THE EFFECTS OF VOCAL EXERCISES AND INFORMATION …

THE EFFECTS OF VOCAL EXERCISES AND INFORMATION

ABOUT THE VOICE ON THE TONE QUALITY AND VOCAL

SELF-IMAGE OF ADOLESCENT FEMALE SINGERS

by

KENNETH LYMAN SIPLEY, B.M.E., M.M.E.

A DISSERTATION

IN

FINE ARTS

Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of Texas Tech University in

Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for

the Degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

Approved

August, 1993

V

Copyright 1993, Kenneth Lyman Sipley

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

There are many people who have had a share in whatever

success results from this project. Julie Rhodes, Candy

Sisson, and Roland Nitcher deserve many thanks for making

their students available for my research, and for putting

up with my many interruptions of their choral programs.

David Coons' assistance in setting up the statistics

program is much appreciated. Barbi Dickensheet is not only

a capable proofreader, but much more. Her kindness, her

friendliness, and her willingness to help made my work much

easier.

The many hours the members of my committee spent

helping me revise and polish this document provided perhaps

the most significant experience in my degree program. Dr.

Paul Randolph's help with statistics was invaluable. Dr.

Richard Weaver and Dr. John Stinespring provided valuable

points of view. Dr. Robert Henry taught me that an advisor

can also be a friend. The hours spent discussing choral

and vocal techniques with Dr. Kenneth Davis have helped me

clarify my beliefs and knowledge in these areas, and have

helped make me a better choral director, voice teacher, and

singer. Above all, Dr. Donald Tanner's guidance and

friendship have been a source of inspiration both in my

work and in my life. To all these gentlemen I offer a

heartfelt thank you, and more gratitude than I can ever

express.

For my parents and first teachers, Jessie and Clifton

Sipley, whose faith has given me strength to get through

some very difficult times, no expression of thanks could

ever be enough. I still profit from the lessons they

taught so lovingly and so well.

Finally, I would like to express my gratitude and love

to my wife, Mary. This is her degree as much as it is

11

mine. Without her comfort, support, and love the past

three years would have been impossible.

Ill

TABLE OF CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ii

ABSTRACT vi

LIST OF TABLES vii

CHAPTER

I. INTRODUCTION 1

Background and Rationale for the Study... 1

Purpose of the Study 6

Research problems 7

Description of the Study 7

Definitions 9

Organization 10

Limitations 11

II. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE 12

Introduction 12

Voice Mutation in Adolescents 13

Voice Mutation in Males 14

Voice Mutation in Females 15

Singing as a Physical Activity 19

The Classification of Adolescent

Female Voices 20

Vocal Models 24

Vocal Abuse 25

Developing the Voice 28

The Choral Director as Voice Teacher 28

The Aims of Vocal Instruction 30 The Sequence of Categories in

Vocal Development 33

Posture 35

Breath Management 36

Relaxation 38

Phonation 39

Resonance 39

Registration 41

iv

Ill

IV.

V.

REFERENCES

APPENDICES

A.

Articulation 44

Therapy and Exercises 45

The Application of Knowledge to Vocal Instruction 48

The Use of Science and Imagery in Vocal Instruction 50

METHODOLOGY OF THE STUDY 53

Vocal Principles on Which This Study

is Based 53

Hypotheses 53

Pilot Study 55 Methodology of the Main Study 58

RESULTS 63

Student Attitudes 63

Tone Quality 64

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS 74

Discussion 74


Tone Quality 75

Conclusions 78

Summary 82


Tone Quality 85

Suggestions for Further Research 86

87

PRINCIPLES OF VOCAL DEVELOPMENT WHICH FORM THE BASIS OF THE STUDY 102

B. OPEN-ENDED SENTENCE QUESTIONNAIRE USED IN THE PILOT STUDY 109

C. STUDENT ATTITUDE SURVEYS 112

D. EXERCISES TESTED IN THE PILOT STUDY 127

E. CALENDAR OF STUDY 136

F. EXERCISES USED IN THE MAIN STUDY 141

G. VOCAL TEST EVALUATION FORM AND INFORMATION

ON JUDGES 150

H. STATISTICAL INFORMATION 153

I. CONSENT FORMS 168 v

ABSTRACT

The purpose of this study was to determine the effects

of vocal exercises and knowledge about the voice and the

vocal development process on the tone quality and vocal

self-image of adolescent female singers. The three levels

of treatment were: vocal exercises, information

(knowledge), and a combination of exercises and knowledge.

Thirty-eight eighth grade students from a West Texas

junior high school participated in the study. Subjects

were randomly divided into four subgroups including a

control group. All subjects were given a student attitude

survey and a vocal test prior to the beginning of

treatment. Each subgroup received a different treatment.

Subgroup 1 received no treatment (control). Subgroup 2

received a program of vocal exercises. Subgroup 3 received

information about the voice (knowledge). Subgroup 4

received a combination of exercises and knowledge.

At the conclusion of the treatment period, all

subjects were once again given a student attitude survey

and vocal test. The vocal tests were taped (both pretest

and posttest). Five judges evaluated the recordings.

Analyses of data using t-tests and ANOVAs were undertaken

to determine if differences existed in tone quality and

self image between pretests and posttests.

Results indicate that the treatment given to Subgroup

4 (a combination of exercises and knowledge) produced a

significant difference in the subject's attitudes toward

their singing voices.

Analysis of the judges' evaluations of the taped

vocal tests showed no statistically significant

differences for the whole group, or for any subgroup or

individual measure. Subgroup 2 showed a slight

percentage increase on some measures. Individual

subjects showed marked improvement.

vi

LIST OF TABLES

1. A Comparison of the Mean of the Pretests to the Mean of the Posttests for the Total Group 66

2. T-tests (LSD) Showing the Lower Confidence Limit, the Upper Confidence Limit of the Mean Differences Between Subgroups 67

3. Subgroup 1 Measures for Individual Categories 67




7 . Comparison of the Judges ' Scores 69

8. Comparison of the Means of the Judges' Ratings Among Subgroups 69

9. Comparison of the Means of the Judges' Ratings Among Categories 69

10. Comparison of the Means of the Judges' Ratings

Among Students 70

11. Interactive Effect Between Judges and Categories....70

12. Interactive Effect Between Judges and Subgroups 70 13. Interactive Effect Between Subgroups and

Categories 70

14. Correlation Between Pretest and Posttest Ratings by Judges. The Upper Value is the Correlation; the Lower Value is the p-Value 71

15. T-tests (LSD) Showing the Lower Confidence Limit, the Upper Confidence Limit, the Difference Between the Means (Pretest to Posttest), and the Significant Differences Between Subgroups (Judges' Ratings) 71

16. Comparison of the Judges to Each Other 72

17. Comparison of the Judges' Ratings of Categories 72

18. T-tests of Judges' Ratings for All Subgroups 73

vii

H.l Student Attitude Survey Test Results: Pretest 156

H.2 Student Attitude Survey Test Results: Posttest 157

H.3 Student Attitude Survey Test Results: Differences Between Pretests and Posttests 158

H.4 Vocal Test Results: T-Tests of Differences for All Judges 162

H.5 Vocal Test Results: T-Tests of Differences for Judge 1 163





Vlll

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

Background and Rationale for the Study

Adolescence is a time of many changes, ''... an intense

time of becoming... replete with the raging fires of

puberty, dynamic change, and remarkable growth" (Nuss,

1993, p. 37). During these years, young people change

physically and emotionally, as well as in their orientation

to their environment. ''This process is often traumatic and

involves throwing off the vestments of childhood and

learning how to fit into those of adulthood" (Nuss, 1993,

p. 37). All of these changes can affect an adolescent's

attitude toward music.

Physical growth is obvious during adolescence, as

there is an acceleration of the changes which have been

occurring since birth. Whereas in the early grades, most

children are approximately the same height, during

adolescence there are vast differences in height among

young people in the same grade. Secondary gender

characteristics appear—breast development in females,

facial hair in males, and body hair in both. During this

period of rapid growth, there is often an awkwardness in

the coordination of young people. Since singing is an

activity involving muscle movement, this lack of

coordination affects the voice as well.

It was long thought that female voices did not change.

We now know that, since the larynx grows along with the

rest of the body, change does occur (Harrison, 1978).

While the change in females is not as dramatic as in males,

it may be just as traumatic for the adolescent female as

for her male counterpart.

The world of the adolescent expands significantly. In

the early grades a child's environment is defined by home.

school, and the homes of a few friends and relatives.

Throughout the later grades, junior high school, and high

school, young people develop a larger circle of friends

with whom they spend more time. Their mobility increases

as they become responsible for their own transportation,

first on bicycles, in some cases on public transportation,

and, eventually, in automobiles, driven either by

themselves or by peers.

While family members and teachers do not completely

lose their influence over adolescents, young people grow

more cognizant of their peers, and other adults outside

school and home, and may be swayed by new opinions and

standards. Adolescents have a greater number of role

models from which to choose. Musically, these role models

often include singers heard on radio, television, and

recordings.

Adolescents move into a new stage of learning. They

begin to reason, and to reason about their reasoning.

Increasingly, they look at adults not as being far above

them, but as equals in reasoning and decision-making.

Adolescents compare their arguments and thinking with those

of the adults in their environment, and, for good or ill,

see themselves as able to make adult judgments.

All of these changes are important, both to the

adolescent and to the society in which she lives. This

study investigated one aspect of female adolescent growth.

It sought to determine whether vocal exercises and

knowledge about the vocal development and vocal change

processes would make a significant difference in the tone

quality of adolescent female singers, and in their vocal

self-image relative to their singing voices.

The adolescent male voice has been the subject of many

studies. Cooksey (1977a, b, and c), Rutkowski (1981),

Barresi (1986), Coffman (1987), and Johnson (1988) were all

concerned with classifying male changing voices. I. Cooper

(1950, 1953, 1967), Swanson (1960, 1961, 1973, 1977),

Collins (1981, 1982, 1987), and Taylor (1987) were

interested in providing singable literature for male voices

at each stage of the mutation process. Many of these

researchers have had a profound effect on junior high

school choral music.

The changes which occur in boys' voices at this age

are so dramatic that they have, for many years,

overshadowed those which are found in adolescent females.

Boyd (1977) spoke of the lack of change in female voices.

Other authors (Gehrkens, 1936; Ayers & Roduner, 1942)

stated that there are no difficult problems in the female

voice during mutation, and that it is not disruptive to the

singing process. Still other authors (Til, Vars, &

Lounsbury, 1967; Hoffer, 1983) ignored voice mutation in

females entirely.

In recent years, researchers have begun to investigate \

the changes which occur in the female voice during

adolescence. Studies have focused on breath management and

tone (Gackle, 1985, 1987, 1991; Phillips & Fett, 1992),

females' self-perception of their voices (Williams, 1990),

pitch characteristics of females' speaking and singing

voices (Linke, 1953; Michel, Hollein, & Moore, 1966), the

effects of cheerleading on the female singing voice

(Bravender, 1977), registration (Schoenhard & Hollein,

1982), and the difference between chest voice and belting

(Bevan, 1989).

The so-called chest voice and its misuse may cause

significant problems for choral directors and voice

teachers who work with adolescent females (Howard, 1923;

Busch, 1973; Bradley, 1975; Mount, 1982; Harris, 1987;

Mayer & Sacher, n.d.). Young people may form their concept

of acceptable vocal tone more from radio and recordings

than from techniques learned in school (Williams, 1990;

Boardman & Alt, 1992). Adopting popular singers as vocal

models can have serious consequences for the young singer.

Immediately, it will have the effect of limiting vocal

range and the types of music the student can sing (Seth &

Guthrie, 1935; Vennard, 1967; McKinney, 1982; Mount, 1982;

Ingham & Keaton, 1983; Teter & Gray, 1985; Doscher, 1991;

Mayer & Sacher, n.d.). Long-range, forced singing in the

chest voice can cause vocal problems such as chronic

hoarseness and nodules (Brodnitz, 1953; Appelman, 1967;

Bravender, 1977; Stoer & Swank, 1978; Andrews, 1986).

The physical changes which occur during adolescence

often impede successful vocal development (Nuss, 1993).

Private vocal instruction is not available to every

adolescent singer, and choral music educators frequently

lack a background in child and adolescent vocal pedagogy.

A choral program which employs voice building exercises

improves breath control and tone production in middle

school/junior high school females (Gackle, 1978). Choral

directors who spend a few minutes of rehearsal time each

day teaching students proper use of the voice will improve

the vocal tone quality of the singers (Gonzo, 1973;

Robinson & Winold, 1976; Blatt, 1983; Overturf, 1985;

Fiocca, 1986; Guthmiller, 1986). Group voice classes and

choral rehearsals must function as vocal training sessions

for adolescents.

Since most adolescents do not have access to private

vocal instruction, the choral conductor may very well be

the only vocal instructor these singers ever know, it is

necessary, therefore, that he or she be able to instruct

students in the proper use of the vocal mechanism, both to

prevent vocal abuse and to produce the most beautiful vocal

sound of which the singers are capable (Wilson, 1959; Swan,

1973; Decker, 1975; White, 1975; Robinson & Winold, 197 6;

Tovey, 1977; Heffernan, 1982; Corbin, 1983, 1986).

Teaching students proper use of the voice does not

necessarily solve the problem of the adolescent's vocal

self-image. Frequently, adolescent female singers develop

their vocal self-image by adopting popular singers as vocal

models. Unfortunately, young singers may be influenced in

negative ways by these models (M. Cooper, 1970, 1982;

Alderson, 1979; Andrews, 1986). Their desire to emulate

these models may counteract the best efforts of their

teachers. A way must be found to change the adolescent's

concept of good vocal sound.

Substituting adult, female, classically trained

singers as vocal models is not an acceptable answer, since

students may have a difficult time relating to those

voices. Moreover, because of the difference in vocal

maturity between adolescent girls and adult women, these

voices should not be considered models except as the ideal

for which to strive when the voice matures. The only

acceptable model is the properly trained adolescent voice

itself. Outstanding children's choirs might provide

acceptable vocal models, but simply hearing these voices

will probably not change the adolescent female's concept of

good vocal sound. Adolescent singers must be given reasons

to adopt these vocal models and accept that vocal sound as

correct and desirable.

According to Drucker (1969), knowledge (the systematic

organization of information and concepts) is becoming the

foundation of skill. Leaders use knowledge to enable

subordinates to acquire skills more quickly and

successfully than through apprenticeship (experience).

When we acquire skills on the basis of knowledge, we have

learned how to learn. Drucker maintains that knowledge is

not merely information or data gained from a book, but

involves the application of that information to performing

some task or action (such as improving vocal tone).

Young people must be educated about the physical

development of the larynx, the lengthening of the vocal

folds, and the ways in which these and other changes which

occur during the growth process can affect singing and

speaking. The principles of good vocal production must be

explained as thoroughly as possible (Harrison, 1978).

Providing information to singers will allow them to

understand and more effectively apply those concepts in the

development of their own performance skills (Henry, 1992).

Children can only make decisions from what they know

(Madsen & Kuhn, 1978). The more information a singer has

about the way the vocal mechanism works, and the

adjustments she must make in order for that mechanism to

work more efficiently (thereby producing a more satisfying

vocal tone), the more likely that singer is to put forth

the effort which will bring about the desired improvement.

Because of the lack of a systematic vocal pedagogy to

address the problems in the female changing voice, there is

a need for research-supported techniques which will allow

these singers to experience successful vocal development

throughout adolescence.

Purpose of the Study

The purpose of this study was to investigate the

effects of vocal exercises, knowledge about the vocal

mechanism and the vocal development process, and the

combination of exercises and knowledge on the vocal tone

quality and vocal self-image of a group of adolescent

female singers.

Research Problems

The study addressed the following research problems:

1. The effect of a program of vocal exercises on the

vocal tone quality of adolescent female singers;

2. The effect of a program of vocal exercises on the

vocal self-image of adolescent female singers;

3. The effect of providing knowledge about the vocal

mechanism and the vocal development process on the

vocal tone quality of adolescent female singers;

4. The effect of providing knowledge about the vocal

mechanism and the vocal development process on the

vocal self-image of adolescent female singers;

5. The effect of of vocal exercises combined with

knowledge about the vocal mechanism and the vocal

development process on the vocal tone quality of

adolescent female singers; and

6. The effect of vocal exercises combined with


development process on the vocal self-image of

adolescent female singers.

Description of the Study

A group of students (n=38) in the eighth grade of a

West Texas junior high school, all of whom were members of

their school choir program, were divided by random number

selection into four subgroups. All subgroups participated

in the warmup procedure conducted by their choral conductor

at the beginning of each rehearsal. The study covered a

time period of eleven weeks. Subgroup 1 (n=10) received no

training from the investigator. Subgroup 2 (n=10) received

twenty-one instruction sessions comprised of vocal

exercises. Subgroup 3 (n=9) received twenty-one

instruction sessions comprised of information (knowledge)

about the vocal mechanism and the vocal development

process. Subgroup 4 (n=9) received the same program of

vocal exercises as Subgroup 2, coupled with the information

about the vocal mechanism and the vocal development

process given to Subgroup 3 for twenty-one instruction

sessions. Each instruction session was ten minutes in

length.

Prior to the first daily instruction session, all

subjects were given a semantic differential student

attitude survey. This instrument was designed to determine

the subjects' vocal self-image as it related to their

singing voices. The subjects were also given a vocal

pretest, which consisted of an ascending scale from D4 to

D5, a descending scale from D5 to D4, and America in the

key of F major.

The student attitude survey and the vocal test were

given again following the eleven-week period. The student

attitude survey results (pretest and posttest) were

compared by the investigator. Both vocal tests were tape

recorded for comparison by a panel of choir directors with

considerable expertise in the adolescent voice. These

experts were chosen on the basis of their years of

experience in working with adolescent voices as well as the

success of their own choral music programs.

The components of this study were:

1. The development of a program of vocal exercises y^

designed to address aspects of the tone quality of

adolescent female singers.

2. The administration of a vocal pretest and posttest

to a group of adolescent female singers to

determine if any improvement in vocal tone quality

had occurred.

3. The administration of a semantic differential

student attitude survey (pretest and posttest) to

a group of adolescent female singers to ascertain

8

their attitudes about their voices before and after

the completion of the study.

4. The use of information statements (knowledge) about

the vocal mechanism and the vocal development

process to encourage a group of adolescent female

singers to become actively involved in the vocal

development process.

Definitions

Many of the terms used in the study have, through wide

use, taken on several meanings. Other terms may be

unfamiliar to the reader. For the purpose of this study

these terms are defined as follows.

Adolescence: The period of life between puberty and

maturity. For females, it begins with menarche.

Educationally, Piaget described it as the period of formal

operations, when children begin to reason on an adult

level.

C4: The system devised by the Acoustical Society of

America, and endorsed by the U.S.A. Standards Association,

in which Middle C is represented as C4.

Cambiata: An Italian word meaning "change." The word

has been used by I. Cooper and others to classify the

adolescent male voice during mutation.

Hyperfunction: Excessive use. Vocally, using too much

energy in singing or speaking. The results are a tired

voice, hoarseness, and, eventually, vocal dysfunction.

Hypofunction: Weak or insufficient use. Vocally, not

enough energy used in singing or speaking. The result is a

weak, listless voice. Hypofunction is usually the result

of neurological disorder. In some cases it may be a result

of hyperfunction. Junior high school: Typically, a school which includes

grades seven through nine. Junior high schools may include

only some of these grades (seven and eight, or eight and

nine).

Menarche: The onset of the menstrual cycle.

Mutational chink: During the early stages of the voice

change, the vocal folds in the adolescent female frequently

will close properly in front (anterior) while remaining

open in back (posterior). This incomplete closing results

in a breathy tone, and, at times, incomplete phonation.

The mutational chink disappears with maturation.

Range: The vocal range extends from a person's lowest

sustainable pitch to the highest sustainable pitch,

regardless of the tone quality of those pitches.

Tessitura: While the term usually means the pitch

range of a vocal composition, in this study it will be used

to designate the area of the voice where pitches are

produced easily and without strain. This area also usually

produces the most acceptable tone quality. This definition

is frequently used by authors who are vocal instructors

(Christy, 1961). Vocal nodules: Growths on the vocal folds, usually the

final consequence of hyperfunction. Nodules are hard

tissue which form when the folds are seriously abused over

a long period of time. Voice mutation; The period, during adolescence, when

the vocal cords lengthen. During voice mutation, the voice

is typically changing and unsettled.

Organization

The study consists of five chapters. Chapter I serves

as an introduction, and outlines the parameters of the

study and its organization. Chapter II provides a review

of related research. Chapter III describes the methodology

of the study and includes information on the pilot study

10

which preceded the main study. Chapter IV presents the

results of the study. Chapter V discusses the conclusions

which were drawn from the results.

Limitations

This study was limited to eighth-grade female students

who were members of a junior high school choral program in

West Texas. The results and conclusions do not necessarily

apply to male voices, female voices in the elementary

grades or senior high school, or eighth grade students in

other parts of the United States of America or in any other

country.

11

CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

Introduction

This chapter will present and discuss research

findings in voice mutation, vocal instruction, and the

application of knowledge to vocal instruction. Vocal

pedagogues and laryngologists have studied the human voice

extensively. The changing voice has been of particular

interest to choral directors and music educators involved

with adolescent students. Research in this area has been

concerned primarily with the physical changes which

accompany and affect voice mutation, the stages of the male

changing voice, the stages of the female changing voice,

and materials for choirs which are comprised of these

voices.

Much of the research in the field of vocal

development, while not specifically targeted at the

changing voice, is nevertheless applicable to adolescent

voices. Vocal abuse in adolescents is of great concern to

laryngologists and voice teachers. There is considerable

controversy over the issue of choral singing for

adolescents, and the age at which voice training should

begin.

Choral directors, in most cases, provide the only

vocal instruction adolescents receive. Many authors

advocate systems of vocal development which could be useful

as components of the choral rehearsal. Most of these

systems involve some sequence of vocal development and

exercises for improving the voice.

There is some disagreement over the ability of amateur

singers to be interested in or to absorb technical

information about the voice and the vocal development

process. While business and industry have accepted

12

knowledge and its application as a more efficient method of

learning skills and completing tasks, imagery is still

accepted by many voice teachers and choral directors as the

most appropriate method for vocal instruction.

Voice Mutation in Adolescents

The period of adolescence is marked by extensive

physical growth. The larynx grows along with the rest of

the body. Biological measures of growth, such as crown-

heel length, were found to be significantly better

predictors of laryngeal growth than was chronological age.

The growth of the larynx was found to be linearly related

to growth in body height (crown-heel length). This

suggests that laryngeal growth may not be laryngeal

specific, but related to growth in height (Kahane, 1975).

Joseph (1965) suggests that vocal growth probably

correlates most highly with skeletal development.

Male laryngeal growth is greater than that of females,

but both do become larger. Kahane (1975) found that, in

general, there were no significant differences between

prepubertal male and female laryngeal measurements. By

puberty, male laryngeal measurements were significantly

greater than those of females, and most adult gender

differences in laryngeal measurements were present.

Since the larynx enlarges with the rest of the body,

everyone experiences voice mutation (Harrison, 1978). The

changes in the length and thickness of the vocal folds

bring about voice mutation in all adolescents. At puberty,

the vocal fold length of females increases by three to four

millimeters, while that of males increases to approximately

one centimeter (Adcock, 1987).

Voice mutation is not limited to adolescence, but is

intensified during this period. The process of mutation is

developmental, not abrupt. Mutation, which starts in early

13

childhood, continues past adolescence. The problems

associated with growth and development toward maturity are

intensified during the junior high school years (Mayer &

Sacher, n.d.).

Voice Mutation in Males

I. Cooper (1967) discovered three stages of voice

mutation in the adolescent male. He used the Italian word

cambiata (changing) to label male voices in the process of

mutation. Cooksey (1977a, b, c) found five stages of voice

mutation in the adolescent male. Barresi (1986) found

three with some substages. Other researchers who worked

with the stages of adolescent male voice mutation were

Rutkowski (1981), Coffman (1987), and Johnson (1988).

