'The Earth is Crying Out in Pains of Childbirth': Bauxite ...
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Claremont CollegesScholarship @ ClaremontEnvironmental Analysis Program Mellon StudentSummer Research Reports
Environmental Analysis Program at the ClaremontColleges
9-1-2011
'The Earth is Crying Out in Pains of Childbirth':Bauxite Mining and Sustainable RuralDevelopment in the Brazilian Atlantic ForestLena R. ConnorPomona College
This Undergraduate Research Project is brought to you for free and open access by the Environmental Analysis Program at the Claremont Colleges atScholarship @ Claremont. It has been accepted for inclusion in Environmental Analysis Program Mellon Student Summer Research Reports by anauthorized administrator of Scholarship @ Claremont. For more information, please contact [email protected].
Recommended CitationConnor, Lena R., "'The Earth is Crying Out in Pains of Childbirth': Bauxite Mining and Sustainable Rural Development in theBrazilian Atlantic Forest" (2011). Environmental Analysis Program Mellon Student Summer Research Reports. Paper 4.http://scholarship.claremont.edu/eap_ea_mellonreports/4
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“TheEarthisCryingOutinPainsofChildbirth:”1BauxiteMiningandSustainableRural
DevelopmentintheBrazilianAtlanticForest
AndrewW.MellonFellowshipResearchProjectPresentedby:
LenaConnor,EnvironmentalAnalysis,Classof2013Supervisedby:
JenniferPerry,PomonaCollege,AssociateProfessor,AnthropologyDepartment
1SeeQuoteinAppendixC,Interview#8.AlludingtoRomans8:22:"Forweknowthatthewholecreationgroansandsuffersthepainsofchildbirthtogether…”
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Acknowledgements:
TotheClaremontCollegesMellonFellowshipBoard,foryourgeneroussupport.ToJenniferPerry,forallyourwiseguidance.
ToCharlotte,Laura,TimandallmyIracambifriends,foryouradventurousspirits.ToBinkaandRobinLeBreton,forinspiringmeandprovidingforanincredible
researchexperienceinyourhomethissummer.ToCarminha,foryournurturingcareandwonderfulpeanutbutter.
ToallthoseIinterviewed,foryoureloquenceandpassion.ToFreiGilberto,fordemonstratinganextraordinaryChristianenvironmentalethic.TotheAtlanticForest,foryourwealthoflifeandyourphenomenalresilience.
E,finalmente,paraosmoradoresgentileamáveldoTerritórioSerradoBrigadeiro,pormeensinandomuitosobrecomoviveravida.Euesperoquevocêcrescernasua
belasmontanhasparaosanosvindouros.
(Andfinally,forthegentleandkindresidentsoftheSerradoBrigadeiroTerritory,forteachingmemuchonhowtolivelife.Mayyouthriveinyourbeautifulmountains
foryearstocome.)
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TableofContents
I. Abstract………………………………………………………………………4II. IntroductionandStatementofResearchQuestion….……...5
I. Introduction II. Statement of Research QuestionIII. Iracambi’s Role in the AreaIV. Bauxite Mining Comes to the Serra do Brigadeiro
III. LiteratureReview………………………………………………………..12I. TheDestructionoftheAtlanticForestII. MinasGerais:AHistoryofMiningIII. BauxiteMiningonaGlobal‐ScaleIV. TheAnthropologyofMining
IV. ResearchMethodology…………………………………………………25V. PresentationandAnalysisofData……………………………...…34
I. TheRealandPotentialEffectsofMininginRelationtoIdentityi. MiningandtheEnvironmentii. MiningandSocietyiii. MiningandReligioniv. MiningandtheEconomy
II. VisionsofSustainableDevelopmentintheContextofMining
III. AdvocacyandNextStepsVI. Conclusions……………………………………………………………….….56
I. RevisitingtheResearchQuestionsII. LimitationsIII. FinalThoughts
VII. Bibliography…………………………………………………………………63VIII. Appendices……………………………………………………………….…..65
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ListofAppendices:
AppendixA.MapsMap1.ChangestotheAtlanticForestMap2.BauxiteConcessionsintheSerradoBrigadeiro
TerritoryMap3.IracambiinBauxiteConcessionsMap4.SantaLuciaCommunityinBauxiteConcessionsMap5.PedraAltaCommunityinBauxiteConcessionsMap6.SantaCatarinaCommunityinBauxiteConcessionsMap7.ExistingBauxiteMiningMap
AppendixB.Figures
Fig.1.WorldDistributionofBauxiteReservesFig.2.TimeTrendsinBauxiteProductionfrom1900‐2001Fig.3.WorldBauxitePerCapitaConsumptionfrom1990‐
2001Fig.4.SerradoBrigadeiroTerritoryEmployment
CategorizationFig.5.SerradoBrigadeiroTerritoryRuralPopulation
VarianceBetween1970‐2000Fig.6.RuralPopulationGraphofTerritoryfrom1970‐2000
AppendixC.InterviewData
Section1.FormalInterviewListSection2.AdditionalInterviewQuotes
AppendixD.Images
Section1.MiningImagesSection2.CommunityMappingImagesSection3.IracambiImagesSection4.EventImagesSection5.InterviewImages
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I. Abstract In2003,residentsoftheSerradoBrigadeiroTerritory,aruralareaof
SoutheasternBrazilinoneofthefewremainingpatchesoftheAtlanticForest,
learnedofalargenumberofbauxiteconcessionsintheirterritorygivenbythe
federalgovernmenttotheprominentCompanhiaBrasileiradeAlumínio(CBA),
Brazil’slargestaluminumproducer.Becausetheregionpridesitselfonitssmall‐
scaleagricultureanditslushnaturalenvironment,themininghasbeenthesource
ofmuchcontentioninthecommunity.Introducedtothetopicbytheinternational
conservationNGOandresearchcenter,Iracambi,Ispenttwomonthsintheterritory
thissummer,exploringhowthecommunityperceivesthemining.Anexercisein
anthropologicalresearch,thisreporttriestoanswerthequestion:Howhasthe
controversysurroundingthebauxitemininginformedhowthecitizensoftheSerra
doBrigadeiroterritoryperceivetheircommunalandindividualidentitiesin
relationshiptothedevelopmentoftheircommunities?Throughformaland
informalinterviewing,participantobservation,andfieldwork,Iconcludedthatthe
mininghasinstigatedcommunityinquiryintomanyfacetsoftheregion’sfuture,
including:thefateoffamilyagriculture;thevalueofecologicalresources;
globalizationanditseffectoneconomicandgenerationalchange;andtherhetoric
usedtoexpressopinionsonexternalforcessuchasbauxitemining.
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II. IntroductionandStatementofQuestionIntroduction
TheSerradoBrigadeiroTerritoryisasmallclumpofruralmunicipalitiesin
themountainousdepthsofthestateofMinasGerais,itselfconsideredthe“heartland”
ofBrazil.Itisaplaceofbreathtakingbeauty,atropicalSwitzerland.Itspatchwork
landscapesofrainforest,cropland,andgreenpasturesymbolizethelifestylethatthe
region’sfarmers,andthenativePuríIndiansbeforethem,havebeenweaving
togetherforcenturies,insearchforanecologicalbalancethathasnotalwaysbeen
easytoattain.
LocatedinoneofthefewremainingpatchesoftheoncemagnificentMata
Atlântica(AtlanticForest),theterritorynotonlyhousesthousandsofsubsistence
farmingfamilies,butalsosomeoftheworld’smostendangeredspecies,including
thelargestknownpopulationofthefamousWoollySpiderMonkey,themost
endangeredprimateintheAmericas.Accordingly,theregionhasbeenworkingfor
decadestoimplementaformofsustainabledevelopmentthatwouldnurtureallof
itsinhabitants,humanandnon‐humanalike,withthehelpoflocalorganizationsas
wellastheinternationalNGO,IracambiConservationandResearchCenter,theplace
Icalledhomefortwomonthsthissummer.
Asifachievingecologicalandagriculturalharmonyinasensitivetropical
environmentwasnotenoughofastruggle,in2003,theterritorylearnedofan
addedcomplexity.Thatyear,theBrazilianfederalgovernmentgaveCompanhia
BrasileiradeAlumínio(CBA),Brazil’slargestaluminumproducer,over6,700
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hectaresofbauxiteminingconcessionsintheterritory.Thecompanyhadcompleted
theinitialprospectingofthearea25yearspreviously,sowereprimedtobeginthe
miningprocessimmediately.2Theconcessions,whichencompassover11,000
familyfarmsandlargesectionsoftheSerradoBrigadeiroStateParkBufferZone
andthesurroundingenvironmentalprotectionareas(APAs),containanestimated
73.7milliontonsofbauxite,whichwillproduceaboutUSD$3.5billionworthof
aluminum.3IntheeightyearssinceCBAannounceditsplans,thecompanyhasbeen
movingforwardwiththelicensingprocessontheconcessionareas,hasbegunto
mineinthesoutherncorneroftheterritory,andhasplanstoproceednorth.
Meanwhile,theresidentsofSerradoBrigadeirohavebeengrapplingwiththe
realityofthesituationandrespondingtotheprospectofmininginavariedmanner.
Ibecameawareofthebauxiteminingissuewhen,enamoredofIracambi’s
vision“toworkwithourcommunitytomaketheconservationoftheAtlanticForest
moreattractivethanitsdestruction,”IprobedRobinLeBreton,theorganization’s
researchdirector,forpotentialtopicsofstudy.AsanEnvironmentalAnalysisand
PoliticsmajorwithaparticularinterestinChristianecologyandsustainable
agriculture,themininginitiallyseemedoutsidemyrealmofexpertise.Robinspoke
ofthedireneedforethnographicresearchonthesubjectinordertomitigatethe
effectsoftheminingonthecommunity,soIsignedupdespitemylackofspecialized
knowledge.Yet,asIbecameimmersedinthecomplexityoftheissue,Idiscovered
howveryintertwinedtheregion’sminingcontroversyiswithsubjectsI’macutely
2NicolaDugdale&LenaConnor,“MiningBriefingDocument,”IracambiConservationandResearchCenter(2011),3‐5.3Dugdale&Connor,34.
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familiarwith.Theminingcomesatacriticaltimefortheregion’sidentity.Ina
periodofideologicalflux,thebauxiteminingbecomesametaphorinaculture
burgeoningwitheconomic,environmental,religiousandsociologicalchange.
StatementofQuestion
Therefore,thepurposeofthisreportistoexaminehowthediscourseon
mininghasadvancedsofar,andtoanalyzethewaysinwhichithasinfluenced
visionsforthefutureoftheterritory.Iidentifiedmyprimaryresearchquestionas:
Howhasthecontroversysurroundingthebauxitemininginformedhowthe
citizensoftheSerradoBrigadeiroterritoryperceivetheircommunaland
individualidentitiesinrelationshiptothedevelopmentoftheircommunities?
Inordertounderstandthecontroversyfully,Iexploredthenecessarysub‐questions,
including:
• Whatareasandwhichcommunitieswillbeaffectedbytheproposedmining?
• Whatarethetangibleexistingandpotentialeconomic,environmental,andsociologicaleffectsofbauxitemining?
• Howdothecitizensperceivetheeffectsofthebauxiteminingrelativetotheirpersonalandcommunalidentity?Whatcomponentsoftheiridentitydocitizensfeelarebeingthreatenedorreinforcedbythemining’sexistence?
• Howdoesthecommunitydefinesustainabledevelopmentandhowdotheyseemininginthiscontext?
• Whatarethecommunity’sperceptionsoftheantiminingandprominingadvocacy?Howwouldthecommunityliketomoveforwardinreconcilingtheminingwiththeirregionalidentity?
TheSerradoBrigadeiroTerritory
TheSerradoBrigadeiroTerritoryislocatedinthenorthernsectionoftheZona
daMataofMinasGerais,andcontainsthefollowingcounties:Serecita,Divino,
Araponga,PedraBonita,Fervedouro,Ervália,Muriaé,Miradouro,RosáriodaLimeira.
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Ithasatotalareaof3,000km2,equivalenttothestateofRhodeIsland,andin2000
hadapopulationof171,135(seeAppendixBfordemographicinformation).Though
theregion’slargesturbancenter,Muriaé,containsabout80,000residents,the
majorityoftheterritory’spopulationlivesinruralareas(muchhigherthanthe
nationalaverage),andmostfamilies’livelihoodsremainintheagriculturaland
servicesectors.AstheeconomictableinAppendixshows,theindustrialsectoris
moderateinMuriaé(at28.62%),andclaimsonlyasmallpercentageoftheeconomy
inmostcounties(16.97%inRosariodaLimeira).AndwhileotherpartsofMinas
GeraisandBrazilhavebeenshiftingtocommercialagricultural,theSerrado
Brigadeirohaverejectedlarge‐scaleagribusinessthusfar,continuingwithafamily
agriculturetradition.4
Iracambi’sRoleintheArea
RobinLeBreton,anagriculturaleconomistandconservationist(and
reformedWorldBankspecialist)andBinkaLeBreton,aconcertpianistandwell‐
knownauthoronenvironmentalandhumanrightsintheAmazon,foundedIracambi
becausetheyweredrawntothearea’snaturalheritage.Theywantedtoworkwith
localfarmerstopreservetheagriculturalandlifestylepracticesthatallowedthe
nativeecosystemstoflourish.Alongwithlocalactivists,Iracambifoughttohavethe
SerradoBrigadeiroStateParkandthebufferzonesurroundingitestablishedin
ordertoprotecttheimportantpatchofsemi‐deciduousAtlanticForestlocatedin
themountainrange,apartoftheUNBiosphereReserve.Thelocalforestecosystem
isrichinplantspeciessuchasbromeliads,orchids,andpalms.Itisalsoarefugefor4“Território da Serra do Brigadeiro – MG: Sistemização e análise dos dados secundarios.” CTA-ZM: Centro de Tecnologias Alternativas da Zona da Mata de Minas Gerais (Viçosa: 2004), 10-15.
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endangeredfaunasuchastheMaskedTitimonkey,theWoollySpidermonkey,
jaguar,ocelot,andvariousfrogandbirdspecies.Theysucceededin1996.The
BrazilianfederalgovernmentsubsequentlysetuptheSerradoBrigadeiroRural
DevelopmentTerritorywithamodelofsustainabledevelopmentforthe10‐km
bufferzonethatwascompatiblewiththeconservationgoalsoftheStatePark.A
progressivemoveonthepartoftheBraziliangovernment,theactionestablisheda
precedentforsustainabledevelopmentinthearea.
BauxiteMiningComestotheTerritory
Consequently,itcameasquiteasurprisetoIracambiandlocal
environmentalistswhenthefederalgovernmentallowedCBAtoselecttheprotected
areaforitsintendedbauxitemining.CBAannounceditsplansquietlyin2003,ina
smallnewspaperinBeloHorizonte,thestatecapital,andbydoingso“startedthe
entireprocessoffonthewrongfoot,”accordingtoRobinLeBreton.Thecompany’s
dissimulationmadethecommunitysuspiciousandhostile.CBAfailedinitiallyto
reachouttothecommunityandexplainwhattheminingwouldentail.5Accordingto
LeBreton,thestateenvironmentallicensingauthorities(FundaçãoEstadualdoMeio
Ambiente)didlittletocurtailthecompany’schoiceofconcessionsandmadethe
EnvironmentalImpactAssessment(EIA)highlyinaccessibletothepublic.Iracambi
mobilizedseveralconcernedcommunitygroupsandindividualsandformedthe
“CommissionofthoseAffectedbyMining,”commonlyreferredtoastheMining
Commission.Thecommissionhasbeenactiveinstudyinganddiscussingthemining
sinceitsformationin2003andmeetsmonthly.ItincludestheSerradoBrigadeiro
5Dugdale&Connor,3‐5.
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StateParkcouncil,theRuralWorkers’Union(SindicatodeTrabalhadoresRurais),
theCenterforAlternativeTechnology(CTA),theCatholicPastoralLandCommission
(CPT),theFederalTechnicalInstituteofMuriaé,andAmigosdeIracambi.6
In2006,theMiningCommissionobtainedacourtorderthatblockedCBA
fromproceedingwithminingwithinthebufferzoneofthepark,butIracambifears
thatthecompanyhasthepoliticalclouttogetthisorderreversedandprobablywill
doso,asthemajorityoftheconcessionsarewithinthebufferboundary.However,
atthemoment,itappearsthatCBAiscontenttocommencewiththemininginthe
areasofleastresistance,outsideofthebufferzoneinthesouth.TheMining
Commissionhasbeenworkingforeightyearstoraisecommunityawarenessofthe
miningthroughpublicforumsandpublishedpamphlets.Iracambireceiveda
$195,000grantfromtheInter‐AmericanFoundationin2007toconductresearchon
themining’saffectonlocalfarmers,designacommunitytrainingprogramforlocal
leadersinmanagingthemining,andtopushthroughlegislationintheterritoryfor
theestablishmentofenvironmentalprotectionareas(APAs)withinthebufferzone
toprovidefurtherlegalprotectionagainstthemining.7However,recently,the
commissionworkhascometostandstill,asitsmembersdisagreeonwhether
resistanceornegotiationwithCBAisthepreferablestrategy.ThoughIracambiisin
favourofwisenegotiation,itrefusestomoveunilaterally,andthereforemustwait
untiltheMiningCommissioncomestoaconclusionontheissue.
6JessicaHarper,“ConfrontingCorporateDevelopment:Anti‐MiningAdvocacyintheBrazilianAtlanticRainforest,”MastersCapstonePaper,(SchoolforInternationalTraining,2007)14.7Dugdale&Connor,4.
