not necessary to speak to any staff before coming

to the Zoo. However, a quick chat with a staff member

may be beneficial to your students, depending on the

purpose of the visit. If students have questions about

a specific house or species, or if a quick overview of a

topic would enrich the purpose of your visit, feel free

to call the education department at (314) 768-5466.

Additionally, there is an information help line that

students or teachers can call to find answers to

questions during their initial research. It is helpful if

the students are very clear on what they need to know

and have practiced asking their questions BEFORE

calling the hotline. The number is (314) 768-5498,

ext. 498. Students can also write letters to the

Education Department, or e-mail the Zoo on the

website www.stlzoo.org under “Write Us.”

Materials Checklist:

—Stopwatches

—Notebooks

—Maps

—Data sheets

—Video cameras/digital cameras

—Clipboards (students often need a firm

writing surface)

—Pencils (pens don’t write well in the air)

—Lunch or money if necessary

—Agenda with time for meeting back up

INTRODUCTION: CONSIDERATIONS FOR F IELD CLASSES AT THE Z004.1

55

Lesson Overview

In this lesson, students will choose a zoo animal for

their research project by viewing videos of 11 different

animals. This lesson begins the research project

process, and can include one, two or three zoo visits

(see chart).

Student Objectives

After observing the behavior of various species,

students will be able to choose a study species for

behavioral research at the zoo.

Timeline

1 class period and one week outside of class

Group Size

Whole class and individual work

Materials

— TV with DVD player, or computer with CD-ROM or

DVD and overhead projector

— “Behaving in Public,” CD-ROM or DVD video,

included with curriculum

4.2 CHOOSING A STUDY SPECIES FOR RESEARCHON ANIMAL BEHAVIOR AT THE ZOO

Zoo visit options for Section 4Teachers may choose to make one, two or three visits.

4.6 Library Exploration

4.7 How do we choosea Scientific Question?

ZOO VISIT(only or last visit)4.9 Field Study

Research: Collecting Behavioral Data

4.8 Research Proposal

4.4 EthogramDevelopment of the Zoo Study Subject

4.2 Choosing a study species for researchon animal behaviorat the zoo

OPTIONAL ZOO VISIT(first visit of two or three)4.3 Organism exploration

at the zoo

OPTIONAL ZOO VISIT(second visit of three)4.5 Field Study Research:

Ethogram Supplementation

Note: Students may makethis visit on their own time.

56

CHOOSING A STUDY SPECIES FOR RESEARCH ON ANIMAL BEHAVIOR AT THE Z004.2

Procedure

1 The whole class will view a sampler video of 11 zoo

species, “Behaving in Public.”

2 Students will be given time to read a bit more about the

species that attract their attention in the magazine that

comes with this unit. If you plan two trips to the

zoo, students can use the first trip to visit each of the

11 species before choosing their study species.

3 Have students answer the following questions about

all, or a subset, of the species they view.

What interests me about this animal?

What questions do I have about this animal?

Would I like to spend time observing this animal?

Why or why not?

Is this animal my choice for a research subject?

4 Students must each choose one of these species for

generation of an ethogram and research project. You

may want to limit the number of students that can work

on the same species (even though they will work

independently) by having a sign up sheet. It is helpful to

have small groups (not singles) for each species.

SPECIES ON VIDEO“BEHAVING IN PUBLIC”

Lion-tailed Macaque

Ring-tailed Lemur

Butterflies

Goral

River Otter

Naked Mole-rat

Malayan sun bear

Flamingo

Chimpanzee

57

Lesson Overview

Students go to the zoo to observe potential species for a

behavioral study. For classes that can visit the zoo twice

(this is preferable), this visit is for preliminary exploration

and practice data gathering. If students can visit the zoo

twice or more, they can choose a species not on CD or

in the Animal Whys magazine.

Student Objectives

While observing the behavior of various species at the

zoo, students will be able to describe behaviors and

place the descriptions within appropriate categories.

Key Terms

exhibit – enclosure in which an animal lives in the zoo

Timeline

3-4 hours

Materials

— Map of zoo

— Observation sheets

Procedure

1 Make sure all permission slips are signed.

2 Depending on the age, size and maturity of your group,

you can have your class visit each of the animals as a

whole class, or assign students to visit each of the

areas in smaller groups in a specific amount of time.

Students can also make a short list of 4 possible study

species to visit and subsequently choose from.

3 Direct students to exhibits they should visit. Indicate

that they will observe each species to determine their

level of interest in that species. They need to complete a

preliminary observation sheet for each species that they

visit. Discuss how to use the data sheet if necessary.

4 In addition to recording the behaviors they observe,

have them ask themselves the following questions:

What interests me about this animal?

What questions do I have about this animal?

Would I like to spend time observing this animal?

Why or why not?

Is this animal my choice for a research subject?

5 Have students turn in their choices and reasons for

choosing their species. This can be done at the end of

the class or for homework.

Teacher Tips

• Remind students to consider the time of day they did

their observations.

• Students will need a Preliminary Behavioral Observation

sheet for EACH species they will observe.

4.3 ORGANISM EXPLORATION AT THE ZOO (OPTIONAL F IRST VISIT OF TWO OR THREE)

58

Species: _______________________________ Date: __________

Time: _____________ Weather: _____________

Number of Animals in Exhibit:__________

nameACTIVITY

PRELIMINARY BEHAVIORAL OBSERVATIONS

4.3

BEHAVIORS OBSERVED IN EACH CATEGORY

feeding

eliminating waste

care giving

parental behaviors

care solicitation

grooming

nesting

exploratory behaviors

locomotion

agonistic behaviors

sexual behaviors

communication

social behaviors

seasonal behaviors

59

General observations or questions about these animals (use Animal Whys natural histories if necessary):

Drawing of animal observed:

nameACTIVITY

PRELIMINARY BEHAVIORAL OBSERVATIONS

4.3

60

Lesson Overview

Students will generate an ethogram of their chosen

study species by viewing a moderate length film of the

species in the zoo. This will prepare them to develop

a research question and hypothesis that they can test

during a zoo visit.

Student Objectives

While viewing a 20 minute video of their chosen study

species, students will be able to construct ethograms

of that species.

Timeline

One week outside of class

Materials

— Computers with CD-ROM and Quicktime

— CD Sampler set with:

• Butterflies

• Chimpanzees

• Chinese gorals

• Goats

• Lion-tailed macaques

• Malayan sun bears

• Naked mole-rats

• Paper kites

• Pink flamingos

• Ring-tailed Lemurs

• River otters

• The Wild Ones: Olive baboons and

Vervet monkeys

Procedure

1 Students will view the 20 minute video of their chosen

species, and create an ethogram of the species.

Students can view these 20 minute segments as

many times as they wish. Since these videos are

edited from many hours of observation, time budgets

cannot be obtained from them. The natural histories

in Animal Whys contain background information on

most of the animals in the videos.

2 Students will hand in the ethogram of their chosen

zoo species. This ethogram should contain a list of

behaviors observed, and a careful description of the

behaviors. Drawings can be added for clarification.

Behaviors should be organized into functional

categories such as: feeding, locomotion, social,

parental, etc. Students who take additional

observations of their chosen species at the zoo can

add information about the frequency of different

behaviors and can supplement their ethogram with

pictures of their chosen species. Refer students to

the dog ethogram in Animal Whys for a model.

Teacher Tips

• Remind students that the sampler videos will give them

a broad spectrum of behaviors — but are not shot in real

time. They do not represent a valid behavior sample.

They will work for practicing data collection, and to give

them an idea of all possible behaviors of the animal.

• Students can support one another in data collection.

One can watch the time, one record, one call out

behaviors, etc.

4 .4 ETHOGRAM DEVELOPMENTOF THE ZOO STUDY SUBJECT

61

Lesson Overview

Students go to the zoo to observe their chosen study

species and supplement their ethogram on the species.

Students may do the visit on their own, after school or

on weekends. This visit is for continued exploration,

practice data gathering, and familiarization with the

study species at the zoo.

Student Objectives

While observing their study species at the zoo, students

will be able to:

1 add newly-observed behaviors to an already-

constructed ethogram.

2 conduct scan or focal sampling to develop a time

budget for their study species.

Key Terms

exhibit – enclosure in which an animal lives in the zoo

cage decorations – suggestions of the animal’s natural

habitat found in the exhibit.

Timeline

3-4 hours

Materials

— Map of zoo

— Watches for each student

— Notebooks for recording observations

Procedure

1 Make sure all permission slips are signed.

2 Direct students to the location of their study species.

Indicate that they will observe their species to add new

behaviors to their ethogram and to develop a time

budget for their species. The sample student project in

the Appendix can be shared with students, if you wish.

4.5 FIELD STUDY RESEARCH: ETHOGRAM SUPPLEMENTATION (OPTIONAL SECOND VISIT OF THREE)

62

Parent Volunteers,

Thanks so much for helping make this science project a success. The students have been hard at work training in various data

gathering techniques. For the zoo portion of the field trip, students will be assigned a particular area and a specific animal

species with which to work. We would like to have parent volunteers at each area to monitor students.

nameACTIVITY

PARENT VOLUNTEERS

4.5

Group 1: 9 a.m. – 10:45 a.m. Group 2: 9 a.m. – 10:45 a.m.