Blatt (1983) found that a program of selected

vocalises, systematically administered by a singing teacher

supported by an otorhinolaryngologist, produced significant

improvement in the singing ability of adolescent male

singers. The purpose of his seven-year study was to

determine whether the period of voice mutation could be

successfully bridged by a training program which would

enable continued development of the singing voice without

damaging the maturing structures of the vocal mechanism.

He found no breaks in the voices of any of the participants

in his study. He also discovered that the singing range of

male changing voices was greater than is usually ascribed

to them.

Many authors have advocated that adolescent male

voices must have singing materials specifically tailored to

their vocal ranges in order to protect them from misuse.

The research of I. Cooper (1950, 1953, 1967), Swanson

(1960, 1961, 1973, 1977), Cooper and Kuersteiner (1965),

and Collins (1981, 1982, 1987a, 1987b) was concerned with

the development of choirs comprised wholly or in part of

14

adolescent male voices in all stages of mutation, and with

the availability of quality materials for such choirs.

Collins, working from Cooper's research, developed the

"Cambiata Concept" (1982, pp. 5-9). His own research led

to the founding of The Cambiata Press, whose purpose was to

publish and disseminate choral materials for use by middle

school and junior high school male and mixed choirs.

Adcock (1987) found in working with adolescent male singers

that calling the high male voice "junior high tenor" and

having these singers read the treble clef an octave lower,

produced successful results, both in quality of sound and

in the satisfaction of the singers.

The research discussed above indicates that it is

possible, with careful planning and attention to the

problems of voice mutation, to help adolescent males sing

through the voice change with few difficulties. The choral

director must recognize the limitations of each stage of

voice mutation and create an exercise program which will

help the voice develop properly. Choosing the correct

voice part for each singer, and suitable material for the

choir to sing, is also important. When serious problems

with individual singers are encountered, it may be

advisable or necessary to consult a laryngologist.

Voice Mutation in Females

It was long assumed that females' voices did not

change, but merely developed. Ayers and Roduner (1942)

stated that girls' voices do not present difficult problems

as do boys' voices during adolescence, and that the female

voice matures and settles into adult quality and type,

losing its childlike quality and taking on a heavier, more

vibrant timbre. Gehrkens (1936) found the female's change

to be more gradual and not so extensive as the male's, so

that it did not entirely disrupt the singing voice. He

15

stated that females can usually sing through voice

mutation, often not aware of changes in their voices. Huls

(1957), on the other hand, states that female voices do

undergo mutation during adolescence.

Because females' larynges and vocal folds do not grow

as much as those of males their mutation may be less

dramatic (Harrison, 1978).

This means that the girls [sic] voice change may be less dramatic than the boy's, often unnoticed even by the girl herself. Perhaps it would be better to say unidentified by even the girl herself. Still, the symptoms may be there; an insecurity of pitch, missing notes with varying frequency, the development of noticeable registers, or the shifting of register breaks. Perhaps the choir member just doesn't feel like singing, a very unusual phenomena for her. Girls who have sung soprano with great pleasure may find herself rsici uncomfortable in that part. After a time the new part does not seem right, so back she goes to the original part again. A low voice may switch to soprano and then again to alto. The changing girl's voice does not always finally settle into a new range as can the boy's. Rather it often seems to be making choices for ultimate placement, (p. 14)

The female voice during mutation displays observable

characteristics, which are the results of muscular

immaturity and increased muscular growth. Alderson (1979)

found the characteristics of the female mutational voice to

be thin and breathy, low and husky, and inconsistent in

quality. Similarly, Hoffer (1983) found adolescent female

voices to be breathy and thin in tone quality due to

muscular immaturity and lack of vocal development. Gackle

(1987) found that the female voice has inherent

characteristics which manifest themselves during mutation.

These include:

a. breathiness of tone,

b. hoarseness,

c. incomplete phonation,

16

d. shifting of register breaks, and

e. "cracking in the voice" (p. 1).

In her 1991 study, she found the symptoms of the female

adolescent voice change to be:

a. insecurity of pitch,

b. the development of noticeable register breaks,

c. increased huskiness,

d. decreased and inconsistent range capabilities,

e. voice cracking,

f. hoarseness, and

g. generally uncomfortable singing or difficulty in

phonation.

During voice mutation, weaknesses in the interarytenoid

muscles become apparent in the form of breathy tone

quality, inconsistency with registers, hoarseness,

cracking, and a decrease in basic range (Huff-Gackle,

1985).

Ingram and Rice (1962) found adolescent females

showing loss of high range, strain, and a heavy, breathy,

or rough tone quality. They discovered that not every

female has problems. They suggested several steps to

ensure easier and more enjoyable singing during voice

mutation. These included maintaining good posture, using

correct breathing, developing a vital tone, and refraining

from forcing the voice and over-loud singing.

Lovelace (1964) found that during mutation the female

vocal folds thicken. The tone becomes breathy and

diffused, and the voice has a narrow range of

effectiveness. Williams (1990), in a study involving both

adolescent female singers and adult female general music,

voice, and choral teachers, found that the adults, when

they were adolescents:

17

a. preferred singing high pitches (including solos and

descants), but were asked to sing alto or play the

piano because they could read music,

b. knew their voices were in a state of transition,

c. had a higher range than their peers,

d. felt a loss of control over their voices at times,

e. experienced huskiness and/or breathiness in their

singing and speaking voices, and

f. had frequent sore throats.

Barresi (1986) found that the adolescent female voice

goes through two stages during mutation. As mutation

continues, the huskiness and lack of vocal agility

disappear. By the eleventh grade, register changes, for

most females, should begin to develop.

In her 1985 study, Huff-Gackle defined three stages of

development for the adolescent female voice. Gackle's 1991

study confirmed much of her earlier work. There were some

changes in nomenclature and age ranges for some of the

stages.

Following menarche there is a significant difference

in the way female singers describe their voices. Williams

(1990) found that post-menarcheal females began to show a

preference for singing high or low tones. They were more

able to provide descriptors for their preference than pre-

menarcheal females. Her study also showed that post-

menarcheal females had more trouble singing up to their

highest terminal pitch than pre-menarcheal females. She

believed it was because they did not know how to make the

transition from chest register to head register. Also,

they had not experienced very high pitches with their "new"

voices. Williams cited the need for more study related to

females' self-perception of their singing and speaking

voices, including the need to develop better descriptors.

18

These authors agree that choral directors and voice

teachers must learn to recognize the characteristics and

stages of the female voice during mutation, and help

adolescents sing through the period of voice change with as

little difficulty as possible. These authors also believe

that choral directors who conduct young adolescent voices

must understand the strengths and limitations of the voices

in their choirs.

Singing as a Physical Activity

Adolescents must learn to use their voices properly.

Since the choral director is the only voice teacher most

adolescents ever see, he or she must be able to train these

voices while understanding and working within their

limitations. Huls (1957) believes there is a strong

tendency to overestimate the potential of young singers.

Choral directors, voice teachers, and others who are

responsible for adolescent singers must understand what is

normal for the age group as well as the stage of

development of the individual singer. Huls found that

adolescents are able to develop their singing voices as

long as teachers respect the physical, mental, and

emotional capacities of their students.

Singing has often been compared to athletics because

muscles are involved in both activities. Since singing is

a muscular activity, and singers use their voices in much

the same way athletes develop their skills, training for

the adolescent singer is as necessary and proper as is

instruction and practice for young athletes. Alderson

(1979) concluded that singing is an athletic endeavor, and

the singer is an athlete, because she is involved in muscle

development and conditioned physical response to stimuli

which demand daily practice. Ingham and Keaton (1983)

referred to singers as "laryngeal athletes" (p. 6). The

19

intensity and duration of daily practice sessions need to

be controlled by teachers and choral directors just as they

are controlled by coaches in youth sports programs (Mayer &

Sacher, n.d.).

Singing and athletics both involve skill development.

Phillips (1985, 1986) asserted that singing is a skill, and

that if young children are not taught singing skills

correctly they will learn incorrect habits which will

hinder their development. He concluded that, since members

of boy's choirs and children's choirs do not suffer as a

result of vocal training, no child would be harmed by vocal

instruction if it is done correctly. Children misuse their

voices on the playground and through singing with no

instruction. It is far better to teach them to sing

correctly. In order to do so, choral music educators at

the college level must develop a course in vocal pedagogy

for the young voice. With proper guidance and care

adolescents can safely sing through the pubertal years

(Phillips & Fett, 1992).

The Classification of Adolescent Female Voices

The practice of permanently assigning young adolescent

females to the soprano or alto section can be vocally

harmful. Skoog & Niederbrach (1983) stated that voice

classification is an ongoing process, since the real voice

does not emerge until the singer is taught to use the whole

voice properly.

The coordination of head and chest voice is essential

for good singing, provided the head voice is dominant

(Bradley, 1975). In less-skilled singers of any age, the

upper voice is usually weaker than the lower voice.

Adolescent singers must be taught to blend the two voices

in order to achieve vocal strength through the entire

range. The danger in having females sing alto in junior

20

high school is that by ninth grade they tend to use the

lower register exclusively (Mayer & Sacher, n.d.). If they

use the upper register at all, they have developed a

significant break between the registers. Collins (1982)

agreed with Mayer and Sacher's findings. He found that

college-age and adult female singers with a marked division

between their chest and head voices had been, in most

cases, assigned to the alto part as adolescents, and had

never learned to sing above A4. In many cases, they did

not know they could sing above that pitch. The problem was

worse if the singers were cheerleaders, since they were

taught to yell in their chest voice.

In her 1987 study, Adcock found only one female with

true alto quality out of 600 young adolescent female

subjects tested. Hoffer (1983) also found few true altos

among young adolescent female singers. Most of the singers

he encountered were second sopranos. Ingram and Rice

(1962) found no adolescent contraltos. They observed a

tendency for children in grades four through six to sing in

their lower voices with pushed volume. They stated that no

young voice should be asked to do more than is good for it,

either in volume or in extremes of range (upper or lower).

The lower register, sung forcefully and loudly, is not any

child's natural voice (Thurman, 1988). Even in ninth

grade, the female voice is still developing and must be

treated with care.

All female voices during adolescence should be

referred to as "light soprano" or "rich soprano" (Gackle,

1991, p.21). The presence of a prominent lower register

should not be confused with true (adult) alto quality. All

adolescent female singers should be vocalized through their

entire ranges.

Choral directors should not classify voices

permanently. Thurman (1988) stated that once a singer's

21

voice is classified, he or she becomes that classification,

sometimes for life. "Labeling is disabling" (Ginott, 1972,

p. 100). The diagnosis may become the disease.

Being labeled an alto at ages eleven to fifteen can

cause permanent vocal damage as well as decreasing the

overall vocal range of the singer. Gackle (1991) believed

young girls were assigned to sing alto because:

a. they read music well,

b. they had a good musical ear and could sing harmony

easily,

c. it suddenly became difficult or "hurt" to sing

soprano,

d. it was easier to sing low (chest voice); the singer

could produce more volume with less work, and

e. singing along with the radio or recordings lends

itself to this register.

Harris (1987) found that most females were assigned to

the alto section because they had good pitch matching

skills or could read music well (due to lessons on the

piano or other instrument, or because of some other

previous musical experience). After the vocal pattern has

been established, it is very difficult to break the habit

of carrying the chest voice into the upper register.

Eventually it becomes impossible to move to the top (head)

voice without intensive and patient studio training.

Since adolescent females are neither true altos nor

true sopranos (in the adult usage of these terms) there

remains the problem of assigning them to voice parts for

the purpose of singing in choirs. This can best be solved

by avoiding permanent classification. No young adolescent

female should be assigned permanently to an alto or soprano

section. Because of the lack of true alto voices in the

adolescent years, Adcock (1987) advocates dividing all the

females in the junior high school choir by age and previous

22

musical experience into two even groups, and labeling them

Soprano I and Soprano II. These groups alternate singing

the soprano and alto parts every other song. She found

that this procedure not only allowed the singers to

exercise their full vocal range, but also created senior

high school choristers who were better musicians. Another

researcher who advocated dividing female singers evenly

into two sections and alternating parts was Collins (1982).

In his Cambiata Press music Collins frequently placed the

melody in the second soprano part, and gave the first

sopranos a descant or countermelody. I. Cooper (1953),

Cooper and Kuersteiner (1965), Busch (1973), Skoog and

Niederbrach (1983), and Huff-Gackle (1985) all agree with

the practice of avoiding permanent classification of young

adolescent female voices by alternating between soprano and

alto parts in choral singing.

Ehret (1959, p.35) suggested the use of "travelers"—

selected members of each section who shift to another

section when necessary in order to achieve the desired

balance and/or color. This prevents the problem of a

section or an individual singer having to "make" too much

volume.

If it is necessary, for any reason, to classify

adolescent female voices, the traditional criteria of pitch

range in singing or speaking, voice quality, register

transfers, and ability to sing harmony easily should be

rejected (Thurman, 1988). Williams (1990) found that

tessitura is a significant predictor of most appropriate

classifications for adolescents. Classification involves

identifiable factors of which tessitura is especially

important (Wolverton, 1988).

Several authors condemn the use of adolescent female

tenors. Having females sing tenor commits them to a

frustrating vocal future (Huls, 1957). At the very least

23

it results in months of remedial vocal work in college.

Ingram and Rice (1962) also found no good purpose served in

assigning females to the tenor section. The middle

register (C4 to C5) is the most damaged by having females

sing tenor (Mount, 1982).

The work of these authors suggests that all young

adolescent females should be considered to have soprano

voices. Even if the lower part of a singer's range seems

to predominate, she should vocalize throughout her entire

range. Opportunities should be provided for her to sing

both soprano and alto parts, allowing her to use her full

range, as long as the tessituras of those parts do not

place undue strain on her voice. Excessive singing in the

higher part of the range should be avoided as well as

singing entirely or excessively in the lower register. It

is wise to avoid permanent classification of a young

adolescent female's voice. Her development as a singer

will be much more natural, complete, and free of trouble if

she is allowed to use her entire range in choir singing and

in vocalization.

Vocal Models

Adolescents need to be guided as much as possible in

their selection of vocal models, since the selection of

inappropriate vocal models may lead to serious vocal

problems. If a singer adopts a vocal model, whether

positive (one she wants to emulate) or negative (one she

wants to avoid), she will not fulfill her own vocal

potential (M. Cooper, 1970). Most individuals are not

aware of the vocal images they choose or reject, so they

are not aware of the negative consequences of misusing

their voices in that way. Cooper also found (1982) that

poor or inappropriate vocal models lead to an inappropriate

vocal image (a combination of vocal elements-pitch, tone,

24

focus, quality, breath support-which a person uses to form

the voice she likes). This in turn leads to the wrong

vocal identity (the total sound, which the person feels is

his or her correct voice) for that singer.

When a singer tries to emulate a model, she acts on

what she hears on the outside (Alderson, 1979). She cannot

match that sound because she hears the sound from the

inside of her head. She must trust her teacher's ability

to hear and evaluate her voice correctly and successfully.

The majority of researchers in music education

advocate having elementary children sing in their head

voice (Williams, 1990). Young singers should not use their

lower speaking voice for singing at a dynamic level which

would involve excessive force However, this is what they

hear on the radio and television, on recordings, and when

adults speak to them. Adolescent female singers tend to

imitate the low chest voice of some singers, and the "belt"

voice of others (Boardman & Alt, 1992).

These authors agree that choral directors and voice

teachers who work with young adolescents must provide vocal

models to counteract those their students will tend to

adopt from radio, television, and recordings. They must

find ways to influence young adolescents to value the kind

of tone quality which will allow them to use their voices

properly.

Vocal Abuse

Many of the activities of children and adolescents,

including the use of the speaking voice, make them prime

candidates for vocal abuse. Because young adolescents'

life styles put them in danger of abusing their voices, all

choral directors and voice teachers who work with them must

have sufficient knowledge about the voice to help their

singers establish healthy vocal habits.

25

stoer and Swank (1978) found that vocal nodules occur

more frequently in women than in men. They believe every

beginning voice student should be examined by a

laryngologist in order to discover if any voice pathology

exists, to find any structural abnormality, and to have a

baseline of the vocal folds under normal conditions as a

point of comparison should illness or pathology develop

later.

Brodnitz (1953) agrees that systematic voice training

and frequent examinations by a laryngologist are necessary

as preventive voice care. One cause of hyperfunction (too

much force in the use of the voice) is the lack of voice

training in the schools, coupled with the tenseness of life

and the competitive spirit in society. He found that

hyperfunction eventually leads to hypofunction (weakness in

voice production) when the muscles can no longer stand the

strain.

Mount (1982) also found that hyperfunction leads to

hypofunction. Overuse may cause loss of the upper tones of

the voice due to weakness. Howard (1923), Appelman (1967),

White (1975), and Teter and Gray (1985) all stated that

children and young adolescents are in danger of abusing

their voices. This is due to misuse of the singing voice

as well as the overuse of the speaking voice at loud and

boisterous levels.

The influence of popular vocal models on the speech

habits of females was studied by Linke (1953). He found

that female speaking voices show less frequency range and

pitch variability than corresponding groups of male voices.

His female subjects also employed median frequency levels

located lower in the sustained tone range than males when

speaking. He concluded that women in general tend to use

median speaking pitch levels lower than would seem

advisable for the most effective use of their voices.

26

Linke concluded that the tendency for females to speak with

unduly lowered pitch levels was due to social pressures,

including the preponderance of low-pitched voices among

female personalities of radio, movies, television, and

stage.

Linke found three important detrimental effects of

females speaking too low in their pitch range. The

expressiveness of the female speaking voice is lessened

because of the reduced frequency variability associated

with a lowered pitch level. Females experience increased

incidences of hoarseness due to using an abnormally low

speaking pitch (raising habitual speaking frequency results

in improved voice quality). There are increased injurious

effects due to vocal strain, such as vocal abuse, contact

ulcers, and nodules.

M. Cooper (1982) also found that females may damage

their singing voices by misusing their speaking voices.

Bravender (1977) found that cheerleading encourages vocal

abuse. Long-term (three years or more) cheerleading

results in statistically higher vocal dysfunction and loss

of clarity in the voice. Bravender found two

characteristics of vocal abuse: overuse in duration, force

and range; and faulty production techniques. Vocal abuse

leads to vocal dysfunction. This may take three forms:

vocal strain, permanent muscular atrophy, and vocal

nodules.

Ingham and Keaton (1983) agreed that cheerleading,

along with vocal jazz and singing in musicals, were likely

to cause vocal abuse and nodule development. The hard

glottal attack is also a frequent cause of nodules. Female

rock singers who force their chest voice above A4 are

candidates for nodules. This practice will at the very

least produce hoarseness and breathiness.

27

Because of the mutational chink, young adolescent

female singers should not use tension to achieve a firm,

clear tone since it may lead to vocal abuse. A slightly

breathy tone with an even vibrato is preferable to a clear,

strident sound with no vibrato (Doscher, 1991). The latter

sound will tend to be slightly under pitch, and may damage

the voice over time.

The speech pathologist and music teacher, working as a

team, are considerably more effective in identifying

children with vocal problems or vocal abuse, in educating

classroom teachers in proper voice care, and communicating

with parents (Andrews, 1986). If hyperfunction is

habitual, it will feel normal to the person. In his work,

Andrews spoke about nodules and the negative vocal

behaviors associated with them:

a. hoarse, breathy phonation,

b. low pitch level (speaking and singing) for age and

gender,

c. voice clearest when phonating loudly, poorest when

soft,

d. voice clears somewhat in upper part of pitch range,

e. there is a restricted pitch range, and

f. hyperextension of head and neck.

Andrews also believes that since there are few full-time

speech clinicians in schools, the choral teacher is in the

best position to help students' develop good vocal health

habits.

Developing the Voice

The Choral Director as Voice Teacher

The choral director must be able to function as a

group voice teacher, and must understand vocal development

as well as the limitations of the voices in his or her

choir. Many directors are uninformed, unskilled, or

28

uncommitted to the vocal development of their singers.

"Directors who choose to ignore vocal development for their

choirs are committing a disservice to the choristers'

musical education" (Corbin, 1986, p. 2). McKinney (1982)

stated that vocal faults left uncorrected by the teacher

will eventually be accepted by the teacher.

The amateur singer is more concerned with singing than

with making beautiful music. "It is too easy to sing, but

it is a difficult task to sing well" (Swan, 1973, p. 6). A

special kind of teaching is essential for the development

of adequate choral tone.

Choral directors must possess thorough, practical

knowledge of vocal production and pedagogy (Robinson &

Winold, 1976). They must be able to demonstrate correct

vocal techniques at least satisfactorily. They do not need

to be great vocal artists, but need to be able to isolate,

evaluate, and correct any vocal problems they hear

(Heffernan, 1982). To accomplish this, Heffernan suggests

that choral directors study voice as well as sing in good

choirs.

Choral directors must remember they are responsible

for the vocal health of every member of their choirs

(Robinson & Winold, 1976). A satisfying choral experience

depends on the vocal freedom of every singer. Taking a

vocal approach to choral conducting involves devoting part

of every rehearsal to vocal development. The rehearsal -<

becomes, in part, a group voice lesson.

Voice building exercises need not be limited only to

the warmup period (Tovey, 1977). They can and should be

used whenever a problem occurs.

The choral director must be able to recognize when

tone is properly produced (White, 1975). Swank (1978)

suggests the choir director learn to look at singers as

29

well as listen to them. Problems involving posture and

tension will be visible as well as audible.

No voice should suffer damage as a result of singing

in choir.

Unless a choral conductor makes himself cognizant of the principles of voice production his choral groups will be limited in what they can sing well... The choral conductor must understand how to increase the dynamic potential of the singers without injuring the voices... Voice production is the same for solo and choral singing.(H. R. Wilson, 1959, p. 160)

It is necessary to develop a sequential program for

teaching adolescent singers to sing properly. A concise

source of practical vocal pedagogy is needed for choral

directors (Decker, 1975). The choral rehearsal is often

the only place for choral singers to learn vocal technique.

Fiocca (1986) found that exemplary choral directors:

a. begin rehearsals with warmups,

b. teach good, healthy vocal usage regarding breath

support, tonal placement, intonation,

pronunciation, and articulation,

c. know how to deal with voice mutation, and

d. evidence good vocal pedagogy in that their choirs

produce "fine quality sounds." (p. 80)

The Aims of Vocal Instruction

Vocal instruction in the schools is a distinctly

American idea. School music in the United States was

founded on the principle that children need to know how to

sing well. The idea that the average child could be

trained to sing probably originated in America (Rich,

1946). This was the basis for Lowell Mason's belief (1837)

that music should be included in the curriculum of the

public schools. Unfortunately, music educators seem to

have lost sight of that aim in recent years.

30

Bartholemew (1946) believes that a major step forward

in vocal education will occur when we begin to train voices

at an early age. It is important to build the instrument

first. Children should be taught early to use their voices

properly when singing (Curtis, 1895). Curtis found there

are no incurable monotones. Everyone with normal speech

and hearing can learn to sing.

We know that the ear hears what habit has trained it to hear or a near approximate thereto. Hence, no student will hear or can hear what the teacher does until he has been trained to do so; and much of this ear training will depend finally on his developed ability to reproduce what is to be heard. (Russell, 1931, pp. 246-247)

Teaching children to use their voices properly has

been shown to be an effective means of helping uncertain

singers match pitches more accurately. Vocal coordination

instruction seems to show more promise of helping uncertain

singers than pitch discrimination instruction (Aaron, 1992,

1993). Vocal coordination instruction proved effective in

improving the pitch accuracy and vocal range of children in

grades four through six. Collins (1981) found that the

inability of singers to match pitches was the result of a

lack of understanding about the singing voice. Tests show

a strong correlation between untuneful singing and voice

production difficulties (Joyner, 1969).

More accurate pitch matching is not the only result of

teaching children how to sing correctly. Developing the

child and adolescent voice also leads to more normal speech

habits, better vocal hygiene, and less vocal abuse (Gackle,

1987).

