The Effects of Trauma on the Child and Implications for Treatment
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Transcript of The Effects of Trauma on the Child and Implications for Treatment
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The Effects of Trauma on the Child and Implications for Treatment
Sarah Landy, Ph.D.Family Pathways
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Development of Psychopathology:
A Model
Children who develop severe psychopathologytypically have:
Constitutional or genetic vulnerability towards affect dysregulation
Find it difficult to contain affective arousal, because cognitive, language, and other delays contribute
Develop an insecure or disorganized attachment as parent(s) not able to consistently contain their distress
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Development of Psychopathology: A Model (cont.)
Exposure to stress or trauma that cannot be managed
Results in sensitization of certain pathways in the brain and increased hypersensitivity and hyperarousal
Balance between these will vary from one child to another
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Development of Psychopathology:
A Model
For individuals with severe psychopathology often find genes, biological factors (e.g. pregnancy, obstetric complications), and multiple environmental factors contribute
In other words it is multidetermined and we need to do thorough assessments to understand the contributions of each and to choice the most useful interventions
Need a triple lens of genetics and biological, attachment or parenting, and trauma
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Need to consider the biological and genetic basis
New research is showing us about the importance of the heredity gene structure on reaction to stress and trauma
Genes for serotonin transporter (anxiety and depression) and monoamine oxidase (MAOA) (related to aggression and impulsivity) have been studied
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Need to consider the biological and genetic
basis The genes for these neurotransmitters
come in 2 lengths (long allele and short allele and each has 2)
In Dunedin temperament study children followed from birth into 20s
Children with 2 long alleles did much better if they had trauma or were brought up in poor circumstances than children with 2 short alleles and those with one of each were in-between (Caspi, 2003)
Trend the same for both genes
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Need to consider the biological and genetic
basis
Temperament studies now looking at disinhibited, impulsive children and how difficult they are to manage and often become conduct disordered or violent
Other researches have studied very shy and inhibited children over time and find the same vulnerability but towards anxiety and depression
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New Research – Boyce (2002)
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Using vulnerability information to help the child New information about disinhibited
impulsive children and that they do not respond to consequences because do not have same arousal levels
Discipline must be attachment based and need to support parent around this
Ordinary parenting classes do not help as the children do not respond to consequences only
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Trauma: The Problem Societies across the world are not able to
ensure that children grow up in safe and predictable environments
Millions of children are terrorized, abused, neglected and otherwise traumatized throughout the world every year
Research shows that these children are at great risk for developing chronic emotional, behavioural, social, and physical health problems
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Trauma: The Problem (cont.)
Intergenerational parenting problems often occur
These children and their families are challenging to treat and systems are often not set up to do it
The costs (both human and economic) are incalculable
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What is Trauma? Trauma can be one event or an ongoing
situation over which the person has no control.
Exposure to threatened death, serious injury, or threats to the integrity of self or others
The experience of trauma is a psycho-physical one that overwhelms the person’s capacity to regulate their affective state and exacts a toll on the body as well as the mind.
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Types of Trauma Neglect (physical and emotional) may be
most destructive for a child Living in an institution where there is a lack
of responsive interactions Abuse (physical, emotional, or sexual) Loss of primary caregiver (particularly
parent) Man made disaster (e.g. fire, bombing,
kidnapping, traffic accidents) Refugees who have experienced torture, etc.
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Types of Trauma (cont.)
Natural disasters (e.g. fires, hurricanes, floods)
Children who have frequent, painful medical interventions or a chronic illness that is life threatening
Witnessing domestic or community violence
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Small “t” traumas without Traumatic Stress Reaction
An infant living in a situation that is chaotic or who receives inconsistent responses when upset (e.g. substance abuse or maternal depression)
Children can be traumatized by chronic failure on the part of the parent to provide nurturing care
A very temperamentally sensitive or genetically vulnerable infant who consistently does not receive the calming she needs
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Incidence of Trauma Across the world millions of children
are exposed to trauma each year Oppression of whole nations is
common (e.g. indigenous people in Australia, First Nations in Canada, genocide in a number of countries)
Millions of children in many countries are exposed to domestic and community violence in a year
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Incidence of Trauma (cont.)