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Meanwhile,CBArespondedtothecourtorderandpublicmeetingsby
becomingmuchmoreopenwiththecommunity.Itbegantohirelocalsfor
constructionworkinitsminingareasandnewly‐builtwashingfacilityand
contractedoutlocalcompaniesforservicesliketruckingandroadconstruction.The
companyalsohiredGaiain2009,aPRfirmwithaspecialityincorporatesocialand
environmentalresponsibility,toworkwiththelocalmunicipalitiestocreatea“30‐
year‐vision”forsustainabledevelopmentintheterritory.Gaiahostedseveralpublic
forumsaboutmininganddevelopmentanddesignedpilotsocialprojectsforthe
region.Italsopresentedinlocalschoolsandchurchesandwidelydistributed
pamphletsandradiocommercials.
Since2003,thebauxitemininghasbecomeanimportantfixtureofthe
internationalresearchcenteratIracambi,andseveralstudentshavedevotedtheir
timeinBraziltostudyingtheimpactofmining.Manyhavefocusedonimproving
IracambibankofGISinformationontheconcessionsandtheirplacementinthe
regionandaddedmappinglayersdepictinghydrology,forestareas,etc.Jessica
Harper,agraduatestudentfromtheVermontSchoolofInternationalTraining,
studiedtheadvocacyeffortsoftheMiningCommissionin2006andLindsey
Witthaus,anundergraduatestudentfromWisconsinonaFulbrightScholarship,
studiedthesamesubjectin2008.However,sincetheirresearchreportswere
written,muchhaschangedintheterritory,astheminingbecomesawell‐known
realityandtheopportunityforresistancefadesaway.Theregionstandsata
precipice,anditsinhabitantsfaceadrasticchangetotheirterrainandwayoflife.
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III. RelevantLiterature
TheDestructionoftheAtlanticForest
Inhisbook,BroadaxandFirebrand:TheDestructionoftheAtlanticForest,
environmentalhistorianWarrenDeandescribesSouthAmericaas“theforest
historian’sfreshestbattleground,whereallthefallenstillliesprawledandunburied
andwherethevictorsstillwanderabout,lootingandburningthetrain.”8And,from
thestandpointoftheforest,itisataleofwoe.TheAtlanticForest,whichusedto
spantheentiresoutheasterncoastofBrazil,coveringonemillionsquarekilometers,
rivaledtheAmazoninitslushbeauty.Actuallymorebio‐diversethanitsfamous
neighbor,thevirginforestoncecontainedsuchalargeamountofwildlife,immense
tropicaltrees,andmedicinalandornamentalplantsthatthePortuguesesettlers
whofirstarrivedonitsshoresgapedinawe.
Thoughtheindigenousinhabitantslivedonthelandforover10,000years,
theirhunting‐and‐gatheringandswiddenagriculturemadealightimpactonthe
foresthealth,astheirpopulationwassmallenoughtoallowlandtogofallowasthey
migratedthroughouttheregion.But,inlessthan500years,Europeanmercantilism
(andlatercapitalism)incentivizedrapiddeforestation,throughlogging,intensified
agriculture,andmining.Evenafteritsindependencefromcolonialrule,Brazil
developedintoatreasuretroveforrawmaterials,minerals,andcommoditycrops
likecoffee,sugarcane,andrice.Supportedbythesurplusofslavelabor(andlater
cheapEuropeanlabor),theselarge‐scaleendeavorsfacilitatedtheswiftexpansion
8WarrenDean,BroadaxandFirebrand:TheDestructionoftheBrazilianAtlanticForest,(Berkeley:UniversityofCaliforniaPress,1997)5.
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inlandtoreapthegreatestrewardsfordomesticandglobalmarkets.Today,no
significantpatchesofvirginAtlanticForestremain,andonly7%oftheoriginalarea
remainsunderforest.Thatwhichisleftisheavilyfragmentedandunsuitablehabitat
formanymigratoryanimals.9Brazilianbotanist,AugustedeSaint‐Hilaire,predicted
theforest’sfateintheearly19thcentury,saying,“Inafewyears,asmallnumberof
menwillhaveravagedanimmenseprovince,andtheywillbeabletosay,‘Itisaland
that’sfinished.’”10
Manyenvironmentalists,includingDean,seetheAtlanticForestasalost
cause,awarningcrytotheAmazonbasin:“ThelastservicethattheAtlanticForest
mightserve,tragicallyandforlornly,istodemonstratealltheterribleconsequence
ofdestroyingitsimmensewesternneighbor.”11Yet,whileIagreethatBrazil,andall
nations,shouldlookstotheAtlanticForestforhumilityandforeboding,Ithinkthat
itwouldbeamistaketotreattheconservationofremainingpatchesoftheAtlantic
Forestasafruitlesstask.Indeed,thefactthattheAtlanticForestisnowaheavily
humanizedlandscapecanbeitsgreatestasset.UnlessBrazilintendstobuildwalls
aroundthepreciousAmazon,habitationofthatgreatforestisinevitable;the
AtlanticForesthasthepotentialtoserveasatestinggroundforsustainable
resourceusethatmightbeappliedtofuturebehaviorintheAmazon.Fordespite
Dean’searliermetaphor,thebattleisnotoverandtheAtlanticForeststilllives,
thoughheavilywounded.Andtherearemanypeopleinitsbordersfightingtokeep
italive.
9Dean,17.10Dean,117.11Dean,364.
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MinasGerais:AHistoryofMining
MinasGeraishasatellingroleinthehistoryoftheAtlanticForest.
EncompassinganarealargerthanthestateofTexas,MinasGeraiswasonceentirely
forestedandnowcontainsonlyafewlargepatchesofsecondgrowthforest,suchas
thehabitatintheSerradoBrigadeiro.Thoughitisnowknownasahuboffamily
agriculture,famousforitsgoodfoodandEuropeaninfluences,thestate’soriginis
rootedinminingandmuchofitsdevelopmentanddeforestationcanbeattributed
tocenturiesofmininginfluence.MinasGerais,or“GeneralMines”inPortuguese,
wasthecenterofthegoldminingthatfulfilledthePortugueseroyalty’sdreamsand
fueledsettlementrushesinland.
ThoughthecrownhadlustedaftergoldsinceitsarrivalinBrazil,itwasnot
untilthelate17thcenturiesthatprospectorsfoundrichalluvialdepositsinMinas
Gerais.AccordingtoMachadoandFigueiroa,“Anewphasewastheninauguratedfor
theBrazilianeconomy,labeledbyhistoriansastheGoldCycle.”12Soondiamonds,
silver,andpreciousgemstoneswerealsoappearingintheearthbeneaththeforest.
Someestimatethatduringthe17thand18thcenturies,Brazilprovided50%ofthe
world’ssuppliesofgoldanddiamonds.13AsMachadoandFigueiroacontinue,
“Settlementswerespringingupovernightaroundtheminesites,transforming
remoteandwildplacesintolivelytownsinjust10yearsorso.”Diggers,masters,
merchantmen,andcrownrepresentativefollowedthegoldfeverwhereverit
traveled,settingupwealthycolonialtownssuchasOuroPreto(BlackGold),thegold
12IranF.Machado,SilviaF.deM.Figueiroa,“500YearsofMininginBrazil:ABriefReview.”ResourcesPolicy27(2001)9–24,12.13Machado&Figueiroa,10.
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capitalofMinasGerais,aplaceresplendentwithbaroqueartandcolonial
grandiosity.ImmigrantsinsearchofgoldpouredintothestatefromPortugal,
Europe,andAfricaandthegoldpouredbacktheotherway.ThomasE.Skidmore
arguesthattheminingwealthwentdirectlytoBritishhands,asthePortugueseused
muchofittopaydebts,andthat“Brazilianminingrichescanbesaidtohavehelped
capitalizethefirstindustrialrevolution.”14
Unfortunately,themineralboomdidnotestablishafirmfoundationfor
MinasGerais,asworkerswereenslavedorpaidmeagerwages,andthewealthwas
concentratedinthehandsofthecrownandafewopportunisticminingoverlords.
Duringtheearly18thcentury,thegoldinspiredwhateconomistscall“Dutchdisease,”
assettlerswouldabandonsteadyindustryandfarmingforthechaseforgold,and
theculturesurroundingthefeverwasfullofavarice.15Andafterthedepositsbegan
todwindleafterthe1750’s,MinasGeraisbecameaplaceofeconomicandsocietal
stagnation.Evenasearlyas1711,thenotedItalianJesuitchroniclerAntilquipped
that“noprudentpersoncanfailtoadmitthatGodpermittedthediscoveryofso
muchgoldintheminessothathecouldpunishBrazilwithit.”16
Additionally,theminingleftanuglyscaronthecountrysideofMinasGerais.
Bythe19thcentury,thegoldmining“replacedforestwithpockmarkedmoors,”says
Dean,andthehillswerestrippedofallbutpatchygrassanddenudedbysheet
14ThomasE.Skidmore,Brazil:FiveCenturiesofChange,(NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress,2010)22.15MachadoandFigueiroa,15.16Skidmore,22.
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erosion,giantgullies,andstreambedweresilted.Onebotanistatthetimecalledita
“baldanddesertedregion,whoseterrainisentirelyoverturnedbyexcavations.”17
Cattleranchersandcoffeefarmersfollowedtheminingandpreventedthelandfrom
returningtoforest,andallthatremainedoftheoriginalmatawastuftsonthetops
ofhillstoprotectstreamheadwaters.
Consequently,althoughthebauxiteminingisnewtothearea,thecitizensof
theSerradoBrigadeiroTerritoryarenotunfamiliarwiththeconceptofminingin
theirhomeland,asitisentrenchedintheirland’spast.Evenafterthegoldmining
andthePortugueserulesubsided,theBritishheavilyfundedotherironminingin
MinasGeraisinthe19thcentury,andtheBrazilianandAmericaninvestorsthen
fundedadiversityofminingendeavorsinthe20th.18Today,Brazilisoneofthe
world’stopmineralproducers,accountingfor83differentmineralsandsales
exceedingUS$14billion.BecauseofitancientPrecambrianandPhanerozoic
terrains,Braziliscurrentlyendowedwithsurplusreservesofasbestos,bauxite,
beryl,chromium,fluorspar,gold,quartz,graphite,ironore,kaolin,lithium,
magnesite,manganese,niobium,rare‐earths,talc,tantalum,andtin.19In1995,the
mining(extraction)sector,processingsector,andmineralexportsaccountedfor2%,
26%and27%ofBrazil’sGDP.20AndMinasGeraishousesmuchofthecountry’s
potentialmineralwealththatBrazilianpoliticianshopewillcontinuetofuelBrazil’s
risetoamajoreconomicplayerinthe21stcentury.
17Dean,97.18MachadoandFigueiroa,17‐20.19MachadoandFigueiroa,21.20T.J.Toy&J.J.Griffith,“ChangingSurface‐MineReclamationPracticesinMinasGerais,Brazil.”InternationalJournalofSurfaceMining,ReclamationandEnvironment.15(2001),33‐51,34.
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BauxiteMiningonaGlobalScale
Bauxiteistheprincipalorefortheproductionofaluminummetalviaatwo‐
stageprocessthatinvolves,therefiningofbauxitetoaluminabyawetchemical
causticleachprocess(theBayerprocess)andtheelectrolyticreductionofalumina
toaluminummetal(theHall‐Heroultprocess).21Fromageologicpointofview,
bauxiteisaresidualrockthatformsduringperiodsofintenseweathering,makingit
ubiquitousintropical,rainforestenvironments.22Australiaiscurrentlythelargest
producer,followedbyGuinea,Brazil,andJamaica..23Astheworlddevelops,demand
foraluminumfortransportation,construction,andtechnologicalpurposessoars.
(seeAppendixB,Fig.3)Drivenbythisdemand,bauxiteproductionincreasedan
average5.7%yearlyfrom1900‐2000,andprojectedratesfor2000‐2025suggesta
greaterincrease.(seeAppendixB,Fig.2)EconomistF.M.Meyerpredictsthat,even
ata5%growthrate,“thecurrentlyknownreserveswillbeexhaustedwithinthe
next20yearsandthereservebasewillbeadequatefornotmorethan25years.”He
statesthatitisunlikelythatmorereserveswillnotbediscovered,butmuchofthe
addedreservebaseneededtosupplythe21stcenturywithaluminummightbein
areaswithexternalizedenvironmentalandsocialcosts.24
Brazil’sbauxitecapacityexceedsitscurrentproduction,asithassomeofthe
world’slargestreserves(seeAppendixB,Fig.1).But,toillustrateMeyer’spoint,if
Brazilexpandsitsbauxiteproduction,mostoftheminingwillhavetobedoneinthe
AtlanticandAmazonForestregions,wherereservesarethemostplentiful.Brazilian
21F.M.Meyer,“AvailabilityofBauxiteReserves,”NaturalResourcesResearch13(2004).1.22Meyer,1.23Meyer,2.24Meyer,1.
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aluminumcompanieshaveincreasedproductioninbothregions,duetothehigh
profitincentiveandrelativelylowproductioncosts,andhaveproceededwithfull
governmentsupport,despitetheenvironmentalconsequences.Inastudydoneby
theUSDAForestryServiceonbauxitemininginvirginforestsintheAmazon,in
PortoTrombetasinwesternPará,authorsJ.A.ParrottaandO.H.Knowlesstatethat:
Surfacemininginmosttropicalcountriesdirectlyaffectsrelatively
smallareasofforestcomparedwithforestclearedforagriculture,
logging,hydroelectricandtransportationprojectsandotherchanges
inlanduse.However,theoff‐siteenvironmentalimpactsofsurface
miningcanbeveryextensive,duetoerosionandrunoffresultingin
siltationanddeteriorationofwaterqualityinnearbyrivers,lakesand
reservoirs.Toavoidtheseadverseenvironmentalimpacts,effective
forestrestorationonminedsitesisrequired.Thisrequirescareful
planningandtheintegrationofminingandrehabilitationoperations
basedonsoundsilviculturalandecologicalknowledge.25
Becauseofthisconcern,Brazil’sfederalandstategovernmentshavebeenmuch
morerigorousaboutenvironmentallegislationsurroundingminingandthemining
companieshavegreatlyimprovedtheirreclamationprocesses.
However,inasecondstudyonthesamereclamationsites,Parrotta,Knowles,
andWunderlestate:
Naturalregenerationofsecondaryforestsondegradedtropicallands
25JohnA.ParrottaandOliverH.Knowles,“Restoringtropicalforests onlandsminedforbauxite.”EcologicalEngineering17(2001)219–239,220.
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isoftenaslowanduncertainprocess,impededbyacombinationof
factorsincludinghumanandlivestockpressures,recurrentfires,
persistenceofdominantgrassesandothernon‐woodyspecies,
unfavorablemicroclimaticconditions,soilinfertility,exhaustionof
soilseedbanksandroot‐stocksandlowratesofseedinputsfrom
nearbysurroundingforests.Onsurface‐minedsites,theseobstaclesto
naturalregenerationaregenerallymoreacutethanonotherdegraded
landscapesduetotheremovaloftopsoil(resultingintheelimination
ofsoilseedbankandrootstocks)andsoilprofiledisturbances
(includingcompaction)thatinevitablyaccompanythemining
process.26
Theauthorssuggestthatcompaniesamelioratetheeffectsofminingonforested
areabyapplyingpropersitepreparation,especiallytopsoilhandling,andinvesting
inproperresearchtocollectseedsfromawidevarietyofforestplantsand
propagatingandplantingthemwithpropercare.Theyalsostatethatseveral
companieshaveimprovedinthesepractices,andnowtaketimetoestablishnative
ecosystems,insteadofplantinglargeplantationsofeucalyptusandotherprofitable
loggingtrees.27
Unfortunately,littleinvestigationhasbeendoneonsuchequivalent
reclamationintheAtlanticForestregion,wheresoilsaremoredegraded,wildlife
maintenanceismoreprecarious,naturalregenerationismoredifficultdueto
26John A. Parrotta, Oliver Henry Knowle, Joseph M. Wunderle Jr., “Developmentoffloristicdiversityin10‐year‐oldrestorationforestsonabauxiteminedsiteinAmazonia.”ForestryEcologyandManagement99(1997)21–42,22.27ParrottaandKnowle,238.
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habitatfragmentation,andstreamsarehighlysusceptibletosedimentation.
Additionally,thereislimitedresearchonreclamationoffarminglandinthefragile
tropicalsoilsofbothregions,thoughafewsoilscientistsatUniversityofViçosain
MinasGeraisareintheprocessofstudyingcoffeefieldreclamationpost‐bauxite
mining.
TheAnthropologyofMining
Onaglobalscale,thediscourseonthesocialeffectsofmininghasaltered
dramaticallysincetheminingindustry’sboominthe1970’sand1980’s.As
anthropologistChrisBallardrecounts,asminingcompaniesbegantodevelopinthe
“greenfield”or“frontier”territories,among“relativelyremoteormarginalized
indigenouscommunities”thathavelongbeentheclassicfocusofethnographic
research,anthropologistsbecamesweptupinthecontentious(andoften
dangerous)debatesurroundingmininginthedevelopingworld.Thepositioningof
anthropologistsinthese“resourcewars”isfarfromsimple,butbecausetheyhave
traditionallygivenpreferencetothe“exotic”orunrepresented,anthropologists
oftenchoosetoactasadvocatesonbehalfoflocalcommunitiesandcriticizemining
atallcostsasexploitation.Asheexplains,“Oneconsequenceofthisfocusisthatthe
figureof‘theminingcompany’lurksmonolithicallyandoftenmenacinglyinthe
backgroundofmanyanthropologicalaccountsofcommunitiesaffectedbymining
operations.”Hecontinuesthatthissimplisticcharacterizationiscounterproductive
because“thedynamicsofthecorporationsinvolvedinminingareoftenatleastas
complex,revealing,andchallengingasthoseofgovernmentsorlocal
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communities.”28Consequently,therehasbeenamovetoreformthetoneof
anthropologicalresearchsothatcommunitiescanbesupportedwithoutthe
demonizationofotherstakeholders,agoalthatIupholdinthisreport(explained
laterinmymethodologysection).
