The Development of Education in Korea : Past Achievement and Current Challenges Chong Jae Lee Seoul...

The Development of Education in Korea

: Past Achievement and Current Challenges

Chong Jae LeeSeoul National University

† Background paper for the East Asia Study Tour for Senior African Education Policy Makers Organized by World Bank on June 19-23, 2006

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Ⅰ. Introduction

Purposes

– Overview Korean approach to past development and current challenges in education sector

– Identify key policy choices that help explain how educational development patterns contribute to the successful economic growth in Korea

– Highlight key lessons learned from Korean development over past six decades

33

Ⅱ. Setting the stage: where we started in 1945

In 1945

Educational attainment level of Korea population– 13+ years population: 15 million– Never attendance: 12.3 million (79.8%)– Elementary education and more: 1.9 million (8.3%)

Enrollment Ratio of elementary education(6-12yrs)– 1945: 64.0%– 1948: 74.8%

Enrollment Ratio of Secondary education: 3.2%

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Ⅱ. Setting the stage: where we started in 1945

Policy tasks and choices– Develop modern school system– Expand the access to education – Reduce illiteracy (10 million)

Development of school system: Access, Relevance and International standards– Six years compulsory elementary education– Two level of secondary education: Middle and High school– Single Track– Multiple forms of higher education institutions– Dual mode of teacher education– Special schools for adult learners– “6-3-3-4” Single track system

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Ⅲ. Challenges and Main Policy Choice

Key Stages– 1948~1960 : Reconstruction– 1961~1980 : Education for Economic growth– 1981~2000 : Search for New Paradigms– 2000~Present : Restructuring

Characteristics by Key Stages– Challenges to Education– Major concerns– Policy Choice– Resources and tools

66

How education contributes economic growth?

1960 1970 1980 1990 1997 1998 2000 2004

Population (Millions) 24 32 38 43 46 46 47 48

GNI per capita (US$) 80 650 2,324 7,751 10,363 6,843 9,675 12,646

Unemployment rate (%) 11.7 4.4 5.2 2.4 2.6 6.8 4.1

3.4(2003)

Labor force (Millions) 8 10 14 19 21 21 22

23(2003)

Labor force Participation

rate (%)30.8% 47.6 59.0 60.0 62.2 60.5 60.7

61.4(2003)

Source: Gwang-Jo Kim, VET in South Korea: Policy Response to Changing World, p. 6.

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Evolution of the Korean Education System, 1948-Present (1)

Focus by Periods

1948~1960

Reconstruction

1961~1980

Ed for Eco. Growth

1981~2000Search for New

Paradigm of Educational

Development

2001~Present

Restructuring

Challenges to

Education

• Compulsory Education

• Secondary Education for All• Supply for Technical manpower

• Universalization of Higher Education

• Lifelong learning• HRD

Major Concerns

• Access to Opportunity

• Growth of Quantity, Efficiency and control

• Quality• Autonomy• Accountability

• Competitiveness in Globalization knowledge-society

PolicyChoice

• Universal compulsory education

• Expansion and Equalization of secondary education

• Decentralized local autonomy of Education• Expansion of Higher Education

• Restructuring Higher Education− Support Research productivity− Regional development− HRD, L-L

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Evolution of the Korean Education System, 1948-Present (2)

Focus by Periods

1948~1960

Reconstruction

1961~1980

Ed for Eco. Growth

1981~2000Search for New

Paradigm of Educational

Development

2001~Present

Restructuring

PolicyChoice

• Reconstruction of educational infrastructure

• Technical Vocational education & training

• Quality Improvement

• Quality improvement of Public schools• Coordinated approach to HRD

Resources or Tools

• Using Foreign Assistance

• 5 Years planning long-term planning• Law of Local education financing fund established• Foreign loans to support TVET

• PCER: Presidential Commission for Education Reform• Education Reform (1995)

• Educational and Financial Support for Higher Education (BK, Nuri, Post BK)

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How education contributes economic growth?

Human Resources Development with Rapid and sequential expansion of elementary, secondary and higher education in advanced economic growth and development.

