This is the peer reviewed version of the following article: Mambeya MM, Baker

F, Momboua BR, et al. The emergence of a commercial trade in pangolins from

Gabon. Afr J Ecol. 2018;56:601–609, which has been published in final form at

https://doi.org/10.1111/aje.12507. This article may be used for non-commercial

purposes in accordance With Wiley Terms and Conditions for self-archiving.

https://doi.org/10.1111/aje.12507

1

TheemergenceofacommercialtradeinpangolinsfromGabon12Runningtitle:EmergingtradeinpangolinsinGabon3

MeineMarieMambeya*1,FrancescaBaker2,BriceRoxanMomboua3,4,AurélieFlore4KoumbaPambo4,5,MartinHega6,V.JosephOkouyiOkouyi4,7,MartialOnanga4,5DanielW.S.Challender8,9,DanielJ.Ingram8,10,WangHongyan1,&Katharine6Abernethy7,11781NorthEastAgriculturalUniversityofHarbin,Harbin,China92InstituteforConservationScience,ImperialCollegeLondon,UK103DépartementdeBiologie,FacultédesSciences,UniversitydesScienceset11TechniquesdeMasuku,BP554,Franceville,Gabon12

4AgenceNationaledesParcsNationaux,BP20379,Libreville,Gabon135CentreNationaldeRecherchesScientifiquesetTechnologies,BP842,Libreville,14Gabon15

6WildifeConservationSocietyGabon,BatterieIV,Libreville,Gabon.167InstitutdeRechercheenEcologieTropicale,BP15539,Libreville,Gabon178IUCNSSCPangolinSpecialistGroup,℅ZoologicalSocietyofLondon,RegentsPark,18LondonNW14RY,UK19

9DurrellInstituteofConservation&Ecology,SchoolofAnthropologyand20Conservation,UniversityofKent,Canterbury,Kent,CT27NR,UK21

10SchoolofLifeSciences,UniversityofSussex,Brighton,BN19QG,UK2211AfricanForestEcologyGroup,BiologicalandEnvironmentalSciences,Universityof23Stirling,StirlingFK94LA,UK.24

25MeineMarieMambeya(*submittedposthumously)26FrancescaBaker:francesca.baker@live.co.uk27BriceRoxanMOMBOUA:bekouya@outlook.fr28AurelieFloreKoumbaPamboscienceparcsgabon@gmail.com29MartinHega:mhega@wcs.org30V.JosephOkouyiOkouyi:okouyi_joseph@yahoo.fr31MartialOnanga:onangamartial@yahoo.fr32DanChallender:dan_pangolin@hotmail.co.uk33DanielIngram:D.Ingram@sussex.ac.uk34WangHongyan:why220@126.com35KatharineAbernethy:k.a.abernethy@stir.ac.uk3637Correspondingauthor:k.a.abernethy@stir.ac.uk38