Ontheotherhand,thebenefitoftheanthropologicaladvocacyonbehalfof
indigenouscommunitiesatprojectssuchastheCoronationHillgoldprospectin
NorthernAustraliaisthatcommunitiesaregettingalargersayindecisionsabout
mining.29Whereastheoldmodelofminingnegotiationwasabinaryonebetween
thestateandthecorporation,thereisnowawidespreadadoptionbyindustryofa
three‐leggedstakeholdermodel,withthelocalcommunityincludedasavital
participant.Granted,whetherthemodelhasbeenadequatelyappliedtorealityisa
matterofdebate,butBallardarguesthatitisastepintherightdirection.30The
internationalmediaattentiononminingpracticesandhumanrightshasledmany
companiestosubscribetointernationalenvironmentalandsocialrightscodes,such
asthe1SO‐1401regulationcodethatCBAvoluntarilyundergoes,andthe
controversialMiningMineralsandSustainableDevelopmentproject(MMSD),which
outlinessustainabledevelopmentprinciplesformining,thoughcriticscallit
“corporategreenwash.”31
Inessence,thereismuchfodderforanthropologicalresearchoncorporate,
state,andNGObehaviorinrelationtominingonaworldwidescaleandintheSerra
28ChrisBallard,“ResourceWars:TheAnthropologyofMining.”AnnualReviewforAnthropology32(2003)287–313,290.29Ballard,306.30Ballard,289.31Ballard,291.
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doBrigadeiroTerritoryandIwilltouchuponittogiveweighttothecomplexityof
theissue.Butthisreportwillprimarilyfocusonthelocalcommunity,whichIfeel
hasnothadanequalvoiceinthediscussion,partiallybecausetheyarenot
“indigenous”or“marginalized”bydefinitionandinhabitanecosystemthatdoesnot
getasmuchattentionfrominternationalacademicsandmedia.
Ballardstatesthatmembershipinthe“miningcommunity”oftenposes
significantproblemsforlocalcommunities,inwaysthatitdoesnotforgovernments
andcorporations,andisthesourceofmuch“internalandexternalcompetitionand
conflict.”32Preciselybecausetheminingisrarelythelocalcommunity’sidea,it
causeschangesthatthecommunitydoesnotanticipateandisforcedtoreconcile.He
states:
Theidentityoflocalcommunitiesappearsinmostinstancestobe
constitutedlargelythroughdiscoursesofrightsclaimed(toland,to
membership,tocompensation,etc.)orrightsabused(humanrights,
landrights,environmentalrights,exclusionfrommembership,etc.)33
TanyaM.Li,inherstudyonidentityandmininginIndonesia,describesthatself‐
identificationbyagrouportribeisoftentimesalteredbythediscussion
surroundingmining.Forexample,thegroupshestudieddidnotconsider
themselves“indigenous”untiltheminingconflictintroducedthemtotheconstruct
(orimposedituponthem)andtheterminologywasthenadoptedasaneffect.34As
32Ballard,298.33Ballard,298.34MurrayLi,Tania,"ArticulatingIndigenousIdentityinIndonesia:ResourcePoliticsandtheTribalSlot".ComparativeStudiesinSocietyandHistory,42(2001),149.
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Ballardremarks,thischangeinpositioning“drawsuponhistoricallysedimented
practices,landscapes,andrepertoiresofmeaningandemergesthroughparticular
patternsofengagementandstruggle.”
Ballardcontinuesthat,“Intheprocessofself‐definitioninordertorepresent
theirintereststogovernmentandcorporateagencies,ortootherlocalcommunities,
communitiesinthevicinityofaminingprojectemploybothtraditionalandnovel
strategiesofinclusionandexclusion”suchasusingrhetoricofland,kinship,myth
andcosmology.”35AccordingtoConnellandHowitt,“muchofthefiercestopposition
tominingfromlocalcommunitieshasbeengeneratedasaconsequenceof
dispossessionofland,degradationofacommunity’sresources,andphysical
relocationofresidentcommunities.”36Kinshipandsocialorganizationisusedasa
meansofexpressingidentityanddescribingacommunity’sflexibilitytothechange
thatminingbrings.Manystudieshavebeendoneonhowmythandcosmologyhave
informedthewayindigenouspeopleinAustraliaandPapuaNewGuineaapproach
thequestionsofsovereigntyandrightsinherentinquestionsofmining,aswellas
howcosmologycanhelpcommunitiesaccountfordisparitiesinpowerand
circumstantialchange.37Additionally,manyanthropologistsarguethatminingis
inherentlymarginalizingtocertaingroupsonthebasisofgenderandrace,dueto
accessibilitytotheeconomicbenefitsofminingandtheselectionoflandto
35Ballard,298.36ConnellJ,HowittR,MiningandIndigenousPeoplesinAustralasia,(Sydney:SydneyUniversityPress,1991),ascitedbyBallard,299.37A.RumseyandJ.Weiner.,MiningandIndigenousLifeworldsinAustraliaandPapuaNewGuinea,(Adelaide:CrawfordHouse,2001),31‐673.
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appropriate,andthereforethecommunityoftenemployssuchlanguageintheir
argumentation.38
Lastly,thereissomecontentionbetweenanthropologistsaboutthe
motivationsforcommunityprotestovertheenvironmentaldamagecausedby
mining.Someupholdthatcommunitiesprotestforthesakeoftheenvironmentitself,
foritsinherentvalue,39whileothertheoristsstatethatcommunitiesprotestthe
degradationbecauseitisasymbolofthecommunity’slackofcontrolovertheirown
destiniesandanaffronttotheirlivelihoods.40
S.D.Handelsmanarguesthat,throughouttheworld,indigenouscommunities
havebornethebruntofmining‐relatedgrievancessincethe1970s,aconclusion
thatissupportedbyalongrecordofabusestobasichumanrights,including
dispossessionoflandandlivelihood,individualmurderandmasskillingsinthese
communities.41Brazilianindigenousactivist,AiltonKrenak,statesthatin1986,“77
indigenousareasoutof302[inAmazonia]areaffectedin34%oftheirextentby
mineralclaims.”42Consequently,muchoftheidentity‐basedresearchonmining
communitieshasbeeninindigenousareas.However,Iwouldarguethatmanyof
principlesappliedinindigenouscommunitiespertaintonon‐indigenous
communitiesaswell.Furthermore,suchinquiryisimportantinordertotellthe
storyofhowminingaffectsallhumancommunities.
38Ballard,301.39D.Hyndman,AncestralRainForestsandtheMountainofGold:IndigenousPeoplesandMininginNewGuinea.(Boulder,CO:WestviewPress,1994),18,ascitedinBallard,298‐299. 40T.Wesley‐Smith,“Thepoliticsofaccess:miningcompanies,thestate,andlandownersinPapuaNewGuinea.”PoliticalScience,42(1990),1–19,ascitedinBallard,299. 41S.D.Handelsman.“Humanrightsinthemineralsindustry.”MMSDWork.2002.PaperNo.9.<http://www.iied.org/mmsd/mmsdpdfs/009handelsman.pdf>.42AiltonKrenak,“MiningCompaniesonIndigenousLandsinBrazil,”CulturalSurvivalQuarterly,10(1986)46‐47,46.
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IV. Methodology
Whenplanningthisresearchproject,Iwrestledwithchoosingthemost
effectivemethodologyforapproachingthequestionofmining.Iknewfromthe
beginningthatIwantedtomakethesummerapracticeinanthropologicalfieldwork,
andchosemysupervisor,anthropologistJenniferPerry,accordingly.ChrisBallard
states,“despitethepotentialofethnographicstudiesofminingtoaddressquestions
ofconsiderablecontemporaryinterestinanthropology,suchasglobalization,
indigenousrights,andnewsocialmovements,theanthropologyofminingremains
largelyunder‐researchedandunder‐theorized.”43Althoughthereexistsawealthof
economicandenvironmentaldataonmining,itismyopinionthatthese
methodologiesgiveincompletepicturesbyunderemphasizingthehumanelement
intheanalysis.Asanenvironmentalresearcher,Iaminterestedintheecological
impactsofanactivitysuchasmining,andelementsofthatanalysiswerekeytomy
researchthissummer.ButIalsobelievethattherearerichinsightstobegained
regardinghowhumansrelatetotheirenvironmentinthecontextofminingthatcan
onlycomefromemployingananthropologicalperspective.
SinceIknewthatIwouldbelivingataresearchcenterthatexcelledat
scientificinquiryandgeo‐spatialanalysis,Iaddedthesedimensionstomyresearch,
nottodetractfrommyparticipantobservation,buttoenhanceit.AsBallardargues,
becausemininginvolvesahostofstakeholders,includingthetraditionalcategories
ofcorporation,state,andcommunity,aswellastherecentadditionsofinternational
anddomesticNGOs,legalagencies,andaglobalizingmedia,“mininghasthe
43Ballard,287.
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potentialtoextendconventionallinesofanthropologicalenquiry.”RicardoGodoy,
ananthropologistwhotransformedanthropologicaltheoryonthisissueduringthe
1980’smineralboom,callsforan“integrative”approachtotheanthropological
studyofmining,whichcombinesanunderstandingofthegeological,biological,and
economicaswellasculturalandsocialdimensionsofmining.44
Additionally,Iwantedtousethissummerresearchtoenhancemyabilitiesin
participantobservation,inordertomaximizethequalityofmydatacollectionand
thesubsequentanalysis.AsKathleenandBillieDewaltsayabouttheadvantageof
suchresearch:
“Living,working,laughingandcryingwithpeoplewhomoneistrying
tounderstandprovidesasenseoftheselfandtheotherthatisnot
easilyputintowords.Itisatacitunderstandingthatinformstheform
ofresearch,thespecifictechniqueofadatacollection,therecordingof
information,andthesubsequentinterpretationofmaterials
collected.”45
However,IrecognizedthatasaresearcheratIracambi,anorganizationwitha
positive,butpotent,identityinthecommunityasaconservationNGO,itwouldbe
impossibleformetobeseenasanimpartialobserverbythecommunity.And,
thoughcompleteparticipationinthecultureoftheterritorywouldbeideal,my
livingsituationattheresearchcenterandmylackoffluencyinPortuguesewould
hampersuchamethod.Sensitivetotheseconcerns,Iadaptedmyfieldwork
strategiesaccordingly.44Ballard,307.45KathleenM.DewaltandBillieR.Dewalt,ParticipantObservation(Oxford:AltaMiraPress,2002),8.
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Therefore,myresearchlifeatIracambitookavariedform.Throughoutthe
twomonths,Ilivedinarusticcabinwith16otherAmericanandBritishstudents
(thoughtherewasrarelymorethan8presentatonetime),whoresearched
everythingfromtropicalsoilvariationtosustainablecoffeeproduction.Wewoke
everymorningtotheraucouscriesofCaracarabirdsandthesmelloffreshguava
cake,madebyourlovingBraziliancook,Carminha.Awomanwithasweetsmile,
quicktolaugh,shetendedtouswithhersteamingsoupsandkindlymannerand
introducedustothegentlelifestyleoftheruralMineiros(thenameforthosewho
hailfromthestateofMinasGerais).RobinandBinka,thedirectors,werealways
availabletogiveusdirectionandaidonourprojects,butforthemostpart,wewere
freetoconductourresearchaswesawfit.Ispentmanyofmydaysgetting
acquaintedwiththemissionoftheorganizationitself,participatinginwaterand
forestmonitoring,reforestation,environmentaleducation,andGISefforts.Weall
becamefamiliarwiththelocallandscapes,takinglonghikesthroughthepastured
valleys,seedcollectinginthenativeforestforIracambi’snursery,climbingnearby
mountains,andtakingatriptothestatepark,wherewewereblessedwithan
encounterwithseveralMuriqui(WoollySpider)andSaquimonkeys.
Andwestrivedtoremainequallyasimmersedintheculturallandscapesof
thearea,tobecomefamiliarwithcommunityvaluesandlifestylechoices.We
visitedneighboringfarms,attendedlocalfestivalsandrodeos,madefriendslocals
ourage,pickedandprocessedcoffeeduringharvestseason,initiatedconversations
wheneverpossible,andspentmuchtimewiththeschoolchildrenofthearea
becauseofourenvironmentaleducationprograms.WetraveledtoRosarioda
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Limeira,Muriaé,andViçosaoftentowitnessandexperience“citylife”inruralBrazil,
andaskedasmanyquestionsaspossibleaboutlocalcustoms,foods,interests,
humor,etc.Naturally,themorewespoke,thestrongerourPortuguesebecameand
themorecomfortableinthecommunitywewere.Iconsideredeverydayfieldwork,
whetheritwasmining‐relatedornot,asIfeltthatlearningtherhythmsandnuances
oftheplacewasvitaltomystudy.Itookextensivefieldnotesandphotographsdaily,
recordingmyexperiencesindetailandmakingnotesofmyperceptionsandtheir
evolution.
Becauseofmyownspiritualfaithandmyinterestinthereligiouscustomsof
theregion,Ibecameparticularlyattachedtothelocalbasecommunitiesandthe
Franciscanorderofmonksthatstewardedthem.Eachweek,Iwouldtakethelong,
amblingwalkwithCarminhatohersmallbluechurchintheGraminhahills,orto
theneighboringchurchinthevalley,totakepartinthemassandwitnessthe
baptisms,celebrations,andcommunitymeetings.AndonTuesdayevenings,Iwould
takepartinthecommunitybiblestudyandsocialhour,agatheringofneighboring
farmersforreflectionandprayerledbyasweet‐temperedmannamedEveraldo.I
becamewellacquaintedwiththeheadPadre,FreiGilberto,andspenttimewithhe
andhisfellowFranciscansattheirecologicalretreatsandontheirspiritual
pilgrimageupMountItajuru.BecausereligiouslifeissocentraltolifeintheSerrado
Brigadeiro,therelationshipsIformedduringthisactiveparticipationwere
importantformypersonalintegrationwiththeculture.
Asformymoreformalfieldwork,Ichosetoconductbothinformalandsemi‐
structuredinterviews.IadoptedwhatJamesP.Spradley,inhisspectrumof
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participantobservation,wouldcategorizeas“moderateparticipation”orIhadwhat
PeterandPatriciaAdlerwouldcalla“peripheralrole”inthecommunity.46As
DewaltandDewaltstate,“Moderateparticipationoccurswhentheethnographeris
presentatthesceneoftheaction,isidentifiableasaresearcher,butdoesnot
activelyparticipateoronlyoccasionallyinteracts,withpeopleinit…inasemi‐
structuredmanner.”47ThoughmyPortuguesewascompetentenoughforcasual
conversation,mymoreinvolvedinterviewsrequiredatranslator,andtherefore
“activeparticipation”wasdifficult.Yet,inmanyinstances,Ifeltthatthisdistance
workedtomyadvantageindatacollection,becausethepeopleIinterviewedoften
weredrawntodiscussinterculturalcomparisonsandputtheirthoughtsinaglobal
contextbecausetheywereawareofmynationality.
Inmysampleselection,Itriedtoselectabroadrangeofstakeholders,andto
accountforprofession,class,leadershiprole,gender,age,andfamiliaritywiththe
miningissue.Granted,myshorttimeperiodandlackofperfectaccessibilityto
peopleinthecommunitylimitedmyabilityinthisendeavor.Ingeneral,Ifocusedon
farmers,towndwellers,students,governmentalofficials,NGOleaders,church
leadersandminingcompanyrepresentatives,evenlydistributedbetweenthethree
municipalitiesofMuriaé,RosariodaLimeiraandMiradouro.Idrewfromthese
particularcountiesbecausetheycontainthelion’sshareofthebauxitedeposits,are
allincloseproximitytoIracambi,andarethecenterofthepoliticalmobilizationfor
andagainstmining.
46Dewalt&Dewalt,21.47Dewalt&Dewalt,20.
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Mysamplingtechniquevaried.Often,becauseofmylackofPortugueseskills
andfamiliaritywiththecommunity,IrelieduponRobinandBinkaLeBreton’s
suggestions,anadmittedlypotentialmethodologicalweaknessduetotheirdefined
roleintheminingcontroversy.However,Ifeelthattheytemperedtheirownbiasby
arranginginterviewsformefromawidespectrumofideologies.Additionally,I
supplementedtheirsuggestionswithchoicesofmyown,fromcontactsImetinmy
communitywork,usingasnowballsamplingtechnique.Overall,Ifeelconfidentthat
whilemysamplewasnotperfect,itwasadequateforthescaleofmyresearchand,
bytheendofthetwomonths,myfamiliaritywiththecomplexitiesandopinions
involvedintheissuewassufficientlythoroughandfulfilling.