Animal/Area Volunteers Volunteers

Puffin

Penguin

Lion Tailed macaque

Lemurs

Baboon

Prairie Dogs

Naked Mole Rats

Otter

10:45 a.m. Leave areas and meet back at entrance

Walk as a group to _______________________________ to have lunch. Lunch 11 a.m. to 12 p.m.

12:00 Leave picnic area: Volunteers — find your kids and head to the area to begin observations.

Group 1: 12:15 p.m. – 1:45 p.m. Group 2: 12:15 p.m. – 1:45 p.m

Animal/Area Volunteers Volunteers

Puffin

Penguin

Lion Tailed macaque

Lemurs

Baboon

Prairie Dogs

Naked Mole Rats

Otter

1:45 p.m. Leave areas and meet at entrance

2:00 p.m. Busses leave Zoo

2:15 – 2:30 p.m. Arrival at school

6 T H G R A D E Z O O F I E L D C L A S S

Volunteers — find your kids and head to the area to begin observations.

63

ACTIVITY

PARENT VOLUNTEERS

4.5

Behavior Expectations

• Respectful communication to all: peers, parents, volunteers,

zoo staff, and teachers

• Positive participation in all activities

• Demonstrate responsible and respectful behavior towards all

school, zoo, and personal property

The Animal Behavior Observation Project goal is to give students

the opportunity to work in cooperative groups. They will gather

data on their assigned animals through the use of various sampling

techniques which they have practiced in class.

Here is a quick list of information for you to help make the field

experiences the best they can be!

Project Expectations

All students will participate positively in

their lab groups.

Group Roles

• Leader _____________________________________________

• Materials Manger ____________________________________

• Timekeeper _________________________________________

• Chief Support _______________________________________

Group Supplies

Each group will have:

2 clipboards

notebook paper

lab sheets

pencils

stopwatches

64

Lesson Overview

After completion of the ethogram, students will be

instructed to further explore their chosen species in the

library and on the web. This exercise will further

familiarize them with their study species and may lead

them to interesting research questions.

Student Objectives

After conducting library research on their study

species, students will be able to provide the

species’: scientific name, physical description,

reproductive/lifespan facts, species-specific behaviors,

habitat/range, food sources, interactions with other

species/environment, endangered status.

Key Terms

scientific name – the Latin name assigned to each

kind of organism, made up of the genus name and

species name.

life span – the average life length for an organism of a

particular species

species – the most specific group an organism is

categorized in; the last part of the scientific name; a

group of organisms which share an evolutionary

lineage and which can successfully interbreed (if it is

a sexual species).

habitat – the type of vegetation, geology and climate in

which a species is found in nature.

range – the largest area over which an organism

travels within its habitat

interactions – how an organism reacts to and affects

other organisms. (plants and animals)

conservation status – if an organism is threatened,

endangered, protected, or abundant. Based on

population numbers and resource/habitat availability.

library research – this is information (data) gained

about the topic from books (print), videos, websites,

interviews, etc.

field research – this is data gained from conducting

experimental trials (ethograms) or through observation

of actual conditions (first hand).

Timeline

2-3 class periods

Materials

— Computer with Internet access

— Library access

4.6 L IBRARY EXPLORATION

65

Procedure

1 Explain to students that they need to have some more

background information to better understand their

animal and to help them develop a scientific question.

To do this, they will do some library exploration.

Discuss the difference between research and library

exploration (often called library research).

2 Go over what information they will need to find on their

animal. Answer (or ask) questions about the specific

categories. For example:

What is a habitat? What does it have to do with

behavior?

What are species-specific behaviors?

What is a scientific name?

What does life span have to do with behavior?

What is an organism’s physical description, and how

does that influence its behavior?

What is a range?

What food sources does an organism need?

What is an animal’s endangered status? How is that

determined?

How do we find out about interactions of an animal?

3 Give the students 1-3 days to conduct their library

exploration. Schedule time in a library and/or computer

lab. Refer to the appendix for specific websites and

resources.

4 This is a good opportunity to discuss note taking

techniques. Share several methods with students.

5 Encourage students to create a questions page in their

journal. As questions arise regarding their animal, have

them record them all in one place. Some of them will

be answered from their library exploration. Others may

serve as potential experiment questions later. See

student example in Appendix for a sample library

research write up.

Teacher Tips

• Provide an outlined form to organize research for

students with special needs.

L IBRARY EXPLORATION4.6

66

Lesson Overview

Students will apply the tools of developing scientific

questions, hypotheses and tests to their own study

species at the zoo.

Student Objectives


1 generate scientific questions and hypotheses.

2 describe appropriate tests of their hypotheses.

Timeline

Two classes

Materials

— Experimental Development worksheet

Procedure

1 Review the steps of one scientific method. In this

method, hypotheses are tested by using controlled

experiments. These steps include:

Observe/Research

Question

Hypothesis

Experiment/Data Collection

Data Interpretation/Analysis

Review Hypothesis

Report Findings

2 Discuss the elements of testable scientific questions

that they examined in section 3.3.

3 Ask students to reflect on their ethogram and work

through the experimental development worksheet as

homework.

4 The following day, students can compare their initial

research plans in small groups of 3-4 and correct

their work based on feedback from classmates before

handing in the work.

4.7 HOW DO WE CHOOSE A SCIENTIF IC QUESTIONTO INVESTIGATE? PART I I

67

1 List three scientific questions about the species for which you developed an ethogram at home.

2 Clearly state a hypothesis that follows from one of these questions.

2 Explain how you would test whether this hypothesis is supported. What comparisons would you make

or what trends would you look for?

4 Describe the methodology you would use.

5 Describe the sampling technique you would use.

6 What results would support your hypothesis?

7 What results would not support your hypothesis?

8 What results might be inconclusive?

nameACTIVITY

EXPERIMENTAL DEVELOPMENT

4.7

68

Lesson Overview

Too often student research projects fail because of

lack of preparation and feedback before the data

collection begins. In this lesson, students will develop

or refine a scientific question about their animal.

Students will generate a hypothesis to answer the

question and choose a sampling method to help them

test the hypothesis. Then they will write a research

proposal that outlines the scientific framework for their

research project.

Student Objectives

At the end of this activity, students will be able to:

1 ask a scientific question about their selected species.

2 write a testable hypothesis related to their question.

3 choose a sampling method appropriate to their

testing.

Key Terms

hypothesis – a testable statement, with a cause and an

effect. Often stated in If…Then form

variables – changeable factors that might affect the

outcome of an experiment and/or impact an animal’s

behavior

materials – a list of supplies needed in order to complete

an experiment

procedures – a step-by-step list of what will occur during

an experiment; very specific

data – information gathered during an experiment,

could be qualitative or quantitative

qualitative – data that is sensory in nature,

descriptive, whether the animal was red or white,

whether the call was loud or soft; data not based on

numerical measurements

quantitative – data that is numerical in nature,

numbers of occurrences, time a behavior lasts,

number of animals performing the behavior; data is

based on numerical measurements

Timeline

3 hours in class, 1 week outside of class

Materials

— Pre-Proposal Assignment sheet

— Research Proposal writing assignment

Group Size

Group and individual work

4.8 RESEARCH PROPOSAL

69

Procedure

1 Ask students to use the Pre-Proposal Assignment to

organize their thinking about their study species.

2 Have small groups review each others’ sheets. Which

research questions have they answered? Which ones

are not testable? Of the remaining ones, which ones

would make interesting research questions?

3 The teacher needs to circulate and discuss questions

as they are selected.

4 Once they have selected a question, ask the students

what their next steps are. Guide them to see that to

answer this, they will perform an experiment, and that

a sampling method is merely a way to collect data.

Often students don’t think animal behavior studies are

“real” experiments.

5 Allow time for groups to develop their experiments and

data sheets for their samplings. The teacher needs to

move around and answer questions, provide feedback

and monitor on-task behavior. If students are unclear

about which sampling method to use, tell them they

may need more than one.

6 Let students know when they will conduct their field

research.

7 Students will be assigned to write-up a formal research

proposal for testing a hypothesis during their zoo visit.

You may want to have students turn this in far in

advance of their research trip to the zoo so that you

have time to give more feedback and they have time to

revise their project.

Teacher Tips

• You may want to fill out a Proposal sheet as a class so

students understand how to go about it. Then you can

let them work independently after they have seen it

modeled.

RESEARCH PROPOSAL4.8

70

1 List three scientific questions about the zoo species for which you developed an

ethogram from the video, CD or DVD.

2 Choose one of these questions, and explain why it is an interesting scientific question.

3 Clearly state a hypothesis that follows from this question.

4 Explain how you would test whether this hypothesis is supported. What comparisons

would you make or what trends (patterns) would you look for?

5 Explain how you would test whether this hypothesis is false. What comparisons would

you make or what trends would you look for?