39

40

2

Acknowledgements41

Toourimmensesadness,theprimaryauthorofthiswork,MeineMarieMambeya,42

passedawayinJanuary2017afteralongstrugglewithcancer.Herdedicationtoher43

work,toecologicalresearchandtotheprotectionofAfricanpangolinswasan44

inspirationtoallofusandamodelforthenewgenerationofAfricanconservation45

scientists.Wethankherenormouslyforhercontributionandhopethatthe46

publicationofherworkwillbeaneverlastingtributetoher.WethankCENARESTfor47

permissionforresearchinGabonandtheInstitutdeRechercheenEcologie48

Tropicale(IRET)andtheAgenceNationaledesParcsNationaux(ANPN),Gabonfor49

supportforthefieldwork.InparticularwethankConservatorsDanielNzameand50

RostandAb’aa;ProfessorsLeeWhite,JacquesMavoungouandEJMilner-Gulland;51

DrsKathrynJefferyandVincentMejibeandM.ChristianMbinaforgeneralsupport52

andadvice.DatacollectioncostsandresourcesweresupportedbyIRET(VJOO);53

ANPN(MMM,FKP,MO,BRM);theIUCNSSCPangolinSpecialistGroup(FB,MMM,54

BRM);UniversityofMasuku(BRM)andtheUniversityofStirling(KA).Analysisand55

writingcostsinadditiontothesupportoftheauthors’institutionswereprovidedby56

theIUCNSSCPangolinSpecialistGroupandtheGaboneseRepublic(Studentgrants57

service).58

59

60

3

Abstract61

Recentseizuresofillegally-heldwildlifeindicateamountingglobaltradeinpangolins62

involvingalleightspecies.Seizuresofillegally-tradedAfricanpangolinsare63

increasingaswildpopulationsofAsianspeciesdecline.Weinvestigatedtradein64

pangolinsandlawenforcementeffortsinGabon;acountrylikelytohaveintactwild65

populationsofthreeofthefourspeciesofAfricanpangolin.Wecomparedvillage66

salesandtradechainsbetween2002-3and2014.Huntersreportedpangolinstobe67

themostfrequentlyrequestedspeciesin2014andthevalueofpangolinshad68

increasedateverypointalongtheirtradechain.InLibreville,giantpangolinprices69

increased211%andarborealpangolinprices73%whilstinflationroseonly4.6%70

overthesameperiod.Wedocumentedalowrateofinterceptionofillegally-traded71

pangolinsdespiteincreasedlawenforcement.Surveysofpotentialexportroutes72

detectedexportsacrossforestborders,inconjunctionwithivory,butnotthrough73

publictransportroutes.Weconcludethatwhilstthereisclearpotentialand74

likelihoodthatawildpangolinexporttradeisemergingfromGabon,traditional75

bushmeattradechainsmaynotbetheprimarysupplyroute.Werecommend76

adjustingconservationpoliciesandactionstoimpedefurtherdevelopmentofillegal77

tradewithinandfromGabon.78

79

Keywords:pangolins,illegalwildlifetrade,Gabon,hunting,bushmeat, 80

4

Maintext81

Introduction82

Althoughtradeinwildlifeproductsisanancienthumanendeavor,wildpopulations83

ofmanyspeciesarecurrentlysufferingdeclinesasdemandinglobalmarketsdrives84

unsustainableexploitation.Drasticpopulationdeclinesattributedprimarilyto85

commercialharvestsarereportedindiverseterrestrialandmarinetaxaandIUCN’s86

(InternationalUnionforConservationofNature)TheRedListofThreatened87

SpeciesTMnowlists8,613speciesasthreatenedbyoverexploitationworldwide88

(IUCN,2014;Rippleetal.,2016).Themajorityofimpactsonterrestrialspeciesare89

feltintropicalregions(Dirzoetal.,2014)andofthese,mammalssuffermorethan90

anyotherspeciesgroup(Rippleetal.,2016).91

Commercialexploitationhasbeenthekeyfactorintherapiddeclineofwild92

populationsofAsianpangolinspeciesinrecentdecades(Challenderetal.,2015;93

Challender,2011).Unsurprisingly,thishasledtoanoverallriseininternationaltrade94

aswellastraffickingofAfricanpangolins,primarilytheirscales,toAsia(Challender&95

Waterman,2017;ChallenderandHywood,2012;Newmanetal.,2014;Nijmanetal.,96

2016).Increasingglobaleconomicandtradelinksbutparticularlynewlinksbetween97

AfricannationsandEastAsiahavepossiblyfacilitatedthistrade(Challenderetal.,98

2016;WangandBio-Tchané,2008).Thevastmajorityofinternationaldemandfor99

pangolinscomesfromAsia,andinparticularChinaandVietnam(Challenderetal.,100

2015;Nijmanetal.,2016).However,exactcountriesoforiginoftradedAfrican101

pangolins,whicharefoundinmanyrangestates,areunattributedforthemajorityof102

seizuresmade(thoughseeChallender&Waterman,2017).Overthepastdecade103

ChinahasdevelopedincreasingeconomictieswithAfrica,inparticularthrough104

5

directinvestment(Abernethyetal.,2016)andChinesecompaniesnowhave105