In U.S. child abuse is the leading cause of death in young children
Up to 5 million children in U.S. traumatized (often maltreated) each year
90% of inner city children in U.S. witness a murder by the time they are 18 years of age
90% of parents surveyed believe spanking infants and toddlers is necessary and right
Majority of older adopted children or those in foster care will have experienced trauma and loss which is unlikely to have been resolved
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Traumatic Stress Reaction at Time of Trauma
Sympathetic Nervous System (SNS)branch of Autonomic Nervous System(ANS) is aroused leading to:
Increased heart rate and blood flow Rapid breathing Increase in muscle tone,
hypervigilance Elevated blood pressure
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Traumatic Stress Reactions at Time of Trauma (cont.)
“Fight” reactions much more common in adult males (SNS reaction)
“Flight” reactions can occur in adult males and females and may go away in their head if cannot run away (SNS reaction)
“Freeze” (complete immobility) reactions most common in women, infants and young children who can neither fight the abuser or flee (SNS and PNS reactions)
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Hippocampus
Midbrain
Spinal Cord
Broca’s Area
Pituitary Gland
Motor Cortex
Orbitofrontal Cortex
The Stress ReactionBrain Organization and Function
(Visual Cortex)
CRH
ACTH
HPA axis
CORTISOL from Adrenal Medulla
CRH
ACTH
HPA axis
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The Stress Reaction (cont.) Get cascade of neurohormones or
stress hormones in the Hypothalamic-Pituitary- Adrenal (HPA) axis beginning in the brain and ending up in the adrenal gland in the kidneys
They are released into the bloodstream Other neurotransmitters are also
released from other systems and include serotonin, epinephrine, dopamine, endorphins, and endogenous opioids
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Brain Development Need to consider the development of
the brain and the effect of trauma on it Brain processes and internalizes
traumatic and therapeutic experiences Brain mediates all emotional, cognitive,
behavioural, social, and physiological experiences
From the mind the brain is affected and by altering the mind we can affect the brain
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Cortical
Limbic
Midbrain
Brainstem
Brain Development
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Brain Development (cont.)Hierarchical Organization of
BrainAbstract ThoughtProblem Solving
Affiliation/Socialization“Attachment”
MemoryEmotional Reactivity
Motor Control“Arousal”
Appetite/SatietySleep-Wake Cycle
Blood PressureHeart Rate/Breathing
Body Temperature
Cortical
Limbic
Midbrain
Brainstem
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Development of the Brain Development of the midbrain and limbic
system depends on touch and the containing and sensitive interactions of caregivers
Face-to-face interactions seem to be particularly important when the parent provides stimulation from their voice, eyes and facial expression, touch, and emotionality
Develops the orbitofrontal cortex that has a significant role in bringing emotional reactions under control
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Development of the Brain (cont.)
Development of the cerebral cortex depends on hearing language and is responsible for abstract reasoning and for controlling the more primitive reactions of lower structures
The connection between the HPA axis and the limbic system and the frontal cortex (area of the brain responsible for cognitive control and executive functioning) is developed between 14 months and 3 years.
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Development of the Brain (cont.)
Developing emotion regulation depends very much on the development of this connection and its ability to bring the immediate impulsive and emotional reactions under control
Connection depends on interactions with caregivers that are nurturing and containing of the child and his emotions and having emotions discussed and explained.
About talking to the child about what is going on in their mind
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Development of the Brain (cont.) Amygdala in the limbic system is
functioning at birth and is responsible for the expression of intense emotional reactions and the storing of emotional memories and sensory motor experiences.
The hippocampus that stores verbal and narrative memories does not function until 3 years of age
Explains infantile amnesia or failure to consciously remember what happened in earliest years although there will be unconscious sensory motor memories.
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Trauma and the Developing Brain Young children more affected by trauma than
older children, adolescents, and adults because it affects the organization of the developing brain
Lack of stimulation (neglect) or ongoing trauma can disrupt the unfolding and organization of the brain and alter neuronal activity
Children who are traumatized through neglect or abuse are likely to develop generalized hyper-reactivity causing excessive arousal and chronic secretion of stress hormones
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Trauma and the Developing Brain (cont.)
The more that circuits of the brain are activated by the stress reaction kindling takes place that makes the stress circuits more readily activated
Neural activation can then be elicited by decreasingly intense external stimulation
Cortisol can be chronically secreted and can destroy the synapses or the connections between the neurons or not be secreted enough
Other neurohormones that are secreted affect other behavioural systems such as sleeping and eating
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Trauma and the Developing Brain (cont.)
More activity in right hemisphere responsible for withdrawal emotions than in left hemisphere responsible for approach emotions and language (depressed mothers)
Can become a chronic reaction or a trait by 6 months
Left hemisphere has fewer nerve-cell connections between different areas in these children and those that are seriously abused or neglected
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Trauma and the Developing Brain (cont.)