6 Describe the sampling technique you will use. How many individuals will you observe?

a What results would support your hypothesis?

b What results would not support your hypothesis?

c What results might be inconclusive (unable to decide)?

nameACTIVITY

PRE-PROPOSAL ASSIGNMENT SHEET

4.8

Write a one to two page proposal explaining the research you

plan to do at the zoo. Begin with some background

information about your study species. Next explain the

research question and why it is of interest. State the

hypothesis you propose to test that will help you answer this

question. Next, discuss how you will test your

hypothesis, what data will you collect, and how you

will decide whether the data supports or refutes your

hypothesis. Include a sample data sheet.

71

nameACTIVITY

RESEARCH PROPOSAL WRITING ASSIGNMENT

4.8

nameACTIVITY

ALTERNATIVE PROPOSAL FORM

4.8

Animal Behavior Experiment Proposal

Species to observe: ___________________________________

Sampling method proposed: ___________________________

Question: ___________________________________________

___________________________________________________

___________________________________________________

Hypothesis: ________________________________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Procedure: Explain how you will setup and perform your experiment.

What is the independent variable in your experiment?

What is the dependent variable?

Design a data table to record your results.

What will you need to complete your experiment?

How long will your experiment take to complete?

Group Roles

• Leader_________________________________________

• Materials_______________________________________

• Timekeeper_____________________________________

• Chief Support___________________________________

72

73

Lesson Overview

Students will visit the zoo to observe their selected

species and collect the data to attempt to answer their

research question.

Student Objectives

While observing their study species at the zoo, students

will be able to:

1 collect behavioral data.

2 record information from zoo signage.

3 sketch physical characteristics and the habitat of

their selected species.

4 determine which variables might affect the behavior

of their selected species.

Timeline

3-4 hours

Materials

— clipboards

— stopwatches

— data sheets

— colored pencils

Procedure

Before the visit:

1 Students should have completed a research proposal

and it should have been approved by the teacher.

2 Have students gather all of their materials: data sheets,

clipboards, map of zoo, clipboards, stop watches,

colored pencils for sketching physical characteristics.

3 Have all permission slips signed.

At the zoo:

4 Direct students to observe their animals and

collect data.

5 Remind them to do several trials during their visit.

6 Remind them that each student must collect data.

7 Encourage them to record information about their

species from any signs around the exhibit.

8 Have students sketch the physical characteristics

of their animal, as well as the habitat displayed in

the exhibit.

9 Afterwards, ask them if there are any variables that

could have affected their outcome. Have them record

those variables.

Teacher Tips

• Organize your observational areas at the zoo — think

about proximity — then group students accordingly.

• Help groups of students to assign jobs in their groups to

facilitate data collection (ie: timer, tallier, observer,

caller). Practice these jobs before going to the zoo.

4.9 F IELD STUDY RESEARCH: COLLECTING BEHAVIORAL DATA

74

Lesson Overview

Students will synthesize the skills and information they

learned in this unit by writing up a report of their zoo

research project.

Student Objectives


1 analyze data they collected.

2 evaluate whether the data support or refute their

hypotheses.

3 organize and present findings from a research

project they conducted.

Timeline

One week outside of class

Procedure

Have students write a report of their zoo research using

the following assignment sheet.

Teacher Tips

• Help kids see where they have been and where they

are going in this project. Help them tie their question

to their data.

• Refer back to Jim’s Crickets for data analysis.

• Discuss graph options and what each kind of graph is

used for.

• Discuss what to do if your data doesn’t support your

question.

• Discuss experiment reliability (Is it repeatable from

your write up?) and validity (Is it controlled?)

• Provide a template for students that need more

scaffolding.

4.10 ANALYSIS OF RESULTS AND WRITE UP OF RESEARCH PROJECT

Alternative Project Ideas

• Written research paper

• Oral research presentation

• Visual research presentation (poster – science fair

structure)

• Technology research presentation (Hyperstudio,

Power Point)

75

Your final research report should contain the following elements:

1 Cover page: Descriptive title including the

name of the study species, a picture of the

study species, your same.

2 Introduction: Background information on

your study species (e.g. where doesit live?,

what does it eat?, is it endangered?), What is

the zoo habitat it lives in? Why is it interesting

to you? What is your research question? What is

the hypothesis you tested?

3 Methods: Where did you observe your species,

how many individualsdid you observe, how

long did youobserve them? What sampling

method did you use? Number of observations

you made? How long were your observations?

What were the weather or other conditions that

could have affected your observations? (This

section builds reliability.)

4 Results: Present your results in a table or

graph. Explain in a paragraph or two what you

found that is relevant to testing your hypothesis

and answering your original question. Your

ethogram is not a result; it is a tool you used in

order to get to this point.

5 Discussion: Explain how your results are

relevant to your original question. Why are they

interesting? What can you now conclude? What

did you learn or observe that wasn’t related to

your question?

6 References: information that you included in

this report that you learned from books,

magazines, websites, etc., must be referenced.

If you do not cite where you learned the

information, you can be accused off plagiarism.

nameACTIVITY

ZOO RESEARCH PROJECT FINAL REPORT ASSIGNMENT

4.10

76

NAME: __________________________________________________________ Grade: ______________________

Date: ________________________ Organism: ______________________________________________________

Group: _______________________________________________________________________________________

Comments:_____________________________________________________________________________________

RESEARCH PROJECT SCORING GUIDE

PROJECT PART

COVER

1OBSERVATION

FROM ZOO

2LIBRARY

RESEARCH

3DEVELOPEDETHOGRAM

4DATA COLLECTION

ANALYSIS ANDCONCLUSION

NEATNESS

ON TIME

BEGINNING

Incomplete

Not included

Less than halfincluded, noreferences

Included butincomplete orunrelated; no

definitions

Included but notconnected to

question and/orincomplete

All in pencil, sloppy, unedited

1 week or more late

DEVELOPING

Name, date

Included but incomplete

5-7 required partsincluded, sparse

references,incomplete

Included but not well connected or

constructed,definitions incomplete

Connected but notwell-documented to question using data

from ethogram; some variables notcontrolled; methods

unclear

In ink but sloppy,smeary and/orunorganized

2 days late

ACCOMPLISHED

Name, date, commonand scientific name

Completelyfilled out, includes

inference andquestion

All 8 parts included;paragraph formatused, references

included

Ethogram fitsquestion asked,

question included,definitions included

Connected toquestion, paragraphformat used, data

supports conclusion;variables mentioned

reliable and validexperiment

Neatly done in ink,parts in order listed,

mostly edited

1 day late

EXEMPLARY

Picture, color detailplus items inaccomplished

category

Completed in ink,inference andquestion arethoughtful

All described in detail; related but notrequired information

included

Well constructed,thoughtful question,observational datadescribed in detail

Both written andvisual analysisincluded; wellconnected to

question and possiblevariables; insightfulobservations made

Word processed orneatly done in ink;

bound or organized,well edited, visuals

included

On time

ANALYSIS OF RESULTS AND WRITE UP OF RESEARCH PROJECT4.10

77

SCORING GUIDE FOR EXPERIMENTS USING THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD

Research

Hypothesis

Variables

Procedure

Chart of Data(raw data)

Graph of Results

Observations

Conclusions, Inferences

Teacher Observations

Overall Rating

Conclusive: answer contains anexceptional amount of prior

knowledge3 points exceeds

Correctly stated with bothvariables identified

3 points exceeds/meets

All variables are identified andexplained well

3 points exceeds

Easily followed containing allprocedural steps in their correct

order. Metric units are usedwhere necessary3 points exceeds

Neat, complete and correctlylabeled

3 points exceeds

Neat, complete and correctlylabeled

3 points exceeds

Thoughtful, very descriptive usinga variety new vocabulary terms

3 points exceeds

Tells whether hypothesis wasproven correct or incorrect byproviding sufficient information

for all of the following –conclusion (a statement of

the results), inferences(assumptions that can be drawn

form the conclusion) andrecommendations for the design

of an experiment3 points exceeds

Student performed experimenthonestly, accurately, and

independently3 points exceeds

Exceeds = 25 – 27 points

Partially conclusive: answercontains a reasonable amount

of prior knowledge2 points meets

All variables are stated correctly2 points meets

Written, but some steps arevague or unclear. Metric units

are used2 points meets

Complete, but lacking a clearlyexplanatory title and/or labeling

2 points meets

Complete, but lacking a clearlyexplanatory title and/or labeling

2 points meets

Partially conclusive using somenew vocabulary terms

2 points meets

Provides sufficient informationfor any two of the following –

conclusion, inferences,recommendations

2 points meets

Student performed experimenthonestly and accurately, butneeded teacher assistance

2 points meets

Meets = 18 – 24 points

Inconclusive: answer indicateslack of prior knowledge1 point does not meet

No hypothesis1 point does not meet

One of the variables is missingor incorrectly stated

1 point does not meet

Procedure missing two or morecritical steps; metric units

not used1 point does not meet

Incomplete, lacking any of thefollowing: a title, dependent or

independent variable, orcollected data


Incomplete, lacking any of thefollowing: a title, dependent or

independent variable, orcollected data


Inconclusive demonstratinglimited vocabulary terms


Provides insufficient informationfor two or all of the following –

conclusion, inferences,recommendations


Student did not perform theexperiment honestly and/or

accurately1 point does not meet

Does not meet = Below 18 points

A L T E R N A T I V E S C O R I N G G U I D E : G R O U P M E T H O D

ANALYSIS OF RESULTS AND WRITE UP OF RESEARCH PROJECT4.10

78

Lesson Overview

Students have the opportunity to reflect over their

conclusions and what they have learned during this

project. This could also include students evaluating their

peers’ presentations.