Expansion and upgrading of Technical-Vocational education.

Special support to improve the conditions of compulsory elementary school

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How education contribute economic growth?

Harbison & Myers's observation: Korean expanded secondary education to the level of per capita GNP $380, when its per capita GDP was $ 107.

Per Capita GDP

Enrollment rate of

Secondary Education

KOREA

$ 107 $ 380

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Sequential expansion of access to education from Elementary, Secondary and Higher Education in advance corresponded well to the manpower needs for Economic development

– Elementary Ed. → Labor Intensive light Secondary Ed. Manufacturing (1960s)– Vocational-Technical → Capital Intensive High schools Heavy-Chemical Industry (1970s → 1980s)– Expansion → Electronics, High-tech of Higher Education Knowledge Industry (1980s → Present)

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Expand and upgrade Technical and Vocational Education and Training Infrastructure to develop technical manpower– 1960’s : Vocational High school

Jr Technical Colleges Technical Universities

– 1970’s : Science Education– Use of External Loans (IDA, IBRD etc)

As part of “5 Years Economic Development Plan” Compulsory Elementary School condition improved

– Special budget support from Economic Development Account

– Large class size reduced

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How we expand access to Education?

Development Approach to Korean Education : Major Policies

– Six-year Compulsory Education plan (1954-1959)

– Abolition of Entrance Exam to Middle School (1968)

– High School Equalization Policy (1974)

– July 30 Educational Reform (1980)

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Six-year compulsory education plan(1954-1959)

Context– In 1945, the enrollment rate of elementary

education was below 50%

Policy Measure– Six-year compulsory education plan(1954-

1959): gradual provision of free compulsory education

– Low cost approach Lowering educational standards (Large class, Double

shift classroom) Relying on private schools to accommodate more

students

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Abolition of Entrance Exam to Middle School in 1964

Egalitarian approach: Achieving uniform equality

Lowering educational standards: class size from 60 to 70

Gradual extension of free compulsory education to middle school from rural areas in 1984 to all area in 2004

Relying on private schools to accommodate more students.

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High School Equalization Policy in 1974

Context– Severe competition for entrance to academic high schools

resulted in private tutoring

Policy Measure– To ease the competition and private tutoring to prepare

entrance exams to selective academic high schools, high school equalization policy(HEP) formulated in 1974. Abolished entrance examination to high schools and

replaced it with state-wide qualification exam (more than 90% could pass)

Assign those passed the Qualification exam randomly to one of any high school from cluster of high schools.

Private high schools are included in high school cluster. As the case of middle schools, government had to

subsidize private high school

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July 30 Educational Reform, 1980

Context– The excessive competition in the college entrance

examination brought the added burden on the expenses for private education.

– Excessive competition for the entrance exam– Overheated private tutoring

Policy Measure:– Prohibition of private tutoring– Expand the admission quota to college and university.– The abolition of entrance examination administered by

universities and introduce national level examination.

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Quantitative expansion of Secondary Education

School Enrollment Rate:

PrimarySchool

MiddleSchool

HighSchool Tertiary

1951 69.81959 96.41970 92 36.6 20.3 5.41980 97.7 73.3 48.8 11.41990 100.5 91.6 79.4 23.62000 97.2 95 89.4 52.52004 97.7 91.9 90.1 61.7

Source: KEDI, Statistical Yearbook of Education 2004

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Advancement Rate:

Primary →Middle

Middle →High School

High School →Tertiary

1970 66.1 70.1 26.91980 95.8 84.5 27.21990 99.8 95.7 33.22000 99.9 99.6 682004 99.9 99.7 81.3

Source: KEDI, Statistical Yearbook of Education 2004

68.0

2020



Distribution of Educational Attainment of Population over 25 years old(%)

year 1970 1980 1990 2000

Primary Graduate and Below 73 55 33 23

Middle School Graduate 12 18 19 13

High School Graduate 10 19 34 40

Jr College Graduate 1 1 2 8

University Graduate and over 4 7 12 16

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Evolution of Technical-Vocational Education & Training