The connections between the frontal cortex and the limbic system may fail to develop adequately
As a consequence the child may be unable to control negative emotions
Thymus gland that is one of the primary organs of the immune system has been found to be significantly smaller in abused and neglected children
Compromises the immune system
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Trauma and the Developing Brain (cont.) Abused children have smaller Broca’s
area responsible for speech Hippocampus (responsible for storing
semantic, conscious memories) is smaller in children with PTSD
DeBellis also found smaller cerebral volumes correlated with age of onset and duration of abuse
Neglected children have smaller brains, cortical atrophy, and larger ventricles in the brain (Perry)
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© 1997, Bruce D. Perry, M.D., Ph.DCIVITAS ChildTrauma Programs
Normal Extreme Neglect
3 Year Old Children
Traumatic Reactions in the Brain (Perry)
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Incidence of Sequelae of Trauma
Everyone suffers a stress reaction at the time of the trauma
Post traumatic stress persists following a traumatic event
Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) occurs when symptoms last for more than a month and result in loss of function (20%)
PTSD is a chronic disorder and untreated seldom remits spontaneously
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Incidence of Sequelae of Trauma (cont.)
Complex PTSD that results from multiple traumas that occur over different ages cause personality changes and disorders
Post Duress Disorder where the person does not identify any distinct traumas but may have been small “t” traumas that did not cause a complete stress reaction
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Causes of Long Term Effects
Age at time of trauma with young children more affected than older children, adolescents, and adults (not resilient as believed by some people)
Children <18 months at time of trauma have more re-experiencing
Severity and chronicity of event Meaning of an event to the person
(e.g. trauma by someone the child trusted or event may relate to a previous trauma)
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Causes of Long Term Effects (cont.)
Predisposing characteristics of child such as temperament or genetic vulnerability or other biological impairments
If physically injured Witnessed or experienced the trauma Caregiver threatened best predictor of PTSD Support system available to child following the
event and if it can be nurturing of child If treatment or chance to review event (e.g.
through play therapy or psychological debriefing) did not happen close to event
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Effect on Memory Systems Have different memory systems (e.g.
short and long term memory) Unconscious or implicit memories and
conscious or recallable/explicit memories Explicit memories are semantic, organised
or episodic and can be talked about Implicit memories are procedural and
imaged and are also conditioned memories and bypass language and are difficult to talk about
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Effect on Memory Systems (cont.)
For individuals with PTSD thoughts and cognitions of events are separated from emotions, images, and sensations
With conditioned memories the original stimulus gets linked with the fear stimulus and its physiological reactions
Related stimuli may get the same reaction or become triggers (e.g. running shoes, raised voices)
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Effect on Memory Systems (cont.) Memory of trauma is stored in the amygdala
and is of emotions and sensory-motor experiences during trauma (procedural, imaged, conditioned memories)
Memory of our personal history or narratives and making sense of it is stored in the hippocampus and does not function during trauma (semantic and episodic memories)
Memories in the amygdala can be triggered outside of rationale control leading to sudden acting out or dissociation
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Ongoing Effects of Trauma on Mind and Body
Influences: Immediate and future functioning
(cognitive and social) Brain, mind, and body that continually
influence each other Long term behavioural patterns and
personality Sense of control and of self and
other
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Adverse Childhood Experiences (Chapman et al., 2004)
Abuse (28.3%, sexual, 20.7%, emotional, and 10.6% physical)
Neglect (9.9% physical, 14.8% emotional)
Household dysfunction (12.7%, partner abuse, 26.9%, substance abuse, 19.4%, parent mental illness, 23.3%, parental separation/ divorce, 4.4%, incarcerated family member
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High magnitude events in childhood( Egger, 2004)
Motor vehicle accident, 9.9% Hospitalized, 16.7% Serious fall, 9.5% Burned, 7.9% Death of loved one, 6.2% 52.5% had experienced a high
magnitude stressor 100% of children who had experienced
5+ of these events had DSM-IV diagnosis
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Ongoing Effects of Trauma on Mind and Body: The Adverse Childhood Experience Study (Felitti et al., 1998)
Graded relationship between the number of Adverse Childhood Events and mental and physical health and risk taking behaviours
50% reported adverse childhood events 4+ events compared to no events 4-12
fold increase in substance abuse, depression, and suicide attempts
4+ events compared to no events 2-4 fold increase in smoking, poor health, multiple sex partners, ischemic heart disease, and history of STD
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Relationship of Trauma with Mental and Physical Illness
Compelling evidence that early life stress or trauma is a major risk factor for the development and persistence of mental disorders
Early trauma also related to increased risk for heart disease, diabetes, hypertension, and immune disorders
Other disorders such as chronic fatigue syndrome, chronic pain and fibromyalgia
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Ongoing Traumatic Stress Reactions
Hyperarousal and constant retriggering results in hypersensitized system, constant hypervigilance, and hyperreactivity
“Fight” may become aggressive move from anxious to terrorized very quickly
“Flight” may go aware in head (dissociate), withdraw from social contact, daydreaming, or show oppositional-defiant behaviour,
“Freeze” leads to dissociation or even fainting or Dissociative Identity Disorder
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Intergenerational Repetition of Trauma
Caregiver with unresolved trauma often has limited ability to tolerate child’s distress
Clear evidence that parents with unresolved loss and trauma often show “frightened” or “frightening” or (“fr”) behaviour in interactions with their infants and children
This leads to disorganised attachment in the child that in turn is associated with psychopathology in children 85% of the time
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Intergenerational Repetition of Trauma (cont.)