The most effective method of teaching children and

adolescents to sing involves vocalises designed to help the

voice sound free and natural. Alderson (1979) stated that

the voice should be unforced, natural, and flowing. It

31

should be produced so that the singer looks and sounds

comfortable. This sense of comfort must be conveyed to the

audience.

A program of selected vocalises, systematically

administered by a singing teacher, supported by an

otorhinolaryngologist, produced significant improvement in

the singing ability of children (Blatt, 1983). Vocalizing

should enable singers to:

a. sing comfortably through a range of at least two

octaves,

b. sing with accurate intonation,

c. produce an effective vibrato,

d. maintain a steady, controlled vibrato,

e. resonate all pitches effectively,

f. change the coloring of vowels without disturbing

other qualities of tone,

g. sing with dramatic intensity,

h. sing with some measure of agility, and

i. maintain stamina and vocal "freshness" (Guthmiller,

1986. p.14).

Vocal instruction should begin at the latest in the

late elementary grades, so students can have some security

going into adolescence (S. Miller, 1985). Proper use of

the vocal mechanism is not taught thoroughly enough in

either health or music classes. Miller stated that there

needs to be a sequential vocal training program to

accompany and complement the song literature used in

elementary schools. It will also help children learn to

take an interest in their voices. Wassum (1979) stated

that vocal development should be encouraged as a conscious

goal of school music programs.

32

The Sequence of Categories in Vocal Development

Vocal instruction must follow a sequence in order to

be effective. Although there is some disagreement on the

sequence in which vocal principles should be taught, it is

possible to establish an order which can be supported by

the majority of research in the field. Aaron (1992) stated

that the sequence should be posture, breath management,

phonation, and resonance. Collins (1981) agrees that

posture and breathing are the first two topics to be

addressed, followed by tongue position. Corbin (1986)

advocated posture, breathing, tone quality, blend, and

intonation as the proper sequence. Decker (1975) agrees on

posture and breathing, but adds relaxation, resonance, and

diction. Ehmann (1968) also begins his sequence with

posture and breathing, but groups all other topics under

the general heading of choral voice training. Gackle

(1987), speaking specifically about adolescent female

voices, advocated posture, breathing, phonation,

registration, and resonance as the sequence in which the

topics should be taught.

Garretson (1985) begins with posture and breathing,

followed by deep-set vowels and an open throat. Hoffer

(1983) produced a similar list, consisting of posture,

breathing and a relaxed throat. Howard (1923) spoke of

posture, breathing, and tone formation. Heffernan (1982)

stated that there are three elements of vocal technique:

a steady, constant, controlled supply of air; a relaxed,

coordinated set of neck, throat, jaw, and facial muscles;

and resonance (which, he believes, usually followed

naturally if the other two elements were developed).

Gallagher (1978) proposed that exercises and vocalises

should stress relaxation, breath control, phonation,

resonance, range, and articulation. G. Wilson (1991)

33

stated that respiration, resonation, and registration were

the components of a proper sequence of vocal instruction.

McKinney (1982) classified vocal faults according to their

relation to the physical processes of respiration,

phonation, resonation, and articulation.

Phillips' (1986) sequence includes respiration,

phonation, resonant tone production, diction, expression,

and ear training. Robinson and Winold (1976) stated that

posture, breath control, and bridging registers is the

proper sequence, while Roe (1987) advocated posture,

breathing, and pronunciation. Vennard's (1967) sequence

begins with breathing (under which he includes posture),

followed by attack (phonation), registration, resonance,

vowels, and articulation. He believes the last step in the

sequence is coordination of all the elements.

Westerman (1955) states that students can find freedom

in singing through the patterning and conditioning of the

normal actions of posture, respiration, phonation,

resonance, and articulation into a blended whole.

Without good (1) posture, (2) respiration (breathing) cannot be efficient for singing purposes. Without controlled respiration, (3) phonation (tone production) cannot be clear. Without clear phonation (4) resonation (the resounding of tone vibrations within the cavities and from the bony structures of the head) cannot be full, and free from muscle interference; and without full and free resonation, (5) articulation (the pronouncing of words) cannot be accurate and distinct. There is no escape from this framework. Posture is its foundation and articulation is the end product, (pp. 3-4)

Based on the above statements, the most logical and

effective sequence for teaching vocal principles to young

adolescents would seem to be

a. posture,

b. breath management,

c. relaxation,

34

d. phonation,

e. resonance,

f. registration, and

g. articulation.

This sequence might need to be modified for individual

singers, or for groups of singers in other age groups.

There are two reasons for its value in working with young

adolescents. First, it follows Westerman's suggestion of

beginning with the large skeletal muscles (posture) and

working sequentially to smaller muscles. Second, it adds

"relaxation" as a step between breath management and

phonation. Since young adolescents' life styles are so

active, the relaxation of muscles which interfere with free

phonation would seem to be a necessary component of a vocal

instruction program for this age group.

Posture

Posture forms the basis for all vocal development. If

the instrument is to be used efficiently it must be held

correctly. "Before learning to play any instrument one

should learn how to hold it" (Vennard, 1967, p. 19). Mabry

(1992) also advocated learning how to hold the instrument

first. Tall ribs, a tall neck, and "leaning up" are better

methods of eliminating tension than telling singers to

stand up straight (p. 310). A forward head position

deactivates the work of the depressor muscles (those used

in yawning), and emphasizes the work of the elevator

muscles (those used in swallowing). The depressor muscles

lower the larynx, which is the position best suited for

relaxed, easy singing. The elevator muscles raise the

larynx. To counteract any tendency to push the head

forward, Mabry suggested thinking of "balancing a

basketball on a broomstick" (p. 31). Gehrkens, (1936),

Decker (1975, 1977a), McKinney (1982), Barresi (1986),

Corbin (1986), R. Miller (1986), and Herman (1988) all

35

agree on the importance of erect but flexible posture as

the basis of good vocal technique. Vennard (1967)

suggested having the student ask herself, while looking in

the mirror, "Would I pay money to look at that?" (p. 19).

Breath Management

Breath is the motor of the singing mechanism. No

sound can be made in the human larynx without breath.

Breath management is the process by which air is used most

effectively for the sustained sound needed for singing.

Breathing involves expansion of the rib cage at the

sides, in front, and in back (Huls, 1957). There is too

much upper chest and shoulder movement in adolescents.

They must learn that breathing for singing is as natural

and free as breathing for life. Ehmann spoke of the

"breath ring" (1968, p. 16), and agrees that expansion

should occur at the sides, in front and in back. Vennard

advocated the sensations of "in," "down," and "out" as

being representative of proper breathing. The singer

breathes in (through the nose and mouth), down (into the

lungs), and out (the walls of the thorax expand).

The singer must not exaggerate the intake of air (R.

Miller, 1986). If she crowds the lungs by taking too much

air, a quicker rate of expiration will occur. The singer

should take an easy breath and replenish the air she has

used. Instead of yawning (which leads to tension at the

end of the yawn) inhale as though smelling a rose. This

will give the singer a feeling of an open (relaxed) throat

(pharyngeal cavity). Miller also believes that the key to

success in the female chest voice range is not more force,

but more support. In his studio teaching Hartwell (1992)

refers to relaxed, easy inhalation as a "singer's breath".

Doscher (1987) stated that two to three pints of air

are sufficient to sing the longest musical phrase (fifteen

36

to twenty seconds). Since the lung capacity can be as much

as four quarts during deep breathing (the breathing used

for singing), it is not necessary to inhale to the point of

crowding the lungs. Efficiency is more important than

capacity. The singer's object is to keep the ribs up and

out so the abdominal muscles can sustain their leverage for

steady expiration. Any attempt to control the movement of

the diaphragm will result in unnecessary and undesirable

muscular tension in the breathing apparatus, which will

have a negative effect on the tone quality. Too much air

support in order to achieve a larger sound, especially

through the immature pharynx of the young adolescent

singer, will tire the throat muscles and produce tension in

the tongue and soft palate (Doscher, 1991). This will lead

to faulty intonation, and eventually, to serious vocal

problems such as chronic hoarseness and vocal nodules.

Vennard (1967) advocated rib breathing and abdominal

breathing over chest breathing. He stated that chest, or

clavicular breathing is used by out-of-breath athletes.

During this type of breathing phonation is uncontrolled.

Vennard found that, for the most part, women are "chest

breathers", and men are "belly breathers" (p. 27). He

advocated having the singer place one hand on the ribs and

one hand on the abdomen to check for rib and abdominal

breathing. He also suggested that breathing be practiced

while lying on the floor with a book or books on the

abdomen, just below the ribs.

Howard, 1923), Christiansen (1952), Brodnitz (1953),

westerman (1955), Christy (1961), Roe (1970), Swan (1973),

Decker (1975, 1977a), Swank (1978), Alderson (1979),

McKinney (1982), and Barresi (1986) all agree that breath

support or management is important for free, relaxed

singing. When breath is totally responsible for the

support of the voice (no pressure from the jaw, shoulders,

37

eyebrows, or neck) the result will be free, flexible,

singing (G. Wilson, 1991). The quality of the voice

depends upon the quality of the breath just taken (Boardman

& Alt, 1992).

Throughout the research cited above, various terms

have been used by authors for the act of respiration as it

is applied to singing. Some of these are "support",

"control," and "pressure." Corbin's (1986) use of the term

"breath management" (p.5) seems to be the most

representative of the actual act of respiration which the

process of singing requires, although the term "support" is

useful in discussing the work of the "breath ring" during

phonation.

Relaxation

In order for the vocal mechanism to produce a free and

natural tone, there must be a feeling of relaxation in

those muscles in which the presence of tension might impede

correct singing. The secret of normal voice function is

not the relaxation of all muscles, but the use of the

correct muscles with the correct degree of tension

(Brodnitz, 1953). The majority of voice problems are the

result of exaggerated muscle activity. Roe (1970) agrees

with Brodnitz that faulty use of the vocal mechanism is

responsible for most vocal problems—specifically, poor

intonation. Vennard (1967) suggested having the student

feel as if she were a rag doll to encourage the release of

unnecessary tension, letting the body relax completely

before assuming an effective singing posture. The right

way to produce tone is the easy way (Christy, 1961).

Howard (1923), B. Taylor (1936), and Decker (1975,

1977b), all emphasized the need for the release of

unnecessary tension in order to produce a relaxed, free

38

singing tone. A relaxed tongue and a movable lower jaw

will allow the muscles of the throat to function properly.

Phonation

Only when the muscles involved in the vocal mechanism

are free to function properly can accurate, natural

phonation occur. Phonation should be free and easy, with

no unnecessary tensing of muscles to produce a sound.

There is no conscious feeling of muscle action in the vocal

ligaments (Westerman, 1955).

Correct vocal fold position for the commencement of

phonation cannot be achieved through conscious effort (R.

Miller, 1986). Breath activates the vocal fold vibration.

The correct release of tone (cessation of phonation) will

prepare the singer for proper onset of the next tone.

"Sing in the position of breathing—breathe in the position

of singing" (p. 25). Miller stated that the student should

be encouraged to sing as she speaks. This involves

acoustic mobility of the jaw, tongue, and lips. Any

sensation in the larynx probably means tension in the

larynx. If the larynx is properly relaxed there should be

little or no sensation. The natural wider opening of the

mouth to accommodate higher pitches will accomplish most of

the necessary vowel modification. The singer must not use

muscle tension. Vennard (1967) agrees with Miller on the

use of a breathy "H" to eliminate the glottal stroke.

Resonance

One of the most serious mistakes young singers can

make is that of substituting volume for resonance. Young

voices need time and maturation to develop a resonant

sound. It is difficult to achieve consistent sensations in

rapidly growing resonators. Most authors advocate some

form of humming for resonance (Roe, 1970; Decker, 1975).

39

McKinney (1982) categorized resonance faults as the

result of overemphasis on a specific resonator. If the

sound is too bright, there is overemphasis on mouth

resonance. If the sound is too dark, there is overemphasis

on pharyngeal resonance. If the sound is too nasal, there

is overemphasis on nasal resonance.

Agreeing in part with McKinney, R. Miller (1986)

advocated resonator coupling. Neither the mouth nor the

pharynx is more important as a resonator. Both are equally

important. The nasal passages are at best secondary

resonators because of their lack of size. The natural

position of the mouth at rest is the natural position for

speaking and singing. Humming is a good exercise for

developing a favorable resonance balance. The larynx must

not be forced down to produce an unnaturally "dark" sound.

This sound is as undesirable as its extreme opposite, the

"open" or "white" sound. The student should not sing as if

yawning and speaking at the same time. Proper inhalation

should insure proper positioning of the larynx for properly

resonant phonation.

Resonance will improve when the larynx is in a low,

relaxed position. Vennard (1967) proposed three methods

for lowering the larynx:

a. the inhale,

b. the yawn (the beginning of a yawn), and

c. the reflex action after swallowing.

Dropping the jaw prevents tightening the throat and raising

the larynx. A mellow tone feels "down" and "back," while a

brilliant tone feels "up" and "forward" (p. 120). The

singer must accomplish both simultaneously. The tone must

have "focus in front" and "roundness and depth in back"

(p. 215).

Westerman (1955) believed that resonance relieves

strain and effort at the source of vibrations (the vocal

40

folds). He suggested that the singer should aim for a

uniform amount of hum in the voice to produce resonance on

all vowels throughout the total range.

Zimmerman (1968) stated that tone cannot be forced

into the resonating centers. It must be freed to find its

own way there. She spoke of sensing vibration in the

resonance centers.

Toms (1985) proposed an interesting technique he

called "Extensity" (p.16). Extensity is the result of the

mixture of acoustical elements which cause sound to seem

large or small. This is related to pitch and tone rather

than dynamics. He advocated having the student place a

flattened hand on the upper lip, parallel with the floor,

and saying or singing "OH." The sound must come only from

the mouth. As the student sings successively higher

pitches, no change in the tone quality should be allowed.

Once the student is able to produce a resonant "OH"

throughout her range, she should proceed through the other

vowels. This practice will produce a larger sound (more

extensity) by producing more overtones.

Registration

Many young singers, anxious to emulate the popular

singers they adopt as vocal models, develop the lower

register ("chest voice") in order to achieve a loud sound

easily. Singing along with popular recordings forces them

to use this lower register almost exclusively.

There is considerable disagreement among authors as to

what constitutes a register, and how many registers there

are in the voice. McKinney (1982) defined a register as a

particular series of tones produced by the same vibratory

pattern of the vocal cords, and having the same basic

quality (p. 97).

41

Schoenhard and Hollein (1982) believe there are two

registers, high and low. They investigated the question of

a middle register and posed three possible answers.

a. the middle register is laryngeal,

b there is no middle register; it is a blend of the

other two, and

c. the middle register is a vocal tract-related

phenomenon.

According to their study, research supports all three

hypotheses. Brodnitz (1953), a laryngologist who has

worked extensively with singers, would seem to support the

second hypothesis—that the middle register is in reality a

blend of the high and low registers. Brodnitz stated that

there are three registers, marked by breaks which can be

heard in both upward and downward scales. For females, the

registers are:

a. chest register—the entire vocal cord vibrates,

b. head register—only the inner margins of the

highly-tensed cords vibrate while the posterior

part of the cords remain closed, and

c. mixed register (ideal for singing)—color of the

opposing registers are blended; the mixture varies

from equal parts in the middle to larger ratios at

either end.

Vennard (1967) preferred the terms "light mechanism"

and "heavy mechanism" to "head voice" and "chest voice"

(p.66). He stated that there are three approaches to the

problem of registers.

a. idealistic-one register,

b. realistic-three registers, and

c. hypothetical-two registers (light and heavy).

Most beginners tend to sing either all heavy or all light. If they are conscious at all of the other register, they are schizophrenic about it. The unused register (a phrase I wish to coin because I think we

42

will find it useful) is like a different personality to the beginner, something into which he [she} lapses only by accident. He [she] must be taught to use what I call full voice, a blending of both heavy and light quality, (p.73)

Vennard stated that the women's "unused register"

(p. 76) is the chest register. In the light of more recent

research into the vocal habits of adolescent female

singers, it is more likely that the head register is the

unused one among at least a significant portion of this

group.

How to blend the registers is among the most

controversial aspects of vocal pedagogy (Decker, 1975).

Adding more top (light) mechanism will help young singers

improve their intonation when they are learning to let go

of an overly controlled voice (Doscher, 1991). This is

especially helpful when combined with more air flow

(support). Herman (1988) suggested vocalizing from the top

down to counteract the problem of trying to force the low

voice (heavy mechanism) into the upper register.

R. Miller (1986) stated that the voice must be agile

in order to produce a good, free, sostenuto. Working the

chest voice above its breaking point results in register

separation, while working the head voice down into the

chest range results in register combining. Transition

between the registers is accomplished by means of vowel

modification.

It is important for voice teachers to train their

students to sing so that the audience cannot tell in which

register a tone is being produced (Schoenhard & Hollein,

1982). All female singers must be taught to blend the head

and chest registers throughout the entire range (Skoog &

Niederbrach, 1983). There is little range difference in

well-trained voices between sopranos, mezzo sopranos and

contraltos. The differences are in tone quality and

tessitura. 43

In the adolescent female voice, the presence of two

registers seems to be evident. Labeling these registers

the "light mechanism" and the "heavy mechanism" would seem

to be more scientifically correct than using the terms

"head voice" and "chest voice." The young adolescent

female voice must be trained to produce the most resonant

tone possible, within the boundaries of free and natural

singing, throughout the entire vocal range.

Articulation

Proper articulation involves correct vowels separated

by strong but non-interfering consonants. Vowel

articulation will be emphasized in this study, since the

object is to attempt to improve vocal tone, and correct

vowels must precede correct consonants in any program of

vocal tone development. Teaching correct vowel sounds will

help clear up many vocal faults (Christy, 1961).

In addition to incorrect breathing habits and tension

in the vocal mechanism, poor intonation can also be caused

by misformed vowels (Corbin, 1986). Corbin suggested

sustaining the incorrect vowel and gradually changing it to

the correct vowel. She also advocated using a neutral

vowel (designed to change the sound) in place of the text

in a song or choral piece. Swan (1973) and Decker (1975)

also emphasized the importance of forming vowels correctly.

The quality which differentiates consonants from

vowels is the noise factor. For consonants to be

recognized as such, the noise must be exaggerated. This is

the essence of singing words so clearly that they can be

understood in a large hall. Whispering the text eliminates

the tone entirely, and emphasizes the noise factor. This

lets the students know if they are producing consonants

strongly enough. Chanting and intoning phrases, especially

those with diction difficulties, bridges the gap from

44

speaking articulation to singing articulation (Christy,

1961). Singing with no consonants produces a legato phrase

line (Hill, 1992). Replacing the consonants will have the

effect of punctuating the line rather than interrupting it.

Therapy and Exercises

The choir director working with young adolescents

will, at some time, encounter voices which have been

abused. An understanding of voice therapy will help the

director restore some abused voices to good health. It

will also aid him or her in seeking appropriate help for

those voices which need the assistance of a laryngologist

or voice therapist. Creating a program of vocal exercises

designed to develop voices will aid the choral director in

preventing vocal abuse.

Some therapeutical measures used to help people with

abused voices may also be used as part of a program of

vocal instruction for singers. These include chewing, the

Bernoulli effect, and feeling the larynx for signs of

movement.

Chewing is useful in curing vocal nodules (Ingham &

Keaton, 1983). The Bernoulli effect (flowing warm air) is

also effective, as in singing "HAH," with a breathy "H,"

naturally and without overt muscular effort. Chewing and

warm air exercises before singing helps the surfaces of the

vocal mechanism stretch and condition themselves.

Stoer and Swank (1978) stated that chewing helps in

reducing hyperfunction. The jaw, throat, tongue, and lips

are relatively relaxed when chewing. D. K. Wilson (1972)

also advocated chewing therapy for vocal problems. Chewing

therapy is useful for persons who sing or speak with a

tight jaw (Boone, 1971). Chewing therapy also helps voice

patients find their optimal speaking pitch (Brodnitz,

1953).

45

For correcting problems associated with speaking at an

inappropriate pitch (either too high or too low) Stoer and

Swank (1978) advocate having the student place her fingers

on the larynx to feel for movement. At the optimum

speaking pitch there will be little or no laryngeal

movement. They also suggest having the student say "um-hm"

easily and naturally, if it feels different from the

manner in which she usually speaks, she is probably

speaking at an incorrect pitch.

The aim of vocalization is not more power but beauty

and purity (Howard, 1923). High school singers, given

abdominal breathing instructions and ten-minute sessions of

vocalizing and tongue exercises, showed improvement in the

areas of tone quality, normal vibrato, fuller resonation,

and selectivity in articulation (Gonzo, 1973). Gackle

(1987) suggested that the vocalises be sequenced to help

singers become aware of the feeling of the new skill.

Guthmiller (1986) stated that no vocalise has any

intrinsic value. Its only value lies in its ability to

elicit a specific response from singers. Therefore,

exercises must be directed at particular tasks, such as

breathing, vowel production, agility, tongue position, or

support (Hill, 1992).

Exercises should be introduced at various times in

rehearsal, not just at the beginning (Gallagher, 1978).

At the high school level vocalises are highly important in

effecting a particular sound (Overturf, 1985).

Students should vocalize from the top down to

counteract the problem of trying to force the low voice

into the upper register. Women who have sung tenor, or who

have forced their chest voice above the break for any

reason, should use downward vocalization from the head

voice coupled with pianissimo singing (Mount, 1982). They

should start on D5 softly, then crescendo, proceeding

46

downward by half steps, bringing the lighter mechanism

(head voice) down as far as possible. To train the voice

as well as prepare for the rehearsal, altos should be

encouraged to sing with the sopranos, and sopranos with the

altos during warmups (Skoog & Niederbrach, 1985). Skoog

and Niederbrach agree that descending passages will produce

the most significant results for both voices.

Spending too much time learning vocalises, either

because of difficulty or large number, is

counterproductive. Still, there must be enough exercises

to avoid too much repetition. Simpler exercises allow

students and teachers to concentrate on the vocal problem

and the correction of the problem (Swank, 1978). A few

select, basic vocal exercises, used intelligently, are more

effective than an extensive list (Christy, 1961). This

method saves time and effort in developing vocal technique.

Aaron (1992), conversely, states that varying the musical

input is more effective in helping children learn. A

number of different exercises contributed to learning vocal

technique more quickly and more thoroughly. The body of

exercises must be large enough to provide multiple

solutions for vocal problems, and to avoid boredom, but

small enough to avoid spending too much time learning

exercises.

Laryngologists and voice teachers agree that

adolescents, because of their life style, are prime

candidates for vocal abuse. All choral directors and voice

teachers who work with them must have enough knowledge

about the voice to enable them to help their singers

establish healthy vocal habits. This includes providing

vocal models to counteract those that their students will

hear on the radio and television and on recordings. The

choral director must understand the principles of vocal

development thoroughly enough to be able to use the choir

47

rehearsal as a voice class. Those educators who are

responsible for the development of choral music educators

must develop a program of vocal pedagogy appropriate for

use in the choir rehearsal setting. Perhaps audiences will

also need to be educated in the correct vocal sound for

children and adolescents so that they will not ask singers

and choral directors to perform in a way which will be

injurious to young voices.

The Application of Knowledge to Vocal Instruction

The adolescent is an individual who begins to consider

herself the equal of adults, and to judge them, with

complete reciprocity, on the same plane as herself

(Inhelder & Piaget, 1962). She begins to plan the future,

including plans to change society, on either a complete or

limited basis. She changes her thinking concerning what is

real and what is possible. The concrete present is only

one part of future possibilities. She must work out a

conception of life which allows her to assert herself, to

create something new, and to be more successful than her

predecessors. She tries to adapt her ego to her

environment, and her environment to her ego. Inhelder and

Piaget referred to this as "cognitive egocentricism"

(p. 346).

During the Formal Operations Stage (age eleven through

adolescence) the person learns that she can reason, and

that she can imagine many possibilities within a situation.