Student Objectives


1 answer reflective questions on various aspects of

research they conducted.

2 compare and contrast their prior knowledge of animal

behavior research with their post-research knowledge.

Timeline

1 class period

Procedure

1 Have students share their projects with each other. This

could be for the whole class or in like-species groups.

2 Ask students to record questions, comments and

compliments about their peers’ projects.

3 Allow time for students to comment after each

presentation.

4 Hand out Student Self Reflection.

5 Ask the students to demonstrate what they have

learned by answering the questions as completely as

they can. Encourage them to use specific examples

from their research.

6 Have the students compare what they knew when

first started doing animal observations and what they

know now. Have their knowledge and understanding

increased?

4.11 REFLECTION / EVALUATION

79

1 What causes behavior?

2 How do scientists measure, test, or explain behavior?

3 How certain do you feel that the conclusion you reached regarding behavior of

your animal is accurate? Why?

4 Is your research project repeatable by any other scientists, just from using your

report? Why or why not?

5 What did you see in other projects that you would add to your own? Why?

nameACTIVITY

STUDENT SELF-REFLECTION

4.11

80

Lesson Overview

Students or teachers may choose to continue with this

topic in a variety of extension activities.

Student Objectives

Students will continue to expand their knowledge

of behavioral studies by completing a deeper

investigation.

Timeline

Varies. Based on the project chosen.

Procedure

1 Either give the students choices to select from, ask

them to brainstorm topics of interest, or select one of

your choice to proceed with.

2 Suggested extensions include:

• Just as the zoo provided you with a video on your

species, produce your own video/hyperstudio on your

species, or one of your choosing. Will yours be used to

practice ethogram techniques? Or will it be like a

National Geographic Explorer Report? If no technology

is available, create a written natural history of zoo

species like the ones in this unit. If each student

creates one, you might have the whole zoo covered!

• Did your project raise more questions about your

animal’s behavior, or about a similar animal? If so, use

your scientific question to develop a science fair project.

Submit it to your school or community’s science fair!

• How well can your students apply their ethogram skills

to other species? Show the monkey and/or baboon tape

from the first lesson again. This time, ask the students

to write a question, make a hypothesis and create an

appropriate ethogram for the animal. Then show it

again and let them collect their data. Have them write a

conclusion. This could serve as a final exam.

• Use your new found knowledge to do a behavioral study

of an animal close to home. Study a classroom pet

(hamsters, fish, lizards), or one from your school yard

(birds, squirrels, rolypolys, worms, ants) or one from a

nearby park. You could even study other students in

your school. Try to solve a problem that currently exists

that is behavioral in nature. Use the same process.

• Justify a behavior change in your school or community

(service project) by collecting human behavior data.

Examples: recycling issues, SUV usage, test out a

proverb or saying you’ve heard.

• Share what you have learned with other experts. Invite

zoo personnel to your school, or go there, and share

your findings. If you do a study of your school, school

ground or local park, invite concerned parties to your

presentations. Use this scientific methodology to solve a

problem that affects all citizens.

Make your own extension! Be creative!

4.12 FURTHER INVESTIGATIONS

S E C T I O N 5

APPENDICES

81

82

CRICKETS IN THE CLASSROOM

Field crickets are excellent subjects for studying behavior in

the classroom because they have a wide repertoire of social

behaviors. However, in order to see these behaviors we need

to observe the right crickets in the right environment.

Age

Many pet stores sell large and small crickets, but size

does not guarantee maturity. Juveniles will not engage

in territorial, courtship, or oviposition behaviors.

Juveniles, even large juveniles, do not have wings; they

merely have wing buds or pads. Adults have dark hard

forewings that the males use to produce their songs.

Comparisons between juveniles and adults would be

an interesting project if you have enough crickets of

both age categories.

Sex

Males and females behave very differently. Males are

territorial and will sing to attract females. Males are

distinct in having thick veins in their forewings, which

produce their song when wings are moved past each

other. Females are most easily distinguished by their

ovipositors. This long thin organ extends from the tip of

the abdomen and is lowered into the soil where eggs

are deposited after the female copulates.

Housing

Males will defend a burrow against other males. If you

house your crickets in an aquarium, give each male a

small burrow to defend. (A toilet paper tube cut in

half and then lengthwise, or a large tampon tube, will

work well.) Males will behave differently in class

depending on their experience before class. Males

who are housed together will behave very differently

than males who are isolated until class. Isolated males

will scramble to find and then defend the new burrows.

Females will lay eggs in moist (not soaking wet) sand or

loose soil. A petri dish can make a suitable oviposition

site. If a female is kept away from oviposition sites

before class, she is more likely to have eggs to lay

during class. She will probe the soil with the ovipositor

and deposit eggs if the humidity is appropriate. A

female isolated from males before class is also more

likely to respond to his courtship song during class.

Distractions

Crickets are more likely to sing at night (hence the

sound we associate with camping in the woods) but will

sing and behave during the daytime. Try to keep the

lights a bit dim and be very careful to avoid bumping the

table that the animal container is on. Crickets have their

acoustic organs (ears) on their forelegs and therefore

pick up vibrations from the surface they are standing on.

5.1 CARE T IPS FOR CLASSROOM ANIMALS

83

DO keep your mice clean. Your mouse cage should

be cleaned at least once a week. Be guided by your

nose. If you smell ammonia around the cage area, then

the time to change the bedding is past due. Put the

mice in a secure place, dump out the old bedding, wipe

out the bottom with a little soap and water, dry out

the cage, add fresh bedding, food, water and mice.

DO handle the mice yourself, DON’T delegate this

responsibility to members of the class. The mice will

respond by being much calmer when handled

regularly by the same person. Having you the teacher

handle and care for the mice is a requirement and

has the added benefit of reducing escapes and

nipped fingers.

DO keep your mice warm but not hot.

DON’T place in direct sunlight or in drafts from open

windows and air conditioners.

DO keep your mice dry. Sometimes water bottles leak

and flood the cage. Check your water bottle every day.

DO provide your mice with fresh drinking water. Water

bottles should be filled with fresh water twice weekly

and washed with a mild soap once a week.

DO’S AND DONT’S FOR MICE IN THE CLASSROOM

CARE T IPS FOR CLASSROOM ANIMALS5.1

84

DO make sure your mice have plenty of nutritious food.

The Rodent Lab Chow provided has everything

necessary to raise healthy litters of mice. Seeds and

other treats should be used sparingly for observations

of food preferences and foraging behaviors.

DON’T let the class decide what to feed the mice. Some

of their suggestions might be very good such as treats

of seeds, fresh vegetables and fruits, but others might

be harmful to the mice in the long run. Some foods

might be preferred by the mice but be nutritionally

incomplete.

DON’T trust the mice to eat what is best for them.

DO use the filter material provided for the top of the

cage. This material, when attached to the cage, acts as

a two way barrier by keeping unwanted objects out of

the cage and keeping dust and animal dander’s out of

your classroom.

DO use your mice as a resource and observational tool

for classroom discussion. Your class can learn a lot

about animal behavior by keeping a daily log of the

activities and behaviors shown by individual mice.

DO use the collected information from your class to

prepare an ethogram of mouse behavior.

DO limit the number of children observing the mice at

one time. Small groups of 3-4 work well.

DON’T allow children to tap on the cage to make the

mice active. Varying the time of day for observations

should expose the class to a range of behaviors.

DO use the mice for simple experiments that give the

mice a choice, such as; do they prefer cotton or kleenex

for their nest? do they prefer to build a nest in the open

or in a tube from a toilet paper roll?

DON’T use your mice as experimental subjects and

offer them objects that might be potentially harmful.

DO let your mice breed. Raising a litter of mouse pups

is a fascinating experience for the class. Mice have a

gestation period of 20-21 days. Try to clean the cage a

few days before the expected birth and then not again

for about a week after the female delivers. Most mice

choose a corner of the cage for urination. You should

clean these “wet spots” every 3-4 days to keep odors

under control. You may safely move the litter when they

are seven to ten days old for a more thorough cleaning.

DO remove the male and house him separately if you

don’t want another litter right away. The female will be

receptive to the male immediately after giving birth. If the

male remains, you’ll have another litter in about 3 weeks.

DO be careful when cleaning a cage containing young

mice of about 3 weeks. They are very excitable and

have amazing jumping abilities.

DON’T allow the cage to become overcrowded.

Overcrowding will be stressful to the mice and cause

aggression. A pecking order will be established by

fighting among the mice and the losers could

be severely injured. Overcrowding might also result in

cannibalism of new litters.

DON’T send the surplus mice home with members of

your class. Once out of the classroom you can’t control

what happens to the animals and their welfare may

be at stake.

DO bring surplus animals back to the university. We will

gladly take back progeny and parents when your

projects are finished. If you have mice from another

source, like a pet shop, ask if you can give them your

surplus mice.

