The effects of the recession on workers' moral, ethical, and interpersonal behavior

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Performance Improvement, vol. 50, no. 10, November/December 2011©2011 International Society for Performance ImprovementPublished online in Wiley Online Library (wileyonlinelibrary.com) • DOI: 10.1002/pfi.20260

THE EFFECTS OF THE RECESSION ON WORKERS’ MORAL, ETHICAL, AND INTERPERSONAL BEHAVIOR

Joan Marques, EdD Nancy R. Luna, EdD

This article presents study findings from 50 members of the Los Angeles workforce, who were

also college students. The study attempted to discover the perceptions of these workforce

members about the effects of the recent economic downturn on their work environment.

Some interesting findings emerged from this study. Explanations are offered, and the authors

encourage readers to conduct their own simple survey to discover the impact of the recession or

other changes on their workplaces.

RECENT REPORTS ON the economic condition of American and other work environments have been dis-concerting. In the past years, especially in 2008 and 2009, the private sector suffered from the worst economic downturn of our lifetime. Numerous sources reported concerning trends causing a steep decline of consumer confidence and manufacturing indexes, even to a 25-year low. Major stock indexes also experienced a decline (more than 30%), and long-established companies such as Lehman Brothers, Bear Stearns, and AIG were crushed by the credit crunch. These facts are of particular concern if we consider that improvement of the quality of life is considered one of the highest goals for individuals as well as society.

Unfortunately, the effects of the recession appear grim. The number of families that have lost their houses, jobs, and other belongings is tremendous, a trend that not only generates financial worries but also contributes to height-ened mental and emotional suffering. Understandably, there are a number of major concerns among Americans, of which heightened fear and lowered expectations may be considered the most significant.

This article describes perspectives about moral, ethical and interpersonal behavior from a sample of workforce members in Los Angeles, one of America’s most metro-

politan cities. Perspectives were gathered by surveying a sample of 50 individuals in various positions and in a multitude of L.A.-based work environments. The one thing the participants had in common was that they were also nontraditional college students, enrolled in weekend and evening educational programs. A total of 39 indi-viduals or 78% of the sample submitted their responses.

Based on an awareness of the augmenting job insecu-rity caused by the economic downturn, we formulated a series of hypotheses, which we wanted to verify through the survey. The hypotheses, data analyses, results, and conclusions are presented here, with the aim of provid-ing the reader with additional insights into the realities, consideratons, and interlinkages of facts within the con-temporary workforce.

MORAL, ETHICAL, AND INTERPERSONAL BEHAVIOR IN A TURBULENT WORK ENVIRONMENTThe 2008 findings of the Gallup poll on job satisfaction show that workers aged 55 years and older are more likely to be “completely satisfied” with their work than those who are still building their careers (18 to 34 years of age).

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Performance Improvement • Volume 50 • Number 10 • DOI: 10.1002/pfi 29

The rates plummet from 57% for the more mature work-ers to 42% for the younger ones (Saad, 2008). Moreover, Saad reports that workers’ satisfaction rates have gener-ally decreased compared with 2007. A Careerbuilder.com survey held among 7,600 workers nationwide presented even more disconcerting details: 78% of workforce mem-bers felt burned out, 46% complained that their workload increased over the 6 months prior to the August 2008 survey, and 45% considered their current workload heavy or too heavy.

After the turn of the century, concerns about the phenomenon called “work” have seemingly increased with observed peaks in 2008 and 2009. As Koh and Boo (2004) stated: “The recent wave of corporate failures and accounting scandals, for example, Enron, WorldCom, Global Crossing and Parmalat, has heightened attention to the urgent need for corporate governance, corporate social responsibility and organizational ethics” (p. 5). Koh and Boo continued: “The increasing pressure from stake-holders such as consumers, investors and the community for organizations to behave ethically and in a socially responsible way can no longer be ignored” (p. 5).

The many corporate collapses, mostly caused by human greed and irresponsibility, are causing many workforce mem-bers, managerial and nonmanagerial, to rethink their pur-pose, practices, and policies at work. Selmer and Waldstrøm (2007) underscored that “the workplace is one of the major social environments in which values are created, shared, and developed” (p. 435). Potocan (2009) added: “Organizations face the question of how to assure their survival and devel-opment in the global economy. Their business is important for establishing trust between inside and outside members in their work and behavior” (p. 118).