At about the same time, the adolescent is undergoing cognitive changes. He is adding to concrete operations a formal operational stage. Now, the young person begins to reason about his own reasoning. He pays attention to the form as well as the content of an argument [or] proposal...He now begins to formulate hypotheses and test them. He begins to consider the unreal as well as the real in developing logical thinking (Harrison, 1978, p.15).

48

During these years, parents, teachers, and adult role

models lose ground to peer influence and egocentric

confidence. Each adolescent begins to develop her own

personal value system. Since she is beginning to use her

powers of reason, she will respond, in an adult-like

manner, when presented with information (knowledge) which

respects her intellectual achievements and which challenges

her to apply her reasoning abilities.

Knowledge is used to enable people to acquire skills

quickly and successfully. Knowledge (the systematic

organization of information and concepts) helps people

acquire new skills more quickly and more completely than

through apprenticeship (experience). When people acquire a

skill on a knowledge basis they have learned how to learn.

Drucker (1969) stated that knowledge is becoming the

foundation of skill. "Few things are as badly needed in

growing up as the sense of achievement, which only

performance can give" (p. 316). Drucker believed that

society needs people who can use theory as a basis of skill

for practical application in work.

Holt (1983) states that what makes things difficult or

easy for learners' minds is how much sense they make. Any

subject can be taught effectively in some intellectually

honest way to any learner at any stage of development

(Bruner, 1960). Bruner stated that the act of learning

includes three simultaneous processes: the acquisition of

new information; the transformation of knowledge to fit new

tasks; and evaluation—how information is manipulated in a

correct way for the task.

Drucker (1969) stated that knowledge allows people to

learn skills more quickly and thoroughly than experience

(apprenticeship). By providing knowledge about the voice

and the vocal development process teachers will be more

effective in bringing about the desired changes in their

49

students' singing skills. Harrison (1978) advocated

educating young people about the physical development of

their larynges, the lengthening of the vocal folds, and the

ways in which these changes can affect singing and

speaking. The teacher should explain the principles of

good vocal production, providing information which will

allow his or her students to understand and more

effectively apply concepts in the development of their own

performance skills (Henry, 1992).

The teacher must ask questions (Hill, 1992). By so

doing he or she will force choristers and voice students to

think about what they are doing. Responding to the

questions will foster awareness in the student so she can

analyze what she is doing. Junior high students will

accept vocalises if they see the purpose for them (Swanson,

1961). They should be told that the exercises will stretch

the voice and improve vocal skill in the same way that

exercises and drills used by athletic coaches prepare

players for participation in games.

The Use of Science and Imagery in Vocal Instruction

Knowledge about the vocal mechanism and the vocal

development process seems to help students learn more

quickly and more easily. Until this century, teaching

voice by scientific principles was almost impossible, since

devices used to view the vocal mechanism were at best

primitive. Today, a wide range of instruments exists for

viewing the vocal mechanism, and for measuring the sounds

made by the voice. Decker (1975) found that the literature

on the voice written between 1960 and 1970 exhibited a more

scientific approach to vocal pedagogy than vocal literature

from earlier decades. Still, many voice teachers and

choral directors prefer to teach by describing the

sensations felt by the singer, using a vocabulary full of

50

imagery (Ehmann and Haasemann, 1981; Daniel, 1993). The

use of scientific knowledge makes it possible to accomplish

vocal instruction more efficiently and more thoroughly

Westerman, 1955; Vennard, 1967, R, Miller, 1986).

Swanson (1973) noted three methods of teaching voice:

imitation (student or teacher as a model); mechanistic

(scientific aspects of the voice); imagery (sensations or

feelings described by using phrases from nonmusical fields

of activity). Brodnitz (1953) stated that a choral

director or voice teacher must know the scientific

principles of voice even if he or she chooses to explain

vocal techniques in terms of sensations. He stated that

the sensation of vibration within the body is not a

scientific basis for voice teaching. The sensation of

vibration can, however, be used to make singers aware of

the "feel" of the voice (R. Miller, 1986).

Vennard (1967) found that teaching voice by scientific

principles brings quicker and better results than teaching

by imagery. He believes, however, that imagery is a good

teaching aid if it helps the student free the tone. Both

teacher and student must realize that it is only imagery,

however, and not literally true. Verbal imagery may be an

important means of developing a particular vocal sound

(Overturf, 1985). It is possible and sometimes advisable

to get rid of strain in the voice by psychological means

(Roe, 1970).

Authors such as Brodnitz (1953), Westerman (1955), and

R. Miller (1986) have written extensively on the scientific

basis for vocal instruction. These authors and the others

cited above agree that there is a place in vocal pedagogy

for both science and imagery. The teacher must thoroughly

understand the scientific principles of the vocal

mechanism. He or she must decide how much of that

information should be presented to students. Teaching by

51

scientific principles has been shown to be more effective

and more efficient in developing high quality voices.

Imagery may be used to support the scientific approach.

Both teachers and students must realize that imagery is an

attempt to explain the sensations the student feels or

should feel, and cannot take the place of scientific

understanding.

52

CHAPTER III

METHODOLOGY OF THE STUDY

Vocal Principles on Which this Study is Based

In order to provide a sound, rational basis for the

exercises and knowledge statements used in this study, a

list of vocal principles was developed from the research

results and author statements cited in the previous chapter

(see Appendix A). The terminology used in these principles

was used by the investigator throughout the study. All

vocal exercises were chosen because they supported and

reinforced these principles. All statements given as

information to the subjects concerning the vocal mechanism

and the vocal development process were derived from these

principles.

Hypotheses

In order to address the research problems stated in

Chapter I, this study investigated the following

statistical hypotheses:

1. Ho Singing in choir does not improve the vocal

tone quality of adolescent female singers.

Hi Singing in choir improves the vocal tone quality

of adolescent female singers.

2. Ho Singing in choir does not improve the vocal

self-image of adolescent female singers.

Hi Singing in choir improves the vocal self-image

of adolescent female singers. 3. Ho The administration of a program of vocal

exercises does not improve the vocal tone

quality of adolescent female singers more than

singing in choir alone.

Hi The administration of a program of vocal

exercises improves the vocal tone quality of

53

adolescent female singers more than singing in

choir alone.

Ho The administration of a program of vocal

exercises does not improve the vocal self-image

of adolescent female singers more than singing

in choir alone.


exercises improves the vocal self-image of


choir alone.

Ho Providing adolescent female singers with

knowledge about the vocal mechanism and the

vocal development process will improve vocal

tone quality more than singing in choir alone.

Hi That providing adolescent female singers with






vocal development process will not improve

vocal self-image more than singing in choir

alone. Hi Providing adolescent female singers with


vocal development process will produce

significantly greater improvement in vocal

self-image than singing in choir alone.


exercises combined with knowledge about the

vocal mechanism and the vocal development

process will not improve vocal tone quality in

adolescent female singers more than either

exercises or knowledge alone.

54




process will improve vocal tone quality in



8. Ho The administration of a program of vocal



process will not improve vocal self-image in






process will improve vocal self-image in



Pilot Study

A pilot study was conducted in order to develop a list

of descriptors for use in the Student Attitude Survey and

to develop a body of vocal exercises for use in the main

study. Williams (1990) determined that useful descriptors

could be obtained from adolescent female singers. An

instrument (Appendix B) consisting of twenty-five open-

ended sentences (Newell, 1987) was administered to a group

of female singers in grades seven through nine (n=31) to

determine adjectives (descriptors) they would use to

describe their singing voices.

Eleven of the twenty-five sentences were determined to

be relevant to the objectives of the main study. The

single words and short phrases which appeared the most

frequently as completions of these sentences were chosen to

55

serve as descriptors for the Student Attitude Survey. They

were arranged as a series of bipolar adjectives. The Pilot

Student Attitude Survey (Appendix C) was then administered

to a group of female singers in grades seven through nine

(n=32). Included in this version of the Student Attitude

Survey was a place for each subject to evaluate each pair

of adjectives for understandability as they related to the

sentences which they were intended to complete. If the

subjects understood the statement fully, they were

instructed to write the number "1." If they partially

understood the statement they were instructed to write the

number "2." If they did not understand the statement at

all, they were instructed to write the number "3."

Since the pilot study dealt with a small number of

subjects, a statistical analysis was not used in evaluating

responses for inclusion in the Student Attitude Survey for

the main study. Four criteria were chosen for evaluating

the data obtained from the pilot Student Attitude Survey

(Appendix C). Lists were made of the statements which

failed to meet any one of these criteria. First, a list

was made of any statements which received less than ninety

percent responses of "1." Second, a list was made of all

statements which received any responses of "3." Third, a

list was made of all statements which received two or more

"3" responses, or one "3" plus two or more "2" responses.

Finally, a rating system was devised in which a response of

"1" was given one point, a response of "2" was given two

points, and a response of "3" was given four points. Any

response which received a score of over 40 points was

listed. The 40 point criteria was chosen because it

represented a 25 percent increase over a perfect score of

32 (all responses of "1"). All pairs of adjectives were

eliminated which appeared on two or more lists. This

removed all adjective pairs which indicated a lack of

56

understanding on the part of a significant percentage of

the subjects. The Student Attitude Survey form for the

main study consisted of all remaining pairs of adjectives

(Appendix C).

The majority of the exercises used in the pilot study

were derived from choral and vocal pedagogy textbooks,

including Tkach (1948), H. R. Wilson (1955), Ehret (1956),

Christy (1961), Vennard (1967), Zimmerman (1968), Tjernlund

and Filers (1981), and Richard Miller (1986). Some were

generated by the investigator based either on material

found in choral and vocal pedagogy textbooks or from the

investigator's considerable experience as a middle school

choral director and studio voice teacher.

The exercises were grouped according to the sequence

outlined in the previous chapter (posture, breath

management, relaxation, phonation, resonance, registration,

and articulation). They were tested over a period of nine

days using a group of ninth grade female singers (n=ll).

The criteria for acceptance for the main study were: ease

of learning for the subjects; suitability for the age

group; and whether or not they proved to be directly

related to the vocal principles which formed the basis for

this study.

The exercises used in the pilot study are listed in

Appendix D. The daily instruction session was

approximately ten minutes each day. The length of each

instruction session was dependent upon the exercises to be

covered that day, as well as the time spent allowing the

subjects to react verbally to the exercises. The subjects'

reactions were sought in order to determine the suitability

of the exercises to the age group being tested.

The exercises were administered in the following

sequence.

Day 1-posture and breath management,

57

Day 2-posture and breath management,

Day__3-posture, breath management, relaxation, and

phonation.

Day 4-relaxation and phonation,

Day_5-relaxation and phonation,

Day_6-resonance and registration.

Day 7-resonance and registration,

Day_8-resonance and registration, and

Day__9-resonance, registration, and articulation.

Each instruction session was recorded on an Akai model GX

636 reel-to-reel tape deck using two Audio Technica 450D

microphones and Scotch 150 recording tape. After each

instruction session, the investigator reviewed the tape and

decided which exercises would meet the criteria for use in

the main study. Exercises chosen for inclusion in the main

study were those which were learned quickly and easily,

which seemed to improved the vocal performance of the

subjects (in relation to the vocal principles in Appendix

A), and which received positive responses from the

subjects.

Methodology of the Main Study

The study group consisted of eighth grade female

students in a local junior high school (n=38), all of whom

were members of their school choir program. The study was

conducted in the school during the regular choir rehearsal

period.

All subjects were given the Student Attitude Survey at

the beginning of the study. Each daily instruction session

consisted of ten minutes for each group. The groups met

with the investigator three days each week, except when the

school's calendar or other choir activities forced a change

in the schedule. The study lasted for eleven weeks, during

which each subgroup met with the investigator twenty-one

58

times. A full calendar of the study is given in Appendix

E. The sequence in which the groups received instruction

was rotated each day in order to avoid time prejudice on

the part of the investigator and the choral teacher. The

rotation is included in the calendar.

At the beginning of the study all subjects were

recorded singing an ascending scale from D4 to D5, a

descending scale from D5 to D4, and America in F major.

The key of F major was chosen because it lies within the

middle range of the adolescent female voice, and within the

octave most damaged by constant singing in the heavy

mechanism (Mount, 1982). In this key the singer must sing

pitches above Bb4 twice. This is the pitch which seems to

be the breaking point from heavy mechanism to light

mechanism in the adolescent female voice. The recordings

were made using an Akai model GX 636 reel-to-reel tape

recorder, two Audio Technica 450D microphones, and Melody

166 recording tape.

During the study, all subjects received whatever

warmup exercises their choir teacher chose to administer as

part of the normal rehearsal procedure. The remainder of

the instruction was provided by the investigator. The

study group was randomly divided into four subgroups. Each

subject was assigned a number sequentially as she signed up

to be part of the study. Subjects were assigned to

subgroups by choosing every third number from a table of

random numbers. This process was performed by the

instructor.

In order to test the hypotheses, each subgroup

received a different type of daily instruction.

-Subgroup 1 received no further training (control

group);

-Subgroup 2 received ten minutes of vocal exercises;

-Subgroup 3 received ten minutes of information

59

(knowledge) about the vocal mechanism and the vocal

development process;

-Subgroup 4 received ten minutes of vocal exercises

coupled with information (knowledge) about the vocal

mechanism and the vocal development process.

The exercises and information (knowledge) were

presented in the sequence of posture, breath management,

relaxation, phonation, resonance, registration, and

articulation. This sequence is followed in Appendix A

(vocal principles) and Appendix F (exercises). In Appendix

F the exercises are cross-referenced to the vocal

principles in Appendix A.

The exercises were presented to Subgroups 2 and 4 in

the order in which they appear in Appendix F. Information

(knowledge) was presented to Subgroups 3 and 4 in an

informal discussion setting. It was determined that this

format would be most appropriate considering the age of the

subjects. Subgroups 3 and 4 were encouraged to ask

questions about the material presented, both to assure that

they understood the material and to allow them to

participate in the process. Care was taken to insure that

the question and answer process did not take up so much

time that Subgroups 3 and 4 would fall behind Subgroup 2.

The information presented followed the same sequence as the

exercises, so that each subgroup covered the same material

each day.

Following the completion of the eleven-week

instruction period the Student Attitude Survey was again

administered to all subjects to determine if there had been

any change in their vocal self-image. The results of the

pretest and posttest Student Attitude Surveys were

tabulated by the investigator.

An ANOVA was performed to determine if there was a

significant difference between the means of the pretests

60

and posttests for the entire group. A Fisher LSD post hoc

comparison was performed to determine if a significant

difference existed (p=0.05) among any of the subgroups.

Finally, t-tests were run for each category on the Student

Attitude Survey to determine in which categories, if any,

significant changes had occurred between pretest and

posttest scores for each subgroup.

To determine if there had been any changes in tone

quality, the subjects were also recorded again, using the

same scales and song sung at the beginning of the study.

The recordings were made using the same equipment as had

been used previously. Each subject was assigned two

numbers, one for her pretest tape and one for her posttest

tape. The numbers were then placed in random order by

choosing every third number from a table of random numbers.

The recordings were then transferred to cassette tapes

using an Akai HX-IC stereo cassette deck and TDK D90 tape

in the sequence determined by the random number selection.

This process was performed by the investigator.

The recordings were reviewed by a panel of five choral

directors with considerable experience in working with

adolescent female voices. These judges were chosen because

of their reputation in the West Texas vocal and choral

community based on number of years experience, training,

the quality of their own vocal and choral programs, and

their acceptance of the strengths and limitations of

adolescent female voices (Appendix G). Each judge

completed an evaluation form for each recording (Appendix

G). The results of the comparisons were also tabulated by

the investigator.

ANOVAs were performed to determine if there were any

dofferences in the average of the judges' scores

a. among the judges,

b. among the groups,

61

c. among the categories, or

d. among the students,

or any interaction effect

e. between the judges and the categories,

f. between the judges and the groups,

g. between the groups and the test, or

h. between the judges' ratings of pretests and

posttests.

T-tests were also run for each judge's evaluation of each

group (differences in the means of the pretests and

posttests), and for all the judges' evaluations of each

group. Finally, a Pearson Product Moment Correlation

Coefficient was performed to determine whether the judges

were consistent in their ratings from pretest to posttest

62

CHAPTER IV

RESULTS

Student Attitudes

ANOVA comparison of the means of the differences

between pretest and posttest for the entire group showed a

difference of 0.0672 (Table 1, p. 66). While this

difference was not significant at the 0.05 level, it

approached that level closely enough that further

investigation seemed warranted.

A Fisher LSD post hoc comparison was performed to

determine if any significant differences occurred among the

subgroups for the entire Student Attitude Survey. Table 2

(p. 67) shows the comparisons of the groups. The

confidence level is set at 0.95 (identifying significant

differences at the 0.05 level). Significant differences

existed between Subgroup 1 and Subgroup 4, and between

Subgroup 3 and Subgroup 4.

Tables 3-6 show the individual categories of the

Student Attitude Survey. The labels listed in the Variable

column correspond to the eleven categories in the survey.

The t-tests compared the mean of the pretests with the mean

of the posttests. The Mean column shows the average

differences between the pretest and the posttest.

Significant differences are those below 0.05.

Table 3 (p. 67) shows the results for Subgroup 1

(control). No significant differences existed for this

subgroup from the pretest to the posttest.


(exercises alone). Significant differences between pretest

and posttest existed for Category 4 ("When I sing the first

note of a song I"), and Category 11 ("When I sing from high

to low"). The Category 4 p-value is 0.0158, and the

Category 11 p-value is 0.0204. When half of the p-value is

63

taken (since this is a one-tailed test). Category 5 ("When

I sing I feel tension...") and Category 6 ("If I could

change my voice I would make it") also show significant

differences. The Category 5 p-value is 0.0830 (1/2

p=0.0415), and the Category 6 p-value is 0.0955 (1/2

po=0.0477) .


(knowledge alone). A significant difference (0.0498)

existed in Category 10 ("When I sing from low to high").

When half of the p-value is taken (since this is a one-

tailed test). Category 8 ("The voice part I like best")

also shows a significant difference. The p-value for

Category 8 is 0.0874 (1/2 p=0.0437).


(combination of exercises and knowledge). Significant

differences existed in six of the eleven categories.

Category p-value

1. ("When I sing high my voice feels") 0.0015

3. ("When I inhale to sing I feel") 0.0062

4. ("When I sing the first note of a song") 0.0438

5. ("When I sing I feel: tension/no tension") 0.0003

9. ("When I sing my throat feels") 0.0019

10. ("When I sing from low to high") 0.0169

Tone Quality

Tables 7-13 are analyses of variance for interaction

among the judges, the subgroups, the categories, and the

individual students, and between each pair of variables.

Table 7 (p. 69) shows a significant difference among the

judges. The p-value is 0.0050, well below the .05 level of

significance. Table 8 (p. 69) shows a p-value of 0.8496,

well above the 0.05 level, using the subgroups as a

variable. This indicates that there was no statistically

significant difference among the subgroups as far as change

from pretest to posttest. Table 9 (p. 69) shows the 64

difference between categories. The p-value is 0.0013. The

judges were able to distinguish among the categories in

their evaluation of the subjects. Table 10 (p. 70), with a

p-value of 0.0001, indicates a difference among students.

This indicates that there was a statistically significant

difference in the way the individual students performed on

the vocal test.

There was an interaction effect between the judges and

the vocal test. Table 11 (p. 70) shows a p-value of

0.0005. There was no interaction between the judges and

the subgroups (Table 12, p. 70), or between the subgroups

and the test (Table 13, p. 70). Table 14 (p. 71) shows the

correlation coefficients for each judge on each category

from pretest to posttest. The judges are below the 0.5

level on 60 percent of the categories (15 of 25). Judge #4

is below the 0.5 correlation level on four out of five

categories. Judge #5 is below the 0.5 correlation level on

three out of five categories. Judges #1, 2 and 3 are below

the 0.5 level on three out of five categories. Category 3

(Consistency) shows the weakest correlation (no judge is

above the 0.5 level), and Category 5 (Pitch Matching

Ability) shows the strongest correlation (four judges are

above the 0.5 level). An examination of the p-values in

Table 14 shows that most of them are significantly

different from zero. This is especially true when half of

the p-value is taken (because this is a one-tailed test).

Twenty-three of the twenty-five tests (92 per cent) have a

p-value below 0.05. This indicates a slight relationship

between the judges, and a trend toward a more significant

correlation.

The t-test comparing the subgroups showed no

significant differences among them (Table 15, p. 71).

The t-test comparing the judges to each other shows a

significant difference between Judge #2 and the other

65

judges (Table 16, p. 72). The t-test comparing the

categories with each other shows a significant difference

between the judges' ratings for category #3 (clarity of

tone) and the other categories (Table 17, p. 72)

Table 18 (p. 73) shows the means for all judges for

all subgroups. Subgroup 1 shows a significant difference

in Category 3 (Clarity). The p-value is 0.0026. The

difference in the means, however, is minus, denoting a

significant decrease in clarity, rather than an

improvement. The difference in the means for Subgroup 4

(Clarity) is also minus. When half of the p-value is taken

(since this is a one-tailed test),Subgroup 4 also shows a

siignificant decrease in clarity (p=0.0537; 1/2 p=0.0269).

Subgroup 2 shows significant improvement in Category 2

(Flexibility From High To Low) and Category 5 (Pitch

Matching Ability). The difference for Category 2 is

0.0232. The difference for Category 5 is 0.0245.

Table 1. A Comparison of the Mean of the Pretests to the Mean of the Posttests for the Total Group

DF Type III MS DF MS F Value p-value 3 10.10865249 34 3.8698472965 2.612 0.0672

66

Table 2. T-tests (LSD) Showing the Lower Confidence Limit and the Upper Confidence Limit of the Mean Differences Between Subgroups

GROUP Comparison

Lower Difference Confidence Between Limit Means

Upper Confidence Limit

4 4 4

2 1 3

•0 .1335 0 . 0 0 8 3 0 . 1 8 1 3

0.4203 0.5621 0.7495

0 . 9 7 4 1 1 .1160* 1 .3177*

3 3 3

4 2 1

•1 .3177 •0.8830 •0 .741

•0 .7495 •0.3292 •0.1874

• 0 . 1 8 1 3 * 0 . 2 2 4 6 0 . 3 6 6 5

2 2 2

- 4 - 1 - 3

•0 .9741 •0 .3972 •0 .2246

-0.4203 0.1418 0.3292

0.1335 0.6809 0.8830

1 1 1

- 4 - 2 - 3

•1.1160 •0.6809 •0.3665

-0.5621 -0.1418 0.1874

-0.0083* 0.3972 0.7412

*Comparisons significant at 0.05.

Table 3. Subgroup 1 Measures for Individual Categories

Variable Mean Std Dev p-value

HIGH LOW INHALE FIRST TENSION CHANGE FAVORITE BEST THROAT LOW-HIGH HIGH-LOW

0.2200000 0.2300000 0.1700000 0.0700000 0.1700000

-0.2700000 -0.1500000 -0.5000000 0.3800000 0.1200000 0.0100000

0.9366607 0.7071853 1.1870131 0.9165758 0.7409453 0.6000926 1.8566697 1.5275252 0.7052186 1.0757943 0.8862530

0.7427461 1.0284770 0.4528907 0.2415070 0.7255423 -1.4228054 -0.2554798 -1.0350983 1.7039616 0.3527378 0.0356814

0.4766 0.3306 0.6613 0.8146 0.4866 0.1885 0.8041 0.3276 0.1226 0.7324 0.9723

•Comparisons significant at 0.05.