permanentbases,residentworkersandadministrativenetworksincountriesacross106

thecontinent(WangandBio-Tchané,2008;Putzeletal.,2011).107

Basedonavailableevidence,whichislikelytobeapartialpicture,international108

seizuresofillegallytradedproductsfromAfricanpangolinsareincreasing.Fourkgof109

Africanpangolinproductswereseizedin2008,312kgin2012,4tonnesofscales110

wereseizedinCameroonin2016andanother5.4tonneswereseizedinearly2017111

(LAGA,2017),thislastrepresenting10,000–20,000pangolins(seeChallender&112

Waterman,2017foracomprehensiveoverviewofglobalseizures).Thisisostensibly113

anexponentialrisewhich,despitesometargetedinternationallawenforcement114

efforts,maybesignallingamushroomingillegaltrade,ratherthandramatic115

improvementsinthedetectionoftrafficking.116

GabonishometothreeofthefourAfricanspeciesofpangolin,thefossorialgiant117

pangolin(Smutsiagigantea,Illiger1815);andthearborealwhite-belliedpangolin118

(Phataginustricuspis,Rafinesque1821)andblack-belliedpangolin(Phataginus119

tetradactyla,L.1766)(KingdonandHoffman,2013).Giantpangolinshavebeen120

integrallyprotectednationallysince1987(RepubliqueGabonaise,décretn°121

189/PR/MEFCR),butbothPhataginus(arboreal)speciescanbelegallyhunted122

locally,althoughhuntingmethods,catchsizes,seasonsandtradeareregulated.123

However,despiteregulation,anationwidesix-yearsurveyofsixteenbushmeat124

markets(2000-2006)recordedarborealpangolinsinallmarketsinallmonths,125

accountingfor10%ofallanimalstradedannually(AbernethyandNdongObiang,126

2010).Intwoyear-longvillagehuntingstudiesduringthesameperiodwhite-bellied127

pangolinswerecaughtbyvillagehunterseverymonthandformedapproximately6%128

6

ofallanimalscaughtannually(Coad,2007;VanVliet,2008).Thereisnocensusdata129

foranypangolinspeciesinthewildinGabon.130

Inthefaceoftheglobalriseinillegalwildlifetradeinrecentyearsandinparticular131

thethreattoAfricanmammals(LondonDeclaration,2014;KasaneStatement,2015),132

anti-poachingeffortshavebeenincreasedinGabonandinparticularforspecies133

likelytobeathighestrisk.Snifferdogstrainedforthedetectionofivory,apeand134

pangolinproductshavebeenworkingatroadblocks,railwaystations,airportsand135

seaportssince2013,inanefforttointerceptwildlifebeingtradedillegally.136

InthisfirstevaluationoftraderisktoGabonesepangolins,ourspecificobjectives137

wereto:138

a) describethecurrenttradeofpangolinsinruralareasandrural-to-urban139

scenarios;140

b) evaluatetheextentofchangeoverthepastdecadeinthespeciesand141

relativevalueofspeciesinvolvedthistrade,withparticularattentionto142

changeinthevalueofpangolinsrelativetootherspecies;143

c) assesstheextenttowhichruralhuntingcommunitiesmaybethesourceof144

pangolinsforexportorwhetherthespeciesarepotentiallysourcedoutwith145

thetraditionalbushmeattrade;146

d) evaluatethetraderoutesforpangolinswithinandfromGabon,147

e) evaluatethecurrentcontroloftrade;andusingthedataweacquirefor148

pointsa-e;149

f) proposeactionstomoreeffectivelycombatanyemerginghigh-valuetradein150

thesespeciesoutsidethetraditionalsubsistenceeconomy.151

7

Toaddresstheseobjectives,wecollecteddataintraditionalsubsistencevillageson152

huntersales;tradepricesatthe‘forestgate’;intheprovincialtownmarketssupplied153

andinthecapital;andlawenforcementeffortsin2014.Wecomparedourresultsto154

existingdatacollectedvariouslybetween2000and2006.155

Methods156

Villagehuntingand‘forestgate’tradein2014157

Pangolinofftakeandsaleswereassessedinlocalcommunitieslivinginrural158

subsistenceeconomies(whichincludehuntingformeatandincome).Thehunted159

areaswerenotprotectedareasandarborealpangolinscouldbelegallyhunted160

undertraditionalcustomaryrights.Weassessedthenumbersofpangolinstradedin161

2014fromvillagesintheOgooué-IvindoandtheNyangaprovincesinGabonbothto162

localclientsand,viaroadsidesalestotraders,intolargermarkets.Thetwokey163

provinceswerechosenforthefollowingreasons:a)comparativedatawereavailable164

fromthepreviousdecade(OkouyiOkouyi,2006;AbernethyandNdongObiang,165

2010);b)bothprovinceshaverelativelyrecentlyseenthearrivalofpopulationsof166

migrantAsianworkers,specificallyintheconstruction,agro-industrialandlogging167

industries(OxfordBusinessGroup,2015);and(c)theseareasbroadlyrepresentthe168