MostinterviewswereconductedwithBinkaactingasapaidinterpreter,
thoughafewIconductedbymyselfinPortugueseandtranslatedafterward.I
initiatedtheinterviewsonlyafterreceivingverbalinformedconsentandended
eachinterviewwitharequestforpermissiontousetheperson’snameand
statementsinanyfuturepublicationorreport.Ichosethismethodoverwritten
informedconsentbecausemanyfarmersintheareaareilliterate,apotentialsource
ofembarrassmentforthem.Ineverymanner,IstrivedtoabidebytheCodeof
EthicsoftheAmericanAnthropologicalAssociation,48tominimizeharm,toaskopen
andaffirmingquestions,andtorespectthehumanandnon‐humansthatIworked
withthroughoutthesummer.
48“CodeofEthicsoftheAmericanAnthropologicalAssociation,”AmericanAnthropologicalAssociation,ApprovedJune1998,<http://www.aaanet.org/committees/ethics/ethicscode.pdf>.
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Iconductedextendedinterviewswith15people,whichIrecordedwith
digitalvoicerecorderandlatertranscribedandcoded(seeAppendixD).The
interviewsnormallylastedforonetothreehours,andoccasionallywereingroup
format.Additionally,Iconductedmanyunscheduled,shorterinterviewsin
PortugueseduringfieldworkthatIdidnotrecord,buttooknotesonandincludedin
myfieldnotes.Ihadarubricofpreparedquestions,butIonlyusedtheseas
guidelinesandlettheconversationsflownaturally,inordertosettheinterviewees
ateaseandletthemleadtheconversation.Ifoundthatthisyieldedricherandmore
informativeresponses.
Whilemyinterviewsallowedmetohaveconversationswithopinionated
membersofthecommunityonthemining,IfeltthatIalsoneededtovisitthe
farmingcommunitiesthatIknewwouldbedirectlyaffectedbythemining.Iworked
withIracambi’sGIStechnicianstostudytothemapsofthebauxiteconcessionsand
maphowthedepositsalignedwithlocalcommunities.IfocusedonSantaLucia,
PedraAlta,andSantaCatarina,thethreesistervillagesthatoccupyadjacentvalleys
betweenRosariodaLimeiraandBelasario,thetwolargesttownsinthearea.All
threerepresentthestereotypicalfarmingcommunitiesendemictothearea,
comprisedof20‐30farminghouseholds,interrelatedfamilies,aprimaryschool,a
milktank,andasinglebasecommunitychurch(afterwhichthevillageisnamed).
AspartofIracambi’sexistingcommunitymappingproject,Itraveledaround
thecommunities,alongwithfellowresearchers,andusedaGPSdevicetomapthe
homesteads,churches,schools,andotherlandmarksthatvariouscommunity
memberssuggestedwereimportanttothem.Wewouldwalkfromhousetohouse,
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carryingalargepapermapdrawnbycommunitymemberssevenyearsprior,and
wouldexplainourprojectandaskthefarmerstolocatetheirhouseandtellustheir
names.Wewouldoftenbeinvitedinforcoffeeandcakeorledontouroftheirfarm
andwewouldaskquestionsabouttheirfarming,theirfamily,theirlifestyleandI
wouldslipinquestionsabouttheirthoughtsonmining.Inthesectionofthisreport
whereIpresentthedata,Icouldnotquotesuchconversationsverbatim,duetolack
ofinformedconsent,andthereforeIusemyformalinterviewsasasortoffocus
group,supplementingtheirquoteswithopinionsIgatheredinmyinformal
fieldwork.
Theexercisewasoneofthemostrewardingelementsofmyresearch,
becauseIcouldputfacestothemountainfarmersIknewwouldbe
disproportionatelyaffectedbythemining,duetotheirplacementonslopedland.I
usedthecommunitymappingdatatoconstructsatellitemapswithbauxitedeposit
overlaysforeachcommunity,whichIracambileadersplantouseinthefuturefor
communityeducationpurposes(seeAppendixA,Map2‐Map5).
Finally,togetasenseoftherealimpactsofminingandtolearnofCBA’s
processesandplans,IvisitedtheexistingminingsitesinSãoSebastiãodaVargem
Alegre,acommunityinthesouthernpartoftheregion,andtookphotosandGPS
pointsoftheminedslops,adjacentstreams,deforestation,dustcontrol,andtruck
traffic.
Onanotherday,RobinalsoarrangedameetingformewithCBA
representativesatthecompany’slocalwashingfacilityandheadquarters,inMiraí,
outsideofMuriaé.Thecompanygaveusaveryprofessionaltwo‐hourpresentation
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oftheirminingprocesses,environmentalandsocialethics,andasummaryofGaia’s
socialprojectsintheregion.Theythentookus(myselfandsomeotherIracambi
researchers)onanhour‐longguidedbustourofthefacilityandnearbyminingand
reclamationsitesandansweredanyquestionsthatweraised.Throughoutmy
project,IstrivedtohaveanopenmindaboutCBAanditsmotives,andnotimbuemy
researchwiththestereotypicalprejudicesagainstcorporateentitiesmentioned
previouslyinthisreport.
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V. PresentationofData
Returningtothefirsttwosub‐questionsinthisreport:
• Whatareasandwhichcommunitieswillbeaffectedbytheproposedmining?
• Whatarethetangibleexistingandpotentialeconomic,environmental,andsociologicaleffectsofbauxitemining?
Toanswerthefirst,myGISprojectandfieldworkwereessential(seemapsand
picturesinAppendicesAandD).And,toanswerthesecond,mydiscussionswith
expertsinthecommunityandatIracambiwereanecessity.TheknowledgeIgained
throughthesepursuitswascrucialtomyunderstandingofthetopic.However,
becausethetwotopicscouldcompriseapaperoftheirown,Iwillleavethemaside
fornow,andusethissectionofmyreporttofocusoncommunityperceptions,which
iscentraltomyprimaryresearchquestion:
HowhasthecontroversysurroundingthebauxitemininginformedhowthecitizensoftheSerradoBrigadeiroterritoryseetheircommunalandindividualidentityinrelationshipwiththedevelopmentoftheircommunity?Section1:Tobegin,Iwilladdressmythirdsub‐question:
Howdothecitizensperceivetheeffectsofthebauxiteminingrelativetotheirpersonalandcommunalidentity?Whatcomponentsoftheiridentitydocitizensfeelarebeingthreatenedorreinforcedbythemining’sexistence?
MiningandtheEnvironment:
Oneofthemostpredominantthemesthataroseinmyinterviewswasthe
effectofminingonthenaturalenvironment;itwasthesubjectthatpeopletendedto
mentionfirstintheirlistofconcerns.TomostofthefarmersIspokewith,the
resourcestheyworriedaboutmostacutelyweretheforestsandfreshwater.I
quicklylearnedthatmostfarmershavetheecologicalknowledge,passeddownfrom
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generationsoffarming,toseethetwoentitiesaslinkedtooneanother,andlinked
tothehealthoftheirfarms.Asonemiddle‐aged,femalefarmernamedMarinha,
fromPedraAlta,said:
[Ithinkthatmining]ishorrible.Becauseitwilldestroyeverythingwespentsuchalongtimebuilding.Ourlittlefarmissmall,butitisourdream.Ourforestsandourwater.Ourwaterwhichispure.Andbecausewe’realsopartoftheruraltourismgroup.Andiftheydestroyeverything,whatwillwehaveforourtourists?Whatarewegoingtolivefrom?Whatarewegoingtoliveoff?BecauseIthinkwe’llhavetoadapttoanotherlife.Becauseifpeopledocomebackhere,there’llbenothingtocomebackfor.Therewon’tbeanyoftheanimalsleft,anyoftheforest.We’llhavetomakeanewlife.
Farmersspokeoftheecologyoftheareaasintegraltotheirsurvival,buttheirscale
ofreferencewasoftenwiderthantheirownhomesteads.Carlos,afarmerinhis
thirtiesfromBelasario,statedthat:
I’mnotgoingtosaythatIagreewithitifmysurvivalisthreatened.ButIdon’twanttothinkjustofme.Iwanttothinkabouttheenvironmentaswell.…SowhentheminingcomesandIstopfarming,I’llbeproducinglessoxygen,lesswater.Sotherearetwowaterbasinsinthisregion.RiodoSoleRioDoce.Thisamountofwaterwilldiminish.SoI’mnotjustproducingagriculturalproducts.I’mnotworriedaboutmybeans,becausethosearejustformyfamily.WhatIworryaboutiswhatIwon’tbeproducing:thewater,theoxygen.
Thistypeofaltruismwasfrequentlypresentinmyinteractionwithfarmers.
Manystressedtheestablishedtheboundariesofenvironmentaldestruction
thatweresociallyacceptable,andresentedtheminingcompanyforoverstepping
thoseboundaries.Also,theybegrudgedthegovernmentalimposingexternal
boundariesuponfarmers,withoutholdingtheminingcompanytoequalstandards.
AsCarlosdescribed:
Sothebauxitecomes.Shepaystogetalicensetostartworking.…Ifyoupay,yougetalicensetodegrade.Sothere’samanwhohasalittleforestandheaskstheengineersifhecouldtakealittlesectionoftheforestfor
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anorchard,theysay,‘Absolutelynot,becauseitisforest.’Butiftheminingcompanycomesandtheywanttotakethewholeforest,nowthattheycandobecausetheyhavethelicense.Sotheinterestofthefederationissuperiortotheinterestoftheindividual.
TounderscoreWesley‐Smith’spoint,someoftheprotestagainstecological
destructionwasduetothisindignationattheminingcompany.Thefarmersfeel
thatthecompanyisanexternalforceenactingunfairclaimsonthecommunity’s
land.Theyalsoexpressedgrievancesagainstthegovernmentalofficials,whothey
feelarenotrepresentingtheaveragefarmer’sinterest.
Thoughthelanguageusedtodescribeenvironmentalissuesdiffered,the
messageoftheenvironment’svalueinthecommunitywassimilar.Zezino,afeisty,
intelligentmalefarmerfromBelasariotalkedtomeabouthowtheforestwasfullof
preciousbiology,medicinalplants,andasourceofcleanair.Hecontinued:
Sothereislotsofstuffthatispricelessinthisforest.Themostvaluablesubstanceintheworldnowisnottobemined.Itisnotinyourearring.[Grabbingmygoldearring.]Itiswater.Brazilhassomeofthelargestwaterresourcesintheworldandwe’remakingholesinourwatercup.Wehaveenoughwaterfortheworld.ThemeteorologicalhealthofBrazilisinthehandsoftheseforests.…Thevalueofthealuminumwillneverbeabletoequalthevalueofthewater.
Logically,NGOandgovernmentalrepresentativesweremorelikelytotalkaboutthe
forestandwaterresourcesintermsof“sensitivehydrology”and“ecosystem
services”andspokeaboutthefailingsoftheEnvironmentalImpactAssessmentto
fullyaccountfortheeffectsofthemining.TheyoungpeopleandstudentsIspoke
withalsousedrhetoricaboutenvironmentalismthatwasquitefamiliartomeasan
Americanstudent,astheytendedtoputthingsinaglobalcontext.Forexample,
MariaCarolina,ahighschoolstudentfromMuriaé,remarked:
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[Youngpeople]considerminingasscary,sincetheconversionofbauxiteintoaluminumisaprocessthatconsumesmuchenergy,contributingtoglobalwarming.Besidesthat,extractionremovesthevegetationandtopsoil,producingharmfuleffectsonfaunaandflora.Thesoil,aftermining,itlosesitsabilitytoretainwaterandbecomesunsuitableforcultivation,preventingtherestorationofforestbiodiversity,afactwhichworsenstheimpactonnature.Itisabsurd.Sometypesofdevelopmentaresynonymouswithdestruction.
Inotedthatthenon‐farmingprofessionalsweremorelikelytospeakof
environmentasanaestheticentity,tobeprotectedforthesakeofpreservingbeauty
andpromotingtourismandrecreation.AsMiriam,aretiredpsychologistwho
retiredinBelasariofromalargecityexpressed:
I’mafraidofthedegradation.I’malsoafraidthatitwillinterferewithtourism.Ilovethesebeautifulmountains.They’rewhatbroughtmebackhere,backhome.SoI’mreallyconcerned.
Theyspokeofbufferzoneboundariesandtheimportanceofkeepingtheminingout
of“wildernessareas,”whilethefarmersmentionedtheseplacesrarely.Tome,
trendsillustratethedifferentnatureoftheupper‐classrelationshiptonature,one
closertoAmerica’sconservationmentality.
Buttheprofessionalclassalsohadmoretrustthattheminingcompanycould
effectivelyreclaimthelandthatitdidmine.Miriamcontinued:
Thereareverysimplethingsthattheycoulddotorecuperatetheriverswherepeoplegoswimmingandthewaterfalls.
Herhusband,Cleber,anattorneyandengineer,stressedhowpleasedhewaswith
theenhancedenvironmentalregulationsputonminingcompaniesandcited
examplesofbauxiteminingthathadbeendonewellinotherpartsofBrazilandhad
aminimaleffectofwaterqualityandforestcover.Hestressedthatthecommunity
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couldnotjudgethecompanybeforeCBAhadachancetoshowthemhow
environmentallyresponsibleitcouldbe.
MiningandSociety
Anotherpredominantconcerntocommunitystakeholderswasthedirect
effectthebauxiteminingwouldhaveonthesocialwellbeingofindividualsand
communities.Becauseproductivefarmingisessentialtomanycommunitymembers’
flourishing,aprimaryconcernwaswithfertilityoflandpost‐mining.Carlos,who
hadparticularinterestinthemining,spokeofthetripheand80otherlocalfarmers
hadtakentoItamarati,tovisitanareawhereCBAhasbeenminingfor20years.He
describedseeingruinedlandandspeakingtofarmerswhohadabandonedtheir
farmsbecauseofdeep,gullyerosionanddustproblems.Whenhereturned,Carlos
begantodohisownresearchonhowtheminingwouldimpacthisland:
TheotherdayIwastalkingtoanagronomist.AndIaskedhim,“Howdoyourecuperatethesoilsothatyoucanuseitagain[aftermining].”Heanswered,“Well,Idon’twanttoshockyou,butIthinkitwilltakeabout100yearsforthesoiltofullyrecover.”Andheexplainedhowsoilwasstructured.Becausewewhoaresmallfarmers.Ouragriculturewillbeunviable.Seventypercentofthefoodonthetable[inBrazil]comesfromfamilyagriculture.
Sebastian,anoldermalefarmerfromPedraAlta,alsoexpresseddoubtsabout
reclamation:
Andtheyspokeandtheysaythatthey’llrenewtheland.Andtheysaythattheywillputfertilizeronit,etc.Butitissodifficult.Itwouldtakealongtime,maybenever,togetthelandback.Youcan’tdowhatGoddoes.Youcan’t.Youcan’t!Youcantry.
Similarly,Sergio,a20‐year‐oldchemistrystudentandsonofalocalfarmerin
RosariodaLimeira,stated:
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Miningdestroyseverything.Theearth,thechemicalprocesses,itneedsalongtimetorepairitself.
OthersweremorereassuredbyCBA’scommunitypresentationsabout
reclamation,andexpressedtheirgratitudethatthecompanyhadbeen“professional”
enoughtoexplaintheirplansandshowthempicturesofrefurbishedland.Thistype
ofopencorporatebehaviorisnewinBrazilandIcouldtellitsoftenedmany
people’sopinionsofthecompany.Cleber,theattorney,emphasizedagainhow
importantitwasforthecommunitytoresistthetemptationto“pre‐judge”the
company’sabilitytorefurbishtheagriculturalland.
Arelatedanxietyamongstfarmerswashowtocopewithdisplacement
causedbythemining.Farmersdoubtedthattheaveragesmallfarmerwouldbeable
tostayonhislandwhileasectionit(orthewholeofit)wasbeingmined,though
CBAsaystheopposite.Manyciteddustproblemsduetotrucktrafficandthe
difficultyofsupportingafamilyonasmallpieceofland.JoãoPaulo,thepresidentof
theRuralWorkersUnioninRosariodaLimeira,echoedtheseworries.Carlostold
thestoryofafarmerinItamaratiwhosecowswerepoisonedbyaminingretention
damthatwasleakingintohisfarm.
Consequently,manyquestionedwhetherfarmerscouldsurvivewithout
incomefortwoorthreeyears,eveniftheycouldcomebacktothelandanditwasin
goodcondition.JoãoPauloexplained:
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Themoney,thenumbersthey’vegivenusatthemoment,forwhattheminingcompanywouldgivethefarmers,wouldn’tgivethemenoughtoliveon.They,thefarmers,getapercentageofbauxiterevenueandyougetrentfromthefield.Andafamilycouldn’tliveonit,no.
Heexplainedthatover50%ofthefarmersintheareaweresharecroppers,and
thereforetheywouldnotreceiveanyofthiscompensation.Furthermore,the
“weekendfarmers”orland‐lordswholivedinthecitywouldbemorelikelytogive
thecompanypermissiontousetheirlandbecausetheywouldnotbedirectly
disruptedbythemining.Juliana,ayoung,newlywedfarmerinSãoPedro,expressed
herfears:
Wewentaboutayearago,wewentdowntothemininginMuriaé.Allthefarmshavebeenabandoned.Eventheweekendfarmerssometimesdidn’tgobacktheytookthemoneyandleft…Itisdifficult,becauseifpeopleleaveforayearortwo,theyaren’tlikelytocomeback.They’llstartlivesinthecity.