67


Variable Mean Std Dev p-value


0.5100000 0.4300000 0.0200000 0.5000000 0.4400000 0.3600000

-0.8000000 -0.5500000 0.4900000 0.0800000 0.5300000

1.2956766 0.8380533 1.4405246 0.5333333 0.7136759 0.6113737 1.8287822 1.8173546 1.1560950 1.5090836 0.5963780

1.2447255 1.6225452 0.0439045 2.9646353 1.9496274 1.8620690 •1.3833370 •0.9570244 1.3403017 0.1676396 2.8103104

0.2447 0.1391 0.9659 0.0158* 0.0830** 0.0955** 0.1999 0.3636 0.2130 0.8706 0.0204*


**Comparisons significant at 0.05 when half of p is taken


Variable


Mean

0.0222222 0.1555556 0.1888889

-0.1333333 0.0888889

-0.2444444 -0.6111111 -1.0000000 0.1666667

-0.5111111 0.2666667

Std Dev

0.9351173 0.3468109 0.9993053 0.4272002 0.5797509 0.7923243 1.2190616 1.5411035 0.7193747 0.6641620 0.5958188

t

0.0712923 1.3455941 0.5670606 -0.9363292 0.4599677 -0.9255470 -1.5038890 -1.9466571 0.6950480 -2.3086738 1.3426902

p-value

0.9449 0.2153 0.5862 0.3765 0.6578 0.3818 0.1710 0.0874** 0.5067 0.0498* 0.2162


**Comparisons significant at 0.05 when half of p is taken

68


Variable Mean Std Dev p- value


1.1777778 0.4666667 0.7000000 0.5222222 1.0777778 0.1666667 0.5000000

-0.2222222 0.7555556 0.7777778 0.7111111

0.7446103 1.1874342 0.5700877 0.6553201 0.5190804 0.6383573 1.3919411 1.6414763 0.4977728 0.7758508 1.1559027

4.7452117 1.1790127 3.6836437 2.3906891 6.2289646 0.7832604 1.0776318 •0.4061385 4.5536168 3.0074511 1.8455994

0.0015* 0.2723 0.0062* 0.0438* 0.0003* 0.4560 0.3126 0.6953 0.0019* 0.0169* 0.1022


Table 7. Comparison of the Judges' Scores

DF Type III MS DF 4 6.6629152705 136

MS 1.7103267974

F Value 3.896

p-value 0.0050

Table 8. Comparison of the Means of the Judges Ratings Among Subgroups

DF Type III MS DF 3 3.0834697856 34

MS 11.605359477

F Value 0.266

p-value 0.8496

Table 9. Comparison of the Means of the Judges' Ratings Among Categories

DF Type III MS DF 4 6.0000861656 136

MS 1.2596078431

F Value 4.763

p-value 0.0013

69

Table 10. Comparison of the Means of the Judges' Ratings Among Students

DF Type III MS DF MS F Value p-value 34 11.605359477 167.11 2.3756316533 4.885 0.0001

Table 11. Interactive Effect Between Judges and Categories


Table 12. Interactive Effect Between Judges and Subgroups


Table 13. Interactive Effect Between Subgroups and Categories


70

Table

JUDGE 1

2

3

4

5

14. Correlation Between Pretest and Posttest Ratings by Judges. The Upper Value is the Correlation; the Lower Value is the p-Value

LOHI 0.44 0.003

0.53 0.000

0.35 0.016

0.25 0.063

0.27 0.048

HILO 0.56 0.000

0.64 0.000

0.39 0.008

0.26 0.057

0.56 0.000

CLARITY 0.48 0.001

0.08 0.312

0.45 0.003

0.43 0.004

0.33 0.020

CONSIST 0.36 0.013

0.42 0.005

0.51 0.000

0.11 0.250

0.58 0.000

1 PITCH 0.69 0.000

0.43 0.004

0.61 0.000

0.61 0.000

0.57 0.000

Table 15. T-tests (LSD) Showing the Lower Confidence Limit, the Upper Confidence Limit, the Difference Between the Means (Pretest to Posttest), and the Significant Differences Between Subgroups (Judges' Ratings)

SUBGROUP Comparison

2 2 2

3 3 3

4 4 4

1 1 1

3 4 1

2 4 1

2 3 1

2 3 4

Lower Confidence Limit

-0.5175 -0.4331 -0.3632

-0.7549 -0.5683 -0.4989

-0.8393 -0.7372 -0.5833

-0.8752 -0.7735 -0.6891

Difference Between Means

0.1187 0.2031 0.2560

-0.1187 0.0844 0.1373

-0.2031 -0.0844 0.0529

-0.2560 -0.1373 -0.0529

Upper Confidence Limit

0.7549 0.8393 0.8752

0.5175 0.7372 0.7735

0.4331 0.5683 0.6891

0.3632 0.4989 0.5833

71

Table 16. Comparison of the Judges to Each Other

T Grouping A B A A A

Mean 0.0158 -0.2211 0.2579 0.2000 0.0895

N JUDGE 190 1 190 2 190 3 190 4 190 5

Means with the same letter are not significantly different

Table 17. Comparison of the Judges' Ratings of Categories

T Grouping A A B A A

Mean 0.1895 0.2158 -0.2316 0.0737 0.0947

N T 190 190 190 190 190

ES 1 2 3 4 5

(Flexibility Low to High) (Flexibility High To Low) (Clarity) (Consistency) (Pitch Matching Ability)

Means with the same letter are not significantly different

72

Table 18.

Variable LOW-HIGH HIGH-LOW CLARITY CONSIST PITCH




T-tests of

Mean -0.0600000 0.2200000 -0.3600000 0.0800000 -0.1000000

Mean 0.2600000 0.4600000 -0.0800000 0 0.4200000

Mean 0.3333333 0.0222222

-0.1555556 0.2222222 0.0444444

Mean 0.2444444 0.1333333 -0.3333333 0 0

Judges' Ratings for All Subgroups

GROUP 1 Std Dev 1.1322724 1.0745668 0.8020382 0.8290639 0.9529760

GROUP 2 Std Dev 1.4400964 1.3881422 1.1036119 1.1065667 1.2791898

GROUP 3 Std Dev 1.4301939 1.2337837 1.0650556 1.1259115 1.1862001

GROUP 4 Std Dev 1.2641123 1.1200649 1.1281521 0.9534626 0.9770084

t -0, 1.

-3. 0.

-0,

t 1. 2,

-0, 0 2.

t 1. 0.

-0. 1. 0.

t 1. 0,

-1, 0 0

,3747014 ,4476856 ,1738941 ,6823183 ,7419985

.2766351

.3431974

.5125764

.3216637

.5634719

.1208244

.9797595

.3240045

.2513424

.2971816

.7985494

.9820624

p-value 0.7095 0.1541 0.0026* 0.4983 0.4616

p-value 0.2077 0.0232* 0.6106 1.0000 0.0245*

p-value 0.1251 0.9044 0.3326 0.1923 0.8027

p-value 0.2013 0.4288 0.0537** 1.0000 1.0000

*Comparisons significant at 0.05. **Comparisons significant at 0.05 when half of p is taken

73

CHAPTER V

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

Discussion Student Attitudes

The results presented in Chapter IV would seem to

indicate that the treatments produced changes in the

attitudes of the subjects toward their singing voices.

This is especially true of the treatment given to

Subgroup 4.

While the ANOVA for the entire group (0.0672) is not

significant at the 0.05 level, the difference approaches

significance. Since this figure represents the difference

for the entire group, it was influenced as much by Subgroup

1 (where there were no significant differences for any of

the Student Attitude Survey categories) as by Subgroup 4

(where six categories showed a significant difference).

Because the change approached the 0.05 level of

significance, it can be argued that there was an overall

improvement in the attitudes of the subjects toward their

singing voices.

Table 2 (Chapter IV) shows that there was a

significant difference between Subgroup 4 and Subgroup 1,

and between Subgroup 4 and Subgroup 3. This would seem to

indicate that a combination of exercises and knowledge is

superior to no treatment and to knowledge alone, but not

superior to exercises alone in affecting attitudes. At the

same time, the use of exercises alone is not superior to no

treatment or knowledge alone in affecting attitudes. Taken

together, these results would argue for a program of

exercises plus information (knowledge) about the voice and

vocal development as the most effective treatment to affect

adolescent female singers' attitudes about their singing

voices.

74

Specifically, this approach would appear to affect

positively the attitudes of these singers in regard to:

a. singing in the higher part of the range

(Category 1),

b. inhaling to sing the first note of a song or phrase

(Category 3),

c. singing the first note of a song or phrase

(Category 4),

d. the presence of tension which interferes with

relaxed, free, easy singing (Category 5),

e. a relaxed, comfortable feeling in the throat

(Category 9), and

f. singing from low to high (Category 10).

There was some improvement in the attitude of Subgroup

2 (singing the first note, and singing from high to low),

and Subgroup 3 (singing from low to high). When half of

the p-value is taken. Subgroup 2 showed significant

improvement in reducing tension and desire to change the

singing voice. Subjects in Subgroup 3 showed significant

change in attitude toward which voice part they felt was

best for them. These changes, while significant, would not

seem to be sufficient to indicate an overall attitude

improvement in these subgroups, since a very low percentage

of categories showed statistically significant improvement.

Tone Ouality

The significant difference between Judge #2 and the

rest of the judges (Table 15) may have affected the results

of the study. It is possible that a closer relationship

among the ratings of all the judges might have produced

different results.

The low correlation coefficients in the judges'

scoring (Table 14) may help to explain the lack of

improvement from pretest to posttest. However, since many

75

of the p-values showed a tendency toward significant

difference, it can be argued that changing the parameters

of the study might well produce more significant change in

the vocal tone guality. The results would seem to indicate

that either a longer time period or a longer vocal sample

\ for the judges to rate should be considered.

The results shown in Table 15 would indicate that

none of the treatments was superior to any other, nor to no

treatment, in improving the tone guality of the subgroups.

Since there was no statistically significant difference

among the subgroups, exercises alone, knowledge alone, and

a combination of knowledge and exercises were no more

effective than singing in choir alone (control) for the

entire group.

Various individual subjects showed improvement. In

Subgroup 1, four students improved from pretest to

posttest. The average percentage of gain was 23 percent.

Seven subjects in Subgroup 2 improved an average of 31

percent. In Subgroup 3, four subjects showed an average

improvement of 32 percent. Four subjects in Subgroup 4

showed a 25 percent average improvement.

The seven subjects who improved in Subgroup 2

represent 70 percent of the total subgroup (n=10). The 31

percent average increase for the seven students who showed

improvement in Subgroup 2, and the 32 percent average

increase for four the students who showed improvement in

Subgroup 3 are virtually equal. These percentages would

indicate that the treatments of exercises alone and

knowledge alone did have a positive effect on the tone

quality of many of the subjects in these two subgroups.

The 23 percent average increase for the four subjects

who showed improvement is Subgroup 1 (control) and the 25

percent average increase for the four subjects who showed

improvement in Subgroup 4 were also virtually equal. The

76

improvement in Subgroup 1 would indicate that singing in

choir did have a positive effect on the tone quality of

many of the subjects in this subgroup. Apparently, the

combination of knowledge and exercises (Subgroup 4) is not

superior to singing in choir in improving the vocal tone

quality for the individual subjects involved in this study.

These results seem contradictory. If knowledge alone

and exercises alone cause improvement in the tone quality

of individual subjects, why would the combination of

exercises and knowledge fail to show at least the same

percentage of improvement? The answer may lie in the

individual subjects involved in the study, or in the small

size of each subgroup. Perhaps a larger study group and

larger subgroups would produce different results.

Certainly such a study would produce results which would be

more likely to be representative of the population at

large. It is also possible that the judges needed a longer

sample of the subjects' singing voices in order to make an

accurate assessment.

The judges' rating on clarity (Table 16) shows a

decrease in this category from pretest to posttest. While

Table 18 shows a minus difference in means from pretest to

posttest for all subgroups. Subgroup 1 shows a significant

minus difference (0.0026), as does Subgroup 4 if half of

the p-value is taken. Without more information, or one or

more repetitions of the study using different age groups,

different time periods, or different segments of the school

year, it is impossible to determine what factors caused

this decrease. There are, however, several possible causes

which should be considered.

First, it is possible that a significant portion of

the study group might have been in the period of voice

mutation in which the mutational chink prevented clarity of

tone. While it is difficult to argue that many of the

77

subjects would be at the same stage at the same time (given

the fact that adolescents develop at different rates), all

the subjects were approximately the same chronological age.

This unity of chronological age for the subjects may have

had an effect on the decrease in clarity.

West Texas is an area known for the exacerbation of

allergy problems. The posttests were given in the spring—

a time of year in which allergic reactions are particularly

intense. Finally, several of the subjects had missed

school prior to the posttests. Many of these absences were

due to colds or sore throats.

Subgroup 2 showed significant improvement in Category

2 (Flexibility From High To Low) and Category 5 (Pitch

Matching Ability). It would seem that a program of

exercises does positively affect young adolescent female

voices in these areas. Since there was no improvement in

Subgroup 4 in these categories, further study is needed to

determine whether knowledge works against exercises in

these areas, or whether the lack of significant improvement

was due to the makeup of the subgroups.

Conclusions

The results presented in Chapter IV indicate that some

of the hypotheses should be accepted, and some should be

rejected. Hypotheses 1 was as follows:

Ho Singing in choir does not improve the vocal

tone quality of adolescent female singers.

Hi Singing in choir improves the vocal tone quality


Since Subgroup 1 (control) showed no significant increase

for any of the categories on the vocal test, the null

hypothesis (HQ) was accepted. For the subjects involved in

this study, singing in choir alone did not appear to

78

improve the tone quality of young adolescent female

singers.

Hypothesis 2 was as follows:

HO Singing in choir does not improve the vocal

self-image of adolescent female singers.

Hi Singing in choir improves the vocal self-image


Since Subgroup 1 (control) showed no significant

improvement for any of the categories on the Student

Attitude Survey, the null hypothesis (Ho) was accepted.

For the subjects involved in this study, singing in choir

alone did not appear to change the attitudes of young

adolescent female singers in regard to their singing

voices.

Hypothesis 3 was as follows: Ho The administration of a program of vocal

exercises does not improve the vocal tone

quality of adolescent female singers more than

singing in choir alone.


exercises improves the vocal tone quality of


choir alone.

Since Subgroup 2 (exercises alone) showed a significant

improvement in only two of the five categories on the vocal

test (40 percent) it would seem that the null hypothesis

(Ho) should also be accepted. Apparently, for the subjects

involved in this study, a program of vocal exercises alone

does not produce a significant change in the tone quality

of young adolescent female singers. Since there were some

significant differences between pretest and posttest for

this subgroup, more study in this area would seem to be

necessary.

79



exercises does not improve the vocal self-image

of adolescent female singers more than singing

in choir alone.


exercises improves the vocal self-image of


choir alone.

Since Subgroup 2 (exercises alone) showed a significant

improvement in only two of the eleven categories on the

Student Attitude Survey (18 percent), it would seem that

the null hypothesis (HQ) should be accepted. Apparently,

for the subjects involved in this study, a program of vocal

exercises alone does not produce a significant change in

the attitudes of young adolescent female singers in regard

to their singing voices. Since there were some significant

differences between pretest and posttest for this subgroup,

more study in this area may be necessary.






Hi That providing adolescent female singers with




Since Subgroup 3 (knowledge alone) showed no significant

improvement for any of the categories on the vocal test,

the null hypothesis (HQ) was accepted. For the subjects

involved in this study, singing in choir alone did not

appear to change the tone quality of young adolescent

female singers in regard to their singing voices.

80




vocal development process will not improve

vocal self-image more than singing in choir

alone.

Hi Providing adolescent female singers with


vocal development process will produce

significantly greater improvement in vocal

self-image than singing in choir alone.

Since Subgroup 3 (knowledge alone) showed significant

improvement in only one of the eleven categories on the

Student Attitude Survey (9 percent), it would seem the null

hypothesis (Ho) should also be accepted. For the subjects

involved in this study, the presentation of information

(knowledge) alone would not seem to change the attitudes of

young adolescent female singers in regard to their singing

voices.





process will not improve vocal tone quality in






process will improve vocal tone quality in



Since Subgroup 4 (a combination of vocal exercises and

knowledge) showed no significant improvement for any of the

81

categories on the vocal test, the null hypothesis (Ho) was

accepted. For the subjects involved in this study, singing

in choir alone did not appear to change the tone quality of

young adolescent female singers in regard to their singing

voices.

Hypothesis 8 was as follows




process will not improve vocal self-image in






process will improve vocal self-image in



Subgroup 4 (a combination of vocal exercises and knowledge)

showed a significant improvement in six of the eleven

categories on the Student Attitude survey (55 percent). In

this case, the null hypothesis (Ho) is rejected, and the

alternative hypothesis (Hi) is accepted. For the subjects

in this study, a program of vocal exercises combined with


development process did significantly improve the attitudes

of young adolescent female singers in regard to their

singing voices.

Summary

student Attitudes

When the means of the Student Attitude Surveys were

compared by group, pretest to posttest, significant

improvement can be seen in Subgroup 4 (combination of

82

exercises and knowledge). Subgroups 1 (control) and 3

(knowledge alone) did not improve. Subgroup 2 (exercises

alone) improved slightly—enough to warrant further

investigation.

/ Some of the categories in which Subgroup 4 showed

improvement should be of particular interest to choral

directors and voice teachers who work with young adolescent

female singers. Categories 3 ("When I inhale to sing") and

4 ("When I sing the first note of a song") are concerned

with beginning to sing. Exercises and knowledge combined

would seem to make singers more comfortable when beginning

a song or phrase. Since Subgroup 2 also showed improvement

in Category 4, exercises might be more important here than

knowledge. The commencement of phonation is an important

component of the singing process (Westerman, 1955; Vennard,

1967; R. Miller, 1986). Therefore, exercises and

information which help students feel more comfortable about

beginning a song or phrase should be included as part of

the vocal training process.

Categories 5 ("When I sing I feel tension/no tension")

and 9 ("When I sing my throat feels") are concerned with

tension, which is produced by unnecessary muscle activity

(Brodnitz, 1953). This tension interferes with relaxed,

comfortable singing. A program of vocal exercises combined

with knowledge about the vocal mechanism would seem to

eliminate this tension in young singers. Choral directors

and voice teachers who work with young adolescents must

develop a curriculum which provides the necessary

information and vocalises to help these singers reduce the

feeling of tension while singing. If the singer feels more

comfortable as she sings, eventually the vocal tone should

improve.

Category 10 ("When I sing from low to high") showed

improvement by Subgroup 3 as well as Subgroup 4. Knowledge

83

might be the critical factor here. Much of the information

dispensed in this area was concerned with the use and

misuse of the chest voice (heavy mechanism). Perhaps this

information helped these singers understand better the

process by which a transition from low pitches to high

pitches can be accomplished. Misuse of the lower voice is

potentially damaging to young voices. Most authorities

suggest vocalizing singers from the light mechanism into

the heavy mechanism, but solo and choral music demands the

ability to sing from the heavy mechanism upwards as well.

If young singers can become more comfortable in making the

transition from low to high by understanding the process

better, the dissemination of this information should become

an integral part of the rehearsal plan.

Significant change in preference for singing high or

low (Categories 6-8) occurred in Subgroup 2 and Subgroup 3

only when half of the p-value was taken. Neither the vocal

exercises nor the knowledge presented in this study seemed

to have a strong effect on the subjects' attitude toward

their preferred voice part. Many authorities suggest that

permanent classification should be avoided as long as

possible (Harris, 1987; Thurman, 1988; Gackle, 1991).

Dividing the young adolescent females in a choir into two

even sections and calling them Girls I and Girls II (or

other appropriate names) would avoid such classification.

This process agrees with the findings of I Cooper (1953),

Collins (1982), Skoog and Niederbrach (1983), Huff-Gackle

(1985), and Adcock (1987). As these singers matured, they

would not need to consider themselves sopranos or altos

until their voices began to settle into the adult range and

quality.

84

Tone Ouali-hy

Singing is a skill. As a result, learning to sing is

a developmental process. This may be especially true of

the voices of young adolescents. Since this is such an

intense period of change, these voices may need a longer

time to show significant improvement. It is possible that

eleven weeks was not a sufficient time period to affect

change in voices. This study was limited to eleven weeks

due to the choir schedule of the school in which it was

conducted. The choir was involved in so many activities

that there was not time in the school year for a longer

study. Conducting a similar study over a longer time

period might result in more significant improvement.

Incorporating the exercise program and knowledge statements

into the choral rehearsals as an integral part of the

choral program over the course of the entire school year

might also result in more significant improvement. This

would agree with the findings of Gonzo (1973), Robinson and

Winold (1976), Gackle (1978), Blatt (1983), Overturf

(1985), Fiocca (1986), and Guthmiller (1986).

A combination of exercises and knowledge was shown to

bring about significant improvement in the attitudes of

young adolescent female singers toward their singing

voices. Perhaps this perception of improvement by the

subjects in this study will lead to future improvement in

their tone quality. The partial success of the exercise

program (significant improvement in two of the five

categories) for Subgroup 2 would seem to argue for this

conclusion.

85

Suggestions for Further Research

There are many questions left unanswered by this

study. Other exercise programs, methods of presenting

knowledge, and time and group limitations might produce

different results.

Exercises and knowledge presented once or twice each

week over the course of a semester or year would allow the

investigator to discover the effects of a longer time

period. It would also allow for a more comprehensive

program of vocal exercises and presentation of information.

Using entire choruses as subgroups and presenting the

exercises and knowledge as part of the daily rehearsal

would help determine whether familiarity with the teacher

affected the results. Finally, using either a solo (for

individuals) or a choral piece (for entire choruses) as the

vocal test material would provide information on the

effects of exercises and knowledge in a performance-

oriented setting, as well as providing a longer vocal

sample for judges to rate.

86

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101

APPENDIX A

PRINCIPLES OF VOCAL DEVELOPMENT

WHICH FORM THE BASIS

OF THE STUDY

102

Basic Principles of Vocal Development

1. The voices of adolescents are capable of being

developed as long as the physical limitations of the

voices are respected (Huls, 1957; Phillips & Fett,

1992).

2. The process of mutation is developmental, but is

intensified during adolescence (Robinson & Winold,

1976; Mayer & Sacher, n.d.).

3. Avoid classification of adolescent voices (Skoog &

Niederbrach, 1983; Huff-Gackle; 1985, Thurman, 1988;

Mayer & Sacher, n.d.). All female voices should be

considered second sopranos (Hoffer, 1983; Huff-Gackle,

1985).

4. Vocal abuse is very possible for adolescent female

singers (Brodnitz, 1953; M. Cooper, 1970, 1982;

Bravender, 1977; Stoer & Swank, 1978; Ingham & Keaton,

1983; Teter & Gray, 1985; Boardman & Alt, 1992).

5. The singer is an athlete, and the study of singing is

a study of muscle development (Bates, 1907; Westerman,

1955; Alderson, 1979; Ingham & Keaton, 1983). No

muscle involved in singing should ever be set in a

fixed position (Christy, 1961).

6. Healthy vocal technique does not involve strength, but

balance and coordination (Mabry, 1992).

7. Avoid strain in the voice (Howard, 1923;

Harrison, 1978).

8. Teaching voice by scientific principles brings better

and quicker results than by imagery alone (Vennard,

1967). Imagery can be useful as a teaching aid

(Vennard, 1967).

9. Girls with immature voices should not sing entirely or

excessively in chest voice (Rorke, 1947).

103

10. The middle register (C4 to C5) is the area of the

voice most damaged by females singing consistently in

chest voice (Mount, 1982).

11. One primary goal of vocal instruction for adolescent

female singers should be the coordination and blending

of the ("head" and "chest") registers (Curtis, 1895;

Bradley, 1975; Harrison, 1978; Collins, 1981;

McKinney, 1982).

12. The key to success in the lower range is not more

force, but more support (R. Miller, 1986).

13. A slightly breathy tone with an even vibrato is

preferable to a clear, strident tone with no vibrato

(Doscher, 1991).

14. The tonal concept for choral directors and voice

teachers of adolescent female singers must be "soft

and pure" rather than "loud and full" (Huff-Gackle,

1985).

15. Singing by children and adolescents must be vital, not

loud or devitalized (Huls, 1957).

16. Choral directors and voice teachers of adolescent

singers must learn to increase the dynamic potential

of voices without damaging the voices (H.R. Wilson,

1955).