twomajorcatchmenthabitatsofcompletelyforested(OgoouéIvindo)and169

savannah/forestmosaic(Nyanga)foundinGabon.Surveysofvillagehunterswere170

madeinthedryseasonduringa43-daystudyperiodintheOgooué-Ivindo(June-July171

2014),anda10-dayperiodintheNyanga(earlyAugust2014).Duringthesestudies,172

24villagesweresurveyed(Figure1).Surveyscompriseddatacollectiononvillage173

characteristics(questionnairesfilledbythevillagechieforelderhunter)andsemi-174

structuredinterviewswithhuntersonhuntingactivity,clientrequests,salesand175

8

revenuesfromthepastmonth.Examplesofthequestionnairesaregivenin176

SupplementaryMaterialsandcanalsobefoundinBaker,(2014)andMambeya,177

(2015).178

Atotalof138villagersparticipatedintheresearch.Oftheseinitialsurvey179

respondents,69villagersintenvillagesintheOgoouéIvindoand34villagersinten180

villagesintheNyanga(total103)reportedhuntingactivelyandwerefurther181

interviewed.Villagesrangedfrom64-800people(median200)withbetweenone182

andfifteenhunters(median4).Allinterviewedhuntersweremen,agedbetween16183

and70years,withthemajorityinthe31-50year-oldageclass(57.3%).Over90%of184

intervieweeswerenativetothevillage(bornthereorlivingwithfamilybornthere)185

andgavesubsistenceastheirprimaryreasonforhunting.Culture,protectionof186

plantationsandsupplementaryincomewerealsoreasons(9.3%),butnohunter187

reportedevenlegitimatelocalcommercialtradeastheirprimarymotivationfor188

hunting.Huntersusedguns(47.6%)orsnares(28.1%)orboth(24.3%)andall189

huntersreportedhuntingwithinoneday’swalkfromtheirvillagewithoutusing190

camps.Comparisonwithavailableliteratureshowsthatthesevillagehunting191

communitiesconformtopreviouslyestablishedprofilesforsubsistencecommunities192

inGabonintermsofhunterages,hunternumberspervillage,huntingcatchment193

distancesfromthevillage(oneday’swalkormax10km),speciescaught,194

percentagestradedandpriceequivalencybetweenspecies(Coad,2007;Foersteret195

al.,2011;OkouyiOkouyi,2006;Starkey,2004;VanVliet,2008).196

197

Villagesurveysin2002-2003andchangeovertime2002-2014198

9

Detailedstudiesofvillagehuntinghadbeencarriedoutin2002-2003intheOgooué-199

Ivindo(OkouyiOkouyi,2006)whichallowedustoanalyzechangesovertimeinlocal200

farmgate,orrather‘forestgate’,salepricesfortheOgoouéIvindo.Dataondate,201

timeandlocationofsale,speciessold,carcassstate(wholeorbutcheredparts,fresh202

orsmoked)andpriceobtainedwerecollectedoverfourteenmonthsin2002-2003in203

sixvillagesaroundMakokou(detailedmethodsinOkouyiOkouyi,2006)and204

Makokoumarketitself.Comprehensivesurveysofsixteentownandvillagemarkets205

inGabonfrom2000-2006showedthatpricesdidnotfluctuatesignificantlybetween206

seasonsofayear(Abernethy&NdongObiang,2010),howeverhunterofftakerates207

couldalterbetweenseasons(Coad,2007).Welimitedthehuntersalesdataanalysed208

from2002-2003tothemonthsofMay–August(dryseason)tolimitanypotential209

biasofofftakevolumeorcompositiononhuntertradedecisionsbetweenthe210

comparedstudyperiods.211

212

Changeinrelativevalueofspecies,withinandalongthetraditionaltradechain213

Toinvestigatechangeovertimeintherelativevalueoftradedbushmeatswelooked214

specificallyattheOgooué-Ivindomarketchain,fromwhichwehadcomparabledata215

from2002-2003and2014.MarketsurveysinMakokouandsurroundingvillages216

werecarriedoutforallsalesinsixmarketsononedayperweekduring2002-2003217

andonetothreedaysperlocationduringthreemonthsMay-Julyin2014.Datafrom218

LibrevilleMontBouëtmarket,alsocollectedfrom2002-2003allowedanalysisofthe219

evolutionofrelativevalueofspeciesoverthepasttwelveyearsfortheselocations.220

Weincludedthefivemostcommonotherspeciesgroupsrecordedinournational221

surveysinboth2002-2003and2014(blueduiker(Philantombamonticola,Thunberg222

10

1822),brush-tailedporcupine(Atherurusafricanus,Gray1842),redduikers223

(Cephalophusspp.),redriverhog(Potamochoerusporcus,L.1758)andguenons224

(Cercopithecusspp.)andbothpangolintypes(Table1).Priceswerestandardizedto225

perkgpricesforcomparisonsbetweenspecies,usingmeanweightsofhunted226

animalsrecordeddirectlyinvillagesinGabon(Coad,2007;Abernethy&Ndong227

Obiang,2010).Forcomparisonofthepriceofthesamespeciesoverspaceandtime,228

weusedsalesofwholeanimalsonlytoreduceinherentnoisefromstandardizing229