MyinterviewwithSebastianwasparticularlymoving.Now60,heworkedfor
CBAforfiveyearswhentheywereinitiallyprospectingthearea,andspokeofthe
oppressiveworkconditionsandtheilltreatmentoffarmersbythecompanybackin
the1970s.(Thecompany’ssocialresponsibilityhasimprovedgreatlysincethis
time).Hesaidhewishedhecouldimparthisreasoningforoppositiontothe
youngergeneration,asamanwhohadseenitseffects.Hespokewithtearsinhis
eyes:
There’sgoingtobemuchdestruction.Everything.Theyoungpeoplearen’treallythinkingaboutit.ButifIwasyoung,Iwouldbethesame.Ithinkmygrandchildrenwillhavetocopewiththis.Theywillhavetoleavetheland.…Ihaveasmallpieceofland.Mostofmychildrenandtheirfamilyliveonthatland.ButifIdie,itwillbealldividedup.Noneofthemhavealotofmoney.Sotheyhavealittlepieceofland.Andtheminingcompanycomes.Andtheyneedthemoney.They’llprobablyacceptitwithoutunderstanding.Thisiswhatwillhappenwithmyneighborsaswell.Because,fromfathertoson,thingschange.
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Hisdespairemphasizedthefeelingsofmanyoldermembersofthecommunity,who
expressedthefearthatfamilyagriculturewouldbeabandonedinthefuture,by
choiceorconsequence.Hecontinued:
Thelittleguyswillhavetolivewithit.Ifhesells,hecan’tgotothecity,becausehedoesn’thaveaprofession.What’shegoingtodo?Hisplaceisinthecountry.Sohe’sjustgoingtohavetofaceit.Ifminingcomes,Iwon’tletthemin.Butifthejudgemakesme,andthelawsaysit,thenwhatcanIdo?
Hisfeelingsofpowerlessnessunderlinehowsomefarmersfeelthatthey
havelittlechoiceinthematterofmining.Somewomenvoicedapprehensionabout
theeffectofminingonsocialandfamilialstructures.Julianastated:
Itwillcreateconflictbetweenfamilies,thosewhoaremakingmoneyandthosewhoarenot.Andalsowithinfamilies,betweenbrothersandsisters,dependingonwhoreceivesthepaymentfromthecompany...
AndMarinharevealed:
I’mworriedmyfamilywillsplitupbecausewe’llhavetoleaveandfindwork.Ihaveaverylargefamily.
ButthosefortheminingemphasizedthatthesocialprojectsthatGaiawas
bringing,particularlytheprojectoncommunitycoordinationandeducationcould
enhancequalityoflifeandnourishtherelationshipswithincommunities,as
advertised.Miriamspokeofherhopesthattheminingcompanycouldhelpdevelop
educationandprovidejobssothattheyoungpeoplecouldstayinthecommunity,
andnotfleetothecity.Marcia,alocalrepresentativefromGaia,spokeofhowmuch
shehaslovedworkingontheprojects,thatitis“veryhumanwork,”andthatshehas
hopesthattheywilleffectpositivechangeinaplaceshecaresverymuchabout.
MiningandReligion
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IntheSerradoBrigadeiroTerritory,oneofthemostinfluentialsourcesof
identityandvaluesarethelocalCatholicbasecommunities,whicharerunbya
groupofecologically‐mindedFranciscanmonkswhotravelaroundthecountryto
30churchesinthediocesetoholdmasses,leadreligiousfestivals,andspeaktotheir
churchmembersaboutsocial,political,andenvironmentalissues.Descendedfroma
longtraditionofleftistliberationtheology,theCatholicchurchleadersaredecidedly
anti‐mining.Asheadpriest,FreiGilberto,explains:
Youhavetounderstand,intheFranciscanvision,everythingiscreatedbyGod,andeverythingiscreatedequally.Wehavearelationshipwitheverything.…ThereasonI’magainstminingisbecauseitisaggressivetotheworld.Itattackingthewholesystem.WhenI’mattackingmotherNature,I’mattackingallofherchildren.…Whenwetalkaboutmining,myviewisthatweneedtopreservetheearth.Butalso,weneedtopreserveeconomicintegrityforthepeoplewholiveontheearth,andthequalityoflifehere,etc.[Mining]affectsthewholeecosystem,andittendstohavethegreatesteffectonthesimplerpeople.ThereisaFranciscan[missionstatement]=Justice,Peace,andEcology,alsoknownastheIntegrationofCreation.WeactuallyhaverepresentationattheUN.Wesetupgroups[withthismission]allovertheworld.ThereisonethatisveryactiveagainstthemininginBeloHorizonte.
Althoughtheyarenotasovertlypoliticalastheirpredecessorswereintheregion
duringthemilitarydictatorship,andcertainlynotasmilitant(quitetheopposite,in
fact),theFranciscansplayapivotalroleinthediscourseonmining.InlateJuly,the
diocesehostedaRomaria,aprocessionwithseveralhundredpeoplethroughthe
townofBelasario,withthethemeof“PreservingNatureandLife:CreationCriesOut
ForHelp”(seeAppendixD,Sec.3,Image2).Theeventhadsixsmallstations,each
withshortmasses.Atonestop,thecrowdaskedGodforforgivenessof
environmentalsins,includingmining,deforestation,andfertilizerandpesticideuse.
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Atotherstops,theycelebratedtheruralworkers,familyagriculture,andtherights
ofwomenandchildren.
Becauseofmyfascinationwiththemonksandtheirmission,Ipaidspecial
attentioninmyinterviewstohowtheirstanceontheminingaffectedtheviewsof
theirparishioners.Somechurchmembers,likeJuliana,explicitlystatedthe
connection:
FreiGilbertofelllikeapresentfromheaven,becauseheactuallyhasthepowerofspeaking.…(D)uringthemass...hetalksabouttheenvironment,hetalksaboutthemining.He’sgoodatexplainingthingstopeople,atinspiringthem.He’sverygood.
Others,likeMiriam,didnotmentionwhetherthechurchleadersinfluencedtheir
thoughtsonthemining,butdidusetheirreligiousconvictiontosupporttheir
opinions:
Religionteachesustopreservethings.ThingsthatMotherNaturehasgivenus.So,myheadisalreadyagainstmining.Myreligionhelpstoreinforceit.Myreligionhelpsmetobemoreopposedtoit.That’swhatIthink.
Tellingly,Sebastianusedreligiontojustifythecredibilityofhisviews:
Buttheydon’tlistentome.TheythinkI’mstupid.AstheBiblesays,manythingsarenotrevealedtothesmart.They’rerevealedtothehumble.Therearemanythingsthatyoucan’tpasson.‘Aw,’theysay,‘He’sjustasillyoldfool.’
Hisfaithallowshimtobelievethat,evenas'lowlyfarmer,'hehastheauthorityto
standuptothemorepowerfulpro‐miningvoicesinthecommunity.
SeparatefromtheFranciscanorder,butstillanintegralpartoftheCatholic
societyinthearea,theChurchLandsPastoral(CPT‐CommissãoPastoraldaTerra),
isahighlypoliticallyactivebranchofthechurchthatisconnectedtoBrazil’s
LandlessWorkers’Movement(MST‐MovimentodosTrabalhadoresRuraisSem
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Terra)that,fordecades,haslobbiedforlandreformandAfro‐Brazilianrights,and
againstcapitalist,foreigninterestsinBrazil.Winnerofthe“RightLivelihoodAward,”
theCPTisfamouslyactiveinsomeareasofBrazilforforciblytakinglandfrom
wealthylandownersandestablishingsquattercoloniesoflandlessfarmersfromcity
favelas.49However,becausesmall‐scaleagricultureisalreadywellestablishedinthe
SerradoBrigadeiroTerritory,thelocalCPTismostlyinvolvedinruralworkers’
rightsandtheprotectionoffamilyagriculture.AsCarloscommented:
…ThereistheLandPastoral.…Itlooksafter…peopleinthecountryside.…Whenoneofthe[mining]damsburst[in2006inMuriaé],anditaffectedpeoplenotonlyinthecountrysidebutalsointhecity,itwastheLandPastoralthatwashelpingpeopleout.…Inthismoment,IseetheCatholicChurchastheonethatreallywenttobatfortheruralworkers.TheProtestantchurchesdidnot.
AsCarlosmentions,thereexistsawaveofevangelical,Protestantchurchesin
theareathatarenotvocallyopposedtomining.Morefocusedonadoctrineof
salvationthanpoliticalaction,ora“theologyofprosperity”asFreiGilbertocallsit,
theyaremoreconservativeandareinfavorofcapitalism.Cleber,amemberofthe
localMethodistchurch,toldmewhilehewasinterestedinmakingtheMethodist
dominationmoresociallyactive,hedidnotbelieveananti‐miningstancewas
necessarilyinsociety’sbestinterest.
MiningandtheEconomy
Cleber,andotherswithpro‐miningstances,definedtheeconomichealthofa
communityaskeycomponentofitsidentityandstresseditsimportancein
evaluatingthebauxitemining:49WendyWolford,“Families,Fields,andFightingforLand:TheSpatialContentionofFightingforLandinRuralBrazil,”Mobilization:AnInternationalJournal:8(2):201‐215.
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InMinasGerais,weliveonmining.Thisstatewasfoundedonmineralwealth.Thiscountryhasitsownpotential.Forexample,theUnitedStates,itproducesarms.Ican’timaginebeingopposedtomining.ItbringseconomicpotentialtoBrazil…Itisaquestionofthenationaleconomy.
AndMiriamagreed,stating:
We’reconcernedaboutthelackofwork.Ouryoungpeopledon’tstayontheland.Theyleaveforthecities.Buttheyaren’thappyoncetheyarethere.Dreamingofcominghome.Ifyouhaven’tgotsomesortofeconomicsource,itisdifficulttokeepthemathome.Soitisinterestingthattheminingcompanyhasthepossibilitytokeeptheboysandgirlshere.
Theproponentsofminingarguethatitisdifficultitistomakealivingfromfamily
agriculturenowthatglobalmarketshavedecreasedcoffeepricesandlarge‐scale
agriculturalenterprisesinBrazilmakesmallfarmerslesscompetitive.Theyassert
thattheterritorycannotgetstuckinthepast,butmustlookforopportunitiesfor
industrializedeconomicemploymentintheregion.
Eventhoseopposedtothemining,suchasSergio,the20‐year‐oldstudent,
admititsappeal:
Themajorityofyoungpeopleareagainst…themining.Butiftheyneedwork,itismoney.Peopleneedmoneytolive.…Idon’twantthisareatobedestroyedbymining…butcapitalismisstrong.Forexample,thishere,[pointsatrecorder],isaluminum.[Laughs].Thewholeworldusesit.Forcars,formotorcycles,[pointsatfork],itallisaluminum.Andpeople…Andbecauseofcapitalism,peoplewilluseit,haveit.Itisinteresting…ButIdon’tknow[howtoreconcileit.]
Julianaexplainedtomethatwhilesheandherhusbandhadleftthecitytocome
homeandstartafarm,forabetterqualityoflife,theywereararity.Shestatedthat
manypeopleheragewantthecapitaltomovetooneofBrazil’slargecities,togeta
jobandstartalifenottiedtotheland:
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I’mnotsurehowmanyfamiliesthereareinthiscommunity,wedidcountthemonce,butI’mguessingabout80%ofthemwouldbemoreinterestedinthemoneythantheland.Mostpeoplewillallow[themining]tohappen.Infact,youcan’tpreventit.Wecanputasmanystones[obstacles]inthewayaswe’dlike.
ZeMaria,theSecretaryofAgricultureandtheEnvironmentforthecountyof
RosariodaLimeira,saidthatwhileheispersonallyopposedtomining,he
recognizesitsinevitabilityandthereforewantsthecommunitytoadjustitsmindset
tomakethebestofthesituation:
Ithinkthatwiththeminingcompany,wemustgooftentomakesuretheycontributetotheeconomichealthoftheregion.Itcouldbeinagricultureoritcouldbeinsomeothertypeofprofessionaltraining,butthat’stheonlywaythatIthinkwecanworkeffectivelywiththem.I’mnotsureifthey’reinterestedinthis,butweneedtomobilizethecommunitytogetthecommunitytogoafterthemandaskforthesethings.
Hecriticizedthosewhowerenaivelyblindedbythecompany’seconomicpromises
butalsothosewhoadoptedananti‐miningpositionthatwassostrongthatit
crippledtheirabilitytoactivelyengagewiththecompany.
Thosestaunchlyopposedarguethattheywillcontinuetospeakoutagainst
themining,astheycannotabandontheirdeep‐seatedprinciplesaboutwhat’struly
bestforthecommunityinthelongterm.JulioMonnerat,aprofessorofAgro‐Ecology
attheFederalInstituteofMuriaéandamemberoftheMiningCommission,stated:
Ilookitasaterritorialaspect.Aterritory,inthesenseofaplacewherepeoplelive,wheretheybelong.Wherepeoplehaveasensethatthisistheirland.Buttheirterritory,theirhomelandbecomesthreatenedbytheinvasionoflargescalecapitalistinterests.Mining,whichrepresentsthecapitalistmodel,versusfamilyagriculture,whichrepresentsmoreaccuratelypeople’sfeelingsfortheirownland,theirownlivelihoods.Thefeelingsofeverypersonastheirownlordandmaster,notbeholdentooutsideinfluences…Andthisisnotjustalocalthing.Itisrelatedtoothersimilarmovementsgoingoninotherpartsoftheworldthatarecomingtothesameconclusions.
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ToJulioandthoseofsimilarideologyintheregion,manyofwhomareofthe
prominentNationalWorker’sParty(PT–PartidodosTrabalhadores),itisessential
thatopponentsofneoliberaleconomicpoliciesstandstrong,especiallyasthe
politicalleftinBrazilweakens.AsReinaldo,thelocalCPTrepresentative,states,
Inthe1980s,wehadalotgoingforus,becausethereweremanypeoplethinkingalongthesamelines.Butnow,withglobalization,andcapitalistinterests,itismuchmoredifficult.Theseinfluencescooptlocalinterestsandthisisthewayinwhichtheygainpower.AndthisisexactlywhattheCPTistryingtoworkagainst.Thisgovernmentalpolicyaboutmining,theygivetheimpressionthattheyarecreatingsomethingforthecommunity,butthentheycomeandtakeitawaywiththeotherhand.
OtheropponentsIinteractedwith,whodidnotspeakwithsuchpoliticalcharge,
usedsimplerargumentativeframeworks.DearSebastian,withapuckishgrinand
eyesstillglisteningwithemotion,saidsimply:
Andlotsofpeoplethink[mining]willbethething.Becausethey’llgetmoney.Butthere’snotpointeatingalottoday,ifyoucan’teattomorrow.So,whenitcomes,therewillbesomeinstantgratification,butnoneinthefuture.
Section2Totiethesevariedthoughtstogether,wemustmovetomyfourthsub‐question:Howdoesthecommunitydefinesustainabledevelopmentandhowdotheyseemininginthiscontext?
Itamazedmehowquickmanystakeholdersinthecommunity,fromcoffee
farmerstoCBArepresentatives,weretobringupthetermsustainabledevelopment
oratleastdescribeadevelopmentparadigmthatstruckmeasthetextbook
definitionofsustainability.Partofmebelievesitisatestamenttotheworkof
groupslikeIracambiandothersustainabilityorganizationsintheSerrado
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BrigadeiroTerritory.Butafterlivingfortwomonthsamongthesepeople,another
sideofmethinksthatitisalsoinherenttotheirperceptionsoftheworld,atleastto
agreaterextentthanitisinmyhomecommunityintheUnitedStates.
Firstandforemost,manystakeholdersfromthecommunitydescribed
sustainabledevelopmentaslong‐termprosperity(asimpliedintheterm).Juliana
spokeininter‐generationaltermsaboutthemining:
Well,I’mverymuchagainstit.[People]don’tthinkabouthowmuchthisisgoingtoaffectusinourfuture.Notonlyus,butourchildrenandourgrandchildren.Itisreallygoingtodamageourfamilies.Andwe’reafraid,notonlyforenvironmentalreasons.
Inaccord,FreiGilbertoexplainedoneofhiskeyreasonsforopposingthemining:
…(A)notherfactisthatmininghasjustexpandedveryrapidly,duetoglobalmarketfactorsandtheprominenceofcompanieshere.Yousee,intheearlierhistoryofMinas,themining(forgold,silver,etc.)tooksolongthattowns[sprungup]aroundthemining.Thetownswereveryconnectedtotheminingindustry,forhundredsofyears.Butnow,theminingcanhappensorapidly[andwithlittlelabor],thatshe[mining]arrivesandexploitsandthenleaves.
ThoseinagreementwithFreiGilbertoworrythattheminingcompanywillnotbe
aroundlongenoughtoestablishatrueindustrially‐basedcommunity,andwill
insteadleaveaneconomicvoidwhenitleavesandthelandislefttoodamagedfor
oldfarmingpractices,orthefarmersarenolongerpresenttofarmit.
JoãoPaulo,theRuralWorkers’Unionpresident,explainedhisreasoning:
Iknow[miningis]goingtodegradetheenvironment;itisgoingtoconcentratemoney.AndIbelieveinsustainabledevelopmentandstrengtheningfamilyagriculture.AndIdon’tthinkitspossibletoreconcilethesegoalswithmining.
Hisemphasisthatsustainabledevelopmentmustbetiedtofamilyagriculturewasa
dominantthemeamongstthemembersoftheMiningCommissionandotheranti‐
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miningadvocates.ZeMaria,theSecretaryofAgricultureandtheEnvironmentspoke
passionatelyonthesubject:
So,mostofthefoodthat’seateninBrazilisproducedbyfamilyfarmers,butourgreatchallengeistomakesurethatthesesmallfarmersgettoliveadecentlife.I’vebeentoEurope,toGermany,toItaly,andseenthatviablesmallfarmingwithdecentstandardsoflivingispossible.Whycan’twedoitinBrazil?Becauseourlegislationdoesn’tallowit.Soyes,Iwon’tstandforitwhenpeoplesaythatthistechnologydoesn’texist,becauseIsay:makeitexist!