Stressing the importance of trust as a value among employees in a workplace, Potocan continued: “Trust as a value (e.g., credibility) is reflected for example in the expectation of honesty, frankness, sincerity and respect. Its attainment and constant assurance is based on high ethic standards as for example suitable mutual relations, agreements about co-working and disclosure of informa-tion, etc.” (p. 120). Further closing in on the core prin-ciples of today’s workers, Vitell, Bing, Davison, Ammeter, Garner, and Novicevic (2009) reintroduced the concept of moral identity as “one’s self concept, organized around a set of moral traits such as compassion, fairness, generos-ity and honesty” (p. 601) and declared religion as a crucial driver behind this concept.

HYPOTHESESGuided by the above-mentioned concerns and develop-ments, we developed five hypotheses around the following

topics: (a) the recession, (b) job satisfaction, (c) ethics and morality at work, (d) care and cooperation among workforce members, (e) religion, and (f) happiness. The hypotheses for this study are as follows:

As the effects of the economic recession increase, posi-1. tive perceptions among workers decrease.

As manifestations of corporate greed augment, work-2. force members become more aware of the importance of honesty at work.

The increased pressure at work has a significant effect 3. on workers’ levels of care and cooperation toward one another.

As job insecurity increases, so does the closeness to 4. religion.

Greater job security contributes to workers’ levels of 5. happiness on the job.

Hypothesis 1: Recession and Positive Worker PerceptionsThe first hypothesis stated that as the effects of the eco-nomic recession increase, positive perceptions among workers decrease. Even if the brief literature review (stated above) had not been included, a quick self-reflection would establish that the current economic pressure has a negative effect on the well-being of affected individuals at the macro as well as the micro level. In macro perspective, there is widespread concern among members of society that the economic crisis, especially when considering its effect on unemployment, will negatively affect general health and well-being. At the micro level, Yamada (2009) reviewed the effects of economic downturns within workplaces and reported about a study conducted on the effects of the economic downturn of the early 1990s. The study found that work environments performing under high pressure are more subject to manifestations of bul-lying and mistreatment than they would in less stressful times. Yamada’s assertions make sense when we consider that economic, financial, and job insecurity elevate work-ers’ stress levels, as well as their concern and health.

Hypothesis 2: Corporate Greed and Honesty at WorkThe second hypothesis is that as manifestations of cor-porate greed augment, workforce members become more aware of the importance of honesty at work. The impact of the many corporate greed-based cases since the inau-guration of the 21st century has been rather significant for members of the corporate world. It is not surprising to find that members of society feel increased anger and


30 www.ispi.org • DOI: 10.1002/pfi • NOVEMBER/DECEMBER 2011

mistrust toward those they consider responsible for their investments or pension funds. Respect for the leaders of these entities is understandably rapidly going downhill. Besides, we should not underestimate the increasing awareness of the public when it comes to corporate mis-management. More and more people call for a restoration of honesty as a steady policy in corporate practices. The abundant criticism from the population on corporate bailouts by the government in recent years has brought to the forefront that people don’t consider government intervention a sufficient cure for corporate greed. They prefer honesty and integrity to be restored as part of the corporate fabric and the corporate culture.

Hypothesis 3: Increased Work Pressure Affects Care and CooperationWhether the recent economic downturn also had an effect on workers’ behavior toward one another was another driver of this study. We thought that it might be useful to determine whether our research population felt any effect from the current recession in mutual behaviors at work. Therefore, the third hypothesis is that increased pressure at work has a significant effect on workers’ levels of care and cooperation toward one another.

Several popular studies on managerial practices have brought to light that managers who are strong willed and morally inclined remain truthful, trustworthy, cooperative, and caring, even when the pressure at work increases. Jamal (2005) discusses the distinction between collectivist and individualist societies, and claims that employees in individualistic-based western workplaces have a different approach toward one another than those in collectivist-based eastern workplaces. He feels that although there is increased cooperation and protection during difficult times in collectivist cultures, workers in individualistic cultures are mainly left on their own to succeed or fail: “In the face of unpleasant and difficult situations, individuals are primarily left alone to cope and handle such challenges” (Jamal, p. 225). Jamal’s perspectives are seconded by Gilboa, Shirom, Fried, and Cooper (2008), who attribute the lesser effect of job stress on members of collectivist, non-English-speaking cultures to greater work and government support in those cultures. The study by Gilboa et al. also found that job insecurity plays a more significant role in the perfor-mance of employees in English-speaking countries.