17. Mezzo Forte is the most effective and least harmful

dynamic level for adolescent singers (Bates, 1907;

Howard, 1923; Boyd, 1977; Corbin, 1986). It is

necessary to scale down the dynamic range for

adolescent voices (R. Miller, 1986).

18. Focus on the quality of the voice, not the quantity

(Doscher, 1991; Hill, 1992).

19. Use a variety of exercises (Aaron, 1992,), but not too

many (Christy, 1961). The exercises should be kept

simple and to the point (Christy, 1961).

104

20. The most effective and efficient sequence for vocal

development, as determined from reviewing the research

of all authors consulted, would seem to be posture,

breath management, phonation, relaxation, resonance,

registration, and articulation. For the purpose of

this study, the articulation of vowels will be given

priority over the articulation of consonants and

words.

Posture

1. The singer must first learn how to hold the instrument

(Vennard, 1967; Mabry, 1992).

2. Posture must be regal (Miller, 1986), but flexible

(Decker, 1977b).

3. Beginning from the bottom and working up, line up the

feet, pelvis, spinal column, shoulders, neck, and

head. The head should be balanced on the neck like a

basketball on a broom handle (Mabry, 1992).

4. There should be no tension in the shoulders.

5. Feel that you have tall ribs and a tall neck

(Mabry, 1992).

6. Don't change posture to breathe (R. Miller, 1986).

7. "Would I pay money to look at that?" (Vennard, 1967,

p. 19).

Breath Management

1. Breathe in the position of singing, and sing in the

position of breathing (R. Miller, 1986).

2. The quality of sound depends upon the quality of

breath (Boardman and Alt, 1992).

3. Don't exaggerate the intake of air and crowd the lungs

(Decker, 1977a; R. Miller, 1986).

105

4. Inhale noiselessly through both nose and mouth. Feel

cool spots at the back of the nasal passage and the

throat.

5. Use rib and abdominal breathing, not clavicular

breathing (Huls, 1957; Vennard, 1967).

6. Breathing should be in (through the nose and mouth),

down (into the lungs), and out (the ribs expanding

outward) (Vennard, 1967).

7. Take a "singer's breath"—the relaxed, easy, deep

inhale needed to produce correct phonation (Hartwell,

1992).

8. Expansion should be felt in the front, sides, and back

(Huls, 1957; Roe, 1970).

9. Refer to the lower abdominal area as the "breath ring"

Ehmann, 1968. p. 16).

10. Efficiency is more important than capacity (Doscher,

1987).

11. Keep the feeling of outward expansion (Christy, 1961).

Don't allow the breath ring to collapse.

12. Try to produce the maximum resonance with the minimum

breath (Westerman, 1955).

Relaxation

1. Relaxation is active, not passive; the singer is not

lazy, but relaxed (Decker, 1975, 1977b).

2. Relax the muscles which interfere with good singing.

Sensation in the larynx probably means tension in the

larynx (B. Taylor, 1936).

3. There should be no pressure or interference with the

sound in the throat. There must be complete mobility

of the jaw, tongue, and lips (Howard, 1923; R. Miller,

1986). 4. Dropping the jaw prevents tightening the throat

(Vennard, 1967).

106

5. Chewing therapy will help relax the jaw and tongue

(Brodnitz, 1953; Boone, 1971; Stoer & Swank, 1978;

Ingham & Keaton, 1983).

Phonation

1. There should be no conscious feeling of ligament and

muscle action in the larynx (Westerman, 1955;

Vennard, 1967).

2. Sing in the position of breathing, and breathe in the

position of singing (R. Miller, 1986).

3. When beginning to teach phonation, a clearly aspirated

"H" will produce the proper attack, free from muscle

interference or the glottal stroke (Vennard, 1967).

Resonation

1. Resonation frees the voice from strain and effort at

the source of vibrations (Westerman, 1955).

2. Proper inhalation and proper positioning of the larynx

will produce proper resonation.

3. The tone cannot be forced into the resonating

chambers (Zimmerman, 1968).

4. Dynamics must not be confused with resonance

(R. Miller, 1986).

5. Humming will produce proper resonance (Westerman,

1955; Roe, 1970; R. Miller, 1986).

6. Another method for producing resonance is extensity—

placing the flat hand on the upper lip and insuring

that the sound comes entirely from the mouth (Toms,

1985).

Registration

1. There are two registers (Vennard, 1967, Robinson &

Winold, 1976).

107

2. "Light and heavy mechanisms" are much more accurate

terms than "chest and head registers" (Vennard, 1967).

3. The light and heavy mechanisms must be blended

throughout the entire range (Bradley, 1975; Skoog &

Niederbrach, 1983).

4. Work the voice from C5 down (Curtis, 1895; H.R.

Wilson, 1959; Decker, 1975; Herman, 1988; Williams,

1990).

5. Open mouth more for higher notes (Christy, 1961; R.

Miller, 1986).

6. Supporting lower tones will produce better results

than force (R. Miller, 1986).

Articulation

1. Vowels are produced by the resonant reinforcement of

the sound waves made by modification of the actions of

sucking, chewing, and swallowing (Westerman, 1955).

2. The "UH" vowel is most effective for teaching proper

phonation (Vennard, 1967).

3. Once the "UH" vowel has been established, develop all

other vowels to the place where they have the same

resonance as "UH" (Vennard, 1967; R. Miller, 1986).

108

APPENDIX B

OPEN-ENDED SENTENCE QUESTIONNAIRE

USED IN THE PILOT STUDY

109

Complete the following sentences using whatever words you feel are most appropriate. Do not sign your name to this paper.

When I sing high my voice feels

When I sing high my voice sounds

When I sing low my voice feels

When I sing low my voice sounds

When I inhale to sing I feel

When I sing my posture is

Singing while standing makes me feel

When I sing the first note of a song I

I run out of breath

I wish I could sound like

When I sing I feel tension in_

I sing because

Singing makes me

If I could change my voice I would_

When I sing alone

When I listen to my singing voice live

When I listen to my singing voice on tape

I like to sing ,

My favorite voice part is

The voice part I sing best is

When I sing my throat feels

When I sing from low to high_

110

When I sing from high to low_

I like my voice when

I don't like my voice when

111

APPENDIX C

STUDENT ATTITUDE SURVEYS

112

PILOT STUDENT ATTITUDE SURVEY

Do not put your name on this paper. Circle the answer which best represents the way you feel, in the parenthesis after each answer indicate your understanding of the question with the appropriate number:

(1) I understand the question.

(2) I sort of understand the question.

(3) I don't understand the question at all.

1. When I sing high my voice feels: 1 2 3 4 5 sore comfortable ( )

strained relaxed ( )

squeaky

1 2 pushed

1 2 weak

full ( )

5 comfortable ( )

4 5 strong ( )

like it will crack controlled ( )

uncomfortable comfortable ( )

screechy

1 2 loud

tight

shaky

open ( )

5 soft ( )

5 relaxed ( )

5 steady ( )

113

1 tense

1

2

2

3

3

4

4

5 relax(

5 weird natural

heavy light

5 rough smooth

airy chesty (

like it hurts comfortable

scratchy smooth

2.

hoarse

When I sing low my voice feels: 1 2 3 weird

clear

natural

uncomfortable comfortable

heavy

weak

light

5 strong

rough

like it hurts

smooth

5 comfortable

scratchy

1 2 airy

114

smooth

5 chesty

1 tense

1

2

2

3

3

4

4

5 relax(

5 hoarse clear

sore comfortable

strained relaxed

squeaky full

pushed comfortable

weak strong

like it will crack controlled

soft loud

3.

tight

shaky

When I inhale to sing I feel: 1 2 3 uncomfortable

relaxed

5 steady

comfortable

hurried relaxed

anxious ready

awkward comfortable

robbed of air full of air

115

dizzy clearheaded ( )

tense

When I sing the first note of a song I: 1 2 3 4 am hesitant

relaxed ( )

am ready ( )

sing softly sing loudly ( )

am not confident am confident ( )

use little energy use lots of energy ( )

miss the pitch 1 2 sometimes always ( )

have trouble 1 2 sometimes always ( )

crack it 1 2. sometimes always ( )

When I sing I feel: in my throat 1 2 tension no tension ( )

in my ears 1_ 2. tension no tension ( )

in my stomach 1 2 _ tension no tension ( )

in my chest 1 2_ tension no tension ( )

116

in my shoulders 1 2 tension no tension

m my jaw 1 2 tension no tension

in my diaphragm 1 2 tension no tension

in my legs 1 2 tension no tension

on high notes 1 2 tension no tension

on low notes 1 2 tension no tension

If I could change my voice I would make it: 1 2 3 4 5. able to go higher able to go lower

higher lower

high only high and low

low only low and high

less strong stronger

softer louder

more forced more natural

My favorite voice part is: 1 -1 _3_ low

117

high

alto soprano

8.

9.

The voice part I sing best is: 1 2 3 low

alto

When I sing my throat feels: 1 2 3 dry

high

5 soprano

moist

rough smooth

tense relaxed


clogged

1 2. scratchy

1 2_ tight

strained

it gets harder

1 2 I feel unsure

1 2

clear

5 smooth

5 relaxed

5

I tense up

1 2 1_ I don't like the sound

open

10. When I sing from low to high: 1 2 3 1

It gets easier

4 5 I feel confident

4 5 I relax

5 I like the sound

118

I don't adjust easily I adjust easily ( )

I miss the pitch 1 2 3_ sometimes

my voice 1 2 changes

1 2 gets worse

1 2

never ( )

5 doesn't change ( )

4 5 gets better ( )

4 5 feels less comfortable feels more comfortable ( )

1 2 3 ^ 5 IS more airy is less airy ( )

11.

gets softer

When I sing from high to low: 1 2 3 It gets harder

gets louder ( )

it gets easier ( )

I feel unsure I feel confident ( )

I tense up I relax ( )

I don't like the sound I like the sound ( )

I don't adjust easily


my voice 1 2_ changes

1 2 gets worse

119

I adjust easily ( )

never ( )

doesn't change ( )

4 5 gets better ( )

feels less comfortable feels more comfortable ( )

is heavier is lighter ( )

gets louder gets softer ( )

120

MAIN STUDY STUDENT ATTITUDE SURVEY

Do not put your name on this paper. Circle the answer which best represents the way you feel.

1. When I sing high my voice feels: 1 2 3 4 5 sore comfortable

strained relaxed

squeaky full

pushed comfortable

weak strong

like it will crack controlled


shaky steady

tense relaxed

like it hurts comfortable

2.

scratchy

1 2 hoarse

When I sing low my voice feels: 1 ^ 2 3 1 weird

smooth

5 clear

natural

uncomfortable

121

comfortable

weak

like it hurts

strong

5_ comfortable

scratchy smooth

tense relaxed

hoarse clear

sore comfortable

strained relaxed

squeaky full

pushed comfortable

weak strong

soft loud

3.

tight

shaky

When I inhale to sing I feel: 1 2 3 uncomfortable

relaxed

5 steady

comfortable

awkward comfortable

tense 122

relaxed

When I sing the first note of a song I: 1 2 3 4 am hesitant am ready

sing softly sing loudly

am not confident am confident

use little energy

miss the pitch 1 2

use lots of energy

sometimes never

have trouble 1 2 sometimes never

crack it 1 2. sometimes never

When I sing I feel: in my throat 1 2 tension no tension

in my stomach 1 2 tension no tension

in my chest 1 2_ tension no tension

in my shoulders 1 2 tension no tension

in my diaphragm 1 2 tension no tension

123

on high notes 1 2 tension

on low notes 1 2

no tension

tension no tension

6. If I could change my voice I would make it: 1 2 3 4 5 able to go higher able to go lower

higher lower

high only high and low

low only low and high

less strong stronger

softer louder

more forced

7. My favorite voice part is: 1 2 3. low

more natural

high

alto

8. The voice part I sing best is: 1 2 3 low

alto

When I sing my throat feels: 1 2 3 dry

soprano

high

5 soprano

5 moist

124

tense relaxed


clogged clear

scratchy smooth

tight relaxed

10.

strained

When I sing from low to high: 1 2 3 it gets harder

open

5 it gets easier

I feel unsure I feel confident

I tense up I relax

I don't like the sound I like the sound

I don't adjust easily


my voice: 1 2. gets worse

1 2

I adjust easily

never

gets better

4 5 feels less comfortable feels more comfortable

gets softer gets louder

125

11. When I sing from high to low: 1 2 3 It gets harder

1 2 3 I feel unsure

it gets easier

4 5 I feel confident

1 2 I tense up

1 2 I don't like

1 2

the

3

3 sound

3

4 5 I relc

4 5 I like the sour

4 5 I don't adjust easily

I miss the pitch 1 2 3

I adjust easily

sometimes never

my voice: 1 2

feels less comfortable feels more comfortable

gets louder gets softer

126

APPENDIX D

EXERCISES TESTED IN THE PILOT STUDY

127

A. Posture

1. Fall forward like a rag doll (or a puppet with her

head and neck strings cut). Straighten up slowly, one

vertebra at a time. As you do so, feel as if you are

stacking the vertebrae one on top of the other.

2. Lift your hands over your head. Stretch up as tall

as you can. Feel as much space as possible between

the shoulders and hips. Bring your arms down slowly

and let them hang at your sides. Continue to feel as

much space as possible between your head and your

hips. Think of tall ribs and a tall neck. Keep your

sternum (breastbone) high, but not so high that you

can't raise it further (if you can't raise it a

little, it's too high).

3. Shoulder rolls. Shoulder lifts.

4. Starting from the floor, line up your feet, your hips

(pelvis), your spinal column, your shoulders and your

head. Keep your posture regal, like Queen Elizabeth

(not stiff, but relaxed, as if you had been queen your

whole life).

B. Breath management

1. Sit in a chair. Slump forward so that your chest

touches your lap. Let your arms dangle at your sides.

Inhale and exhale slowly (several times). Feel how

relaxed and "natural" you breathe in this position.

2. Stand up. Try to duplicate that relaxed breathing.

As you inhale and exhale, make sure your sternum

doesn't fall, and your rib cage doesn't collapse.

3. Pant. Pant silently.

4. Inhale while I (you) count to five. Suspend the

breath (don't inhale, exhale, or tense up) while I

(you) count to ten. Exhale while I (you) count to

five. Repeat this exercise several times until it

feels relaxed and natural.

128

5. Inhale for five counts; suspend for five counts;

exhale for five counts. Do the same exercise

immediately for six counts, then seven, and so on up

to ten.

6. Blow out five candles. Repeat this exercise

increasing the number of candles by five each time.

The upper limit should be twenty-five.

7. Exhale on an "H" as long as possible. Don't allow the

breath ring to collapse.

8. Exhale on "SS" as long as possible. Don't allow the


9. Exhale on "ZZ" as long as possible. Don't allow the


10. Trill using your tongue (rolled "R") as long as

possible. Don't allow the breath ring to collapse.

C. Relaxation

1. Relaxing the jaw.

a. Starting at the top of your head, pull your hands

slowly down the sides of your face. Feel each

muscle relax, all the way to your jaw.

b. Let your jaw go slack.

c. Nod your head up and down slowly. Keep your jaw

slack. Feel how your jaw closes slightly when you

nod forward, and opens when you nod back.

d. Open and close your jaw using your hand. Get rid

of the resistance to your hand. e. With both hands, move your jaw side to side.

2. Tongue exercises. a. MOV- your tongue side to side. Alternate back and

forth.

b. Push your tongue as far out as you can. Pull it in

as far as you can. Alternate in and out.

c. With your mouth comfortably wide open, touch your

tongue to your top teeth where they meet the roof

129

D.

1

2

4

5

6

7

8

of your mouth. Touch your bottom teeth where they

meet the gum. Alternate up and down. Don't move

your jaw.

Chew. Make the biggest motions you can. Chew as if

you had so much food in your mouth you couldn't close

it (a little kid chewing a big wad of gum).

While chewing with your mouth open, make noises

(mutter, show how much you like your food, grumble

because you don't like it).

Phonation

Sigh. Sigh out loud. Make it as long as possible.

Say "HAH". Use a very breathy "H". Make it as

natural as you can, with no muscle tension. Slowly

lengthen the "HAH" until you are sustaining a pitch

(C5). Repeat several times, inhaling after each one.

Say "um-hum" as if someone were talking to you on the

phone and you were agreeing. Slowly lengthen the

"hum" until you are sustaining a pitch (C5).

Bend over at the waist. Hum (C5). Sing "OH" (C5).

Sing "YUH", "YAH", "PAH", "BAH", five times each on

C5. Don't breathe between them. Sustain the fifth

one.

"Motorboating" (lip trill) on C5.

Hear and feel the first pitch before you sing it.

fS 3 2 2 ^ I ^ ^ ^ — »

I'^'T r r f If 1 ^ 331

Huh huh huh huh huh huh huh huh huh

1 ^ r r ^ 3E

Huh huh huh huh huh

130

10

^

11

i f XE

Huh.

_a s_

? XE

Huh huh huh huh huh 12

(^n^ J J r ^ • ; I

XT

13 Huh.

( ! Q ^ ^ •* ^ ^ ti

Any vowel 14

I '^'r 'r"' XL

15 Any vowel

$

¥ i • •

XT

Any vowel 16

\h' r r ' i xc

Yah yah yah yah yah 17

Yah.

131

18. m ^m Yah yah yah (continue) Repeat with any vowel

#- ^

i m J F i i j r I E.

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

Resonance

Hum (descending fifth beginning on C5 [key of F]).

Move down a half step and repeat the pattern.

Continue downward through C major. Repeat the

exercise using "NN". Repeat the exercise using "NG".

Hum to a vowel ("UH" first, then other vowels). Begin

on C5 and move down by half steps.

Begin on D5 and glissando (slide) downward to G4. Use

"UH", then all five Italianate vowels. Repeat the

exercise sliding down to D4.

Sing D5 softly (any vowel, but begin with "UH" and

move forward and back). Crescendo slowly. Don't let

the muscles of the throat or face tighten. Proceed

downward by half steps. When you can execute this

exercise, add a diminuendo.

Beginning on D5, sing a nine note descending scale (C

major). Use all vowels.

Extensity: place your hand, sideways, flat against

your upper lip. Sing "OH" (C5). Make sure all the

sound comes from your mouth. Use this position for

the exercises found on the music sheet. Repeat the

exercises using other vowels.

^ f ^ SSL

MM. Ah Repeat with all vowels

132

8. I s tl Z£

MM. MM.

ifu r ir ^ ^ Mee oh ah mee oh eih mee oh ah mee Repeat with "Nee oh ah"

10 i w E TT

No no -0-

no no

11

\¥\' r r I' Hung Oh. Repeat with all vowels

12

^ ^

Ding dong ding dong ding-a dingdong

F. Registration

1.

La la la la la

2.

La la la la la

La la la la la la la la la

133

4.

r ? \ H \—r1 \—1 - f e -•'- ^ ^ fiJ 4

Zang oh zung aw zang oh zung aw

i i fJ fJ \L.

lang oh zung aw zang oh

s V r r m ai

ZZ/ZZ to all vowels

^ ^ -o-

%

i Thy thy thy thy thy Thigh

P -e-

V+ any vowel

8

G.

1

V+ any vowel

Articulation

^^^^m Ee eh Go eh Oh ee

ah ee oo

134

2.

Any vowel or combination of vowels 3.

i f 'T r r iTff 1 I Any vowel

pg f I

Any vowel or combination of vowels

K ^iJ UU -o-

Ah eh ee oh oo

7.

^ f P XE Any vowel or combination of vowels

8.

Any vowel or combination of vowels

135

APPENDIX E

CALENDAR OF STUDY

136

PILOT STUDY

JANUARY

21-Distribution of consent forms

25-Administration of Open-Ended Sentence Instrument

26-Exercises, Day 1 (posture and breath management)

27-Exercises, Day 2 (posture and breath management)

28-Exercises, Day 3 (posture, breath management,

phonation, and relaxation)

29-Exercises, Day 4 (phonation and relaxation)

FEBRUARY

1-Exercises, Day 5 (phonation and relaxation)

2-Exercises, Day 6 (resonance and registration)



5-Administration of Pilot Student Attitude Survey

Exercises, Day 9 (resonance, registration, and

articulation)

MAIN STUDY

FEBRUARY

8-Distribution of consent forms

15-Administration of Student Attitude Survey and

Vocal Test 16-Administration of Student Attitude Survey and

Vocal Test 17-Administration of Student Attitude Survey and

Vocal Test

Instruction Day 1 (Groups 2/3/4)

Introduction

18-Instruction Day 2 (Groups 3/4/2)

Exercises: Al-5

Vocal Principles: Posture 1-6

137

19-Instruction Day 3 (Groups MllZ)

Exercises: Al-5

Bl-2

Vocal Principles: Posture 1-6

Breath Management 1-5


Exercises: B2-5

Vocal Principles: Breath Management 4-9


Exercises: B4-9


MARCH


Exercises: B4-9



Exercises: Cl-4

Vocal Principles: Relaxation 1-5


Exercises: Cl-4

Vocal Principles: Relaxation 1-5


Exercises: Dl-5

Vocal Principles: Phonation 1-3

APRIL


Exercises: Dl-5



Exercises: D6-10


138


Exercises: Dll

El-3


Resonation 1-5


Exercises:

Vocal P r inc ip l e s : Resonation 1-5

14- Ins t ruc t ion Day 14 (Groups 3/4/2)

Exercises : El-3

Vocal Principles: Resonation 1-5


Exercises: E4

Vocal Principles: Basic Principles 6

Resonation 6


Exercises: Fl-3

Vocal Principles: Registration 1-6


Exercises: Fl-3

Vocal Principles: Registration 1-6

Basic Principles 9


Exercises: F4-6 Vocal Principles: Registration 1-6

Basic Principles 9


Exercises: Gl-2

Vocal P r inc ip les : Ar t icula t ion 1-3

27- Ins t ruc t ion Day 20 (Groups 3/4/2)

Exercises : Gl-2 Vocal Principles: Articulation 1-3

139

28-Instruction Day 21 (Groups ^/2/2)

Exercises: G3-4

Vocal Principles: Articulation 1-3

Administration of Student Attitude Survey

29-Administration of Student Attitude Survey and Vocal

Test

30-Administration of Vocal Test

140

APPENDIX F

EXERCISES USED IN THE MAIN STUDY

141

The vocal principles to which each exercise is related

are listed in brackets following the exercise. The list of

vocal principles is intended to be selective rather than

inclusive.

A. Posture

1. Make sure your feet are in a comfortable position.

Fall forward like a rag doll (or a puppet with her

head and neck strings cut). Straighten up slowly, one

vertebra at a time. As you do so, feel as if you are

stacking the vertebrae one on top of the other

[Posture 1, 3].

2. Lift your hands over your head. Stretch up as tall

as you can. Feel as much space as possible between

the shoulders and hips. Bring your arms down slowly

and let them hang at your sides. Continue to feel as

much space as possible between your shoulders and your

hips. Think of tall ribs and a tall neck. Keep your

sternum (breastbone) high, but not so high that you

can't raise it further (if you can't raise it a

little, it's too high) [Posture 1, 4].

3. Shoulder rolls. Shoulder lifts. This exercise should

be repeated any time during an instruction period that

the instructor ascertains the subjects have tension in

the shoulders [Posture 4].

4. Make sure your feet are in a comfortable position,

both side to side and front to back. Starting from

the floor, line up your feet, your legs, your hips

(pelvis), your spinal column, your shoulders and your

head. Keep your posture regal, like Queen Elizabeth

(not stiff, but relaxed, as if you had been queen your

whole life [Posture 2, 3, 6].

5. Your head should sit on your neck like a basketball

balanced on a broomstick [Posture 3].

142

B. Breath management

1. Sit in a chair. Slump forward so that your chest

touches your lap. Let your arms dangle at your sides.

Inhale and exhale slowly (several times). Feel how

relaxed and "natural" you breathe in this position

[Breath Management 2, 3, 5].

2. Stand up. Try to duplicate that relaxed breathing.

As you inhale and exhale, make sure your sternum

doesn't fall, and your rib cage doesn't collapse.