weightsofbutcheredanimals.Wedidnotuseapurchasingpowerparityor230

ConsumerPriceIndex(CPI)correctionbetweenyears,asinferencesweredrawn231

fromtherelativerankvalueoftradedspeciesacrossspace,ratherthanfromtheir232

absolutevalues.However,betweenthestartof2002andtheendof2014,Gabon’s233

inflation(percentagechangeinCPI)wasapproximately4.6%(WorldBank,2017),234

thusariseofupto5%inabsolutevalueofproducts,maynotindicateanyreal235

changeovertimeinvaluerelativetootherproducts.236

237

Lawenforcementin2014238

One-daysurveysatpotentialexportlocationsinthecapital,Libreville(seaport,239

airport,trainstationandbusstation)werecarriedoutincollaborationwithlaw240

enforcementagenciesandconcentratedoncurrentpracticesusedforinterception241

ofillegaltradeandcollationofannualseizures,ratherthannumbersseizedduring242

thesurveydays.Nationwidedataonseizuresofpangolinsorpangolinproductswere243

obtainedfromallrelevantgovernmentagencies(MinistryofForestsandProtection244

oftheEnvironment(MinistèredesForêtsdedelaProtectiondelaNature),the245

ConventiononInternationalTradeinEndangeredSpecies(CITES)Management246

11

AuthorityforGabon,NationalPoliceForce(GendarmerieNationale),theBorder247

Police(PolicedesAiresetFrontières),Customs(DouanesNationales)andNational248

ParksAgency(AgenceNationaledesParcsNationaux;ANPN)forassessmentoflaw249

enforcementefforts(2012-2015)andpotentialexportroutes.250

251

Results252

HuntersandtradersdidnotreliablydifferentiatebetweenthetwoPhataginus253

speciesofpangolinineitherthe2014surveysorthe2002-2003villagestudies,thus254

dataaregivencollectivelyfor‘arborealpangolins’.255

256

Villagehuntingand‘forestgate’tradein2014257

Ofvillagehunterswhogaveinformationonsales(90/103),allhuntersreported258

catchinganarborealpangolin‘commonly’and89%ofhuntersreportedsaleofan259

arborealpangolininthepastthreemonths.260

Theaveragepriceperkgforallbushmeatcarcassesrecordedassoldattheroadside261

invillageswasnotsignificantlydifferentbetweenthetwoprovinces.Mean2014262

roadsidepriceforallbushmeatwas1008±400FCFA(US$1.81±0.72)perkgfor514263

recordsfromhuntersales.Figure3showsmeanpriceperkgforallsalesreportedby264

huntersin2014.Bothtypesofpangolinsoldatahigherpriceperkgthanthemean265

priceofallbushmeat:wholearborealpangolins(estimatedat1.8kgfromasampleof266

93huntedanimalsweighedinGabon;Coad,2007,Hymas,unpublisheddata)were267

soldatameanroadsidepriceof2,447±930FCFA(US$4.40±1.67),equivalentto268

1,359±517FCFA(US$2.45±0.93)perkg(n=65salesobservedduringfieldstudy).269

Giantpangolins(estimatedat28.75kg)soldattheroadsideatameanpriceof270

12

38,100±17,822FCFA(US$68.39±32.07)equivalentto1,325FCFA(US$2.38±1.28)271

perkg(n=25).272

273

Expresseddemandforpangolinsinruralareasin2014274

Themajority(70%)ofhuntersreportedonlysellingtheirmeatopportunistically.Of275

the30%ofhuntersthattookordersformeatbeforehunting,34%oftheircustomer276

base(bynumberofclients)wereAsianimmigrants,althoughhuntersdidnotknow277

theparticularnationalityofindividualclients.Allhuntersthattookordersformeat278

beforehuntingwerefromtheOgoouéIvindo.MeatordersplacedbyAsianclients279

wereheavilybiasedtopangolins(Figure2).Huntersandvillagechiefsreportedno280

knowledgeofhuntingintheforestbyimmigrantworkersthemselves,ineither281

province.282

283

Changeinrankpositionofpangolinspecieswithinthetraditionalbushmeattrade284

Sixteenspecieswererecordedinthemarketsin2014.Thetopfivespecies,or285

speciesgroups,soldbytotalnumberofcarcassesinallmarketswere,inrankorder;286

blueduiker(26.1%carcasses),brush-tailedporcupine(20.3%),redduikers(18.8%),287

redriverhog(9.4%)andguenons(7.2%).Arborealpangolinswerethesixthmost-288

tradedspecies,forming4.3%ofallcarcassesandgiantpangolinsweretheseventh289

most-tradedspecies,forming3.6%ofallcarcassessold.290

Changeovertimeandspaceinmarketvalue291

ThepriceofanybushmeatattheforestgateinOgoouéIvindohadrisenfromamean292

761±236FCFA(US$1.31±0.42)perkgin2002-2003to1008±400FCFA(US$1.81±293

0.72)in2014;anincreaseof32%ofthe2002price.Pangolinsweretradedatabove294

13

averageperkgpricesinboth2002and2014,buttherelativepriceincreasewasfar295

greaterforgiantpangolins,whichsoldin2014for52%morethantheir2002price,296