Hypothesis 4: Effect of Job Insecurity on ReligionIntrigued by the dialogue that has been unfolding in the past decades on religion and spirituality at work in

turbulent times, we formulated the fourth hypothesis: As job insecurity increases, so does the closeness to religion. In the past few decades, the call for meaning at work has increased. The term “workplace spirituality” has been elevated from an absolute taboo to a point of interest for an increasing number of corporate leaders as they gradu-ally start to realize the merit of applying a more spiritual mindset and increased receptiveness toward religious beliefs among employees for the organization’s overall performance. The many studies on spirituality and reli-gion in the workplace in the past years have particularly stressed the interlinkage between volatility and spiritual practices.

A movement called “spirituality in the workplace” has emerged and a global team of scholars has done signifi-cant research on this trend. Their general finding is that the many years of downsizing and job insecurity have fueled the need to actively work toward a spiritual revival in the workplace. Employees search for more meaning at work and business leaders are encouraged to look for more socially responsible approaches to business, includ-ing more rewarding ways to motivate and inspire workers. Although some of these sources include religion into the picture and others feel that it should be left out, they all agree that receptiveness toward a spiritual approach from management’s side may improve workers’ perspectives about the workplace and result in positive outcomes for the organization’s performance.

Hypothesis 5: Job Security and Happiness on the JobThe final hypothesis states that greater job security con-tributes to workers’ levels of happiness on the job. Job security has found its way to the forefront of workers’ contemporary concerns. The fear of being the next group to be laid off places a stranglehold on workers every-where. Security is at stake, and with that, the ability to pay the mortgage, feed the children, and even put a roof over the family’s head. In today’s work climate, most people consider security and interest levels of their jobs to be more important for their happiness and satisfaction than independence at work, advancement opportunities, or a large income. However, it makes sense to take all factors into consideration, because different people have dif-ferent needs, which means that on the whole, all factors matter: pay, colleagues, supervisors, working conditions, job security, training opportunities, involvement, team working, and the nature of the work undertaken. In man-agement theory, the entirety of factors that contribute to a worker’s sense of well-being in a workplace is referred to as the psychological contract. This unwritten contract entails how the collaboration is perceived by both par-



ties, the employer and the employee, and might influence how they behave from day to day. Long (2005) posits that income, job security, and effort could, indeed, be consid-ered important determinants of job satisfaction, but that these variables are of a highly questionable nature. Long also concludes that there are gender differences in the perception of happiness at lower levels of performance; however, the perception of happiness at work is more similar for men and women in higher positions, where there is an overall decrease in the perception of happi-ness.

DATA AND METHODOLOGYTo verify the hypotheses listed above, we conducted a sur-vey among 50 corporate workers, who were also enrolled in weekend and evening educational programs, and hence held the minimum of a high school diploma. Of the 50 surveyed candidates, 39 (78%) submitted their responses (N = 50; n = 38). The responses were compiled in one table, after which we analyzed the results. The survey was conducted during workshop sessions over several semes-ters. Although the data gathering process took longer—about a year because of the small sizes of the groups that were approached each time—the response rate of 78% was much higher than it usually is in mailed or online surveys. We based their analysis on frequency counts—how many respondents selected a specific response. We translated raw data into percentages but did not test the findings for significance; therefore, our analysis indicates trends rather than significant differences within their sample population.

FINDINGSIn this section, the findings of the study will be dis-cussed using a series of tables and charts. The trends revealed by the data will either fail to reject or reject each hypothesis.

Reviewing Hypothesis 1: Recession and Positive Worker PerceptionsThe trend reported in Table 1 and Figure 1 failed to reject the first hypothesis, that as the effects of the economic

recession increase, positive perceptions among workers decrease. A total of 28 (71%) participants felt that their workplace was affected in some way by the recent eco-nomic downturn: 35.5% claimed that their workplace was very much affected, while 35.5% stated that their work-place was somewhat affected. At the same time, 71% of the participants felt that the effects of the recession were not positive for their work environment. Within this, 38% claimed that the effects were not at all positive, while 33% preferred a more moderate response of not much.

Reviewing Hypothesis 2: Corporate Greed and Honesty at WorkHypothesis 2 stated that as manifestations of corporate greed augment, workforce members become more aware of the importance of honesty at work. Considering the responses given with regards to honesty and tendencies toward moral and ethical behavior in matters related to “getting ahead,” the respondents failed to reject this hypothesis.

