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The Ecosystem Approach -protecting marine life in all its forms

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Published in June 2007by Greenpeace InternationalOttho Heldringstraat 51066 AZ AmsterdamThe NetherlandsTel: +31 20 7182000Fax: +31 20 5148151

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The world's oceans, once thought to contain inexhaustibleresources, are under increasing threat. In recent years, scientificstudy after scientific study has pointed to the fact that humanactivities and fishing in particular have been putting extremepressure on marine ecosystems to the point that profoundecosystem changes are being experienced in many parts of theworld. In November 2006, an international group of ecologistsand economists, led by Professor Boris Worm of DalhousieUniversity, published a study in Science that brought the extent ofthis degradation into stark relief. Looking at marine biodiversityon a global scale, the study shows that loss of marine biodiversityis drastically reducing the ocean's ability to produce seafood,resist diseases, filter pollutants and rebound from stresses suchas over-fishing and climate change. The team's projection that allcommercial and seafood species are on the brink of collapse wasshocking enough to make news headlines across the world.

The study however was not all doom and gloom, for it alsoshowed that closing areas to fishing by establishing marinereserves increases the abundance, productivity and diversity ofspecies found in the reserves. This applies to fish species at leastas much as it applies to other species, which means that marinereserves boost fish stocks and ultimately the catch per unit effortin waters adjacent to the reserves. This should be a wake-up callto us all. If we take action now, the oceans possess the potentialto rebound; if we do nothing, we will witness further fisheriescollapses until there is nothing left to fish, except perhaps jellyfish.

The ecosystem approach is vital if we are to ensure the healthof our oceans for future generations.

The MediterraneanThe Mediterranean Sea reflects the shocking global trendsoutlined. The close proximity of the many millions of peoplewho live along or visit the Mediterranean coastline across three continents places huge pressure on the marineenvironment. From overfishing to pollution, it is amongst themost degraded marine ecosystems in the world, to the pointwhere many species and ecosystems are on the brink ofcollapse. Bluefin tuna stocks are a case in point; once amainstay of fishermen in the Mediterranean, the stock is nowin urgent need of recovery. Mediterranean green turtles, listedas endangered, are one of three turtle species that arethreatened by exploitation, fishing, coastal development,shipping and pollution.

It is clear that current management regimes are to blame forthe widespread degradation of Mediterranean Sea. It is furtherwidely accepted amongst many policy makers, scientists andothers that we must therefore adopt a radical new approach tomanaging the Mediterranean - one that is precautionary innature and has protection of the whole marine ecosystem asits primary objective.

The Ecosystem Approach -protecting marine life in all its forms

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The Ecosystem Approach - protecting marine life in all its forms

So what is the ecosystem approach? Essentially, the ecosystem approach to the management ofactivities in the marine environment requires consideration ofwhole ecosystems at a scale that ensures that ecosystemintegrity is maintained. It recognises the complex interactionsbetween species that make up marine ecosystems, and so isunderpinned by principles of community biology and ecology. Thisis radically different from the present situation where mostfisheries management measures focus on single species and donot consider the role of the species in the wider ecosystem.Moreover, the various industries that affect the marineenvironment are currently managed on a sector-by-sector basisso that no consideration is given to their cumulative impacts.

Given the scientific uncertainty and unpredictability of marineecosystems it is vital that the ecosystem approach is applied inconjunction with a precautionary approach. What this means inpractice is that a lack of knowledge does not excuse decision-makers from taking action, but rather that they err on the side ofcaution. To achieve this, the burden of proof must be placed onthose who want to undertake activities, such as fishing or coastaldevelopment, to show that these activities will not harm themarine environment before any action is permitted. This willencourage sustainable development and fisheries, while limitingdestructive practices.

The objective of applying the ecosystem approach is to ensurethat ecosystems are not systematically degraded and that theconditions required for the provision of human needs, future orpresent, are not undermined. Moreover, the ecosystem approachshould focus management action where the control over theimpact of the activity is most feasible and effective, i.e. on thehuman activities that impact the marine environment, rather thanattempt to manipulate the way in which an ecosystem isfunctioning.