CARE T IPS FOR CLASSROOM ANIMALS5.1

85

5.2 SAMPLE EXAMS

DIAGNOSTIC EXAM A

Ellie has been observing the mice in her classroom for

months. Last semester, Ellie noticed that the mice play with

each other like kittens or puppies. Ellie wondered why mice

play. Her friend David suggests that it is good exercise for the

mice and helps keep them fit. However Ellie has heard

that human play is an important part of learning how to

behave as an adult, and thinks that mice could play for

the same reason.

The adult female mouse in Ellie’s class is pregnant again and

Ellie wants to study the pups for her behavior research

project. Ellie thinks that the pups will behave differently than

the older mice since they are still learning how to behave.

Ellie has convinced her classmates to help her collect data

on the new mice but she has to organize her ideas and

organize the data collection so that it can be used to test

her hypothesis.

1 Clearly state Ellie’s research question.

2 Clearly state Ellie’s hypothesis.

3 What predictions has Ellie made that should be found if

her hypothesis is true?

4 Clearly state a prediction that Ellie and her classmates

can test by making observations of their class mice over

the next month.

5 Ellie’s classmates are going to help her collect data.

How can Ellie help make sure that the observations

recorded by different people are comparable and can

be pooled together?

6 Since the observers cannot watch every animal, all of

the time, explain how they can make their observations

so that they get the fairest test of their hypothesis?

7 Make a data sheet that Ellie’s classmates can use to

collect data for her.

8 Even before she has the data, we know what kind of

graph will best illustrate Ellie’s results. Draw the axes of

her graph and label the axes.

9 Fill in what you expect Ellie’s graph to look like if the

data supports her hypothesis (in red ink). Draw the

lines you expect to see if the data do not support Ellie’s

hypothesis (in blue ink).

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KEY EXAM A

1 Why do mice play?

2 Mice play in order to better learn how to behave as adults.

3 Pups will behave differently than adults.

4 Pups will spend more of their time playing than adults. Or, pups will play less as they become adults.

5 Ellie can define what play looks like or teach her classmates what different behaviors look like so they

all call the same behavior the same thing.

6 They can watch each animal for the same amount of time each day.

7Animal’s Name Minutes observed playing Minutes observed not playing

Mother

Father

Pup 1

Pup 2Pup 3

8 and 9 Average time spent playing

adults pups age

or

SAMPLE EXAMS5.2

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SAMPLE EXAMS5.2

DIAGNOSTIC EXAM B

David loves gray tree squirrels. He always has a bag of

peanuts in the pocket of his parka so that he can feed the

squirrels that he meets walking to or from school. He noticed

that some squirrels are very calm when they take his

peanuts and even sit next to him to eat the nuts. Others

seem very nervous and run away as soon as they get a nut.

David is curious why the squirrels behave so differently. His

friend Ellie suggests that the girl squirrels are larger and

braver and that the boy squirrels are the small, scared ones.

However, David is pretty sure that the same squirrels are

calm sometimes and nervous other times.

David has noticed that as soon as a dog comes in sight all

the squirrels run up the nearest tree. He thinks that the

squirrels might feel more secure when he is feeding them

near a tree. He has convinced his friends to help him collect

data to test his hypothesis. They agree to meet at Oak Knoll

Park on the following Sunday afternoon.

1 Clearly state David’s research question.

2 Clearly state David’s hypothesis.

3 What predictions can David make that should be found

IF his hypothesis is true?

4 Clearly state one prediction that David and his

classmates can test by making observations in Oak

Knoll Park on a Sunday afternoon.

5 David’s classmates are going to help him collect data.

How can David help make sure that the observations

recorded by different people are comparable and can

be pooled together?

6 Since the observers cannot watch every animal all of

the time explain how they can make their observations

so that they get the fairest test of their hypothesis.

7 Make a data sheet that David’s classmates can use to

collect data for him.

8 Even before he has the data, we know what kind of

graph will best illustrate David’s results. Draw the axes

of his graph and label the axes.

9 Fill in what you expect David’s graph to look like if the

data supports his hypothesis (in red ink). Draw the

lines you expect to see if the data do not support

David’s hypothesis (in blue ink).

88

SAMPLE EXAMS5.2

KEY EXAM B

1 Why are the squirrels sometimes calm and other times

nervous when they take his peanuts?

2 Squirrels feel safer when they are near a tree.

3 Squirrels will act more nervous and run away faster if

they are far from a tree.

4 The farther you are from a tree, the more quickly a

squirrel will take your peanut and run away.

5 David can define what he means by “run away”, “walk

around”, “beg for more” and other behaviors his friends

are likely to see. He can also make sure they offer the

same kind of peanuts and offer them in the same way.

6 They can test each squirrel at different distances from

the nearest tree. Or they can test each squirrel only once

but test different squirrels at different distances from the

nearest tree.

7

If one animal is tested at different distances, then

column 1 can be omitted and each friend gets a data

sheet for each animal.

8 and 9 Minutes spent taking and eating peanuts before

moving back to a tree.

Distance to Nearest Tree

Animal’s name Distance to Time squirrel Time squirrel moves Total minutes spent taking and eating or number nearest tree takes peanut back to tree peanuts before moving back to a tree.

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SAMPLE OF A STUDENT REPORT

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?Scientists have long studied animal behavior in order to better understand them. From

anthropologists studying humans, to biologists observing animals in the wild, to

zoologists trying to help animals in captivity to survive, behavior is a source of knowledge

and evidence to scientists.

Zoos allow us to observe animals at a much closer level, just as class pets do in a classroom.

By gaining this understanding of animals in captivity, scientists can then look for those

behaviors in the wild, testing out theories and answering questions about the organisms.

Additionally, studying animal behavior helps scientists to predict how human actions will

affect animals and their environment in the future. Both are dependent on humans for

their continued existence. Humans have a responsibility to study animal behavior to

determine the needs of the animal kingdom and to determine when certain species are

being threatened. Human survival, as well as animal survival, depends on healthy

populations of diverse species.

Stan Braude, an animal behavior

researcher at Washington University,

has identified previously unknown

behaviors of the naked mole-rat.

Why Do Scientists Study Behavior?

he study of animal behavior is the

scientific study of everything that

animals do. Animals may be single-celled

organisms, invertebrates, fish, amphibians,

reptiles, birds, humans, or other mammals.

Animal behavior involves the investigation of

the relationship of animals to their physical

environment as well as to other organisms. It

includes topics such as how animals find

and defend resources, avoid predators,

choose mates and reproduce, and care for

their young.

People who study animal behavior are

typically trying to answer one or more of the

following four kinds of questions about

behavior. These questions are often referred

to as Tinbergen’s four questions after the

animal behaviorist Niko Tinbergen, who first

described them (see below).

T

Tinbergen’s Four Questions about Animal Behavior

WHYSanimal

1 What is the cause of the behavior?What mechanism is underlying it?What “triggered” it just now?

Answers may include both theexternal stimuli that affect behavior,and the internal hormonal andneural mechanisms that controlbehavior.

2 How did the behavior developwithin the individual’s lifetime?

Helps scientists learn how behaviorchanges over the lifetime of the ani-mal, and how these changes areaffected by both genes and experi-ence.

3 What function or functions does thebehavior serve?

Helps determine the behavior’seffect on the animal and its value inhelping the animal to survive orreproduce successfully in a particu-lar environment.

4 How did the behavior evolve over time?

Helps determine the origins ofbehavior patterns and how thesechange over generations.

from http://acunix.wheatonma.edu/kmorgan/AB_Careers/animal_behavior_careers.html

WHAT ISBEHAVIOR?

100

RESEARCHBEHAVIORAL

at the

ZOO STUDY

The zoo is developing a profile of typical behavior of mother and

infant pairs of antelopes during the first 30 days after birth. It will

be used as a baseline comparison of the species. The study

evaluates the behavioral interactions of the mother and infant that

are likely to be related to successful bonding and care. They include,

for the most part, measures of proximity, grooming and ursing.

In the wild, young hoofstock can be categorized either as

“hiders” or “followers,” depending on the species’ survival

strategy. Forest antelope species are known to hide their young

in the brush and return to nurse at very infrequent intervals

(sometimes as little as three times in a 24-hour period),

reducing the chance they are bringing the fawn to a predator’s

attention. In contrast, species from open grasslands give birth

to precocial young that are able to ”follow” their mothers.

Consequently, these young nurse much more frequently.

In the zoo’s commitment to leave infants with their mothers

whenever possible, it is in their best interest to understand what

is normal nursing behavior for each captive species. Knowing,

for example, that an individual species is a “hider,” animal care

staff will not be alarmed if they do not see a mother nursing her

young constantly.

Data for this study is collected via 24-hour video filming of the

exhibit, then tabulated by computer.

The Saint Louis Zoo applies animal

behavior research in its conservation

efforts both at the zoo and in the field.

The zoo’s efforts to breed threatened

and endangered animal species is

enhanced where knowledge of specific,

interactive behaviors and animal

physiology is known. Here are brief

descriptions of three studies being

conducted at or by the Saint Louis Zoo.

For more information about these or

other studies, visit at the Saint Louis Zoo

online at www.stlzoo.org.