Table 2 and Figure 2 present an overview of the responses to the respondents’ perception of whether (a) honesty matters in today’s workplace, (b) they would get ahead even if it was illegal, and (c) they would get ahead at the expense of colleagues. An overwhelming majority (80%) agreed that honesty matters very much, while 87% felt that they would not much or not at all try to get ahead if it were illegal. More than one half (67%) submitted that

The fear of being the next group to be laid off places a stranglehold on workers everywhere.

TABLE 1 EFFECT OF THE RECESSION ON THE WORKPLACE

WORKPLACE AFFECTED?

EFFECTS POSITIVE?

Very much 14 1

Somewhat 14 3

Don’t know 3 7

Not much 5 13

Not at all 3 15

FIGURE 1. SUMMARY OF EFFECTS OF THE RECESSION ON THE WORKPLACE



they would not much or not at all try to get ahead at the expense of coworkers.

Reviewing Hypothesis 3: Increased Work Pressure Affects Care and CooperationHypothesis 3 stated that increased pressure at work has a significant effect on workers’ levels of care and cooperation toward one another. The findings in this regard, attained through self-reflections and perceptions of themselves and their colleagues, indicated a tendency to reject this hypothesis; however, without a test of sig-nificance, the hypothesis cannot be statistically rejected.

Table 3 and Figure 3 illustrate participants’ self-reflections on changes in care and cooperation at work during the recession. Of the largest number of respondents, 69% claimed that little or nothing had changed in their care efforts at work and 79% claimed that little or nothing had changed in their cooperative efforts at work. At the same time, nine respondents felt they were a little (not much) less caring and cooperative and 10 respondents felt they were somewhat less caring.

Table 4 and Figure 4 review the participants’ per-ceptions of their co-workers regarding levels of care and cooperation. The trend was somewhat similar to reflections on their own caring and cooperative behavior. The largest group (64%) declared that they did not think

their co-workers were less cooperative than before. Also, a total of 56% of the participants felt that there was no change in the level of cooperation of their colleagues.

Reviewing Hypothesis 4: Effect of Job Insecurity on ReligionHypothesis 4 stated that as job insecurity increases, so does the closeness to religion. Based on the trends indicated on the survey, the data failed to reject this hypothesis; how-ever the findings need to be tested for significance.

As Table 5 indicates, 20 of the 39 respondents indi-cated they did not fear losing their jobs and seven had a little fear of losing their jobs. At the other end, a total of nine respondents were fearful of losing their jobs: three reported they very much feared losing their jobs and

TABLE 3 EXERTING CARE AT WORK

I AM LESS CARING

I AM LESS COOPERATIVE

Very much 2 2

Somewhat 10 5

Don't know 0 1

Not much 9 9

Not at all 18 22

FIGURE 2. PERCEPTION OF MORAL AND ETHICAL BEHAVIOR AT WORK

FIGURE 3. CHANGES IN PERSONAL CARE AND COOPERATION EFFORTS AT WORK

TABLE 2 RESPONDENTS’ PERCEPTION OF HONESTY AND MORAL AND ETHICAL BEHAVIOR AT WORK

HONESTY MATTERS IN THE WORKPLACE

WOULD TRY TO GET AHEAD EVEN IF ILLEGAL

WOULD TRY TO GET AHEAD AT OTHERS’ EXPENSE

Very much 31 3 3

Somewhat 6 2 7

Don't know 0 0 3

Not much 2 8 8

Not at all 0 26 18



six somewhat feared they would lose their jobs. Twelve responded they were somewhat closer to their faith and seven respondents were very much closer to their faith, while 10 respondents were not at all closer to their faith and seven were not much closer.

The interesting trend that Figure 5 demonstrates is that the turn to faith increases when the fear of losing one’s job is higher and decreases when fear of losing one’s job is lower. It is particularly interesting that, at the downside, there were more participants who came closer to their faith (49%) than those who really feared losing their job (23%), but that the relationship shifted at the other extreme: where people felt little or no fear toward losing their jobs (69%), there was a smaller number who felt that they had not come any or much closer to their faith (38%).

Reviewing Hypothesis 5: Job Security and Happiness on the JobThe findings failed to reject hypothesis 5, that with higher job security, workers are happier on the job. The trend was that the greater the workers’ fear for losing their jobs, the lesser their happiness.