Applying the ecosystem approach in practiceIn order to implement the ecosystem approach a wholepackage of management measures need to be introduced,underpinned by the establishment of networks of large-scale marine reserves.

Implementation of the ecosystem approach requires amanagement strategy that:

• goes beyond a single or multi-species approach byconsidering the ecosystem as a whole;

• is aimed at protecting biodiversity and restoring degradedecosystems, not least with the aim to improve theirresilience to global climate change;

• avoids over-harvesting and ecosystem modifications;

• is based on the precautionary principle - i.e. conservationmeasures are taken even in the absence of full knowledgeof the activities, impacts and ecological responses to theseimpacts;

• focuses on the 'up-stream' control of human activities, i.e.controlling human activities to minimise and eliminateimpacts, rather than focusing on the control of impacts orof ecosystems;

• is robust even in the light of uncertainties and managementoversight; and

• can be applied with immediate effect.

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Protected areas plus sustainablemanagement - it's a package dealWhile marine reserves are an essential part of the solution to thecrisis facing our oceans and intrinsic to the application of theecosystem approach, human activities in the surrounding watersmust also be managed sustainably. Indeed, the effectiveness ofmarine reserves will depend as much on the management ofactivities in waters beyond their boundaries as on theirdesignation as protected areas. Among the measures needed toachieve sustainability in the seas outside marine reserves are:

Reduction of fishing overcapacity and effort

The continued expansion of fishing capacity and effort presentsan obstacle to achieving equitable and sustainable use of marineresources. Both fishing capacity and effort must be adjusted to alevel that the sea can sustain, and subsidies that encourage over-capacity must be eliminated.

Elimination of destructive fishing practices

Fishing practices that clearly fail the test of sustainability must beprohibited. An example is the use of large-scale driftnets, whichare indiscriminate and have unacceptably high levels of by-catchand as a result have been banned in some regions such as theMediterranean. (However it should be noted that this ban has notbeen properly enforced as yet.) Beam trawling is another highlydestructive form of fishing that produces huge levels of bycatchand inflicts widespread damage to bottom habitats across theNorth Sea.

Elimination of pirate fishing

The management of fisheries is only as good as its enforcement.Illegal, unregulated and unreported (IUU) fishing threatens theglobal marine environment and the livelihoods of those who fishlegitimately. Loopholes in fisheries management, lax attitudesallowing the proliferation of flags of convenience and poorenforcement of regulations must be addressed.

End pollution

Unfortunately our oceans have been used as a dump for all sortsof wastes and many areas are highly polluted from land-basedand as well as ship-based sources. Marine pollution comes inmany forms, the most familiar being from oil tanker accidents, butthese are only a tiny part of the problem. Agricultural runoff fromriver basins, chemical pollution from industrial plants discharginginto the sea from the land, oil from ships washing out their tanks,intentional dumping, mining and the throwing of litter into the seaare all fouling our oceans. Every effort should be made toeliminate the introduction of pollutants into the marineenvironment and shipping routes need to be devised to takevessels carrying dangerous cargoes away from the mostvulnerable areas.

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The Ecosystem Approach - protecting marine life in all its forms

Marine reserves - an essential partof an ecosystem approach

Marine reserves are highly protected areas that are off-limits to all extractive and destructive uses including fishing. Comparableto national parks on land, they are the most powerful toolavailable for the conservation of ocean wildlife and may alsobenefit fisheries by promoting recovery and reproduction ofexploited species.

Marine reserves also have important benefits for building ourscientific understanding of the marine environment. They providecontrol areas for all direct human disturbances and more naturalbaselines for measurement of impacts. This enables scientists toobtain data that are less confounded by human activities (e.g.separating natural variation from fishing effects) and acquire agreater understanding of the intrinsic processes of oceanecosystems. Marine reserves are therefore essential toimplementing the ecosystem approach.