ZOO

MOTHER / INFANT ANTELOPE

Saint Louis

101

ZOO STUDY

Saint Louis Zoo researchers are conducting studies at Washington University’s Tyson

Research Center to increase the numbers of the endangered Mexican wolves. Scientists

have a strong interest in understanding the behaviors related to reproduction

in order to support breeding efforts at the Wolf Sanctuary.

Researchers count the occurrence and duration of behaviors on a clipboard

and simple data sheet.

Previous zoo studies have focused on the

great Indian hornbill. The zoo is satisfied with

the results of this species’ breeding efforts.

More recently, the zoo began looking at

another hornbill species whose reproductive

habits are quite similar — the Blyth’s

hornbill. In fully understanding the intricate

behaviors and rituals of these birds, we can

better provide the environment for their

breeding success. We can also help other zoos

and in situ (in the country of origin)

conservation efforts find similar success.

The reproductive behaviors of hornbills are

fascinating. They are housed in mating

pairs, since these birds are among those

who will form monogamous pair bonds.

Females “interview” potential mates by mimicking the behaviors they will use during

nesting. A male will appropriately respond by exhibiting food-giving behavior, proving that

he will care for the female when she walls herself into a log/tree cavity, leaving only a

small opening through which she will receive food and carefully excrete her waste. During

this time she will lay her eggs, incubate and hatch them. She will emerge when the chicks

are ready to fledge.

Researchers collect data on a laptop computer.

CAREERS INanimal behavior

T hese careers require a doctor

of philosophy (Ph.D.) or doctor

of veterinary medicine (D.V.M.)

degree.

• Animal psychologist

• College professor/researcher in

biology, zoology, psychology,

others

• Conservation field researcher

• Health researcher

• Research assistant

• Veterinarian

• Zoo curator or researcher

• Zoo director

T hese careers require at least

a bachelor’s degree, and

probably a master’s degree.

• Animal care facility manager

• Animal caretaker

• Animal control officer

• Animal caretaker

• Companion animal trainer

• Veterinary assistant

• Zoo educator

• Zookeeper

from http://acunix.wheatonma.edu/kmorgan/AB_Careers/animal_behavior_careers.html.

MEXICAN WOLF

ZOO STUDY BLYTH’S HORNBILL

101

102

QA

What is an ETHOGRAM?

Ethograms are essential tools for

scientists and students who want

to study animal behavior and

communicate their results to others. A

complete ethogram describes the social

or environmental setting for each

behavior, includes information about

the timing and frequency of the

behaviors, and organizes the behaviors

into functional categories.

When we suggest a function for a

behavior, we are making an implicit

hypothesis that may require further

observation to verify. The name we

assign to a behavior can also imply a

function for that behavior. For example

the same body posture can be labeled

“lying down” and “resting.” “Lying down”

only describes what the animal is doing;

“resting” implies why the animal is doing

it. In fact many animals lie down for

reasons other than rest. Social animals

may lie down as a sign of submission

and predators or prey may lie down to

hide from each other.

In order to be a useful scientific tool for

studying behavior, an ethogram must be

unambiguous in distinguishing different

behaviors. Descriptions of behaviors

must be clear and complete. Data

shown in graphs and tables helps

others understand it better. Ethograms

can also contain pictures, or drawings

of the animal to help the reader

understand exactly what behavior is

being described.

AN ETHOGRAM IS A DESCRIPTIVELIST OF ALL BEHAVIORS OF APARTICULAR SPECIES.

103

EatingElimnative Care-GivingCommunicativeCare-SolicitingMaintenanceShelter-SeekingTerritorialExploratoryAggressionSexualDensity-dependentSocialHibernation/MigrationEnvironmentalTime budget:

a record of how an

organism spends its time

Tally: record data by making

hashmarks, indicates

numbers or counts.

Scan sampling: collecting data at specified

time intervals, either on

focal animal or group.

Focal sampling: collecting data focusing

on one individual animal

at a time.

All occurrences sampling: recording each time a

behavior is performed, either

on a focal animal or among

all animals present.

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BEHAVIOR SAMPLING TOOLS

1 List behaviors and name individual behaviors.

2 Organize behaviors into functional categories (feeding, resting, traveling, etc.).

3 Describe each behavior (including pictures and diagrams).

4 Tally frequency of behaviorsand calculate the time budget.

5 Give context of behavior (social or environmental).

104

feeding• Are food and water ingested differently?

• Is food transported or stored?

• Are different foods handled differently?

eliminating waste• Are there special postures associated with

elimination?

• Are certain locations chosen for elimination?

• Are feces consumed? By whom?

care giving• What communicative behaviors are

associated with care giving?

• Which care giving behaviors are associated

with different types of individuals?

care soliciting• What communicative behaviors are

associated with care giving?

• Which care giving behaviors are associated

with different types of individuals?

grooming• Do individuals groom at certain times or in

certain situations?

• Do individuals groom each other?

• Are different parasites removed with

specific behaviors?

nesting• When do animals enter their nest?

• What behaviors are associated with

constructing the nest?

• What behaviors are associated with

cleaning the nest?

• Are nests defended or abandoned in the

face of danger?

exploratory behavior• How do animals respond to new objects?

• How do animals of different ages respond

to new situations or places?

• How do animals find their way home or

navigate in their neighborhood?

agonistic behavior• Are there agonistic vocalizations and

postures?

• Do animals of different ages respond to

aggression differently?

• How do the animals defend themselves

from aggression?

sexual behavior• How do males and females behave

differently during courtship?

• What environmental circumstances are

associated with courtship behaviors?

• What behaviors are associated with sexual

maturity in each sex?

• What behaviors proceed or follow mating?

communication• What visual, auditory, tactile or chemical

signals does your species use?

• Are some signals used together?

• Are some signals used exclusively by

animals of certain ages or one sex?

• Are there signals used only within your

species? Are there signals used for

interspecific communication?

social• Is the species social or do animals live alone?

• What types of animals normally make up

a group?

• How large are typical groups?

• Do animals behave differently depending

on the size of the group?

seasonal• Do animals respond to changing climate by

hibernating, migrating or other modification

of behavior?

• What triggers these changes?

• How do migrants navigate?

QUESTIONS TO FOCUS OBSERVATIONS

105

social behaviors/humansAmicable human: lick, paw, allogroom

human, often with tail wag

Threat human: snarl, raise hackles

to human

Attack human: bite, snap or chase human

Defensive human: evade human, cower,

roll over

Competitive human: defend object or food

from human

Sniff human: nose to any area of human

Solicit play human: bow, metaplay

with human

Play human: bouncing gait, play face,

wrestle, play chase

Pat dog: human pat dog

vocal behaviorsBark: staccato vocalizations

Howl: long drawn out vocalizations

Bark at passers: recorded where object of

barking could be seen

solitary behaviorsAutogroom: lick, pull at body/pelage

Dig: dig at ground with forepaws

Urinate squat: urinate in squatting position

Urinate raised leg: urinate with one leg

cocked

Kick ground: scratching ground usually

following urination or defecation

Sniff ground: Nose to ground

Eat: eating food

Drink: drinking

Coprophagy: eat own or other dog’s feces

Chew: chew nonnutritive material

Eat grass: eating grass

Mouth toy: chew toy

from Serpell, J. (ed.). The Domestic Dog: its evolution, behavior, and

interactions with people. 1995 Cambridge University Press.

resting behaviorsRest: lying down with eyes open or closed

Sit: sit on hind legs

Stand: stand on four legs

locomotive behaviorsWalk: ambulatory gait

Trot: trotting gait

Run: running gait

Hind legs: standing on hind legs using

forelegs against a wall to support the body

Circle: repetitive circling around pen

Tail chase: repetitive chasing of tail

Pace: repetitive pacing usually along a fence

Social pace: repetitive pacing along fence

with a dog on the other side

Jump: repetitive jumping so that hind legs

leave the ground

Wall bounce: repetitive jumping at wall,

rebounding off it

Flank suck: repetitive and prolonged

auto-grooming of flank

social behaviors/dogsContact dog: lying in contact with dog

Amicable dog: lick, paw or allogroom dog

often with tail wag

Threat dog: snarl, raise hackles to dog

Attack dog: bite, snap, or chase dog often

with aggressive vocalizations

Defensive dog: Evade dog, cower, roll over,

lick face

Competitive dog: defend object or food

from dog

Sniff dog: nose to any area of another dog

Solicit play dog: bow, short charges with

bouncing gait, often barking

T-dog: muzzle placed across neck of

another dog

Mount dog: hetero/homosexual mounting of

another dog

Mounted: focal animal mounted by other dog

a sample ethogram: DOMESTIC DOG

106

natural historiesThese natural histories give a general overview of eachanimal’s characteristics and behaviors in the wild.

appearance: They are medium-sized monkeys with stout bodies and strong

limbs. They have a ruff of long grayish hair on each side of the face.

size: 764 mm in head and body length. Weight average is 18 kg; males are

generally 50 percent heavier than females.

food: wild and cultivated fruits, berries, grains, leaves, buds, seeds, flowers, bark,

fungi, insects, lizards, tree-frogs, snails, giant squirrel babies

range: Western Ghats Mountains, India

habitat and basic behavior: While some monkeys can live in urban areas, the

lion-tailed macaque is a true rain-forest dweller and is unable to adapt to cities. All

macaques are primarily diurnal, and all have an arboreal capability, but most species

come down from the trees at least on occasion to forage or move over long distances.