Hetoldmeaboutprogramshisofficewassponsoringtokeepfamilyagriculture
profitableforfarmers,includingtechnologicalinnovationprograms,bankfinancing
forruralworkers,freeagricultureeducationprograms,etc.
Iwascaptivatedbythiscommitmenttofamilyagriculture,especiallyinlight
oftheso‐called“ruralexodus”andindustrializationofBrazilandurged
stakeholderstoexplaintomewhyfamilyagriculturewassuchalargepartoftheir
identity.OnecoffeefarmernamedValdeliexplainedthathislifeonthelandwas
hardwork,butmorefulfillingthananylifeinthecity.Iwitnessedasquabble
betweentwobrothersinSantaCatarina,wherethefarmerbrotherdefendedthe
farminglifestyleas“fullofharmony”andthebrotherfromRiodeJaneiroscoffedat
hisbrother’sold‐fashionedways.
Carlosexplainedtome,instunninglyricalform,howhecametofarmin
Belasario.Hisfatherhadworkedthelandasasharecropperinthetimewherethere
waslittleruraldevelopmentandeducationinthecountryside,sohemovedtoRio
deJaneiro,hopingtogivehischildrenabetterlife,thoughtheslumsandfavelashad
littletooffertheirfamily.Carlospausedinthemiddleofhisstoryandlookedmein
theeyeandsaid:
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MyfatheriscalledAdam.Myfatherusedtoliveinparadiseandheatetheappleandwasthrownout.AndIsaid,‘I’lltrytogobacktothelandandlivelikeyouusedtolive.’
Earlierinthestory,heexplained:
WhenIcamebacktoMinasGerais,whenIfoundanopportunity,Icouldn’timaginelivinganywhereelse.Iboughtthefarm,andmyfathercametolivehere,livingwithmeandmakingbaskets.SoIknowabouttheruralexodusbecauseI’maresultofthatexodus.Soweknowwhatwillhappentothosewhochoosetoleaveandgotothecity.They’llgoandliveintheslumsandthefavelas.Itmighttaketwohourstogettowork,twohourstocomehome.So,itisthegreatillusionofdevelopment.Weknowthereareveryfewpeoplelivinginthecountrysideinyourcountry,intheUnitedStates.
HisstorystruckmewithsuchforcethatIwasatalossforwords,realizinghow
importantthesymbolismoftheruralexodus,farming,miningandindustrial
developmentwastohispersonalnarrative,howmetaphoricalitwastohis
perceptionsofwhatwasevilandwhatwasblessedintheworld.
Othercommunitystakeholderswhoopposedtheminingnevertheless
accepteditasaninevitablepartofthefutureoftheterritory,andemphasizedthe
importanceofincorporatingtheminingintotheregion’ssustainabilityplatform.In
disagreementwithJoãoPaulo,ZeMariacontendedthatfamilyagricultureand
miningdidnothavetobeincompatible:
Ibelieveinworkingwiththecommunitytogetthecommunityreadyforthetransformationsthatwilltakeplace,andwillresist[themining]tothepointofpossibility.Inthisresistance,whatIfeelisthatweneedtohelpfamiliespreparethemselvesforwhattheyaregoingtoface.Aswellashelpingthemincreasetheirpossibilities…toraisethestandardofliving[asfarmers].…Idon’tfeelwehaveanyalternativestothis[method].We’rethrownintoanewworld[withthemining]andwehavetofigureouthowtomakedo.Andweneedinformation.
Hestatedthatwhilehewouldalwaysbeagainstmininginprinciple,asa
governmentalofficialworkingforthelong‐termgoodofthecommunity,working
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withtheminingwasanecessityforsustainabledevelopmentafterthemininghad
departed:
Someplaces,familyagriculturehasmanagedtoseizethehour,evenwiththemining.Idon’tthinkthatthemininghastofinisheverythingoff.Theydon’tneedtoeliminateeverything.Theyjustneedtocomein,maketheirmining,andmoveon.
ThosefortheminingconveyedtheirconfidenceinGaiaandCBA’sabilitytohelpthe
regionwithsustainabledevelopment,toprovideresourcesforeconomicvisionand
educationalreformthatthecommunitycouldneveraccessitself.Additionally,many
areadoptingtheideaofeco‐tourismasoneofthebesthopesforthearea’sfuture
Theyhopetoseethepicturesquecountrysidestarttoattractwildernessrecreation
andagro‐tourismbusiness(oftheTuscanvariety)thatwouldbringlifetothelittle
towns.Andsinceeco‐tourismisoneofGaia’spilotprojects,manythinkCBAcould
aidthecountiesinachievingthisambition.AsMiriamstated:
There’slotsofthingsthatwecanthinkaboutthattheminingcompanycoulddoforus.Tohelpdevelopourtourism.
Eliab,theyoungecotourismcoordinatorfortheregion,explainedhowGaiawas
workingwiththelocaltourismleadersintheterritory:
So,[Gaiais]helpingusevaluateourstrengthsandweaknessesinnotonlyinfrastructure,butalsointermsofidentifyingourplacesofvalue,ournaturalhighpoints.
Buthealsospokewithreservationatpoints,acknowledgingthecomplexityof
development:
Soiftheminingcompanyisgoingtocomeandtrainpeoplehowtowork,thesamepeoplewhoiftheydon’tgetajobwillbeinthecitytomorrow,thenI’minfavorofit.Itisverymuchmorecomplex,though.Itisnotjustthatthey’llcomehereandpaysomeonetotraintheseyoungkidshowtobecomeguidesandworkintourism.Itisnotaseasyasthat.
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Cleber’ssummaryofthespectrumofopinionondevelopmentisrevealing:
So,therearetwotypesofpeople,onetypethat’swillingtosacrificeeverythingforminingandanother,likeme,wholiveinthecountryside,whoaretryingtoconciliatethearrivalofprogresswithpreservation.Andwealsohavetohavepeoplewhosay,“No,no,no.Wedon’twantprogress.Let’spreserve.”
Inanerawhenindustrialandthecommercialdevelopmentinthe“first‐world”style
isidentifiedasprogress,itishardnotfindthiscategorizationaccuratebyglobal
standards.
Section3
Thisideologicalquagmirebringsustomyfinalsub‐question:
Whatarethecommunity’sperceptionsoftheantiminingandprominingadvocacyandthecontentionbetweenthem?Howwouldthecommunityliketomoveforwardinreconcilingtheminingwiththeirregionalidentity? Bothsidesoftheeight‐yearbattleaboutthemeritsandpitfallsofminingare
nowinanintriguingposition.Stakeholdersinthecommunity,theminingcompany,
andthegovernmentrealizethattheminingwillproceedregardlessoftheprotestor
supportofthecommunity.ForCBA,thismeansthattheycanproceedwiththeir
miningsiteexpansion,atleastoutsidethebufferzone,withfewlegalboundaries.
CertainmembersoftheMiningCommissionexpressremorsethatthe
resistancemovementfailedandthatthecommunityissoill‐equippedtoapproach
negotiationwiththeminingcompany,thelogicalnextstep.AsJoãoPauloexpressed:
We’renotverywellpreparedyet.Weknowthedayisgoingtocome.We’renotsurewhatwe’regoingtodo.We’renotgoingtobeabletostopit.Andwe’velostalotourstrengthinthisresistance.Idon’tknowhowto…We’velearnedhowtoresist,butwehaven’tlearnedhowtonegotiate.
ZeMaria,alsoontheMiningCommission,remarked:
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Thosepeoplewhosay,“No,no,nowecan’tnegotiate,wehavetoresist,”Icomparethemtothefatheroftheadolescentchildwhokeepssayingnoandthechildgetsmorerebellious.Youhavetokeepthebalancebetweenknowingwhentoloosenthereinsandknowingwhentotightenthem.
HeusedtheexampleofthosewhohaveresistedvariousdamsinBrazilfor30years,
tonoavail.Hecommentedthattheminingcompanyhasalotofmoneytobeputto
gooduse,ifthecommunityhadthewisdomtodemanditandthefortitudetotake
controloverhowitwouldbeused.
ThisopinionisbecomingmoreprominentwithintheMiningCommission
andinthecommunity,asanti‐miningactivistsprepareforhowtobestnegotiate
withCBAtoensurethebestpossibletreatmentofruralworkers,theirlands,andthe
foreststhatprovideforthem.Cleber,notontheMiningCommissionbuta
prominentleaderinthecommunity,stated:
Sincemininghastobedone,let’smakesurethatthelawisobeyed.Weneedabigmobilizationforthis.Itisarigorouslaw,butmanytimesitisnotrespected.Peoplearebribed,etc.andthelegislationdoesn’twork.Butwecan’tsay“Well,thisacorruptcountry,sothisisnormal…”Butwealsocannotsay,“Youcan’tcomeinhere,youcan’ttouchit.”Soitisimportantthatthecommunityismobilized.
RobinLeBreton,ResearchDirectoratIracambiandveryactiveontheMining
Commissionhadhopesthatthecommissioncouldmoveforward,withsuchgoalsin
mind:
Hopefully,soonwecangettoapointwherewecanagreetodisagree[aboutresistancevs.negotiationwithinthecommission]andwecanmoveforwardfromtherewiththecompany.[Iracambi]propose(s)thattherebeestablishedacommissionofthreeparties,theminingcompany,thegovernment,andtheaffectedpeople.Wesuggestthateachofthoseinterestgroupsshouldappointonepersonandthereshouldbeacommissionofthosethreepeoplewhowouldmeetregularly.
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Iracambihopesthattheproposednegotiationstrategy,areflectionofthethree‐
leggedmodelofminingnegotiation,willbeaneffectivecompromisethatwillsoon
beacceptedbyallparties.
WhenIaskedLilian,aheadrepresentativefromCBA,whetherCBAwouldbe
opentosuchanarrangement,shestatedthatsuchcollaborationwasexactlywhat
CBAhasbeenhopingtoachievewithitsworkwithGaia.Sheexplainedtomethat
manyoftheemployeesofCBA’slocalminingbranchwereyoungandprogressive,
andwantedtomakesurethattheminingwasdoneinanoptimallysustainableway.
Additionally,shementionedthatCBApridesitselfonitsinternationalreputationas
asociallyandenvironmentallyethicalcompanyandwouldneverriskharmingitis
reputationbyovertlyostracizingacommunityitwasworkingwith.MarciadoVale,
anotherfemalerepresentativefromGaiaexplainedthatherorganizationstrivesto
aligntheirmethodologywithrigorousstandardsaboutsocialprojectsandlisten
intentlytowhatacommunitywantsbeforeacting.
WhenIaskedfarmerswhattheythoughtaboutnegotiationwiththe
company,somegavemeblankstaresandvagueanswers,asifunusedtotherhetoric
whendealingwithsubjectslikemininginBrazil.ProfessorJulioMonneratexplained
thephenomenon:
Itisashamereally.There’satraditioninthisareaofthelittleguysgettingpushedaroundbythebiginterests.Theyoftengettakenadvantageof.Sowe’retryingtogetpeopletounderstandthattheycanstanduptothesecompanies,to[demandthattheyactinthecommunity’s]interests.
Thosefarmerswhohadcommentsusuallyupheldnegotiationasasoundidea.
Julianaspokeforcefullyonthesubject:
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Wecan’tbecompletelyidioticaboutthis.Wehavetoknowwhat’sgoingon. …[Otherwise],thetruthis,whentheminingcompanycomes,[thefarmers]won’tknowhowtoreact.Theyhaven’tbeenpreparing.Eventhoughwe’vehadwarning,itwillcomesuddenly.
ProfessorMonneratcontinuedthathehopesthatduringtheprocessofnegotiation,
thecommunitycanlearntoarticulatewhataboutitssocietyitvaluespreserving
andwhatpartsofthelandscapeitwishestoprotect:
Wearebringingthispessimismtotheruralareas.[Wehaveto]movetoadifferentrhetoric.Wehavetogetpeopletodevelopanappreciationfortheirownlands,toretainanappreciation,tohaveprideintheirlifestyle,tohavefaithintheirownabilitiesandbuildupselfesteem.That’sthethingthatthiscommissionshouldbegindoing.Weshouldbeworkingongettingpeopletoappreciatethevalueoftheirowntraditionsandlandsandnotgoingaroundsaying“Ohwell,thecountryside’shaditandeveryoneisgoingtomovetothecities.”Andthat’sreallygoingtobethemeasureofoursuccess,whetherwecansucceedindoingthat.
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VI. Conclusions
RevisitingtheResearchQuestions Itisnotaneasytasktoweavethesemanythemesandopinionstogetherto
answermyresearchquestionwithoneconcisethesisabouthowthemining
discoursehasinfluencedidentityintheterritorywritlarge.Formininghasbrought
amyriadofissuestothetable.Andithashighlightedthedifferingopinionswithin
thecommunitystakeholders.However,inmyreflectionsonmydata,sixmain
themesemerged.
1)Themininghasaccelerateddialogueonthefutureoffamilyagriculturein
theregionasBrazil(andtheSerradoBrigadeiroterritorywithit)becomesmore
engagedinacapitalistmodel.Forsome,thisinstillsfearofanunknowndestinyand
griefoverachangingculture,whileforothersthisincentivizesapragmaticoutlook
onminingandindustrialismastheeconomicdriversofthefuture.Othersseizethe
chancetofighttosavefamilyagricultureandmakeitcompatibleinamodern
Brazilianeconomy.
2)Thethreatofminingonnaturalentitieslikeforestsandwaterhasenabled
peopletoarticulatewhytheseresourcesareimportanttotheirlivelihoodsandwhy
theymustbeprotected.Moreover,becauseanexternalforceisthreateningthese
ecologicalforces,itpropelsmanymembersofthecommunitytotakeprideand
ownershipinthem.
3)Aspeopleworktoarticulatewhytheydoordonotvaluefamily
agricultureandthenaturalenvironmentinlightofthemining,religionisidentified
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asakeywayofexpressingtheseopinions.Forthoseagainstthemining,theCatholic
Churchisanorganizationaltoolforexpressingopinionsasagroup.Andthe
languageofChristianityisusedtoconveyemotionabouttheminingandplaceitina
larger,philosophicalframework.Forthosewhosupportthemining,different
Christiantheologiesareusedtojustifytheacceptanceofeconomicforceslike
mining.
4)Themining,andtheswifteconomicchangethatitrepresents,unearths
insecuritiesaboutculturalchangeinthecommunity,particularlyintermsofthe
shiftfromtheoldertoyoungergenerations.Somemembersoftheoldergeneration
seetheyoungerpeopleasnotvaluingthelandasmuchastheyshouldandunwisely
fleeingto“thecity,”ametaphoricalplaceimbuedwithsymbolismofbothdanger
andopportunity.Theyoungergenerationseemstobeofmixedopinion,dislikingthe
practicalramificationsofmining,butcompelledbythetypeofdevelopment(and
lifestyle)itrepresents.
5)Theminingdemonstratestothepeopleoftheterritorythat,whilethe
outsideworldmayseemfarawayinthecozyvalleysofthemountains,globalization
alreadyhasastrongpresenceinthesecommunities.Manyseethisglobalizationas
positive,asasourceofinformationandprogress,whileothersseeitasahostile
forcethatisthreateningtheirwayoflife.Someseebothsides.
6)Aftereightyearsofgrapplingwiththeissue,manystakeholdersstatea
needforadifferenttypeoflanguageinresistingand/ornegotiationwithexternal
forceslikemining.Regardlessoftheiropiniononthevalueofmining,stakeholders
seemtothinkthatthecurrent,polarizedapproachtothemining(bitterresistance
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versusblindacceptance)isineffectualinthelongterm.Manyspeakofaneedto
learnhowtoarticulatetheirvisionofidealdevelopmentinawaythateffects
positivechangeandcooperation.
Limitations
Frankly,mytwomonthsatIracambidemonstratedthatIwouldneedmany
moretosatiatemydesireforafullcomprehensionofdevelopmentintheterritory.
Ideally,Iwouldliketohavemanymoreformalinterviewstopulldatafrom,aswell
asmonthsoffieldworkspeakingtolocalsinPortugueseandlivingwiththemasan
activeparticipantforalongerperiodoftime.IdohopetoreturntoIracambitodo
thesisworkonthissubject,orarelatedone,andbecomefluentenoughin
PortuguesethatIcouldunderstandmorenuances.Ideally,Iwouldliketoreturnto
lookfurtherintotheroleofthebasecommunitiesinthedialogueaboutminingand
developmentandtolivewiththemonksintheChristianecologicalcommunethey
hopetostart.
FinalThoughts:
Asastudentmuchmoreaccustomedtopoliticalpositionpapersthan
ethnographicstudies,Ioftenfoundmyselfsearchingforconcreteanswerstothe
dilemmasfacingtheSerradoBrigadeiroTerritory,wantingtoadoptastancetofight
for.Atthebeginning,whenmyknowledgeoftheminingsituationwasfrom
secondarysources,amentalconglomerationofacademicresearchanddramatic
picturesofbarrenhilltopsandemptyhouses,itwasfartooeasytoslipinto
simplisticcategorization.WhenIsteppedontheplaneinMiamitoheadoffonmy
adventure,apartofmehadvisionsofasummerspentromanticallybattling
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industrialgiantswithapenasmysword,waxingpoeticaboutgreatextortionand
injustice.