Where marine reserves have been designated, they have beenshown to result in long-standing and often rapid increases in theabundance, diversity and productivity of marine life, especially ofspecies that were previously exploited. Marine reserves maybenefit fisheries by the “spill-over” of animals from inside thereserves, and from the export of eggs and larvae to adjacentmarine areas.

In the past, vast tracts of our oceans were inaccessible toindustrial fisheries and other extractive activities and so were defacto marine reserves, providing natural refuges for marinespecies. However today, technological innovations haveextended the reach and capacity of these activities so that fishingcan take place practically anywhere on the planet, eliminating anyrefuges that once provided respite to fish populations. Sodesignating 'no-take' areas is key to restoring and maintaininghealthy marine ecosystems for the future. Marine reserves areknown to promote resilience to overfishing and are important formaintaining the integrity of marine ecosystems in the face ofclimate change.

Scale and size of marine reservesIn order to ensure sufficient protection across the whole range ofmarine ecosystems it will be necessary to establish arepresentative network of fully protected marine reserves. To be effective such networks must, therefore, span largegeographic distances and be of sufficient scale to protect againstcatastrophes and ensure the long-term health and stability ofmarine ecosystems.

In order to reverse the current decline in the health of our oceans,Greenpeace is calling for 40% of the oceans to be protected bymarine reserves.

This figure is firmly based in science. A review (Gell and Roberts2003) of forty previous studies into what area coverage is requiredto achieve conservation and fisheries management goalsconcluded that 20-50% is required. In its 2004 report 'Turning thetide: addressing the impact of fisheries on the marineenvironment' the UK's Royal Commission on EnvironmentalPollution (RCEP) similarly recommended that 30% of the UK'sEEZ be designated as no-take zones in order to reverse the trendof declining fish stocks.

Greenpeace's call is also consistent with that of the World ParksCongress, which said “networks should be extensive and includestrictly protected areas that amount to at least 20-30% of eachhabitat.” Meanwhile, the United Nations Millennium Project callsfor 10% of the oceans to be covered by Marine Reserves in theshort to medium term, with a long-term goal of 30%.

Implementing networks of marine reserves that benefit small-scaleand sustainable fisheries will require the full participation of thesecommunities from inception onwards. While Greenpeaceenvisages the establishment of large-scale marine reserves on thehigh seas, closer to the coast a patchwork of small reserves willbe more effective. This difference in scale not only reflects thedifference in scale of habitat distribution but also ensuresequitable access to fishing resources to the communities alongthe coast.

Time for Action While some countries have introduced protected areas within theirown national waters, this is not going to be enough to provide themarine protection required. Countries must work together toidentify and designate national, regional and global networks ofmarine reserves, fully representative of the diversity ofecosystems.

To help with this process, Greenpeace has identified specificareas which should be set aside in regional networks of marinereserves, as well as a proposal for a global set of marine reserveson the high seas. http://oceans.greenpeace.org/en/our-oceans/marine-reserves/roadmap-to-recovery

Now is the time to make these proposals real.

There is no time to waste: defending our oceans must begin now!

Marine Reserves support fisheriesApo Island is the oldest marine reserve in the Philippines.Twenty years ago, fishermen there were engaging indestructive fishing practices such as dynamite fishing. Fishingwas fast becoming a poor long-term investment and localfishermen noticed their catches were decreasing. Now themarine reserve has been in place for twenty years, locals haveseen a marked increase in catch levels. Similar stories are toldby fishers near other well-established reserves around theworld, such as El Hierro in the Canary Islands, St Soufrière inSt Lucia, and the Azores.

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Greenpeace is an independent globalcampaigning organisation that acts to change attitudes and behaviour, to protect and conserve theenvironment and to promote peace.

Greenpeace International Ottho Heldringstraat 5 1066 AZ AmsterdamThe NetherlandsTel: +31 20 7182000Fax: +31 20 5148151

greenpeace.org