Table 6 shows that 17 of the respondents were very happy and 14 were somewhat happy at work. The data also show a tendency toward job security: 20 respondents had no fear of losing their jobs and seven respondents had not much fear of losing their jobs.

TABLE 4 COLLEAGUES’ PERCEIVED CARE AT WORK

COLLEAGUES LESS CARING?

COLLEAGUES LESS COOPERATIVE?

Very much 2 2

Somewhat 10 7

Don't know 6 4

Not much 11 12

Not at all 10 14

FIGURE 4. COLLEAGUES’ PERCEIVED CARE AND COOPERATION AT WORK

TABLE 5 FEAR AND FAITH IN RECESSION TIMES

FEAR OF LOSING JOB

CLOSER TO FAITH

Very much 3 7

Somewhat 6 12

Don't know 3 5

Not much 7 5

Not at all 20 10

TABLE 6 HAPPINESS AT WORK AND JOB SECURITY

HAPPY AT WORK

FEAR OF LOSING JOB

Very much 17 3

Somewhat 14 6

Don't know 3 3

Not much 4 7

Not at all 1 20

FIGURE 6. HAPPINESS VERSUS JOB INSECURITY

FIGURE 5. FEAR AND FAITH IN RECESSION TIMES

Figure 6 illustrates an inverse relationship between happiness at work and fear of losing one’s job: the lesser the fear, the greater the happiness, and the higher the fear, the lesser the happiness.



CONCLUSIONAlthough our small study did not test for significance, it did bring some interesting trends to light. As was to be expected, the study found that the economic recession appears to have a negative impact on workers’ overall positive perception. Yet on the positive side of things, it was also confirmed that workforce members have acknowl-edged a trend toward honesty and ethical and moral behav-ior at work despite the manifestation of repeated corporate scandals. This study further found that workforce members perceive a strong level of personal and collegial caring and cooperation in the workplace despite the turbulent times.

Having conducted this study in a western, English-speaking society, this finding contradicts the statements from Jamal (2005) and Gilboa et al. (2008), who felt that stressful times elicit a greater impact or change in workers’ behavior in western workplaces, as well as Yamada (2009), who had reported on greater bullying and mistreatment at work in stressful times. One possible reason for the rejection of this behavior-related hypothesis at this time in history may be linked to the spirit at work movement that started in the early 1990s and was briefly discussed in this article under hypothesis 4. The movement alluded to the greater spiritual and religious awareness from work-ers in contemporary times. This awareness, then, could have led to neutralization of increased negative behavior in workplaces during stressful times, which could be an interesting point for future research.

Figure 6 also discloses that this was a relatively happy, secure group of workers. About 80% claimed that they were happy at their work and 69% have no or little fear of losing their job. Although not as convincing as in other cases, the study also brought out that closeness to reli-gion may become enhanced when job security decreases, while happiness becomes enhanced when job security increases.

LIMITATIONS AND FUTURE RESEARCHThis study has some potential shortcomings. For instance, the population surveyed for this study was derived from a college environment. This sample may, therefore, not necessarily be a sample of workforce members at large. Because the answers to these survey questions were highly positive in a rather grim time, we considered the characteristics of the participants and found that many of them came from affluent backgrounds, and a large part was comprised of entrepreneurs or members of a closely related work organization. This may have skewed the data. For example, many of these individuals were either working as entrepreneurs or in family businesses where the risk of being laid off was minimal.

As studies on workers’ responses to the recession continue, the findings above may be further solidified or opposed. Suggestions for future research may entail finding out about possible changes in workers’ attitudes and behavior among one another in stressful times seen against the backdrop of greater awareness through work-place spirituality. Future research could also entail com-parisons of management members and nonmanagerial workers about the effect of the recession on their orga-nization’s performance and its internal operations, and further verifying the changes in behavior among workers in western (English speaking) societies over time. It might very well be that the responses collected in this study reflect an increased level of awareness, attained through changes in education and increasing exposure to diverse cultures and mindsets at work, all prompted by the effects of globalization and, consequentially, the intermingling of cultural perspectives.

As a final, critical note, this research focused on trends but did not test for significance. Future researchers may con-sider including this important aspect in their study as well.