Inhale through your nose. Feel the cool spot in the

back of your throat. Inhale through your mouth. You

can feel that the cool spot is in a different place.

Inhale through both your nose and your mouth. Try to

feel two cool spots. Feel the air going down into the

lower part of your lungs. You should be able to feel

yourself filling up with air in the sides, the front,

and the back. This circle of expansion is called the

"breath ring" [Breath Management 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7,

8, 9].

3. Pant. Pant silently [Breath Management 3, 5].

4. Inhale while I (you) count to five. Suspend the

breath (don't inhale, exhale, or tense up) while I

(you) count to ten. Keep the breath ring expanded.

Exhale while I (you) count to five. Repeat this

exercise several times until it feels relaxed and

natural. Don't overfill with air. Take only as much

as you can comfortably inhale in five counts. Use

your hands to represent the breath ring remaining

expanded until the end [Breath Management 3, 4, 5,

6, 8, 9, 10, 11].

5. Inhale for five counts; suspend for five counts (keep

the breath ring expanded); exhale for five counts. Do

the same exercise immediately for six counts, then

seven, and so on up to ten. Try to keep the breath

143

ring expanded while you exhale. Don't let it collapse

until the very end. Use your hands to represent the

breath ring remaining expanded until the end [Breath

Management 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 9, 10, 11].

6. Blow out five candles. Repeat this exercise

increasing the number of candles by five each time.

The upper limit should be twenty-five [Breath

Management 10].

7. Exhale on an "H" as long as possible. Don't allow the

breath ring to collapse [Breath Management 9, 10, 11].

8. Exhale on "SS" as long as possible. Don't allow the


9. Exhale on "ZZ" as long as possible. Don't allow the


C. Relaxation

1. Relaxing the jaw.

a. Starting at the top of your head, pull your hands

slowly down the sides of your face. Feel each

muscle relax, all the way to your jaw.

b. Let your jaw go slack.

c. Nod your head up and down slowly. Keep your jaw

slack. Feel how your jaw closes slightly when you

nod forward, and opens when you nod back.

d. Open and close your jaw using your hand. Get rid

of the resistance to your hand

[Relaxation 1, 2, 3, 4].

2. Tongue exercises. a. Move your tongue side to side. Alternate back and

forth.

b. Push your tongue as far out as you can. Pull it in

as far as you can. Alternate in and out.

c. With your mouth comfortably wide open, touch your

tongue to your top teeth where they meet the roof

of your mouth. Touch your bottom teeth where they

144

1

meet the gum. Alternate up and down. Don't move your jaw [Relaxation 1, 2, 3].

3. Chew. Make the biggest motions you can. Chew as if

you had so much food in your mouth you couldn't close

it (a little kid chewing a big wad of gum)

[Relaxation 5].

4. While chewing with your mouth open, make noises

(mutter, show how much you like your food, grumble because you don't like it) [Relaxation 5].

D. Phonation

Sigh out loud. Don't let your chest collapse. Make

it as long as possible [Phonation 1, 2, 3].

Say "HAH". Use a very breathy "H". Make it as

natural as you can, with no muscle tension. Slowly

lengthen the "HAH" until you are sustaining a pitch

(C5). Repeat several times, inhaling after each one

[Phonation 3].

Say "um-hum" as if someone were talking to you on the

phone and you were agreeing. Slowly lengthen the

"hum" until you are sustaining a pitch (A4 at first,

then work up to C5 as soon as possible)

[Phonation 1, 2].

Bend over at the waist. Hum (C5). Sing "HOH" (C5)

[Phonation 1,2,3].

Sing "YUH" five times on C5. Don't breathe between

them. Sustain the fifth one [Phonation 2;

Articulation 2].

I Q 1 >> 1 -

\¥'' r r r r Huh huh huh huh huh huh huh huh huh

[Phonation 2, 3; Articulation 2].

145

8

3 U2-

1^^ r " r " ^ " ^ Huh huh huh huh huh

[Phonation 2, 3; Articulation 2]

^^N 3E Huh.

[Breath Management 11; Phonation 2, 3;

Articulation 2].

10

11

E.

1

fe'' j " " w P X L

Huh huh huh huh huh [Breath Management 11; Phonation 2, 3;

Articulation 2].

i i P 3X

Huh.

[Breath Management 11; Phonation 2, 3;

Articulation 2].

^ f -o-

Yah yah yah yah yah

[Relaxation 3, 4].

Resonance

Hum on A4. Feel as if the hum fills your entire head

(sensation only, not actual fact). Hum a descending

fifth beginning on C5 (key of F). Move down a half

step and repeat the pattern. Continue downward

146

F.

1

2.

through C major [Breath Management 12; Resonation 1,

2, 3, 4, 5].

Hum to a vowel ("UH" first, then other vowels). Begin

on D5 and move down by half steps [Breath Management

12; Resonation 1, 2, 3, 4, 5].

Sing D5 softly (any vowel, but begin with "HUH" and

move to the front vowels and then to the back vowels).

Crescendo slowly. Don't let the muscles of the throat

or face tighten. Proceed downward by half steps.

[Breath Management 12; Resonation 1, 2, 3].

Extensity: place your hand, sideways, flat against

your upper lip. Sing "OH" (C5). Make sure all the

sound comes from your mouth. Use this position for

exercises Dll, F5, F6, and F8. Repeat the exercises

using other vowels [Resonation 6].

Registration

^m -o-

Yah. [Resonation 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6; Registration 1, 2, 3, 4,

5, 6].

i 4 ^ r r I -6*-* Mee oh ah mee oh ah mee oh ah mee Repeat with "Nee oh ah"

[Resonation 1, 2, 3, 4, 6;

Registration 1, 2, 3, 4, 6].

147

I E i • ^ • *

no no No no [Resonat ion 1, 2, 3 , 4; R e g i s t r a t i o n 1, 2, 3 , 4 , 5, 6;

A r t i c u l a t i o n 1, 3 ] .

i ? 7T

^

i ZZ

Hung Oh. Repeat wi th a l l vowels

[Resonat ion 1, 2, 3, 4; R e g i s t r a t i o n 1, 2, 3 , 4, 5]

I ' l ' r r r r xc

La la la la la [Relaxation 3; Registrat ion 1, 2, 3, 4, 5]

!<&'• r r ^ XE

La la la la la

[Relaxation 3; Resonation 6;

Registration 1, 2, 3, 4, 5,].

[Registration 4, 5, 6; Articulation 3]

La la la la la la la la la

[Relaxation 3; Resonation 6;

Registration 1, 2, 3, 4, 5,].

[Registration 4, 5, 6; Articulation 3]

148

G.

1.

4.

H.

Articulation

Demonstrate and practice the correct mouth position

for all Italian and common English vowels. Work

especially on the tongue position for the front

vowels (sides of tongue touching the sides of the

teeth, tip of tongue against lower teeth. Push the

middle of the tongue forward for more forward

vowels) [Articulation 1, 3].

^P r r ^ XE ZZ/ZZ to any vowel

[Articulation 1, 2, 3].

I f I' r r - -o-

V+ any vowel


1 Lj L; ^ ^ -o-

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

V+ any vowel


Important reminders every day

Regal posture (Queen Elizabeth).

Inhale through both nose and mouth.

Always keep the breath ring expanded while singing.

Breathe in the position of singing/sing in the

position of breathing.

Until phonation becomes easy and relaxed, begin all

vowels with a breathy "H".

149

APPENDIX G

VOCAL TEST EVALUATION FORM

AND INFORMATION ON JUDGES

150

VOCAL TEST EVALUATION FORM

Please circle the number which best represents your

evaluation for each item, with 1 being the lowest quality,

and 5 being the highest guality.

Tone Quality

Flexibility (singing from low to high)

1 2 3 4 5

Flexibility (singing from high to low)

1 2 3 4 5

Clarity (absence of breathiness without being pushed)

1 2 3 4 5

Consistency (throughout range of exercises)

1 2 3 4 5

Pitch Matching Ability 1 2 3 4 5

Information

Years private teaching experience

Years choral directing experience

Years experience with junior high school female

voices

151

INFORMATION ON JUDGES

JUDGE #1

Years private teaching experience-0

Years choral directing experience-6


voices-6

JUDGE #2




voices-12

JUDGE #3




voices-4

JUDGE #4




voices-10

JUDGE #5




voices-14

152

APPENDIX H

STATISTICAL INFORMATION

153

TITLE •STUDENT ATTITUDE SURVEY TEST RESULTS'; OPTIONS LS=7 6 NODATE; DATA SURVEY;

INFILE SIPLEY2; INPUT PP $ GROUP STUDENT $ HIGH LOW INHALE FIRST TENSION CHANGE FAVORITE BEST

THROAT LOW_HIGH HIGH_LOW; PROC PRINT; PROC IML;

USE SURVEY; READ ALL INTO X; N = NROW(X); Nl = N/2; M = NCOL(X); GROUP = X[1:N1,1]; PRIOR = X[1:N1,2:M]; POST = X[N1+1:N,2:M]; DIFF = POST-PRIOR; T = GROUP I IDIFF; FACTORS = {GROUP HIGH LOW INHALE FIRST TENSION CHANGE

FAVORITE BEST THROAT LOW_HIGH HIGH_LOW};

CREATE DIFFER FROM T[COLNAME=FACTORS]; APPEND FROM T;

PROC PRINT NOOBS; TITLE2 'DIFFERENCES BETWEEN POST AND PRIOR TESTS';

PROC MEANS MEAN STD T PRT; VAR HIGH LOW INHALE FIRST TENSION CHANGE FAVORITE

BEST THROAT LOW_HIGH HIGH_LOW;

BY GROUP; TITLE2 'T TESTS OF DIFFERENCES'

154

TITLE 'STUDENT ATTITUDE SURVEY TEST RESULTS'• OPTIONS LS=76 NODATE; DATA SURVEY;

INFILE SIPLEY2; INPUT PP $ GROUP STUDENT $ HIGH LOW INHALE FIRST TENSION CHANGE FAVORITE BEST

THROAT LOW_HIGH HIGH_LOW; *PROC PRINT; PROC IML;

USE SURVEY; READ ALL INTO X; N = NROW(X); Nl = N/2; M = NCOL(X); GROUP = X[1:N1,1]; PRIOR = X[1:N1,2:M]; POST = X[N1+1:N,2:M]; G = (1:N1)^; DIFF = POST-PRIOR; NAME = {GROUP TEST SUBJECT DIFF}; T =

(GROUP!IJ(N1,1,1) G||DIFF[1:N1,2])/ /

(GROUP I IJ(N1,1,3) G||DIFF[1:N1,4])//

(GROUP|IJ(N1,1,5) Gl|DIFF[1:N1,6])//

(GROUP!IJ(N1,1,7) Gl|DIFF[1:N1,8])//

DIFF[1:N1,1])//(GROUP




DIFF[1:N1,9])//(GR0UP

IGI|DIFF[1:N1,11]);

J(N1,1,2)

J(N1,1,4)

J(N1,1,6)

J(N1,1,8)

J(N1,1,10) (GROUP!IJ(N1,1,9) |G||DIFF[1:N1,10])//

(GROUP]|J(N1,1,11) CREATE DIFFER FROM T[COLNAME=NAME ] ; APPEND FROM T;

*PROC PRINT NOOBS; * TITLE2 'DIFFERENCES BETWEEN POST AND PRIOR TESTS'; PROC GLM DATA=DIFFER;

CLASSES GROUP SUBJECT TEST; MODEL DIFF = GROUP TEST GROUP*TEST SUBJECT(GROUP); RANDOM SUBJECT(GROUP)/TEST; MEANS GROUP TEST/LSD E=SUBJECT(GROUP);

155

Table H.l Student Attitude Survey Test Results: Pretest

o B S

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26

P P

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

r-l

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

G R 0 U P

1 1 1

i-i

1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 3 3

S T U D E N T

02 11 15 17 22 23 25 31 33 37 03 05 07 08 10 18 19 27 29 35 01 04 06 16 20 21

H I 6 H

2.8 2.6 4.1 3.0 2.6 1.7 2.1 1.7 3.3 2.8 3.8 2.4 3.4 2.3 2.5 2.1 4.3 3.3 2.6 4.9 4.2 2.5 2.8 3.2 2.7 2.9

L 0 W

4.5 3.7 3.9 3.4 2.8 2.9 3.3 4.5 2.9 3.8 3.9 3.8 2.5 1.7 4.6 4.1 1.7 4.0 4.3 3.5 5.0 3.6 4.4 4.2 3.1 3.6

I N H A L E

4.0 3.0 4.0 3.0 3.0 3.7 2.3 1.7 3.7 2.3 3.7 2.7 3.0 3.0 2.7 3.0 4.0 4.3 4.7 4.7 3.7 4.7 3.3 3.3 4.0 2.7

F I R S T

3.1 2.9 4.1 2.4 2.0 2.0 2.1 1.9 3.3 2.1 3.7 2.9 3.6 2.3 2.7 1.6 2.9 3.0 2.7 2.6 4.3 3.9 3.4 2.9 3.3 3.0

T E N S I 0 N

4.1 3.0 4.1 2.9 2.7 2.9 2.3 2.6 3.1 3.9 3.6 3.1 3.0 1.7 3.1 3.0 2.9 3.4 3.6 3.9 3.7 2.9 3.7 3.3 3.4 3.0

C H A N G E

4.0 4.1 4.4 3.1 4.0 3.4 4.0 4.3 3.7 3.7 3.9 3.7 3.0 4.0 3.9 3.9 4.0 3.4 3.9 3.6 3.3 3.6 4.4 3.6 3.6 4.0

F A V 0 R I T E

2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 5.0 1.5 4.0 1.0 5.0 2.5 4.5 1.0 4.5 5.0 1.0 5.0 5.0 4.0 5.0 5.0 1.0 4.0 1.0 1.0 4.0 2.5

B E S T

2.5 3.5 3.0 3.0 3.0 1.5 3.5 2.0 4.5 3.0 4.5 1.0 3.5 4.0 1.0 5.0 5.0 4.0 2.0 5.0 1.0 4.0 1.0 1.0 4.0 2.5

T H R 0 A T

4.1 2.4 3.7 2.6 2.6 1.1 3.3 2.1 2.6 2.6 3.7 2.6 3.3 1.6 2.7 1.9 3.7 4.1 3.1 3.9 4.0 2.9 3.7 3.6 2.4 2.7

L 0 W

H I G H

3.9 3.2 3.6 2.8 2.9 3.2 2.2 1.4 3.1 2.3 3.6 1.4 2.7 3.2 1.9 4.0 3.1 4.0 3.2 4.7 3.4 3.1 2.9 2.7 3.4 3.2

H I G H

L 0 W

2.6 3.8 3.5 2.6 3.0 2.5 3.3 4.0 2.3 3.6 3.5 2.4 3.6 3.0 3.6 3.1 1.9 2.5 3.1 3.9 3.8 3.6 3.9 4.3 3.1 2.6

27 1 3 30 3.7 3.2 2.7 3.3 3.4 4.4 4.5 4.5 3.4 3.6 2.5 28 1 3 38 3.7 4.3 3.3 3.4 3.7 4.3 4.5 4.5 3.7 3.7 3.5 29 1 3 39 3.9 4.7 4.3 3.3 4.6 4.4 3.0 4.5 4.3 3.9 3.8 30 1 4 09 3.2 3.6 4.0 3.4 2.7 3.6 3.0 3.0 3.6 3.2 3.0 31 1 4 12 2.2 4.3 3.3 2.4 3.0 3.7 2.0 2.0 2.3 1.8 2.0 32 1 4 13 2.5 2.3 3.0 2.6 2.3 3.4 4.5 4.5 2.6 2.7 1.5 33 1 4 14 3.9 4.6 3.3 3.0 3.9 3.4 2.5 2.5 4.6 3.8 3.8 34 1 4 24 2.8 2.2 2.7 2.7 2.0 3.5 4.5 4.0 2.6 2.7 2.4 35 1 4 26 3.9 3.7 4.0 4.1 4.1 4.0 3.0 5.0 4.4 5.0 3.1 36 1 4 32 2.8 2.7 4.0 2.7 2.9 3.6 4.0 4.0 2.9 2.8 2.8 37 1 4 34 1.6 4.9 4.0 3.0 3.1 4.1 2.0 2.0 2.3 2.6 3.4 38 1 4 36 3.3 5.0 3.7 3.9 3.6 4.0 2.0 1.5 4.0 3.0 4.1

156

Table H.2 Student Attitude Survey Test Results: Posttest

o B S

39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65

P

P

2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

G R 0 U P

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 3

S T U D E M T

02 11 15 17 22 23 25 31 33 37 03 05 07 08 10 18 19 27 29 35 01 04 06 16 20 21 30

H I G H

2.2 2.4 4.3 3.4 2.8 3.5 3.9 1.8 2.3 2.3 4.5 4.2 5.0 4.6 3.2 3.2 2.8 2.4 3.0 3.8 2.3 3.9 3.3 3.3 3.4 2.9 3.9

L 0 W

3.8 3.7 4.5 2.8 3.5 2.5 3.9 4.5 4.5 4.3 4.5 4.2 4.5 3.2 4.5 3.9 2.6 3.3 4.1 3.6 5.0 3.7 4.3 4.6 3.5 4.0 3.6

I N H A L E

3.0 3.3 3.7 3.7 2.0 2.7 4.7 3.3 3.0 3.0 3.7 4.7 5.0 4.0 3.0 2.3 4.3 3.7 2.3 3.0 4.3 3.3 3.7 4.7 4.0 2.7 4.0

F I R S T

2.0 2.3 3.3 2.7 2.7 3.7 2.6 2.1 2.3 2.9 4.3 3.0 4.6 3.1 3.3 3.0 2.9 2.7 2.7 3.4 4.1 4.1 3.6 2.1 2.7 2.7 3.9

T E N S I 0 N

3.1 3.3 3.7 3.1 3.0 3.1 4.1 3.3 2.9 3.7 4.3 3.6 4.6 3.1 3.9 3.4 3.0 3.0 3.4 3.4 4.3 3.7 3.6 4.0 3.0 3.0 3.9

C H A N G E

3.0 3.1 3.7 3.5 4.1 3.9 4.0 3.4 3.3 4.0 4.4 4.4 4.9 3.9 4.3 4.0 4.0 3.7 3.7 3.6 4.1 4.3 3.0 4.1 3.6 3.1 4.0

F A V 0 R I T E

3.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 2.5 3.5 4.0 2.0 1.5 5.0 3.0 3.5 5.0 5.0 1.0 2.5 5.0 3.5 1.5 2.0 2.0 1.5 2.0 1.0 4.0 1.0 4.0

B E S T

2.0 2.0 1.0 3.5 3.0 4.0 4.0 2.0 2.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 5.0 5.0 1.0 2.0 4.0 4.0 1.5 2.0 1.5 1.5 1.0 2.0 4.0 1.0 4.0

T H R 0 A T

3.1 3.0 3.9 2.9 3.1 2.9 3.7 2.6 2.4 3.3 4.0 4.1 4.9 3.6 3.3 3.0 3.6 2.4 3.6 3.0 4.7 3.9 3.9 2.3 3.0 2.7 4.0

L 0 W

H I G H

2.4 2.4 3.6 3.6 3.0 2.6 4.1 3.1 2.7 2.3 3.8 4.0 4.4 4.6 2.7 3.4 1.6 2.1 2.6 3.4 2.2 2.7 3.6 1.6 2.9 2.4 3.9

H I G H

L 0 W

3.8 2.1 3.5 2.0 3.3 3.9 2.8 3.8 2.3 3.8 3.8 3.6 3.6 3.0 3.8 3.6 3.6 3.6 3.4 3.9 4.3 3.8 3.6 4.4 3.3 3.6 3.8

66 2 3 38 3.7 4.7 4.0 3.3 3.0 3.3 3.0 1.5 4.0 3.3 2.9 67 2 3 39 3.1 4.1 3.0 3.1 4.0 3.9 1.5 1.5 3.7 2.7 3.8 68 2 4 09 4.4 4.0 5.0 3.7 4.1 4.4 3.0 2.0 3.9 3.6 4.0 69 2 4 12 3.8 3.5 4.0 3.7 4.3 4.3 5.0 4.0 3.4 3.8 3.1 70 2 4 13 3.5 5.0 3.3 4.0 3.9 3.9 5.0 1.0 3.6 4.8 5.0 71 2 4 14 5.0 4.8 5.0 4.0 4.4 4.1 3.0 3.0 5.0 4.3 3.9 72 2 4 24 3.6 3.7 3.3 2.6 3.6 4.1 3.0 2.5 3.9 2.9 2.9 73 2 4 26 5.0 4.6 5.0 4.6 5.0 4.1 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 3.4 74 2 4 32 3.1 3.3 3.7 2.1 4.4 3.4 4.0 5.0 3.7 3.4 2.5 75 2 4 34 4.5 3.6 5.0 3.7 3.3 3.1 3.0 3.0 3.7 3.6 3.9 76 2 4 36 3.9 5.0 4.0 4.1 4.3 3.4 1 0 1.0 3.9 3.2 3.8

157

Table H.3 Student Attitude Survey Test Results: Differences Between Pretests and Posttests