Fortunately,mytimespentintheZonaDaMatacooledmyrighteous
indignationandforcedmetodelvedeeperintothequestionsIwastryingtoanswer.
Infact,themoretimeIspentexploringtheissue,thefewerconclusionsIhadand
themorequestions.ItwouldhavebeenamorestraightforwardprojectifCBAhad
beenanunethicalmonstrosityofacompany(whichitisnot),butIdoubtIwould
havelearnedhalfasmuchaboutthecomplexityofmining’seffectonasociety.The
processtaughtmetoplaceasidemyneedtobeawarriorandembracetheroleofa
listener.
ThisisnottosaythatIresistedanypositionality,becausethatwouldhave
beenanimpossibilityforme.AsIgrewtolovethepeopleofthemountains,tolove
theirgroundedlifestyleandtendermannerofspeaking,Icouldnothelpbutmourn
forthem,forthechangestheywillhavetoundergointheupcomingyears.Thereis
nodenyingthatthealreadyfragilenaturalenvironmentwillhavetoundergoalarge
amountofstress,thattreeswillberippedfromtheirrootsandfieldswillbe
strippednaked.Evenwiththebestreclamationpossible,itwilltakemanyseasons
tofullyrepairthedamage.Ifretforthefarmerswhowillhavetoleavetheirhomes;
whowillwatchtheirchildrenleaveforfar‐offopportunities;whomightwatchtheir
grandchildrenhavelittlefamiliaritywithfamilyagriculture,asmygrandparents
experiencemygenerationintheUnitedStates.
Duringmyinterviews,Icouldnothelpbeingdrawntothesentimentofthose
opposedtothemining.WhenCarlosspokeofhisloveofthelandandhisbeliefthat
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familyagriculturewasthebedrockofanyfirmsociety,Iwasmesmerized.Andwhen
helookedmeintheeyeandspokeaboutthelackofrurallifeintheUnitedStates,I
squirmedinmychair,withvisionsoffactoryanimalfarms,obesity,andother
symbolsofourbrokenfoodsystem.Andsoonafterarrivingbackfrommytrip,ona
triphometoIowa,theendlessmilesofcornandsoybeanfieldsengulfingabandoned
farmhousesremindedmethatonceIowahadteemedwithsmallfarmersandhada
richculturesimilartotheSerradoBrigadeiro.Nowtheemptinessofitechoes,a
landofhighyields,notpeople.
ButduringmytimeinBrazil,Ifounditdifficulttobecomeangryatthe
miningcompanyastheagentofthechangeinthecommunity.Inmyestimation,the
company,thoughnotperfect,isdoinganadmirablejoboftryingtomitigatethe
effectsofthemining,thoughIbelievetheircompensationforfarmersshouldbe
higherandtheyshouldnotbeallowedtoenterthebufferzone.Intheeconomic
developmentmodelthatisdrivingBrazilatthemoment,oneitsurelydidnotinvent,
theminingcompanyseesitselfasrevolutionizingthearea,ofbringinginnovation
andfinancialopportunity,ofhelpingtoraiseGRIindexesandtoincreasethe
standardofliving,sothateveryresidentoftheSerradoBrigadeiroTerritorymight
onedayhopetohaveAmericanconveniences.Sothattheymighthavehouseswith
multipletelevisions,refrigerators,cars,runningwater,I‐pads,andlaptops:The
essentialstoahappylife,orsowedemonstratetothem.Allofwhich,bytheway,
requireasteadysupplyofaluminum.
SoIrealizedthehypocrisyofmebecomingirateatCBAforitsendeavorsto
pullmetaloutoftheground.UntilIhavethestrengthtoabandonalloftheabove‐
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mentioneditems,togoandbuyahouseonahillsomewhereandgrowmyownfood
andsubsistwithoutelectricity,kitchenmixers,ortinfoil(asIracambi’snursery
manager,Tony,doesinhiscabininthewoods)Ihavenoauthoritytoobjectto
bauxiteminingonprinciple.Ihavenorighttoharborhatredforacompanythatis
simplyfulfillingitsdutytoaworldorderIstilllivein.
SowhenZezino,amanwiththewisdomofages,chargedmetogobackand
spreadthewordabouttheinjustice,Ibalked.Inadramaticgesture,heraisedhis
handstowardme,gesturedtothemountainsideaheadofus,andexclaimed:
Andwe’recountingonpeoplelikeyou.Soyouhavetogoandtellpeoplewhat’shappeninghere.Tellthemaboutthemining.What’shappeninghereisgoingtohappentothewholeworld!
WhoamItospeakforthesepeople,Ithought,whenmyownhandsarebloody?In
myopinion,itisthesefarmersthemselveswhosevoicesneedtobeheard.Itisthese
humblepeoplewhoselivesarebeingattacked,notbyasinglecompanyorindustry,
butbyaglobalhungerforresources.Itistheywhohavetheentitlementtocryout
totheworld,totheircountry,anddemandadifferentvisionfortheplanetandits
peoples.
So,inmyopinion,thebestthingIcandofortheSerradoBrigadeiroisto
provideamediumforthesecommunitymemberstospeakout,totelltheirstory.
Fortheytellitwell.AllIcanemphasizeishowmuchthesocietyofthissmallpocket
ofBraziltaughtme.RobinandBinkashowedmewhatitlooksliketogoforthinlife
withoutfear,tostubbornlypursuetherealityyouwishexisted.Carminhaand
Everaldodemonstratedtomehowgentlenessandwarmthknittogetherstrong
familiesandcommunities.Tonypreachedthegospelofsimplicity,whileCarlos,
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Zezino,ZeMariaandalltheleadersoftheterritorysignifiedtomethepowerof
activeconvictions.
Andfinally,FreiGilbertotaughtmetoalwaysinformmyecologicalethicwith
agreatdealofloveandcompassion.Inthewordsofoneofhisheroes,liberation
theologian,LeonardoBoff:
Caringimpliesaloving,respectfulandnonaggressive,andthereforenondestructive,relationshipwithreality.Itassumesthathumansarepartofnatureandmembersofthebioticandcosmiccommunity,withtheresponsibilitytoprotect,regenerateandcareforit.Morethanatechnique,caringisanart,anewparadigmofrelationshipwithnature,Earthandhumanbeings.
IhavesomuchfaithinthecharacterofthepeopleoftheSerradoBrigadeiro
Territory,intheirabilitytowithstandanychallengesthatminingmightbringand
findopportunitiesforrealgrowthinthesituation.Ipraythattheyareblessedin
theirdevelopmentandthatwhenIreturn,whichIknowIwill,Iwillfindthemstill
prospering.AsCarlosproclaimed:
Wedamagetheearth,evenasfarmers.Butshestilllooksafterus.Wemakemistakesandshestillgivesusanotherchance.“Theearthiscryingoutinpainsofchildbirth.”50Butaftershegivesbirth,thereissomethingbeautiful.
50AnallusiontotheRomariathemeandtoRomans8:22:"Forweknowthatthewholecreationgroansandsuffersthepainsofchildbirthtogether…”
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VII. BibliographyDugdale,Nicola&Connor,Lena,“MiningBriefingDocument,”IracambiConservation
andResearchCenter(2011).Baer,Werner,TheBrazilianEconomy:GrowthandDevelopment,(Boulder:Lynne
Rienner,2008).Ballard,Chris.“ResourceWars:TheAnthropologyofMining.”AnnualReviewfor
Anthropology32(2003)287–313.“CodeofEthicsoftheAmericanAnthropologicalAssociation,”American
AnthropologicalAssociation,ApprovedJune1998,<http://www.aaanet.org/committees/ethics/ethicscode.pdf>.
Dean,Warren,BroadaxandFirebrand:TheDestructionoftheBrazilian
AtlanticForest,(Berkeley:UniversityofCaliforniaPress,1997),5.Dewalt,KathleenM.,&Dewalt,BillieR.,ParticipantObservation,(Oxford:AltaMira
Press,2002).Figueiroa,SilviaF.deM.&Machado,IranF.&“500YearsofMininginBrazil:ABrief
Review.”ResourcesPolicy27(2001)9–24.Handelsman.S.D.,“Humanrightsinthemineralsindustry.”MMSDWork.2002.
PaperNo.9.<http://www.iied.org/mmsd/mmsdpdfs/009handelsman.pdf>. Harper,Jessica,“ConfrontingCorporateDevelopment:Anti‐MiningAdvocacyinthe
BrazilianAtlanticRainforest,”CapstonePaperforMastersDegree,(SchoolforInternationalTraining,2007).
Howitt, Connell J.R., Mining and Indigenous Peoples in Australasia. (Sydney: Sydney
University Press, 1991). Hyndman,D.AncestralRainForestsandtheMountainofGold:IndigenousPeoplesand
MininginNewGuinea.(Boulder,CO:WestviewPress,1994).Krenak,Ailton.“MiningCompaniesonIndigenousLandsinBrazil,”CulturalSurvival
Quarterly,10(1986)46‐47,
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Meyer,F.M.,“AvailabilityofBauxiteReserves,”NaturalResourcesResearch13(2004).
MurrayLi,Tania."ArticulatingIndigenousIdentityinIndonesia:ResourcePolitics andtheTribalSlot".ComparativeStudiesinSocietyandHistory,42(2001),149. Parrotta,JohnA.&Knowles,OliverH.,“Restoringtropicalforests onlandsminedfor
bauxite.”EcologicalEngineering17(2001)219–239.Parrotta,John,Knowles,OliverH., Wunderle, Joseph M., “Developmentoffloristic diversityin10‐year‐oldrestorationforestsonabauxiteminedsitein Amazonia.”ForestryEcologyandManagement99(1997)21–42.22. Rumsey, A. & Weiner, J. Mining and Indigenous Lifeworlds in Australia and Papua New Guinea. (Adelaide: Crawford House, 2001). Skidmore,ThomasE.,Brazil:FiveCenturiesofChange,(NewYork:OxfordUniversity
Press,2010),22. “Território da Serra do Brigadeiro – MG: Sistemização e análise dos dados secundarios.” CTA-ZM: Centro de Tecnologias Alternativas da Zona da Mata de Minas Gerais. (Viçosa: 2004). Toy, T. J. & Griffith, J.J. “Changing Surface-Mine Reclamation Practices in Minas Gerais, Brazil.” International Journal of Surface Mining, Reclamation and Environment. 15 (2001), 33-51. Wesley‐Smith,T.,“Thepoliticsofaccess:miningcompanies,thestate,and
landownersinPapuaNewGuinea.”PoliticalScience,42(1990),1–19.Witthaus,Lindsey,“ConflitoAmbiental:MineraçãoeAgriculturaFamiliar,”Fulbright
GrantPaper(FederalUniversityofVicosa,2008).Wolford,Wendy.“Families,Fields,andFightingforLand:TheSpatialContentionof
FightingforLandinRuralBrazil,”Mobilization:AnInternationalJournal:8(2):201.
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VII.Appendices
AppendixA:MapsoftheSerraDoBrigadeiroTerritory
Map1.ChangestotheAtlanticForest,Brazil
Source:S.O.S.MataAtlânticaFoundation
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AppendixA.,(continued):
Map2.BauxiteConcessionsintheSerradoBrigadeiroTerritory,MG,Brazil
Source:LenaConnorandDevinDworkin,IracambiGISLab
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AppendixA.,(continued):
Map3.IracambiinBauxiteConcessions,MG,Brazil
Source:LenaConnorandJoshuaPlisinski,IracambiGISLab
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AppendixA.,(continued):
Map4.CommunityofSantaLuciainBauxiteConcessions,MG,Brazil
Source:LenaConnorandYelenaFinegold,IracambiGISLab
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AppendixA.,(continued):
Map5.CommunityofPedraAltainBauxiteConcessions,MG,Brazil
Source:LenaConnorandJoshuaPlisinski,IracambiGISLab
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AppendixA.,(continued):
Map6.CommunityofSantaCatarinainBauxiteConcessions,(ExampleofPortugueseversionforcommunity).
Source:LenaConnorandDaniEwert,IracambiGISLab
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AppendixA.,(continued):
Map6.ExistingMiningExpeditionMapandImages,SãoSebastiãoda
VargemAlegre,MG,Brazil
Source:LenaConnorandYelenaFinegold,IracambiGISLab
ImagefromGoogleEarth,GeoEyesatellite24/08/2010ExistingMining;GPSLocation21º02’24.79”S,42º36’12.62”W
PicturestakenbyLenaConnoronMiningInvestigationon6/9/11nearSaoSebastianatGPSLocation21º02’24.79”S,42º36’12.62”W
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AppendixB.
Figure1.Worlddistributionofbauxitereservesaccordingtotonnagesofrecoverablealumina(rec.Al2O3).DatafromCRC525database.
Source:F.M.Meyer,2004.
Figure2.Timetrendsinbauxiteproductionfrom1900to2001andprojectedforperiod2002to2025assuminganannualincreaseof1.7%forfuturebauxiteproduction.
Source:F.M.Meyer,2004.
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AppendixB.,(continued):
Figure3.Worldbauxitepercapitaconsumption,1990to2001. Source:F.M.Meyer,2004.