whilstthepriceofarborealpangolinshadonlyrisenby9%onthe2002forestgate297

value.298

Usingpricesofwholeanimalsofthemostcommonandcomparablespecies;blue299

duikersandbrush-tailedporcupinesaccountforaround50%ofallsales,Makokou300

townpricesforwhole,freshanimalshadrisenfrom3631±1177FCFA(US$6.53±2.12)301

to5453±1297FCFA(US$9.81±2.33)percarcass,andLibrevillepriceshadrisenfrom302

8455±1716FCFA(US$15.22±3.09)to15700±4461FCFA(US$28.26±8.03),relative303

risesof50%and87%on2002prices.Duringthesameperiod,theaveragepriceof304

giantandarborealpangolinsinLibrevilleroseby212%and74%respectively(Figure305

4).306

307

Lawenforcement308

During2014,governmentwildlifelawenforcementteamswithsnifferdogscarried309

out209controlmissionsonpotentialexportroutesattheLibrevilleseaportand310

airport,theN1majorroadarteryintoandoutofLibrevilleandthetrainstation.311

Dailycontrolswithoutdogsalsooperatedatfiveroadblocksonmajorroadarteries312

acrossthecountry.Standardcustomscontrolsnotspecializedtowildlifeissuesalso313

operatedonallflightsdepartingtheinternationalairportandshipsdepartingthe314

seaport.Illegallyheldpangolinswerelocatedandseizedononlyfouroccasions:315

threeontheN1roadandoneatthetrainstation,recoveringintotaltwelvearboreal316

pangolins,equivalenttoapproximately21kgtotalweight.In2015(January-June)317

teamsworkingatthesamelocationsmadeoneseizureofscalesinthetownof318

14

Oyem.ThesescaleswerereportedlydestinedforaChinesebuyerinEquatorial319

GuineawhoregularlyplacedorderswithGabonesehuntersandwereassociated320

withaseizureofivory.Noseizuresofpangolinsorproductsweremadeatthe321

internationaltransporthubs.322

323

Discussion324

Wesetouttodescribethecurrentpositionofpangolinswithinthetraditional325

subsistencetradechain,toevaluatetheextentofchangeoverthepastdecadeinthe326

tradefromforestgatetocity,andtoassesstheextenttowhichruralhunting327

communitiesmaybeasourceofpangolinsforinternationaltrade,andhowand328

whereillegaltrademaybeemerging.Wehavefoundthat329

1. Frequencyofsaleofpangolins,particularlygiantpangolins,maybeincreasing330

withinthetraditionalbushmeatmarketchains,butthattheseincreasesare(as331

yet)smallandmaynotreflectanincreaseinhunterofftakesforarboreal332

pangolins.In2000-2006,althoughgiantpangolinswererecordedintrade,the333

speciesdidnotappearintheeighteenmostcommonly-tradedspeciesfroma334

comprehensivesurveyacrossGabon(Abernethy&NdongObiang,2010).Yetin335

our2014studytheyaretheseventhmost-tradedspecies.Itislikelythattheir336

salefrequencyhasrisenoverallinourstudyareasandpossiblynationwide.337

2. Allpangolinshaveincreasedinvalueovertime,relativetootherspecieswithin338

theexistingbushmeattradestructure.Relativevalueincreasesaremost339

extremeinmosturbanareasandsmallerinruralareas.Thisisconsistentwith340

absenceofahigh-valuetradedevelopingfromwithinthetraditionalmarket341

tradeandotherwiseprimarilyinvolvingvillagehunters.342

15

3. Specificdemandforpangolinsexpressedtovillagehuntersishighincertain343

areasrelativetoexpresseddemandforotherspecies,andparticularlyfor344

consumptionbytheimmigrantAsianpopulation.345

4. Giantpangolinshavebecomerelativelymorevaluablethanarborealpangolins,346

whichisinlinewiththeirmuchhigherweightofscales,ifscalepriceisa347

determinantofvalue.348

5. Despiteanintensificationoflawenforcementefforttodetectpangolin349

trafficking,nomovementthroughpublicinternationalordomestictransport350

hubshasbeendetected.Instead,averysmallnumberofinformaltraderoutes351

havebeenfoundacrossforestborderswherenoenforcementisroutinelymade.352

Itisprobablethatclientswithinestablishedillegaltradechainsforivorymay353

alsobeexpressingademandforpangolinscales.354

Thereislittleevidencefromoursurveysofvillagehuntersthattheyareengagingat355

presentinhuntingpangolinsformorecommercialpurposes,noringreaternumbers,356

thanin2002-3.Thetopfivespeciesreportedbyhuntersinthisstudyasmost357

frequentlycaughtareverysimilartothosefoundbyhunterstudiesadecadeago358

(thetopfivespeciesin2014villagecatcheswerealsofoundinthetopeightspecies359

inall2002-2006studies:OkouyiOkouyi,2006,Coad2007,vanVliet,2008).These360

resultssuggestthatthishuntingisstillprimarilyorientedtowardssubsistence,rather361