The lion-tailed macaque spends less than one percent of its time on the ground. They

carefully inspect surroundings for a long time before descending from the trees.

Lion-tails have cheek pouches which they quickly stuff as they forage for food in

dangerous places. They are good swimmers. At night, they huddle in a sleeping

cluster high in the canopy. In captivity, the lion-tailed macaque has been observed

manufacturing and using tools to extract syrup from containers.

Macaques live in social groups of 10-20, including one to three adult males.

Females do not have their first offspring until they are 5 years old and males do not

reach sexual maturity until 8 years old. The species has a low reproductive rate,

which may contribute to its endangered status.

threats: Major threat is habitat loss to hydroelectric power, timber and tea

plantations, and harvesting of firewood and other forest products for human use.

They are also hunted by the Nilgiri hills natives for their skin and meat.

from Ali, Rauf. Lion-Tailed Macaque: Status and Conservation. 1985, Alan R. Liss, Inc. New YorkNowak, R.M. “Walker’s Mammals of the World," 6th ed. John Hopkins Univ. Press, Baltimore, 1999Singapore Zoological Gardens Docents, 2000, http://www.szdocent.org/pp/p-mclion.htm

lion-tailed macaqueMacaca silenus

107

appearance: Goat like mammals, with short, woolly undercoats and long coarse

guard hairs. Vary in color from gray to dark brown to reddish, with white or yellow throat

patches. Both sexes have conical horns, 127-78 mm in length, which curve toward the

rear. Stout, long limbs are well adapted to climbing.

size: Head and body 820-1200 mm, tail 76-203 mm, shoulder height 570-785 mm,

weight 22-35 kg

food: Diet consists of twigs, low shrubs, grass and nuts.

range: Gorals are found across most of the southern slopes of the Himalayas of

northern India, west China, and north to Korea, at elevations of 1,800-2,000 m.

habitat and basic behavior: Gorals tend to rest on sunny rock ledges,

where they are difficult to recognize even in full view. They are found on rugged,

wooded mountains, and seem to prefer the most difficult terrain possible. When

motionless, their color blends with the rocks. They live together in groups of

4-12, but males commonly live alone most of the year. When frightened, gorals emit a

hissing or sneezing sound.

They may spend most of the year within a home range of just a few dozen hectares,

but move a few kilometers to a more favorable wintering areas. They are most active

during early morning and late evening, but on cloudy days roam throughout the day.

After eating in the morning, they usually drink water and then retire to a sunny rock

ledge. They can be difficult to recognize in full view, because their color blends with

the rocks.

Gorals reach sexual maturity at age 3. Gestation lasts 6-8 months. One to two

offspring are born.

threats: Gorals are often hunted for meat and sport, even in protected areas. The

most significant threat to them is severe habitat disturbance and alteration, particularly

in the lower portions of the Himalayas and in northeastern India. However, goral can

survive in areas that have limited disturbance of shrubs and forest cover.

goralNaemorhedus goral

from Shackelton, D. M. (ed.) and the IUCN/SSC Caprinae Specialist Group. ”Wild Sheep and Goats and Their Relatives. Status Surveyand Conservation Action Plan for Caprinae." IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK, 1997. Nowak, R.M. “Walker’s Mammalsof the World," (6th ed.), John Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, 1999. Mochi, U. and T.D. Carter. “Hoofed Mammals of the World." Singapore Zoological Gardens Docents, 2000, http://www.szdocent.org/pp/p-mclion.htm

108

appearance: Monkeys with long

pointed muzzles, large eyes, and

triangular ears. Upper parts are brownish

gray, underparts are whitish, tail ringed

with black and white. Palms and soles are

long, smooth and leatherlike.

size: Head and body length 385-455

mm, tail length 560-624 mm, weight

2.3-3.5 kg.

food: fruits, leaves, other plant parts;

rarely insects. The kiley tree is the

mainstay of their diet.

range: southwestern Madagascar, in

wooded and thinly wooded country

habitat and basic behavior:Found only in Madagascar, lemurs are

among the most diverse primate faunas

on earth, and highly unusual. They live in

large family groups called troops,

consisting of 5-30 lemurs. The troops

forage for food throughout the day, and

can be active at night, as well.

Troops have no consistent leadership,

and feature much agonistic behavior and

fighting. The sexes have separate

dominance hierarchies, with females

dominating the males. The troops are

organized around a core group of adult

females and their infants. Females

remain in the troop of their birth, but

males move among the troops.

Lemurs have been considered as

territorial, however, territories overlap

considerably. Lemurs vigorously defend

areas being used. Disputes generally

involve two opposing groups of females

running at each other and vocalizing, but

direct contact is rare. Researchers have

identified 15 different vocalizations,

including a howl audible to humans at

1,000 meters. Mating occurs in spring

and births in late summer to fall. Births

often occur within a period of days in a

troop. Single young are most common,

but twins are not rare. Weight at birth is

50-80 grams. During the first two weeks of

life, the young cling to the mother’s

underside, then rides on her back.

Females generally conceive at 19-20

months. Males are sexually mature at age

2.5, but may not be allowed to mate by

older males.

threats: Madagascar is one of the

world’s most threatened biodiversity

“hotspots,” with 80 percent of its forests

already gone and most of what remains

at great risk. The ring-tailed lemur is the

only surviving semi-terrestrial diurnal

lemur. Its preferred habitats, of forests

along rivers, are disappearing because of

fires, overgrazing, and cutting trees for

charcoal. Hunting for pets and zoos is

also a threat.

from Mittermeier, R.A., I. Tattersall, W.R. Konstant, D.M. Meyers andR.B. Mast. Lemurs of Madagascar. Washington D.C., ConservationInternational, 1994.Nowak, R.M. “Walker’s Mammals of the World," (6th ed.), JohnHopkins University Press, Baltimore, 1999.

ring-tailed lemurLemur catta

109

butterflies and mothsMultiple species within order Lepidoptera

note: More than 160,000 species exist within Lepidoptera; students may compare

and contrast two or more species.

appearance: Insects with large, easily distinguishable wings. Among the most

popular and easily recognized insects, butterflies and moths are separated mostly by

observable differences. Most butterflies fly by day and most moths fly at night. Most

butterflies are brightly colored and most moths are dull. Despite these differences and

others, there is no single feature that separates all butterflies from all moths.

size: Range of sizes from very small to wingspans of 180 mm Idea tamb sisiana.

food: generally plants. The Pyralid (Laetilia coccidivora) is carnivorous; in the

caterpillar stage, it eats scale insects and aphids.

range: Butterflies and moths are found around the world.

habitat and basic behavior: Butterflies and moths each go through four

different life stages: egg, caterpillar, pupa, and adult. Life spans vary greatly between

species, from a few weeks or several years. Some of the wood-boring larvae of the

Cossid moths may spend months, or even years, in the caterpillar stage.

Many moths and butterflies have complicated courtship behavior, including

performing elaborate flights and “dances.” They often use chemicals called

pheremones to attract members of the opposite sex. When a male finds a female

who shows interest in him, they both land. The mating pair will often tap each other

with their antennae, detecting other scents. Mating may last for 20 minutes to

several hours, during which time the insects do not move. Most males proceed to

look for other females after mating, but females seek a place to lay their eggs.

Some scatter their eggs, but others seek a food plant for the new caterpillars.

Some butterflies, such as the Orangetip (Anthocharis cardamines), have distinctly

different appearances for males and female. This is known as sexual dimorphism.

Whalley, P. Butterfly and moth. New York: Dorling Kindersley, 2000.Feltwell, J. The encyclopedia of butterflies. Great Britain: Quarto Publishing, 1993.

110

appearance: Mammal with prominent whiskers, medium size eyes, small ears, thick neck and long,

heavy tail. Legs are short with webbed feet. Color is dark brown or black, light brown or gray on belly, and

silvery on face or throat.

size: 90-135 cm with one-third of length consisting of the tail; 4.5-11.5 kg

food: Mostly fish and crayfish, sometimes frogs, salamanders, snails, clams, snakes, turtles, muskrats,

birds, insects, earthworms

range: North American lakes and rivers

habitat and basic behavior: Otters usually live in family groups. They live in burrows in the

banks of rivers or lakes, usually ones that were built earlier by muskrats, beavers or woodchucks. Home

ranges may include 80-160 miles of shoreline. Otters are powerful swimmers that often swim with just the

top of the head and eyes above water. They can swim 10 km/hour on the surface and submerge for up

to 4 minutes.

Even the adults regularly engage in social behaviors that are best described as play. They are particularly

fond of sliding down steep slopes that have been made slippery with mud or ice, and that terminate either

in a deep pool of water or snowdrift. They will climb up such a slope and slide back down repeatedly,

particularly if accompanied by other members of the group. They also spend prolonged periods in small

groups tossing rocks or clam shells into the water and then diving for them. One of the most common ways

of traveling on snow is to run for a few feet, then slide on their bellies as far as they can.

threats: Hunting and trapping for fur has greatly reduced populations, and river otters are considered

endangered today. They are parasitized by tapeworms.