Figure4.TerritoryMunicipalitiesEmploymentCategorization
Source:CenterofAlternativeTechnologyZonadaMata,2004
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AppendixB.(continued): Figure5.Populationvariancebetween1970and2000inTerritory Source:CenterofAlternativeTechnologyZonadaMata,2004 Figure6.RuralPopulationGraphofTerritoryfrom19702000
Source:CenterofAlternativeTechnologyZonadaMata,2004
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AppendixC:
Section1:FormalInterviews:Note:FormanyofthestakeholdersIinterviewed,onlyfirstnameswererecorded,forprivacypurposesandbecauselastnamesarenotcommonlyusedinthecultureoftheSerradoBrigadeiroTerritory.Interview#1:FreiGilberto,Male,HeadFranciscanPriestfortheDioceseintheTerritory,RosariodaLimeiraandsurroundingcountiesDate:6/16/11,2:30p.m.‐5:30p.m.Location:BinkaandRobin’sdiningroomInterview#2:RobinLeBreton,Male,ResearchDirector,Iracambi,RosariodaLimeiraDate:6/18/11,2:30p.m.‐5:00p.m.Location:GarageatIracambiCenterInterview#3:JoãoPaulo,Male,PresidentofRuralWorkersUnion,RosariodaLimeiraDate:6/27/11,9:00a.m.‐9:45a.m.Location:RuralWorkersUnionOfficeInterview#4:ZeMaria,Male,SecretaryofAgricultureandtheEnvironment,RosariodaLimeiraDate:6/29/11,8:00a.m.‐9:15a.m.Location:SecretaryofAgricultureandtheEnvironmentOffice,RosariodaLimeiraInterview#5:Marinha,Female,Farmer,PedraAltaDate:7/1/11,9:00p.m.‐9:25p.m.Location:FarmerFestival,StableRoomofCommunityCenter,PedraAltaInterview#6:Sebastian,Male,Farmer,PedraAltaDate:7/1/11:9:30‐10:15p.m.Location:FarmerFestival,StableRoomofCommunityCenter,PedraAltaInterview#7:(GroupInterview)JulioMonnerat,Male,ProfessorofAgro‐Ecology,FederalInstituteofMuriaé,MuriaéReinaldo,CPTrepresentative,MuriaéDate:7/6/11:10a.m.‐11:45a.m.Location:FederalInstituteofMuriaéOffice
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Interview#8:(GroupInterview)Cleber,Male,AttorneyandEngineer,BelasarioMiriam,Female,RetiredPsycologist,BelasarioEliab,Male,Eco‐TourismCoordination,BelasarioCarlos,Male,Farmer,BelasarioDate:7/12/11,9:30a.m.‐11:45a.m.Location:CleberandMiriam’sHome,BelasarioInterview#9:Zezino,MaleFarmer,BelasarioDate:7/12/11,12:00p.m.‐12:45p.m.Location:HillsideoutsideofBelasario,parkedonthesideofamainroad,facingthemountainrange.Interview#10:Sergio,MaleCollegeStudentandFarmerDate:7/13/11,9:00a.m.‐10:00a.m.,Location:IracambiCenterInterview#11:Juliana,FemaleFarmer,SãoPedroDate:7/28/11,4:30p.m.‐6:30p.m.Location:HerhouseinSãoPedro,4:30p.m.‐6:30p.m.Interview#12:MariaCarolina,Female,HighSchoolStudent,MuriaéDate:7/29/11,9:00a.m.‐10:00a.m.Location:IracambiCenter
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Section2:AdditionalInterviewQuotesThereasonI’magainstminingisbecauseit’saggressivetotheworld.Itisattackingthewholesystem.WhenI’mattackingMotherNature,I’mattackingallofherchildren.‐FreiGilberto,HeadPriestforCatholicDioceseWell,we’vebeensufferingforthelast500yearsfromminingofallsorts.MostofMinashaslostitsforest.Brazilhasalwayssufferedfromtherichesleavingthecountry.‐FreiGilberto,HeadPriestforCatholicDioceseOfcourse,theminingisanimportantpartofprogress,economicandtechnological.Ithasaveryimmediatereturn,butoftenwedon’ttakeintoaccountthedamageminingcausestonatureandtolifeitself.It’saveryaggressivepursuit,mining.‐FreiGilberto,HeadPriestforCatholicDioceseThesedays,theminingcompanyparticipatesinalotofgreen‐wash,butthatdoesn’treallymakeitanylessaggressive.It’sstilldegradingandexploitative.‐FreiGilberto,HeadPriestforCatholicDioceseThishydrologyisverysensitiveandcomplexandtheywouldhavetobeverycarefulnottodisruptanyofthesewatersourceswithsedimentation.It’sprobablyimpossible,tonotaffectthen.YettheEISdoesn’tevenmentionthesewaterresources.Theyhaven’tevaluatedthehydrologyinthisregion.Itneedstobedone.Andthesespringsarethesolesourceofwaterforpeopleinthisarea.Theyuseitforwashing,drinking,wateringtheircows,etc.Wecan’taffordtoblockthesesprings.‐RobinLeBreton,ResearchDirector,IracambiAsyouknow,therehavebeenalotofpeopleinRosariodaLimeirawhohavebeencapturedbytheminingcompany.Tostartwith,inRosariodaLimeira,wewereallunitedagainstit.Butsincethen,whenwehavemeeting,somepeoplearealittlenervous,becausemaybetheyoweafavortotheminingcompany,ortheyworkfortheminingcompany,ortheyhopetoworkfortheminingcompany.It’sweakenedourstance.‐JoãoPaulo,RosariodaLimeiraRuralWorkersUnionWhatIseeisthattheminingcompanyhasveryclearoptionsofofferofbenefitsforthem,andwehavebeenremissinnotcreatingareallystrongalternativeinfavoroffamilyagriculture.‐JoãoPaulo,RosariodaLimeiraRuralWorkersUnionInthenextcounty,ofMiraí,alotofpeoplehavebeenaffectedbythemining,thedust,andhaveleftthecountryside.‐JoãoPaulo,RosariodaLimeiraRuralWorkersUnionNow,whatIdon’tsupportistheminingcompanybringingintothecity,sotheybuildasoccerfieldortheydosomethingtothechurch.That’sbringingpeopleintothecityandtakingthemoutofthecountryside.‐JoãoPaulo,RosariodaLimeiraRuralWorkersUnionTheoldergenerationwasraisedwiththelandandthelandtothemismorethanjusttheeconomicbenefitsofit.It’sawholedifferentrelationship.Whereastheyoungergenerationtendstoseeitasonlyintermsofeconomicbenefits,andthosearetheoneswhoareinfavorofminingandtendtoleavetheareaaswell.‐JoãoPaulo,RosariodaLimeiraRuralWorkersUnionInthisstate,minersandthoseconnectedtomininghaveenormouspoliticalpower.Particularlyinthisstate.Andsowiththis,theycaneasilyachievetheirobjectives.‐ZeMaria,SecretaryofAgricultureandtheEnvironment,RosariodaLimeira
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Idon’tfeelwehaveanyalternativestothis[method].We’rethrownintoanewworld[withthemining]andwehavetofigureouthowtomakedo.Andweneedinformation.Oneofthethings,thisisaregionwithverystrongculture,averystrongtraditionalculture,andthat’sverybeautifulinsomeways,butinothersitmakesitdifficultforthemtounderstandthatpeopleneedtimeforeducation.It’sdifficultforthemtofacethesechanges[miningincluded].‐ZeMaria,SecretaryofAgricultureandtheEnvironment,RosariodaLimeiraIfyousaytothecommunity:“Ifyougoaftertheminingcompany,youcanhelpgetaneducationforyourchildoryoucanget,youknow,differenttypesofprofessionaldevelopment,”they’lllisten.Whereas,ifyougotothecommunityandsay,“Youhavetoresisttothelastdropofyourblood,”they’llabandonyouandgowiththeminingcompanyblindly.‐ZeMaria,SecretaryofAgricultureandtheEnvironment,RosariodaLimeiraI’vebeentosomeplacesinSteelValley,ontheRioDoce,inthenorth.Theyhadanagriculturalreform,andsomeofthesefamilies,inthefaceofmining,havetakenholdofnewtechnology,andgoneahead,managedtosurvive,thoughmanydidn’t.It’sverydifferentindifferentpartsofthestate.Someplaces,familyagriculturehasmanagedtoseizethehour,evenwiththemining.‐ZeMaria,SecretaryofAgricultureandtheEnvironment,RosariodaLimeiraNo,they’vegottheiragenda.Itdoesn’thavealottodowithours.So,what’spossible..Ithinkwhatwecando,isthatwecanmakesuretheyabidebythelawandensuringtheydon’tthrowtoomanypeopleofftheland.Andtheretributionwillbeinteachingpeople,ingeneratinginformationandmoney.‐ZeMaria,SecretaryofAgricultureandtheEnvironment,RosariodaLimeiraWell,Idon’thaveillusions.Ican’tpretendit’snotgoingtohappen.It’sgoingtolastformanydecades.Andit’sgoingtohaveabigimpactonthelandscape.First,wehavetorecognizethat.Sohowarewegoingtocopewithit?It’sgoingtobeachallenge.I’mgoingtoinsistthatwehaveknowledge.There’snootherwayexceptforthem[thecommunity]tounderstandwhat’sgoingon,andthentheyhavetodecidewhichareasoftheenvironmenttheywanttoprotect,andthey’llhavetoworktowardspreservingthese.‐ZeMaria,SecretaryofAgricultureandtheEnvironment,RosariodaLimeiraAboutmining:Iworkedfor5yearsand1dayfortheminingcompany.AndIwasthelastpersontobefired.SoIreallyknowaboutminingbecauseIworkedfor5years.Ithinkitsgoingtobereallyhardtostopthemining.So,wewerebiggroupsofusworking.Therewereabout60ofusandwe’dgofromonepropertytoanother,lookingforthemineral.Sotheminerswouldcomeinandtheyaskedthefarmers,“Isitallrightifwelookedatyourland.”Andifthepeoplesaidno,thenthejudgewouldcomeafterthem.Soifpeopledidn’twantit,thejudgesentamessage,theydidn’tevenhavetosendthepolice,andthey’dhavetolettheminersin.AndtherewasanorderfromtheministryofminesandthisgavepermissionforAntonioEmiliodoMoraistocarryoutanyresearchonyourproperty.SowefoundmineralsonGraminha,Ermanha,whichisbehindthetelephonetower.Wewereonlyworkers,sotheydidn’t,ofcourse,tellusthewholeinsidestory,butwhatIdoknowisthatfromtheSerrasdasAranas,thereweregoingtobe500truckloadseverydayfor15years.Therewasenoughmineralinthere.‐Sebastian,MaleFarmer,PedraAltaI’vealwaysbeenafarmer.Butatthattime,Ididn’thaveanyland.Itwasmyfather’sland.IlivedhereandIwasverysmall.Itookajob[withtheminingcompany]becauseIhaddebts.Iearnedonesalary.Somyfatherallowedthemtoresearchonhisproperty.Somyfatherauthorizedthisonwhatisnowmyland,becausemyfatherisdead.So,Iboughtpartoftheland.Ifitwastoday,Iprobablywouldn’tgoandworkfortheminingcompany.Becauseitwasverybadformyhealth.WhenIwas46,Icouldn’tworkanymore.Ihadhighbloodpressure,Ihadheartproblems.Iworkedverydeep.I
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sweatedalot.Allsweaty,anditrained,anditwasverybadforyou.So,whenIwas47,Ihadtoretireforhealth.I’mnowjustcomingupon60.‐Sebastian,MaleFarmer,PedraAltaIwon’tbearound.There’sgoingtobemuchdestruction.Everything.Theyyoungpeoplearen’treallythinkingaboutit.ButifIwasyoung,Iwouldbethesame.Maybemygrandchildren.Ithinkmygrandchildrenwillhavetocopewiththis.Theywillhavetoleavetheland.Ifeelthis.Theymakelotsofpromises,butI’mprettysureourwaterwillnevercomeback.Don’tyouthinkit’strue?‐Sebastian,MaleFarmer,PedraAltaWewanttoencouragesolidaritybetweenthosewhowillbeaffectedandothersinthecommunitywhowillnotbedirectlyimpactedbutwhostilltakeinterestintheissue.Realsolidarity,notjustthatwarm,fuzzyfeeling,buteffectivesolidaritythatwillenablethemtotakeastandagainstthemining.‐JulioMonnerat,FederalInstituteofMuriaéWehavethisprogramthatinsiststhatlocalschoolsbuyfoodlocally,butthenyouhaveopeningsforactivitiesfortheminingandsoon,whichwillcomeandtakeallthatlocalismawayagain.So,ononehand,youhavethisgovernmentalprojecttosupportsustainableagriculture,butthen,ontheother,yousupportminingwhichhastheexactoppositeeffect.‐Reinaldo,CPTRepresentative,MuriaéSo,whereminingshouldbedone,Ihaveseenexampleswheremininghasbeendonequitewell.Wherecountiesarepleasedwiththeresults.AndI’vealsoseendisasters;wheretheyhavedegradedtheland.Sowecan’tsay,welllet’sjustletthemdegrade.Soit’sariskwejusthavetotake.Now,inthebufferzone,that’saprotectedarea,sotheminingshouldnottakeplacethere.Peopleneedtomobilizearoundthispoint.Butifthere’smineraltobetakenoutofareasthatarelesscritical,thenletitbedone.‐Cleber,AttorneyandEngineer,BelasarioI’vebeentalkingtoGaiaanditseemsthatintheareasthatthey’vehadmining,peoplearesatisfiedafterwards.Now,I’mnotnaïveenoughtobelievethatthisisnecessarilytrue.It’spossiblesomepeoplearemakinglotsofmoney,andprejudicingothers.SothisiswhatIhearfromthecounties:thatthecompensationfromthecompanyhasbeenquitegood.Sowe’rejustgoingtohavetosee.We’retryingtofigureoutwhatistrue.‐Cleber,AttorneyandEngineer,BelasarioItseemsthattheywon’tbehereforanother5‐10years.Sowe’reintheprocessofunderstandingwheretheyaregoingtomine.Idon’tthinkit’sintelligenttojudgebeforewereallyknow.‐Cleber,AttorneyandEngineer,BelasarioSo,miningisaquestionthatwon’tgoaway.Thequestiondoesn’tgoaway:Howcanwepossiblydevelopourtourismwiththesemachineseverywhere?Sowe’retryingtofigureouthowwecanbalancethetwo.‐Eliab,Eco‐TourismDirector,BelasarioSoIcan’treallyagree,becauseI’mafarmer,thatiftheminingcameandeveniftourismincreased,thateverythingwouldbefine.Untiltheminingcompanycanprovetomethattheycanfullyrecooperatemyland,becauseI’mafarmer.Eliabisatourismdirector,sohe’sworkingwiththenaturalbeauties,butIneedtoworkwiththeland.Theyhavenotmanagedtoconvinceme.‐Carlos,MaleFarmer,BelasarioI’mnotgoingtosaythatIagreewithitifmysurvivalisthreatened.ButIdon’twanttothinkjustofme.Iwanttothinkabouttheenvironmentaswell.Iftheyreallydocome,becausewereallyaren’tsureyet…Sothismountain,forexamplehas6,7,8familiesonit.Thereisonespringthatfurnishesallthesesixfarms.
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‐Carlos,MaleFarmer,BelasarioPeopleherehaven’twokenup.Torealizewhatthisplaceis.Soitsreallytheruralpeoplewhohaven’twokenupandrealizedthattheminingcompanywillcomein,willusehisland,thathe’llloosehiscrops,hislittlecorral…Butthisisaplacethathasthepotentialtobecomeatourist‐opolis,abigcenter.Butpeopleheredon’treallyvaluewhatthey’vegot.ThereasonthatI’mresistingisthatIwanttoensurethatweleavesomethingworthhaving.‐Carlos,MaleFarmer,BelasarioOneoftheproblemsisthatitishardforustogoseewhereminingisbeingdoneatthemoment.Andweonlynoticewhenthereisbigdamage.AndIdon’ttrusttheenvironmentalagencies.Becausetheyareeasilybought.Sothere’sriskofthis.‐Carlos,MaleFarmer,BelasarioWell,theyhopetofindwaystoreducetheimpactsoffarmers.Ifittakes100yearsforthecoffeetocomeback,canwefindsomealternative?Wecanworkwithmushrooms.Wecanusehydroponics.Sothismoneytheyaregoingtogiveus…He’llhavetothinkwhathe’sgoingtodoitwhenhecomesbacktothefarm.‐Miriam,RetiredPsychologist,BelasarioThereisalotofbauxitehere.Butit’sdeep.Thebauxiteisunderthesoilwhichisthefruitoftheforeststhathavebeenhereforcenturies,allofthedetritusthathasbeenbuildingupandrecyclingandstoringnutrients.Understand?It’sthespongewhichabsorbshumidity.Thishelpstoregulatewater.Ifthere’swaterintheriver,it’sbecausethereiswaterintheforests,inthegapsintherocks,inthedecomposedforestsoil.IfItakeoffthistoplayer,everythingwillfalldownandsilttherivers.Thevalleyswilldryup.Bauxite,whichisalongthesidesofthemountains,itdoesn’tdissolveinwater.Itholdstheorganiclayeraboveitself.Sothattheorganicmatterdoesn’tpassthroughtothewater.Itactsasanimpermeablelayer.Ifyoutakethebauxiteout,allthesoilwilljustslideaway.‐Zezino,MaleFarmer,BelasarioThereare200,000peopleinthecountyofMuriaé.Theyallrelyonthiswater.Sothewatercomesfromhere,sotherewillbenowatertheretoflushtheirdrains,towashtheirdishes.‐Zezino,MaleFarmer,BelasarioIseethat[mining]isdestroyingeverythingweknow.Itisverysad.‐Sergio,YoungMaleStudent(20yearsold),RosariodaLimeira(grewuponfarm)Peoplearelookingatthemoneytheyaregoingtomakebuttheyaren’tlookingatactuallymakingmoneyinthelongterm,whentheyhavetoreturntofarming.It’ssuchashamethatmostpeoplearejustlookingatthefinancialbenefits.…Ithinkifwehadsomereallygoodmeetingstoexplain[tothefarmers],Ithinkthattheywouldbelesslikelytogiveinsoeasilytothemoney.‐Juliana,FemaleFarmer,SãoPedroIworkedasasocialworkerforseveralyears.WehadanelectionandIwasre‐elected.Theywantedmetoworkinhealth.Andthisiswhenwedecidednottogointown.Wetalkedalot.BecauseIhadanicesalary.Butthenweboughtthelandandstartedworkingwithmilkandcoffee,andwecouldmakethesameamountofmoney.Andwe’remuchhappier.Becausewe’refree.‐Juliana,FemaleFarmer,SãoPedroYes,it’ssadreally.Likewhenthedamburstin2006,peopleweresoupsetaboutitandwerereallyemotionalaboutthemining.Butitfadedandpeoplewentbacktotheirdaytodaylivesanddon’tliketothinkaboutit.Ithasn’thithomethatit’sreallygoingtohappenhere.‐Juliana,FemaleFarmer,SãoPedro
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AppendixD: Section1:MiningPicture,Source:LenaConnor Image1.BauxiteinEarth,SãoSebastiãodaVargemAlegre
Image2.Miningnearforestedridge,Miraí Image3.Abandonedhouse,SãoSebastiãodaVargemAlegre
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AppendixD.,(continued): Section1:MiningPictures,(continued): Image4.MiningbyHomesteads,SãoSebastiãodaVargemAlegre
Image4.TourofMiningwithCBARepresentatives,Miraí
Image5.MeetingandTourwithCBA,Miraí
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AppendixD.,(continued): Section1:MiningPictures,(continued): Image7.TailingsDam,Miraí Image8.WashingPlantFacility,Miraí
Image9.MeetingwithCBA,Miraí
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AppendixD.,(continued): Section2:CommunityMappingPictures Image1.TypicalFarmHouse,GraminhaValley Image2.BaseCommunityChurch,GraminhaValley Image3.CoffeeFarmerandSon,SantaLucia
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AppendixD.,(continued): Section2:CommunityMappingPictures
Image4.DairyFarmerandDaughter,SantaLucia Image5.Farmer,brotherfromRio,andfamily,SantaCatarina
Image6.Farmerpointstoimportantnaturallandmark,SantaCatarina
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AppendixD.,(continued): Section2:CommunityMappingPicture
Image7.Farmingcoupleinfrontoftheirforestpatch,SantaCatarina
Image8:Youngfarmingfamily,SantaCatarina
Image9:Farmerandfathermakepresssugarcane,SantaCatarina
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AppendixD.,(continued): Section3:IracambiPictures Image1.LenaandAlison,CommunityMapping,SantaCatarina Image2.CharlotteandLenaplantinginthenursery,Iracambi Image3.IracambiCenter
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AppendixD.,(continued): Section3:IracambiPictures Image4.LenaandLauratouringValdeli’scoffeefarm,SaoPedro Image5.Lena,Yelena,Laura,andCurtishiking,Mt.Itajuru Image6.IracambiResearchersonJuniorScientistDay,Iracambi
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AppendixD.,(continued): Section3:EventPictures Image1.SquaredancingatFestivalofSãoJoão,PedraAlta Image2.PosterforRomaria,Belasario
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AppendixD.,(continued): Section3:EventPictures Image3.Romariaprocessionthroughthecountryside,Belasario
Image4.FreiGilbertoatRomariastation,askingGodforforgivenessforenvironmentalsinandmining,Belasario
Image5.Romariafamilyagriculturestation,Belasario.Thesignreads“FamilyAgriculture:Thosewhodon’tpracticeitdependonit.”
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AppendixD.,(continued): Section3:InterviewPictures Image1.Carlos,Farmer,Belasario
Image2.Zezino,farmerandCPTrepresentative,Belasario
Image3:Cleber,Eliab,Binka,Zezino,andLena,InterviewatCleber’sHouse,Belasario