TVET System

– Vocational-Technical High Schools– Jr Technical Colleges (2-3 years)– Universities– Open Technical Colleges for Employed– Public Job-training centers under Ministry of Labor– Private Technical training industries (Nurse-aid, etc)

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Evolution 1960~1980, Education for Economic Growth Period

Policy priority given to TVET during implementation of Economic development plan since 1962

Expansion of Vocational High Schools: 1962~1980– Insert Table (Korean 60yrs)– Curriculum development (1963)– Specialized Technical High School with Mechanical focus– Increase Investment and use loan programs (ICA, IDA, ADB,

World Bank) Expand the Technical programs in Jr. Tech College and

Universities System Development

– National Technical Qualification and Certification system (1974)– Establish KRIVET: Korean Research Institute for Vocational

Education and Training– Recognize Corporate training program as degree certificate

program

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Identity of Technical-Vocational High Schools questioned : 1990’s

Weak Incentive system of semi-skilled job (Pay, promotions, working conditions)

Less opportunities for occupational growth, Life-long learning and HRD

Directions for development of VH, not clear Students preference higher education to

vocational high school

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Evaluation Remarks on TVET in Korea

Technical-Vocational High Schools

– Remarkable contribution in 1960’s-1970’s– As Korean economy utilizes new technologies, T-V high

schools face questioning of identity

Jr. Technical Colleges and Science-Engineering programs of Universities play important roles of HRD in 1980’s-2000

TV High school: vacancy rate(12%), drop-out(5%), Advance to Tertiary(50%)

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New Perspectives needed for HRD through Life-Long-Learning(LLL) at Individual and Institutional level

– Individual level: developing growth-capacities HRD through Life-long learning Upgrade qualification & Certification Career-development path

– Institutional Level: Developing Relevance, Quality, Competitiveness,

Market control model Use Public Support in the Voucher Form

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New Policy tasks emerged

– Upgrade and transform vocational high schools into “Diversified-specialized Elite Vocational Schools”

– Strengthening functional relationship among general high schools, vocational high schools and Jr. Technical Colleges

– Develop “Private technical institutes” and OJT Centers in corporations as specialized technical institute

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Ⅳ. Development of Factors determining the Quality of Education - Factors

(1) Trade-off between quantity expansion and quality maintenance

Resource Constraints Unit cost → Low cost approach increase the Quantity Cost Missing learning(A) > Cost caused with poor quality(B) Stepwise approach

Quality

B

A

Quantity

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(2) Teacher Training

We upgraded Elementary school teacher training program step by step

– Normal High School + Temporary training institute– 2 Years Teachers College (1962)– 4 Years Teachers College (1982)

Some Concerns Affecting the performance of Teachers

– Teaching Job is the most attractive job– Union of teachers’ influence on policy matter– Professional development of Teachers: Empowerment,

Job Enrichment

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(3) Development and Effective use of Textbooks

During Korean War and Reconstruction Period(1950-60), Textbook printed with UNKRA assistance low quality and free distribution

Even Compulsory education, parents pay textbooks

‘Free of charge’ policy extended from low income areas and group of students to all gradually.

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(5) Role of ICT

E-learning system plays very important role in self-directed learning

– Provide alternative ‘low-cost’ private tutoring to students who cannot attend high quality cramming institute in Seoul

– E-learning system video program on demand connected with Education TV/ Internet

On the Job Training/ ‘Credue’ the largest e-learning training company

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Government Budget vs MOE Budget

6.249,52520.827,982134,3702005

5.431,08720.419,17293,9372000

4.819,21522.812,49654,8451995

4.68,52422.35,06222,6891990

5.54,60019.92,49212,2751985

5.62,73218.91,0995,8041980

--14.42281,5871975

--17.6784461970

--16.215951965

　　15.26421960

　　9.42281955

　　5.70.10.21950

Ratio to GDP

Total public educational

expendituresB/A

MOE budget(B)2

)

Government budget(A)1

)

(unit: billion won, %)