In this way the trauma of the parent is passed on to the child unless the parent receives supportive or intervention services
1/3 of parents who are abused will abuse their children, 1/3 will provide “marginal parenting”, and 1/3 will resolve the trauma and parent well
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Key Features of Traumatized Children and Adolescents
As many as 58% of children who experience abuse, neglect, or witness violence will have symptoms of PTSD
78.6% of disorders have their onset after trauma exposure (e.g. ODD, SAD, ADHD, depression)
Increases difficulties in parent-child interactions and with teachers and other caregivers
Develop generalized hyper-reactivity to several cues that remind them of trauma
Hypervigilant, difficulty concentrating
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Key Features of Traumatized Children and Adolescents Trauma can cause multisystemic
developmental delays in behavioral, cognitive, emotional, and social areas of development
Get considerable misdiagnosis with these children as do not display similar symptoms to adults with PTSD
Symptoms of acute stress disorder, adjustment disorder, and reactive attachment disorder may be similar to other disorders (e.g. ADHD, ODD, generalized anxiety disorder, etc.)
May take 2 years for a diagnosis to be made
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Key Features of Traumatized Children and Adolescents (cont.)
Symptoms of PTSD in children: Re-experiencing trauma Avoidance of reminders/numbing of
responsiveness and restricted range of affect
Play re-enactments of trauma (very repetitive or constriction in play)
Recurrent recollections/preoccupation Nightmares Loss of skills (e.g. toileting, independent
sleeping)
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Key Features of Traumatized Children and Adolescents
Emotional Dysregulation Overreaction to minor stressors may be
triggered by something at sensory-motor or emotional level and may react with aggressive or startle reaction
May be chronically hyperaroused with higher heart and pulse rate, higher cortisol levels
Difficulty calming and soothing themself Depression and anxiety common in girls Readiness for “fight”, “flight” or “freeze”
reaction
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Key Features of Traumatized Children and AdolescentsEmotional Dysregulation (cont.)
Easily triggered into terror, despair, rage, and violence
New fears and aggression that were not present before the trauma
May respond by using alcohol, drugs, cutting, or an eating disorder
Sleep-wake cycle may be upset Inability to use small emotions or small
events as signals that getting upset (alexithymia) or as a cue to pay attention and act
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Traumatized Children: How Triggering Occurs
TERROR
FEAR
ALARM
AROUSAL
CALM
State of Traumatized and Non-Traumatized
Children
Nontraumatized Child
Traumatized Child
Neurological Functioning
Brainstem/autonomic in effect, reflexive responses
Midbrain/brainstem in effect, reactive
Limbic midbrain in effect, emotional responses
Limbic sub-cortical processes in effect, concrete thinking
Cortical processes in effect, abstract reasoning, planning & problem-solving
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Key Features of Traumatized Children and Adolescents (cont.)
Dissociation or Changes in Consciousness
Hyperamnesia (heightened recall) for traumatic event and constant retriggering
Transient episodes of dissociation, “spacing out” or losing conscious awareness
Amnesia or total loss of memory for event Depersonalization (not sure for brief time
who or where are)
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Key Features of Traumatized Children and Adolescents (cont.)
Dissociation or Changes in Consciousness (cont.)
Extreme emotional numbing to trauma related and everyday experience
Repeat the same behaviour in play, time and time again
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Key Features of Traumatized Children and Adolescents (cont.)