thannewercommercialpossibilitiesassociatedwithintercontinentaltrafficking.362

Althoughvillagehuntersareexperiencinghighlocaldemandforpangolinsfrom363

Asianimmigrantworkers,andareprovidingsupply,itwouldbepossibletoachieve364

morepangolinsalesin2014thanin2002-3withoutinitiallyincreasingofftakes.Coad365

(2007)foundvillagehunterstradedonly10%ofthepangolinstheyhunted,366

16

consumingtherestathome.Thus,thereissignificantpotentialforincreasedtrade367

toberecordedwithoutnecessarilyincreasedofftakes,simplybyhuntersdecidingto368

sell,ratherthanconsume,theircatch.369

Arborealpangolinswereonlythetenthandtwelfthmosttradedspeciesinmarkets370

nationallybetween2000-2006(AbernethyandObiangNdong,2010),yetinthis371

studywerethesixthmost-tradedspecies(bynumberofcarcassessold).Thelarge372

differenceinsamplesizeandperiodmeansthatthisresultmustbeinterpretedwith373

caution,howeveritsupportstheconclusionthatarborealpangolinsmaybetraded374

moreoftenin2014thantheywerein2002-2003,whetherornotofftakesfromthe375

forestarehigher.Sustaineddemandandhighvaluewillbealmostcertaintocreate376

increasedofftakesfromthevillagehuntinggroundsovertime.377

The2015seizureof2kgofscalesinOyemwasthefirstdomesticinterceptionof378

scaletrade,despiteconsiderableeffortssince2012dedicatedtocontrollingmajor379

transporthubsandfocusingsearcheffortsonpangolinsandtheirderivatives.The380

traderinterceptedwasalsodealinginivoryandreportedhavingregularlysupplied381

theChineseclientinvolvedforthepasttwoyears,exportingscalesinformallyacross382

aforestbordertoaspecificrecipient,ratherthanusingestablishedbushmeat383

traderswithinthecountrytooffertheproductforgeneralsalealongsidemeat.In384

2016asecondivorytraderwasalsointerceptedintheMinkébéregionofGabon,385

with2sacksofpangolinscalesassociatedwithaseizureofrawivory(ANPN,2016).386

Althoughthesearesmallpiecesofevidence,combinedwiththelackofseizuresof387

pangolinsinmajordomestictransporthubsandthetraditionalbushmeattrade388

network,eventheseanecdotesprovidesomeinsightintothepossiblemechanisms389

ofnewillegaltradeemergence.390

17

Weconcludethatthebeginningsofhighervaluetradechainsarepossibleand391

indeedprobableforeachspeciesofpangolin.bothwithinandfromGabon,andthat392

pathwaysforincreasingthetradeofpangolinshuntedinvillagesarealreadyevident,393

evenifthistradeisnotyetfullyrealised.Thevalueofgiantpangolinsindomestic394

tradehasincreasedgreatlyinurbanmarkets,despitethespecies’fullyprotected395

status,whichisanindicatorthatpressureonthisspeciesmaybehigherand396

expressedmorerapidlythandemandforarborealpangolins.Whilstwedemonstrate397

thatillegaltradenetworksforpangolinsmayevolveoutsideofthetraditional398

bushmeatmarketstructureandbe‘invisible’totraditionalmeatmarketsurveysand399

controls,evolutionofpangolintradebothwithinandoutsidethetraditional400

bushmeatsupplyisofcoursepossible.401

Iftheinternationalpangolintradeisnotsourcinganimalsfromthetraditional402

bushmeatmarkets,thenitmaybedifficulttodetectaparalleltradestructureusing403

thecurrentconservationstrategies.Weseeanimmediateneedforpro-active404

monitoringofthehuntingandtradeofpangolinsinvillagesandadiversificationof405

pangolin-focusedlawenforcementactivities.Suchactionswillrequireinnovationon406

thepartofgovernmentagenciesandNGOssupportingsuchefforts,anincreaseof407

resourcesdedicatedtocombattingtheillegalwildlifetradeinandfromGabon,and408

strengtheningofmultipleinternationalcollaborations.However,wefeelitisuseful409

toallfuturepartnerstosetoutaroadmapforconservationactionforpangolinsin410

Gabonfromthispointforwards.411

Specificrecommendationsare:412

1. Improvedenforcementandinterceptioneffortsinlessfrequently-used413

domestictradeandpotentialexportroutes,tocomplementcurrentefforts414

18

onlargertransporthubs,includingpayingparticularattentiontodetecting415