Saint Louis Zoo

river otterLutra canadensis

111

appearance: Cylindrical mammal

completely lacking hair, except for a few

sensory whiskers (vibrissae) on face and

tail, plus a fringe of hair on feet. Short

legs, tiny eyes and no external ears. Very

powerful jaw muscles and large

protruding incisors used for burrowing.

Skin is very wrinkled because no fat layer

is underneath. Color varies from pink to

yellow to white or gray.

size: 7.0-8.5 cm body length, tail length

3.5-4.0 cm, weight 30-60 gm; queen

may be 90 gm.

food: Mole-rats are strict herbivores;

food includes roots, tubers and

underground plant parts found while

burrowing.

range: Eastern sub-Saharan Africa,

central and eastern Ethiopia, central

Somalia and Kenya.

habitat and basic behavior:Naked mole-rats are the only mammals

that exhibit eusocial behavior. This type

of behavior describes the colony

lifestyles of bees, ants and termites.

Eusocial animals live in large colonies

within which only one female, the

queen, and a small number of males

participate in reproduction. The rest of

the colony members share such tasks

as feeding and defending the queen

and raising her offspring. In honey bee

colonies, the queen produces a

chemical which prevents other females

from breeding. In naked mole-rat

colonies, the queen fights other

females, often to the death, to prevent

them from breeding.

A queen may breed for 12 years, or until

she is displaced by a more aggressive

female. The queen has four litters a

year, with an average size of seven to

ten pups. When a litter is born, a group

of non-reproductive colony members

forms a living carpet on which the

queen and her pups lie for three to four

weeks while the queen nurses them.

The first solid food the pups eat are

feces that they actively solicit the adults

to produce for them. The young then

begin to help keep the tunnels clear and

to gather food for the nest. Older

individuals dig new tunnels in search of

food and defend the burrow against

intruders.

threats: Burrowing reptiles,

especially the rufous-beaked snake.

Saint Louis Zoo

naked mole ratHeterocephalus glaber

112

goatEight species in genus Capra

appearance: Goats with varied sizes and horns. Males

are odorous, with beards. In wild species, horns of males are

500-1,600 mm long and horns of females are 150-380 mm

long, with much variation between species. Some are long

and curved, some curlicued.

size: Sizes are varied, but males are generally larger than

females.

food: All species graze for grass and vegetation.

range: Europe, Asia, and Africa

habitat and basic behavior: Most goats are well

adapted to mountainous areas and are good climbers. Adult

males and females are often separate for most of the year.

The Cretan wild goat (Capra aegagrus) lives in groups of five

to 25 individuals, which vary through the year. Females

remain in the groups except to give birth. Males usually stay

apart in small bachelor groups. They form dominance

hierarchies and compete for mating privileges. Conflicts

involve threats, visual displays with the horns. They may rear

up and crash horns together.

threats: Hunting for horn trophies and meat has

decimated many species. The domestic goat is maintained

worldwide for milk, meat and wool. It often competes with

wild species for food. The European ibex was reduced by

sport hunting and a demand for body parts to only about 60

individuals in northern Italy in the nineteenth century. Those

animals were carefully protected and used to reintroduce

the species to the Alps. By the 1980s there were more than

12,000 in Switzerland and elsewhere.

from Nowak, R.M. “Walker’s Mammals of the World," (6th ed.), John Hopkins University Press,Baltimore, 1999.

113

chimpanzeePan troglodytes

appearance: Monkeys with

prominent ears, protruding lips, arms

that are longer than legs, a long hand

with a short thumb, and no tails. Face

is bare and usually black, color ranges

from deep black to light brown. Hair

on the head may grow in any

direction, and baldness occurs in both

sexes at maturity.

size: Head and body length about

635-940 mm, height 1.0-1.7 meters,

weight 34-70 kg for males, 26-50 kg

for females. Captive animals can

weigh as much as 68-80 kg.

food: Fruit, seeds, honey, insects,

eggs and meat. They may prey on

other monkeys and small animals.

range: Tropical rainforests and

savannah in Gambia and Uganda

habitat and basic behavior:Most chimpanzees spend daylight

hours in trees. Young individuals may

swing from branch to branch

(brachiate), but the most common

form of locomotion is knuckle-walking:

walking on all fours with the fingers

turned under. They live in highly

socialized societies that may have as

many as 80 members. Social position

in the hierarchy is extremely important.

Chimps communicate by facial

expressions, vocal sounds and posture.

They have a long childhood, with

young dependent on their mothers

until age 5, and maturity at age 13.

Bonds between mother and young,

especially females, can last a lifetime.

Chimps can live up to age 50.

The chimpanzee is renowned for its

ability to make and use tools. They often

feed by carefully poking a stick or vine

into a termite nest to collect the insects.

Chimps also use sticks as hooks to pull

down fruit-laden branches. They may

fight with sticks as weapons. They use

stones as hammers to crack nuts.

threats: Hunting for pets, and

habitat loss threaten the chimpanzee in

the wild.

from Nowak, R.M. “Walker’s Mammals of the World," (6thed.), John Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, 1999.

114

malayan sun bearUrsus malayanus

appearance: These small bears are mostly

black, with whitish or orange breast mark and

grayish or orange muzzle. The body is stocky,

muzzle short, paws large and claws are strongly

curved and pointed. The soles are naked.

size: 1,000-1,400 mm, tail length 30-70 mm,

shoulder height about 700 mm, weight 27-65 kg.

food: omnivorous, including honey, insects, larvae,

coconut palm, termites, fowl, rodents, fruit juices

range: Dense forests in central China, Burma,

Thailand, Indochina, Malay peninsula, Sumatra,

Borneo

habitat and basic behavior: Sun bears

are active at night, usually sleeping and sunbathing

by day in trees. They break or bend tree branches

to form nests and lookout posts. The walking gait is

unusual in that all feet are turned inward. The

species is very shy and retiring and does not

hibernate. An expert tree climber, it is cautious,

wary and intelligent. A young captive observed the

way in which a cupboard containing sugar was

locked with a key, and later opened the cupboard

by inserting a claw in the keyhole and turning.

Mothers give birth to one or two young, about

325 gm each. Cubs are blind, nearly naked and

helpless. They are very dependent on their

mothers for at least three or four weeks. Once out

of the den, cubs learn to climb very quickly. They

stay with their mothers for at least a year, possibly

longer. Captive bears can live up to 31 years

threats: Sun bear cubs are popular as pets, but

larger animals are unruly and often sold as parts,

which are used in the medicinal trade. Logging of

forests and conversion to rubber plants has

contributed to habitat loss and population decline.

They are considered endangered. Tigers and other

big cats are predators.

from Nowak, R.M. “Walker’s Mammals of the World," (6th ed.), John HopkinsUniversity Press, Baltimore, 1999.Stonehouse, B. Bears: A Visual Introduction to Bears. AND Cartographic Publishers Ltd. New York, 1998.

115

appearance: Large, brilliantly colored aquatic birds. Long sinuous necks, long

legs and webbed feet. Slim, rose colored wader. Bill is specialized for filter feeding

and sharply bent in the middle.

size: 90-155 cm tall, males are a little larger than females.

food: Small marine life, including mollusks, crustaceans, blue-green algae and

diatoms.

range: Mudflat areas of southern Florida, South America, Africa and Asia. Highly

adaptive to chemicals in water, including chlorides, sodium carbonate and sulfides.

Can exist in very hot and high altitude climates.

habitat and basic behavior: Family is one of the oldest bird groups still

alive, with fossil evidence going back to early tertiary. The birds are highly social and

gregarious, living in large flocks of up to tens of thousands. In east Africa, over a million

lesser flamingoes can gather. Birds often spend the day resting, and feed at night.

Starting several months before breeding and continuing afterwards, flamingoes often

devote considerable time to the performance of collective displays, which may be

carried out by hundreds of birds. They consist of a series of ritualized postures and

movements. One of the most common, “head flagging,” involves stretching the neck

and head up as high as possible and turning head from side to side. The purpose of

these displays is to synchronize, by means of hormonal stimulation, the breeding

attempts of as many birds as possible. In this way, populations can make the most

of the periods when conditions are optimal.

A characteristic feature of flamingoes is their resting posture of standing on one leg.

In this way, the amount of heat lost through the leg and foot is reduced. This

posture is also used in hot weather, so it is likely comfortable for the birds.

threats: Humans have been mostly threatened by human capture for zoos.

Wetland habitat destruction also threatens the birds.

from Harrison, Bird Families of the World, New York: Abrams, 1978.del Hoyo, J., Elliott, A & Sargatal, J. eds. Handbook of the Birds of the World, Vol. 1. Lynx Edcions, Barcelona, 1992.

flamingoPhoenicopterus ruber ruber

116

OBSERVATIONS

117

NOTES

118

RESEARCH

Washington University Science Outreach

One Brookings Drive

Campus Box 1137

St. Louis, MO 63130

(314) 935-6846

www.so.wustl.edu

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