Changes in Self Perception
Overwhelming sense of powerlessness Need to be in “control” of parent,
teachers, therapist, and situations and react poorly to discipline
Compulsive need to overcome sense of emptiness and abandonment
Sense of stigma and being different to others
Deep sense of shame, of being bad or being worthless and unlovable
Good and bad splitting of self and others
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Key Features of Traumatized Children and Adolescents (cont.)
Disturbances in Relationships
Finds it hard to trust others or intensified, indiscriminant trust of others
Keep on getting into situations in which revictimised as it produces opioids and endorphins that provide numbing (e.g. cutting)
May isolate themselves to avoid retraumatisation
Blame everyone else for difficulties Rejects “good” parenting by being
oppositional and controlling (e.g. in foster home or with parents)
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Key Features of Traumatized Children and Adolescents (cont.)
Disturbances in Relationships (cont.)
Child lacks social skills and is withdrawn or aggressive with others
Lacks capacity for theory of mind, empathy, or caring about others
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Key Features of Traumatized Children and Adolescents (cont.)
Disrupts the parent-child or teacher-child relationship and child’s ability
touse it: Does not use the relationship to
regulate their stress responses To provide a secure base for
exploration and learning
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Key Features of Traumatized Children and Adolescents (cont.)
Somatisation Chronic and persistent physical complaints
that are difficult to diagnose and treat Headaches and stomach aches Higher rates of illness due to depleted
immune system Have found seizure (or pseudo seizure)
activity similar to those of epileptics in some children through various sectors of the brain
Higher heart rate and pulse rate even when resting
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Key Features of Traumatized Children and Adolescents (cont.)
Difficulties with Systems of Meaning and Problem-Solving
Loss of hope and sense of despair Lack of sense of control over their world
and people in it Cannot learn from experience because
numbed by it or avoid contact or lead chaotic existence
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Key Features of Traumatized Children and Adolescents (cont.)
Difficulties with Systems of Meaning and Problem-Solving (cont.)
Difficulty in using executive functioning to control triggering and impulsive acting
Difficulty attending to and processing incoming data not related to trauma
Crisis may make them feel “alive” and be calming
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Key Features of Traumatized Children and Adolescents (cont.)
Problems with Memory Systems Constant retriggering through flashbacks or
nightmares Memories of trauma cannot be integrated into
semantic memories to be worked on and understood
Can often talk about how should behave but still triggered in times of stress. Areas of stress will vary for different children
Aggressive and abusive acts may be triggered without rational control
May have difficulty with learning with increased distractibility and decreased concentration
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Principles of Treating Traumatized Children: Assessment
In-depth assessment is critical to determine impact of trauma and biological issues and to identify triggers
Include assessment of trauma (e.g. acute or chronic, relationship of child to perpetrator)
Developmental history before and after the event,
Symptom picture before and after trauma
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Principles of Treating Traumatized Children: Assessment (cont.)
Current living situation, safety and protective factors
Observations, psychological testing to determine the current functioning
Presence or absence of Attachment Disorder
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Principles of Treating Traumatized Children
Medical model and traditional treatments alone are not sufficient
Need to work in innovative ways using treatments that can affect the brain, mind, and the body of the child and parent(s)
Need to follow a neurosequential developmental model in which treatment begins with approaches that are focused on areas of the brain where the impairment is likely to have happened (Perry, 2007)
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Neurosequential Developmental Model (cont.)
Often need to begin with treatments for the brainstem (deep touch, music and rhythm, sensory-motor remediation, relaxation and breathing)
Move to limbic system where emphasise approaches to assist with emotion regulation and attachment
Later more cognitive approaches and discussion of the trauma incidence can occur
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Principles of Treating Traumatized Children (cont.) Establishing safety in the parent-child
relationship and in the school, helping caregiver to respond to threat, establish routines, structures, rituals
Address trauma-related symptoms with various types of responses depending on the child’s reactions
Development of attachment relationships with parents and teachers is key
Need to increase consistency across treatment modalities and in different contexts
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Principles of Treating Traumatized Children (cont.)
Validate with parents and teachers the legitimacy and universality of the trauma response (i.e., symptoms are not all about being naughty)
Intervention needs to utilize individual, parent-child, school, and group approaches for both parents and children
Intervention needs to emphasize treatment of the body and the mind
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Principles of Treating Traumatized Children (cont.)