HOW PERFORMANCE IMPROVEMENT PROFESSIONALS CAN USE THIS APPROACHScholars and professionals who are interested in improv-ing performance in organizations based in part on the perceptions of affected sources could consider implement-ing similar small surveys. Although the data-gathering process took about a year, because of the small sizes of the groups that were approached over several semesters, the response rate (78%) was much higher than it usually is in mailed or online surveys. Of course, one-time access to a larger population during a workshop or meeting can decrease the data collection time and increase the number of respondents. For a less time-consuming survey process, we have also used Survey Monkey (www.surveymonkey.com), a free online survey instrument. For those sur-veys, we invited potential participants to the survey web address and gathered information online. Although this strategy may quickly reach a larger research population if promoted well, the downside is that the response rate may not be as high as in immediate contact settings.

Based on our experience with this survey, we recom-mend the following guidelines for developing the survey questions:

Determine what the survey should reveal—the goal 1. or purpose of the survey. This helps the researchers to formulate targeted questions.



Keep surveys as brief as possible to prevent potential 2. participants from getting disheartened and withdraw-ing from them. We originally formulated 10 questions and then narrowed them down.

Include some questions that can either reveal ambiva-3. lences in participants’ views or confirm that they hold a unified stance.

Performance improvement consultants could particu-larly use the survey strategy as a quick and simple way to determine effects of the recession or other financial, moral, or economical issues in their own or their clients’ work-places. Gathering information from a survey can bring some surprising outcomes to the surface and dismantle wrong assumptions that may lead to erroneous managerial decisions. Survey findings, straight from participants who are important stakeholders, can help organizational leaders maintain or increase positive effects and mitigate or decrease negative effects, thus improving performance in their orga-nizations. Testing for the significance of the responses requires knowledge of statistical methodology; however, it will strengthen the credibility of a survey’s findings and support decisions related to possible areas for performance improvement or selection of support interventions.

References

Gilboa, S., Shirom, A., Fried, Y., & Cooper, C. (2008). A meta-analysis of work demand stressors and job performance

examining main and moderating effects. Personnel Psychology, 61(2), 227–271.

Jamal, M. (2005). Burnout among Canadian and Chinese employees: A cross-cultural study. European Management Review, 2(3), 224–230.

Koh, H.C., & Boo, E.f.H.Y. (2004). Organisational ethics and employee satisfaction and commitment. Management Decision, 42(5/6), 677–693.

Long, A. (2005). Happily ever after? A study of job satisfaction

in Australia. Economic Record, 81(255), 303–321

Potocan, V. (2009). Does trust influence supply chain manage-ment? Journal of American Academy of Business, Cambridge, 15(1), 118–124.

Saad, L. (2008). U.S. workers’ job satisfaction is relatively high. Gallup Poll Briefing, 1930224X.

Selmer, J., & Waldstrøm, C. (2007). Work values of surviv-ing and non-surviving managers during economic recession. Career Development International, 12(5), 433–445.

Vitell, S., Bing, M., Davison, H., Ammeter, A., Garner, B., & Novicevic, M. (2009). Religiosity and moral identity: The mediating role of self-control. Journal of Business Ethics, 88(4), 601–613.

Yamada, D. (2009). Understanding and responding to bullying and related behaviors in healthcare workplaces. Frontiers of Health Services Management, 25(4), 33–36.

JOAN MARQUES, EdD, has founded, co-founded, and managed several businesses and nonprofit organizations in Suriname, South America, and the United States. She has been widely published in scholarly and popular journals worldwide. She has authored, coauthored, and co-edited eight books pertaining to workplace contentment and personal-professional excellence. Her current research interests include enhanced consciousness at work and awakened leadership. She holds a BSc in business economics from MOC (Suriname), an MBA from Woodbury University, and a doctorate in organizational leadership from Pepperdine University. She may be reached at [email protected].

NANCY R. LUNA, EdD, has been teaching courses in business ethics, global enterprise, leadership, social responsibility, communication, and conflict and labor negotiations at Woodbury University since 2008. Prior to that, she taught English as a second language to adult learners at Glendale Community College. She also taught organizational behavior at Los Angeles Pierce College. She has focused on elder care, both as part of her profession and study specialty. She holds a BA in sociol-ogy from UCLA, an MBA from Woodbury University, and a doctorate in organizational leadership from Pepperdine University’s Graduate School of Education and Psychology. She may be reached at [email protected].


The effects of the recession on workers' moral, ethical, and interpersonal behavior

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