9.50

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(6) Financing Education

Household contribution to Education Financing: Tuition and Fees

In 2005, Public expenditure on Education– From Government 27,982 (Billion won)– Household Tuition 21,000 (42.2%)– Total 49,982 Billion

Elementary 14,486 (30.0%)

Middle 8,362 (16.7%)

High School 9,651 (19.3%)

Jr. College 3,306 (6.6%)

University 13,519 (27.0%)

Total 49,982

3333



Ratio of Teachers Salaries with 15 years experience in 2000 to per capita GDI

HighMiddlePrimary

4.044.044.05A/B

10,841GNI(B)

43,80043,80043,952Salary(A)

(Unit $ based on PPP)

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Per Capita Cost of Public Expenditure on Education(2000)

(Unit $ based on PPP)

8,24410,91420,3586,118Higher Ed

6,0946,2668,8554,069Secondary Ed

4,3175,5076,9953,155Elementary Ed

FinlandJapanUSKorea

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Institutional Aspects

As a graduate of ‘Normal High School’ and elementary school teacher, his commitment and support to:

– Expanding compulsory education– Vocational technical education and training– “Special schools and classroom” established in industrial

centers for working youth– Extension compulsory education to Middle school (in the

context of comparison between South and North Korea, which introduced 11 years compulsory education in 1971)

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Institutional Aspects

(2) Roles of R&D Institute in Educational Development

Established national R&D Center to develop knowledge base for national development in 1970s– KDI : Korea Development Institute – KIST: Korea Institute of Science and Technology– KEDI: Korean Educational Development Institute

In Education– KEDI: Educational development– KICE: Curriculum and Evaluation– KRIVET: Vocational Education and Training– KERIS: Educational Research and Information services

Major Functions– R&D, Planning, Development Projects, Evaluation

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Ⅴ. Current Educational Issues

Human Qualities Required in Knowledge Based Society

– High Level Cognitive Process– Self-Control, Responsibility, Independency– Creativity– Self-Directed Learning Capability– Voluntary Initiatives → Individuality– Intrinsic values and Social capital development

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Policy Shift

– Transition Stage in 1990's: Search for New Vision of Educational Ideals, New Priority & New Strategies

– Policy Shift in the governance of educational system – proposed by the Presidential Commission for Educational Reform (PCER)

▪ From Quality to quantity From Administrative accountability to Performance

based accountability From Bureaucratic regulation and control to

Autonomy From professional control, democratic control to

market control From Equality to Equality + Excellence From Provider to Consumer orientation

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New policy framework with choice, accountability, and autonomy

Performance-BasedPerformance-BasedAccountability:Accountability:Undefined Performance?Undefined Performance?

ProceduralProceduralAdministrativeAdministrativeAccountabilityAccountability

Choice:Choice:Charter SchoolsCharter SchoolsKorean Model(?)Korean Model(?)

Autonomy:Autonomy:Bottom-Up ChangeBottom-Up Change- Program (Magnet)- Program (Magnet)- Personnel- Personnel- Budget- Budget

Top Down ChangeTop Down ChangePolicy-ProgramPolicy-Program- National Curriculum- National Curriculum- Centralized Mgt.- Centralized Mgt.

AssignmentAssignmentHEP (Korea)HEP (Korea)Busing (US)Busing (US)

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Ⅴ. Conclusion

Korean Model of Expanding Access with

– Low-cost approach

– ‘Bottom-up’ approach

– Egalitarian approach

Has recommendable strategic points.

Economic growth provide stable financial

resources for Educational development.

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Ⅴ. Conclusion

Quality of High School Education has to be re-

examined

– Concept of authentic achievement to be developed

– Core competences to be defined: Core in Diversity

– Development of specialized Elite vocational education

institute:

GH → include Vocational Component

VH → include General Foundation

– Selection system for admission to Higher Education to be

developed

Student’s learning portfolio

University’s autonomy of defining the selection criteria

The Development of Education in Korea : Past Achievement and Current Challenges Chong Jae Lee Seoul...

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