Treatment of emotion regulation is often crucial for traumatized children
Need to give children strategies to use themselves (teaching calming and breathing, something to hold onto)
Promote pleasure in interactions with others (e.g. theraplay)
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Principles of Treating Traumatized Children (cont.)
Structure, routine, limits, and behaviour modification are absolutely necessary but not sufficient
Attunement is also key and showing understanding of their issues
Evidence-based treatments for different disorders (e.g. CBT) are not necessarily appropriate if a child is functioning at a limbic or midbrain level
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Principles of Treating Traumatized Children (cont.)
Important to eventually integrate trauma memories into coherent narratives but timing of doing this is crucial
Strategies that help children build their sense of mastery and competence and to gradually reduce feelings of shame are crucial
Environments need to be adapted to be as supportive as possible for children who need to learn to calm down and attend
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Working with Traumatized Children and Parents: Some Examples
Use problem-solving around a discipline issues (e.g. Bugental):
Identify the problem Generate possible reasons for it
happening that is not blaming of the child Generate possible solutions that are
workable Select solutions that capitalize on positive
consequences
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Working with Traumatized Children and Parents: Some Examples
Errorless Compliance Training (Ducharme) Used when teachers and children are locked
in coercive circles of negative reactions Teacher lists in order the behaviours she has
most difficulty controlling and those most likely to get compliance around
Teacher is supported to spend a week asking the child to do things that he will want to do (e.g. turn on the computer)
Child is praised for his “success” In subsequent weeks child is asked to do
things that are a little more difficult
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Working with Traumatized Parents and Children: Dyadic Developmental Psychotherapy (Hughes)
Used with children who have serious psychological problems as a result of abuse, neglect, institutionalization, and/or multiple foster home placements
For children who enter adoptive or foster homes and cannot accept the appropriate parenting that is being offered and reject the parents
Many of the children with these difficulty will need treatment with their families
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Working with Traumatised Children and Parents: Developmental Dyadic Psychotherapy (Hughes)
Based on attachment principles and aims to facilitate security of attachment to the parents
Dr. Hughes sees the children as being full of shame and desperate to have control over their situations
One of the central goals of the treatment is to eliminate the child’s shame and replace it with empathy and guilt and a sense of safety
Conducted with child and attachment figure(s) present. Focus continually on child’s relationship with parents and therapist
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Dyadic Developmental Psychotherapy (Hughes)(cont.)
PlayfulnessAcceptanceCuriosityEmpathy
PACE
These are the approaches we would use
with a young child
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Dyadic Developmental Psychotherapy (Hughes)(cont.)
Needs to provide frequent experiences of affective attunement to child
When child becomes angry or shows terror or despair must recognize and absorb it and respond with empathy and acceptance
Nonverbal attunement occurs through eye contact, positive facial expression, gestures, emotion matching
Physical contact with the child in a calming way is important at times
Using humour and playfulness to engage child in a fun and relaxing way
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Dyadic Developmental Psychotherapy (Hughes)(cont.)
Uses anything child says to insist on engagement with the child
Reframes the behaviour and provides a unique response to it
May put the child’s nonverbal messages into words for the child
Show curiosity and interest in the child as a parent would who is entrained with their baby
Emotional richness is provided
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Dyadic Developmental Psychotherapy (Hughes)(cont.)
Need frequent, repetitive experiences of being understood and accepted, not one breakthrough
The child’s symptoms or problems are understood, accepted and contained and never used to make the child feel ashamed
Child given multiple experiences of “interactive repair” when he insists on disengagement insist on reengagement
Preverbal, eye-contact, facial expressions, body movement and positive emotionality essential
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Dyadic Developmental Psychotherapy (Hughes)(cont.)
Work to help child go through crucial developmental stages of attachment, separation-individuation, integration of traumas
Must show empathy for “bad” self so good and bad can be integrated and the shame eliminated
Use various other media such as books, music, finger plays, illustrated stories, photographs
Consultation to the family and family support is an important part of the treatment in addition to the dyadic piece
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Conclusion Such treatment is difficult, and systems
are often not set up to provide it It is seen as too expensive and not
something society can afford If some of these children cannot be
helped we know the trajectories which they are on
To that I would say we cannot afford not to treat these children because currently the costs for group homes, correctional facilities, shelters, and health care continue to soar as children remain untreated
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Conclusion
Instead of having costs for treating the results of trauma soar we need to find ways so these children can soar instead as they achieve in new ways, as they become “strong at the broken places”, and as they are healed and have a new sense of acceptance, understanding, and competence