andrecordingconcurrentseizuresofpangolinsandivory.416

2. Improvedtraceabilityofseizuresinvolvingpangolinsandtheirderivatives,417

through418

a. improvednationalcapacityfortracingoriginsofdomesticillegaltrade419

(giantpangolins)tosource,forexamplebymonitoringtransportlinks;420

b. improvedcollaborationandparticipationoftheGaboneseState421

agenciesininternationalenforcementtoolsforallpangolins(i.e.422

CITESpermitsandtrademonitoring;Heinrichetal.,2016,Challender423

&Waterman,2017);and424

c. mappingofgenotypicvariationofwildGabonesepangolin425

populationstoenabledifferentiationoforiginwithinthecountry,as426

wellasacrossthespecies’globalrange(i.e.Gaubertetal.,2016).427

3. toensurerobustmonitoringofsubsistencehunterpressurebyworkingwith428

localhuntersandvillagesinorderto:429

a. detectchangesinofftake,includingtobetterunderstandthe430

sustainabilityofcurrentharvests(Coadetal.,2013;Ingrametal;431

2017);and432

b. toenableearlyreactivitytoincreasedcommercialtradeand/or433

trafficking.434

4. tosupportandencouragerobustscientificresearchonwildpangolin435

populationsinGabon,withaparticularfocusondeterminingthestatusof436

populationsinquantitativetermsandtemporaltrends,suchthatbaselines437

canbeestablishedtoproperlyunderpinnationalconservationmeasuresand438

19

internationaldecision-making,includingwithinCITES,andre-assessmentof439

AfricanpangolinsforTheIUCNRedListofThreatenedSpeciesTM.440

441

442

443

20

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550

23

Tables.551

Table1.Huntersale‘forestgate’pricechangesover12yearsfrom2002-2014inthe552OgoouéIvindovillages.Datafromthe2002-2003samplewerelimitedtorecords553fromMay-Septemberforcomparisontothe2014samplingperiod.Thelinesfor554pangolinrecordsareshaded.555556

Speciesgroup

BodyWeight(kg)

2002 2014price

increase(%2002)

Price/kgFCFA(SD)

EquivalentPrice/kgUS$

(SD)N

Price/kgFCFA(SD)

Price/kgUS$(SD) N

Redduiker 16.2 661(126)1.19(0.23) 347 715(239)

1.29(0.43) 72 8

Arborealpangolin 1.8 1,252(209)

2.25(0.38) 16 1,359(334)2.45(0.60) 57 9

Blueduiker 4.2 744(182)1.34(0.33) 34 879(312)

1.58(0.56) 56 18

Brushtailedporcupine 3.4 1,013(175)

1.82(0.31) 63 1,240(257)2.23(0.46) 58 22

Allspecies 761(236)1.37(0.42) 966 1,008(400)

1.81(0.72) 515 32

Redriverhog 55.0 569(97)1.02(0.17) 73 765(301)

1.38(0.54) 91 34

Guenon 4.0 676(204)1.22(0.37) 36 945(619)

1.70(1.11) 25 40

Giantpangolin 28.8 874(598)1.57(1.08) 53 1,325(517)

2.38(0.93) 66 52

557

24

Figurelegends558

Figure1.ThestudysitesinGabon.LibrevilleisthenationalcapitalcityandMakokou559

andTchibangaareprovincialcapitals.Hunterswereinterviewedinthevillages560

(shownasblackdots)supplyingthesetwoprovincialtownmarkets.Villagesin561

Gabonaregenerallysituatedalongtheroadnetwork,insimilardensitiestothose562

shownaroundthetwoprovincialtownsstudied.563

564

Figure2.RequestsreceivedfromlocallybasedAsianindustrialworkersbetween565

MarchandMay2014byhuntersfromsurveyedOgooué-Ivindovillages,forsupplyof566

particularspecies(N=34specificrequestsrecorded).567

568

Figure3.MeanpriceperkgFCFA($1USD=555FCFA)forspeciessoldbyhuntersat569

theforestgatein2014(Nsales).ErrorbarsrepresenttheSEofprices.Bodyweights570

weretakenfromempiricaldataforweighedcarcassesinGabon(Coad,2007&571

Abernethy&NdongObiang,2010).Atequalmeatvalue,bybodyweight,giant572

pangolinswouldbeexpectedtosellforasimilarpricetoredduikersandredriver573

hog,approximatelyhalftheiractualsaleprice.Thebarforthemeanofallspeciesis574

showninwhiteandbarsforpangolinspeciesinbrown.575

576

Figure4.Percentage(ofearlierprice)riseinmeanpricebetween2002-2003and577

2014forwholeanimalsalesofa)mostcommonlysoldtaxaunder5kg(palmcivet,578

blueduiker,brush-tailedporcupine,arborealpangolinsandguenons)b)arboreal579

pangolinsc)Giantpangolinsrecordedfromforestgatevillages,Makokoutownandin580

Libreville’slargestmarket(MontBouët).581