G R 0 U P

2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4

H I G H

- 0 . 6 - 0 . 2

0 . 2 0 .4 0 . 2 1 .8 1 .8 0 . 1

- 1 . 0 - 0 . 5

0 . 7 1 .8 1 .6 2 . 3 0 . 7 1 .1

- 1 . 5 - 0 . 9

0 .4 - 1 . 1 - 1 . 9

1.4 0 .5 0 . 1 0 . 7 0 . 0 0 . 2 0 . 0

- 0 . 8 1.2 1 .6 1 .0 1 .1 0 . 8 1 .1 0 . 3 2 . 9 0 . 6

L 0 W

- 0 . 7 0 . 0 0 . 6

- 0 . 6 0 . 7

- 0 . 4 0 . 6 0 . 0 1 .6 0 . 5 0 . 6 0 . 4 2 . 0 1 .5

- 0 , 1 - 0 . 2

0 . 9 - 0 . 7 - 0 . 2

0 . 1 0 . 0 0 . 1

- 0 . 1 0 . 4 0 . 4 0 . 4 0 . 4 0 . 4

- 0 . 6 0 . 4

- 0 . 8 2 . 7 0 . 2 1 .5 0 . 9 0 . 6

- 1 . 3 0 . 0

I N H A L E

- 1 . 0 0 . 3

- 0 . 3 0 . 7

- 1 . 0 - 1 . 0

2 . 4 1 .6

- 0 . 7 0 . 7 0 . 0 2 . 0 2 . 0 1 .0 0 . 3

- 0 . 7 0 . 3

- 0 . 6 - 2 . 4 - 1 . 7

0 . 6 - 1 . 4

0 . 4 1.4 0 . 0 0 . 0 1 .3 0 . 7

- 1 . 3 1.0 0 . 7 0 . 3 1 .7 0 . 6 1 .0

- 0 . 3 1.0 0 . 3

F I R S T

- 1 . 1 - 0 . 6 - 0 . 8

0 . 3 0 .7 1.7 0 .5 0 .2

- 1 . 0 0 . 8 0 . 6 0 . 1 1 .0 0 . 8 0 . 6 1.4 0 . 0

- 0 . 3 0 . 0 0 . 8

- 0 . 2 0 .2 0 .2

- 0 . 8 - 0 . 6 - 0 . 3

0 . 6 - 0 . 1 - 0 . 2

0 . 3 1 .3 1.4 1 .0

- 0 . 1 0 .5

- 0 . 6 0 .7 0 .2

T E N S I 0 N

- 1 . 0 0 . 3

- 0 . 4 0 .2 0 . 3 0 .2 1 .8 0 .7

- 0 . 2 - 0 . 2

0 .7 0 .5 1.6 1.4 0 . 8 0 .4 0 . 1

- 0 . 4 - 0 . 2 - 0 . 5

0 .6 0 .8

- 0 . 1 0 .7

- 0 . 4 0 .0 0 .5

- 0 . 7 - 0 . 6

1.4 1 .3 1.6 0 .5 1 .6 0 . 9 1.5 0 .2 0 .7

C H A N G E

- 1 . 0 - 1 . 0 - 0 . 7

0 .4 0 . 1 0 .5 0 .0

- 0 . 9 - 0 . 4

0 . 3 0 .5 0 .7 1.9

- 0 . 1 0 .4 0 . 1 0 .0 0 . 3

- 0 . 2 0 . 0 0 . 8 0 .7

- 1 . 4 0 .5 0 . 0

- 0 . 9 - 0 . 4 - 1 . 0 - 0 . 5

0 . 8 0 .6 0 .5 0 .7 0 .6 0 . 1

- 0 . 2 - 1 . 0 - 0 . 6

F A V 0 R I T E

0 .5 - 1 . 0 - 0 . 5

0 . 0 - 2 . 5

2 . 0 0 . 0 1 .0

- 3 . 5 2 . 5

- 1 . 5 2 . 5 0 .5 0 .0 0 . 0

- 2 . 5 0 .0

- 0 . 5 - 3 . 5 - 3 . 0

1.0 - 2 . 5

1.0 0 .0 0 . 0

- 1 . 5 - 0 . 5 - 1 . 5 - 1 . 5

0 .0 3 . 0 0 .5 0 .5

- 1 . 5 2 . 0 0 . 0 1.0

- 1 . 0

B E S T

- 0 . 5 - 1 . 5 - 2 . 0

0 .5 0 . 0 2 . 5 0 .5 0 . 0

- 2 . 5 - 2 . 0 - 2 . 5

2 . 0 1.5 1 .0 0 . 0

- 3 . 0 - 1 . 0

0 . 0 - 0 . 5 - 3 . 0

0 .5 - 2 . 5

0 .0 1.0 0 .0

- 1 . 5 - 0 . 5 - 3 . 0 - 3 . 0 - 1 . 0

2 . 0 - 3 . 5

0 .5 - 1 . 5

0 . 0 1.0 1.0

- 0 . 5

T H R 0 A T

- 1 . 0 0 . 6 0 .2 0 . 3 0 .5 1.8 0 .4 0 .5

- 0 . 2 0 .7 0 . 3 1.5 1.6 2 . 0 0 . 6 1 .1

- 0 . 1 - 1 . 7

0 .5 - 0 . 9

0 .7 1.0 0 .2

- 1 . 3 0 .6 0 . 0 0 . 6 0 . 3

- 0 . 6 0 . 3 1 .1 1.0 0 .4 1 .3 0 . 6 0 . 8 1.4

- 0 . 1

L 0 W

H I G H

- 1 . 5 - 0 . 8

0 .0 0 .8 0 . 1

- 0 . 6 1.9 1.7

- 0 . 4 0 .0 0 .2 2 . 6 1.7 1.4 0 .8

- 0 . 6 - 1 . 5 - 1 . 9 - 0 . 6 - 1 . 3 - 1 . 2 - 0 . 4

0 .7 - 1 . 1 - 0 . 5 - 0 . 8

0 . 3 - 0 . 4 - 1 . 2

0 .4 2 . 0 2 . 1 0 .5 0 .2 0 .0 0 . 6 1.0 0 .2

H I G H

L 0 W

1.2 - 1 . 7

0 . 0 - 0 . 6

0 . 3 1.4

- 0 . 5 - 0 . 2

0 .0 0 .2 0 . 3 1.2 0 . 0 0 . 0 0 .2 0 .5 1.7 1 .1 0 . 3 0 . 0 0 .5 0 .2

- 0 . 3 0 . 1 0 .2 1.0 1 .3

- 0 . 6 0 . 0 1.0 1 .1 3 . 5 0 . 1 0 .5 0 . 3

- 0 . 3 0 .5

- 0 . 3

158

TITLE 'VOCAL TEST RESULTS'; OPTIONS LS=7 6 NODATE; DATA SURVEY;

INFILE SIPLEY3; INPUT PP $ JUDGE GROUP STUDENT LOW_HIGH HIGH_LOW CLARITY CONSIST PITCH-

*PROC PRINT; PROC IML;

USE SURVEY; READ ALL INTO X; N = NROW(X); Nl = N/2; M = NCOL(X); JUDGE = X[1:N1,1]; GROUP = X[1:N1,2]; STUDENT = X[1:N1,3]; PRIOR = X[1:N1,4:M]; POST = X[NH-1:N,4:M]; G = (1:N1)\-DIFF = POST-PRIOR;

{JUDGE GROUP TEST STUDENT DIFF}; NAME = T = (JUDGE (JUDGE (JUDGE (JUDGE (JUDGE CREATE APPEND

DIFF[1:N1,1])// DIFF[1:N1,2])// DIFF[1:N1,3])// DIFF[1:N1,4])// DIFF[1:N1,5]);

TESTS

GROUP J(N1,1,1) STUDENT GROUP J(Nl,1,2) STUDENT GROUP J(Nl,1,3) STUDENT GROUP J(Nl,1,4) STUDENT GROUP J(Nl,1,5) STUDENT

DIFFER FROM T[COLNAME=NAME FROM T;

*PROC PRINT NOOBS; * TITLE2 'DIFFERENCES BETWEEN POST AND PRIOR PROC GLM DATA=DIFFER;

CLASSES JUDGE GROUP STUDENT TEST; MODEL DIFF = JUDGE GROUP TEST STUDENT(GROUP)

JUDGE*TEST JUDGE*GROUP GROUP*TEST JUDGE*STUDENT(GROUP) TEST*STUDENT(GROUP);

RANDOM STUDENT(GROUP) TEST*STUDENT(GROUP) JUDGE*STUDENT(GROUP)/TEST;

MEANS GROUP/LSD E=STUDENT(GROUP) ; MEANS TEST/LSD E=TEST*STUDENT(GROUP); MEANS JUDGE/LSD E=JUDGE*STUDENT(GROUP);

159

TITLE 'VOCAL TEST RESULTS'; OPTIONS LS=76 NODATE; DATA SURVEY;

INFILE SIPLEY3; INPUT PP $ JUDGE GROUP STUDENT LOW HIGH HIGH LOW CLARITY

CONSIST PITCH; ~ *PROC PRINT; PROC IML;

USE SURVEY; READ ALL INTO X; N = NROW(X); Nl = N/2; M = NCOL(X); JUDGE = X[1:N1,1]; GROUP = X[1:N1,2]; STUDENT = X[1:N1,3]; PRIOR = X[1:N1,4:M]; POST = X[N1+1:N,4:M]; DIFF = POST-PRIOR; T = JUDGE I I GROUP| |STUDENT| |DIFF; FACTORS = {JUDGE GROUP STUDENT LOW_HIGH HIGH_LOW CLARITY

CONSIST PITCH}; CREATE DIFFER FROM T [ COLNAME=FACTORS ]; APPEND FROM T;

*PROC PRINT NOOBS; * TITLE2 'DIFFERENCES BETWEEN POST AND PRIOR TESTS'; PROC MEANS MEAN STD T PRT;

VAR LOW_HIGH HIGH_LOW CLARITY CONSIST PITCH; BY JUDGE;

PROC MEANS MEAN STD T PRT; VAR LOW_HIGH HIGH_LOW CLARITY CONSIST PITCH; BY JUDGE GROUP; TITLE2 'T TESTS OF DIFFERENCES';

PROC SORT; BY GROUP;

PROC MEANS MEAN STD T PRT; VAR LOW_HIGH HIGH_LOW CLARITY CONSIST PITCH; BY GROUP;

160

TITLE 'VOCAL TEST RESULTS'; OPTIONS LS=76; DATA SURVEY;

INFILE SIPLEY3; INPUT PP $ JUDGE GROUP STUDENT LOW_HIGH HIGH_LOW CLARITY

CONSIST PITCH; PROC IML;

USE SURVEY; READ ALL INTO X; N = NROW(X); Nl = N/2; M = NCOL(X); JUDGE = X[1:N1,1]; PRIOR = X[1:N1,4:M]; POST = X[N1+1:N,4:M]; T = JUDGE I I PRIOR I |POST; FACTORS = {JUDGE LOHIl HILOl CLARITYl CONSISTl PITCH1

LOHI2 HIL02 CLARITY2 C0NSIST2 PITCH2};

CREATE DIFFER FROM T [ COLNAME=FACTORS ] ; APPEND FROM T;

PROC SORT; BY JUDGE;

PROC CORR NOSIMPLE; VAR LOHIl L0HI2; BY JUDGE;

PROC CORR NOSIMPLE; VAR HILOl HIL02; BY JUDGE;

PROC CORR NOSIMPLE; VAR CLARITYl CLARITY2; BY JUDGE;

PROC CORR NOSIMPLE; VAR CONSISTl C0NSIST2; BY JUDGE;

PROC CORR NOSIMPLE; VAR PITCHl PITCH2; BY JUDGE;

161

Table H.4 Vocal Test Results: T-Tests of Differences for All Subgroups

Variable

LOW-HIGH HIGH-LOW CLARITY CONSIST PITCH





Mean

0.1052632 0.1842105

-0.3421053 0.2368421

-0.1052632

Mean 0 0

-0.8421053 -0.2105263 -0.0526316

Mean 0.1315789 0.2894737 0.2105263 0.2105263 0.4473684

Mean 0.6315789 0.3947368

-0.2631579 0.0263158 0.2105263

Mean 0.0789474 0.2105263 0.0789474 0.1052632

-0.0263158

JUDGE 1 Std Dev

1.1339830 1.1591064 0.8784604 0.9982203 1.0600733

JUDGE 2 Std Dev 0.9299811 0.7710996 1.1276936 0.8106686 1.3345182

JUDGE 3 Std Dev 1.2119016 1.1603330 0.7766141 0.8433490 0.7951668

JUDGE 4 Std Dev 1.8072086 1.7326666 1.0049663 1.4043724 1.2337132

JUDGE 5 Std Dev 1.3230101 1.0694251 1.0235492 0.8314583 1.0523293

t

0. 0,

-2. 1.

-0.

t 0 0

-4. -1. -0.

t 0. 1. 1. 1. 3.

t 2. 1.

-1. 0. 1.

t 0, 1. 0. 0.

-0.

.5722182

.9796770

.4006528

.4625957

.6121140

.6032767

.6008656

.2431161

.6692846

.5378651

.6710634

.5388307

.4681582

.1543247

.4043794

.6141976

.1155117

.0519230

.3678462

.2135225

.4754674

.7804188

.1541546

Prob>1t1

0.5706 0.3336 0.0215 0.1520 0.5442

Prob>1t1 1.0000 1.0000 0.0001 0.1179 0.8093

Prob>1t1 0.5075 0.1326 0.1031 0.1324 0.0013

Prob>1t1 0.0378 0.1685 0.1150 0.9087 0.2997

Prob>1t1 0.7151 0.2326 0.6372 0.4401 0.8783

162

Table H.5 Vocal Test Results: T-Tests of Differences for Judge 1





Mean 0 0.4000000

-0.4000000 0.2000000 -0.2000000

Mean 0.1000000 0.5000000

-0.1000000 0.3000000 0.1000000

Mean 0

-0.2222222 -0.4444444 0.2222222

-0.1111111

Mean 0.3333333 0

-0.4444444 0.2222222

-0.2222222

SUBGR0UP=1 Std Dev 0.9428090 0.6992059 0.8432740 0.7888106 0.6324555

SUBGROUP 2 Std Dev 1.2866839 1.3540064 0.8755950 1.1595018 1.3703203

SUBGROUP 3 Std Dev 1.2247449 1.2018504 1.0137938 1.2018504 1.4529663

SUBGROUP 4 Std Dev 1.2247449 1.3228757 0.8819171 0.9718253 0.6666667

t 0 1,

-1, 0,

-1,

t 0. 1.

-0. 0. 0.

t 0

-0. -1, 0.

-0.

t 0. 0

-1. 0.

-1.

.8090681

.5000000

.8017837

.0000000

.2457696

.1677484

.3611576

.8181818

.2307692

,5547002 ,3151919 .5547002 ,2294157

8164966

5118579 6859943 0000000

Prob>1t1 1.0000 0.1039 0.1679 0.4433 0.3434

Prob>1t1 1 1

0.8114 0.2729 0.7263 0.4344 0.8227

Prob>1t1 1.0000 0.5943 0.2249 0.5943 0.8243

Prob>1t1 0.4379 1.0000 0.1690 0.5121 0.3466

163






Mean -0.1000000 -0.2000000 -0.9000000 0.1000000 -0.5000000

Mean 0 0

-0.6000000 -0.7000000 0.2000000

Mean 0.2222222 0.1111111 -0.6666667 0

-0.2222222

Mean -0.1111111 0.1111111

-1.2222222 -0.2222222 0.3333333

SUBGROUP 1 Std Dev 0.9944289 0.7888106 0.7378648 0.7378648 0.9718253

SUBGROUP 2 Std Dev 1.0540926 0.8164966 1.5055453 0.8232726 1.8737959

SUBGROUP 3 Std Dev 0.9718253 0.9279607 1.1180340 0.8660254 1.2018504

SUBGROUP 4 Std Dev 0.7817360 0.6009252 1.0929064 0.6666667 1.1180340

t -0, -0, -3, 0,

-1.

t 0 0

-1. -2. 0.

t 0, 0,

-1. 0

-0.

t -0. 0.

-3. -1. 0.

.3179994

.8017837

.8571429

.4285714

.6269784

.2602521

.6887745

.3375264

.6859943

.3592106

.7888544

,5547002

,4264014 ,5547002 ,3549685 ,0000000 ,8944272

Prob>1t1 0.7577 0.4433 0.0039 0.6783 0.1382

Prob>1t1 1.0000 1.0000 0.2393 0.0248 0.7435

Prob>1t1 0.5121 0.7287 0.1114 1.0000 0.5943

Prob>1t1 0.6811 0.5943 0.0100 0.3466 0.3972

164






Mean -0.1000000 0.2000000

-0.1000000 0.1000000 0.4000000

Mean -0.2000000 0.7000000 0.1000000 0.1000000 0.6000000

Mean 0.4444444 0.3333333 0.4444444 0.4444444 0.6666667

Mean 0.4444444

-0.1111111 0.4444444 0.2222222 0.1111111

SUBGROUP 1 Std Dev 0.9944289 1.0327956 0.7378648 0.8755950 0.8432740

SUBGROUP 2 Std Dev 1.3165612 1.4181365 0.8755950 0.8755950 0.8432740

SUBGROUP 3 Std Dev 0.7264832 0.7071068 0.7264832 0.8819171 0.7071068

SUBGROUP 4 Std Dev 1.6666667 1.3642255 0.7264832 0.8333333 0.7817360

t -0. 0.

-0. 0. 1.

t -0. 1. 0. 0. 2.

t 1. 1, 1, 1. 2.

t 0.

-0. 1, 0. 0.

.3179994

.6123724

.4285714

.3611576

.5000000

.4803845

.5609177

.3611576

.3611576

.2500000

.8353259

.4142136

.8353259

.5118579

.8284271

.8000000

.2443389

.8353259

.8000000

.4264014

Prob>1t1 0.7577 0.5554 0.6783 0.7263 0.1679

Prob>1t1 0.6424 0.1530 0.7263 0.7263 0.0510

Prob>1t1 0.1038 0.1950 0.1038 0.1690 0.0222

Prob>1t1 0.4468 0.8131 0.1038 0.4468 0.6811

165






Mean 0.4000000 0.1000000

-0.3000000 0

-0.1000000

Mean 0.7000000 0.8000000

-0.4000000 -0.1000000 0.8000000

Mean 1.0000000 0.2222222

-0.3333333 0.3333333 0.2222222

Mean 0.4444444 0.4444444 0

-0.1111111 -0.1111111

SUBGROUP 1 Std Dev 1.6465452 1.7919573 0.9486833 1.1547005 1.1005049

SUBGROUP 2 Std Dev 1.9465068 2.0439613 0.8432740 1.3703203 1.2292726

SUBGROUP 3 Std Dev 2.1794495 1.8559215 1.1180340 1.8027756 1.3944334

SUBGROUP 4 Std Dev 1.6666667 1.3333333 1.2247449 1.4529663 1.1666667

t 0. 0.

-1. 0

-0.

t 1. 1.

-1. -0. 2.

t 1, 0,

-0. 0. 0.

t 0, 1. 0

-0. -0.

.7682213

.1764706

.0000000

.2873479

.1372138

.2377055

.5000000

.2307692

.0579830

.3764944

.3592106

.8944272

.5547002

.4780914

.8000000

.0000000

.2294157

.2857143

Prob>1t1 0.4620 0.8638 0.3434 1.0000 0.7804

Prob>1t1 0.2848 0.2471 0.1679 0.8227 0.0697

Prob>1t1 0.2060 0.7287 0.3972 0.5943 0.6454

Prob>1t1 0.4468 0.3466 1.0000 0.8243 0.7824

166






Mean -0.5000000 0.6000000

-0.1000000 0 -0.1000000

Mean 0.7000000 0.3000000 0.6000000 0.4000000 0.4000000

Mean 0

-0.3333333 0.2222222 0.1111111 -0.3333333

Mean 0.1111111 0.2222222

-0.4444444 -0.1111111 -0.1111111

SUBGROUP 1 Std Dev 0.9718253 0.6992059 0.5676462 0.6666667 1.1005049

SUBGROUP 2 Std Dev 1.4944341 1.1595018 1.0749677 1.0749677 0.9660918

SUBGROUP 3 Std Dev 1.6583124 1.3228757 1.0929064 0.7817360 1.0000000

SUBGROUP 4 Std Dev 0.9279607 0.9718253 1.1303883 0.7817360 1.1666667

t -1. 2.

-0. 0

-0.

t 1. 0, 1, 1. 1,

t 0

-0. 0. 0.

-1.

t 0, 0, -1 -0 -0

6269784 7136021 5570860

2873479

,4812258 ,8181818 ,7650452 .1766968 .3093073

.7559289

.6099943

.4264014

.0000000

.3592106

.6859943

.1795356

.4264014

.2857143

Prob>1t1 0.1382 0.0239 0.5911 1.0000 0.7804

Prob>1t1 0.1727 0.4344 0.1114 0.2695 0.2229

Prob>1t1 1.0000 0.4714 0.5588 0.6811 0.3466

Prob>1t1 0.7287 0.5121 0.2721 0.6811 0.7824

167

APPENDIX I

CONSENT FORMS

168

CONSENT FORM J.T. Hutchinson Junior High School Open-ended Sentence Questionnaire

I hereby give my consent for my participation in the project entitled: THE EFFECTS OF VOCAL EXERCISES, POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT, AND INFORMATION ABOUT THE VOICE ON THE TONE QUALITY AND VOCAL SELF-IMAGE OF ADOLESCENT FEMALE SINGERS.

I understand that the person responsible for this project is Mr. Kenneth Sipley (742-2270). He has explained that these studies are part of a project that has the following objectives:

1) to determine whether a program of vocal exercises will improve the tone quality and vocal self-image of a group of adolescent female singers.

2) to determine whether positive reinforcement will improve the tone quality and vocal self-image of a group of adolescent female singers.

3) to determine whether supplying information about the voice will improve the tone quality and vocal self-image of a group of adolescent female singers.

He has explained the procedures to be followed and identified which are experimental. I understand that there are no personal rislcs to me in taking part in this study.

It has further been explained to me that the total duration of my participation will be the completion of a 25-item open-ended sentence questionnaire concerning how I feel about my voice. This questionnaire will taJce less than 30 minutes to complete. Only Mr. Sipley will have access to the data collected for this study, and all data will remain strictly confidential.

Mr. Sipley has agreed to answer any inquiries I may have concerning the procedures and has informed me that I may contact the Texas Tech University Institutional Review Board for the Protection of Human Subjects by writing them in care of the Office of Research Services, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, Texas 79409, or by calling 742-3884.

Although there is no likelihood that this research project will cause harm to the participants in any way, this paragraph is included in order to safeguard Texas Tech University. If this research project causes any physical injury to participants in this project, treatment is not necessarily available at Texas Tech University or the Student Health Center, nor is there necessarily any insurance carried by the University or its personnel applicable to cover any such injury. Financial compensation for any such injury must be provided through the participant's own insurance program. Further information about these matters may be obtained from Dr. Robert M. Sweazy, Vice

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Provost for Research, 742-3884, Room 203 Holden Hall, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, Texas 79409-1035.

I understand that I may not derive any therapeutic treatment from participation in this study. I understand that I may discontinue this study at any time I choose without penalty.

Signature of Subject: Date:

Signature of Parent/Guardian: ^__ Date:

Signature of Project Director: Date:

Signature of Witness to Oral Presentation: Date:

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CONSENT FORM J.T. Hutchinson Junior High School

Open-ended Sentence Questionnaire and Vocal Exercises






He has explained the procedures to be followed and identified which are experimental. I understand that there are no personal risks to me in taking part in this study.

It has further been explained to me that the total duration of my participation will be the completion of a 25-item open-ended sentence questionnaire concerning how I feel about my voice, and nine instruction sessions of vocal exercises, each lasting ten minutes. The questionnaire will take less than 30 minutes to complete. Only Mr. Sipley will have access to the data collected for this study, and all data will remain strictly confidential.

Mr. Sipley has agreed to answer any inquiries I may have concerning the procedures and has informed me that I may contact the Texas Tech University Institutional Review Board for the Protection of Human Subjects by writing them in care of the Office of Research Services, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, Texas 79409, or by calling 742-3884.

Although there is no likelihood that this research project will cause harm to the participants in any way, this paragraph is included in order to safeguard Texas Tech University. If this research project causes any physical injury to participants in this project, treatment is not necessarily available at Texas Tech university or the Student Health Center, nor is there necessarily any insurance carried by the University or its personnel applicable to cover any such injury. Financial compensation for any such injury must be provided through the participant's own insurance program. Further information about

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these matters may be obtained from Dr. Robert M. Sweazy, Vice Provost for Research, 742-3884, Room 203 Holden Hall, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, Texas 79409-1035.


Signature of Subject: Date:

S i g n a t u r e of P a r e n t / G u a r d i a n : D a t e :

S i g n a t u r e of P r o j e c t D i r e c t o r : D a t e :

S i g n a t u r e of w i t n e s s t o Ora l P r e s e n t a t i o n : D a t e :

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CONSENT FORM Frenship Junior High School






He has explained the procedures to be followed and identified which are experimental. I understand that there are no personal risks to me in taking part in this study.

It has further been explained to me that the total duration of my participation will be as follows:

(1) the completion of a student vocal attitude survey at the beginning and the end of the project. The survey will take less than 30 minutes to complete each time.

(2) a vocal survey consisting of scales and a simple song at the beginning and end of the project. This survey will be taped for comparison purposes only, and will take less than five minutes to complete each time. . -, • ^

(3) no more than 36 instruction sessions lasting ten minutes each. -,-, ^ ^

Only Mr. Sipley will have access to the data collected for this study, and all data will remain strictly confidential. Mr SiDley has agreed to answer any inquiries I may have concerning the procedures and has informed me that I may contact ?he Texas Tech University Institutional Review Board for the Protection of Human Subjects by writing them in care of the Office of Research Services, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, Texas 79409, or by calling 742-3884.

Although there is no likelihood that this research project will n^nse harm to the participants in any way, this paragraph is included in order to safeguard Texas Tech University. If this research project causes any physical injury to participants in

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this project, treatment is not necessarily available at Texas Tech University or the Student Health Center, nor is there necessarily any insurance carried by the University or its personnel applicable to cover any such injury. Financial compensation for any such injury must be provided through the participant's own insurance program. Further information about these matters may be obtained from Dr. Robert M. Sweazy, Vice Provost for Research, 742-3884, Room 203 Holden Hall, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, Texas 79409-1035.


Signature of Subject:_ Date:

Signature of Parent/Guardian: Date:

Signature of Project Director : Date:

Signature of witness to Oral Presentation: Date:

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THE EFFECTS OF VOCAL EXERCISES AND INFORMATION …

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