The Date of Camel Domestication in the Ancient Near East

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The Date of Camel Domestication in the AncientNear EastNon-Technical - Feb 17, 2014 - by T M KennedyShare/recommend this article:Share on print Share on facebook Share on twitter Share on email More Sharing Services

This article was first published in the Fall 2010 issueof Bible and Spade. It has been republished here with editorial updates.

EXCERPT Dr. Erez Ben-Yosef and Dr. Lidar Sapir-Hen of Tel Aviv University's Department of

Archaeology and Near Eastern Cultures have used radiocarbon dating in an attempt to

pinpoint the time when domesticated camels arrived in the southern Levant, pushing the

standard estimate from the 12th down to the 10th century BC. The findings, published

recently in the journal Tel Aviv , are being used to argue that camels were first used in the

mining operations near the end of the 10th century BC. They state that this is the first

evidence of domesticated camels in ancient Israel. Such proclamations erroneously

extrapolate the findings of the research far beyond what the actual data proves. In reality,

there is abundant evidence that the Bible's mention of camels as early as the time of

Abraham is contextually and historically accurate. In this article, TM Kennedy demonstrates

the accuracy of the biblical texts in their historical setting as it pertains to camels. Continue

reading

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Introduction

The single-humped camel, Camelus dromedarius , and the double-humped camel, Camelus

bactrianus , have been important for use as a draft animal, saddle animal, food source, and

even textile source in the Near East for thousands of years. The dromedary is the mostcommon in the Near East, although both species have been in use by humans in the region

for a long period of time. Although many claim there is a consensus within archaeological

circles, in reality scholars debate exactly when the camel was first domesticated in the Near

East for any purpose. The theories range from as late as the 9th century BC to as early as
http://www.biblearchaeology.org/post/2009/02/19/Patriarchal-Wealth-and-Early-Domestication-of-the-Camel.aspxhttp://www.biblearchaeology.org/post/2009/03/02/Bronze-Age-Camel-Petroglyphs-In-The-Wadi-Nasib2c-Sinai.aspxhttp://www.biblearchaeology.org/post/2009/03/02/Bronze-Age-Camel-Petroglyphs-In-The-Wadi-Nasib2c-Sinai.aspxhttp://www.biblearchaeology.org/post/2007/02/17/Genesis-and-Ancient-Near-Eastern-Stories-of-Creation-and-Flood-An-Introduction-Part-I.aspxhttp://www.biblearchaeology.org/post/2007/02/17/Genesis-and-Ancient-Near-Eastern-Stories-of-Creation-and-Flood-An-Introduction-Part-I.aspxhttp://www.biblearchaeology.org/tag/camels.aspxhttp://www.biblearchaeology.org/tag/abraham.aspxhttp://__dopostback%28%27ctl00%24ctl00%24cphcontent%24cphsubcontent%24ppdonatebuttonheaderother%27%2C%27%27%29/http://__dopostback%28%27ctl00%24ctl00%24cphcontent%24cphsubcontent%24ppdonatebuttonheader10%27%2C%27%27%29/http://__dopostback%28%27ctl00%24ctl00%24cphcontent%24cphsubcontent%24ppdonatebuttonheader5%27%2C%27%27%29/http://__dopostback%28%27ctl00%24ctl00%24cphcontent%24cphsubcontent%24ppdonatebuttonheader2%27%2C%27%27%29/http://__dopostback%28%27ctl00%24ctl00%24cphcontent%24cphsubcontent%24ppdonatebuttonheaderother%27%2C%27%27%29/http://__dopostback%28%27ctl00%24ctl00%24cphcontent%24cphsubcontent%24ppdonatebuttonheader10%27%2C%27%27%29/http://__dopostback%28%27ctl00%24ctl00%24cphcontent%24cphsubcontent%24ppdonatebuttonheader5%27%2C%27%27%29/http://__dopostback%28%27ctl00%24ctl00%24cphcontent%24cphsubcontent%24ppdonatebuttonheader2%27%2C%27%27%29/http://__dopostback%28%27ctl00%24ctl00%24cphcontent%24cphsubcontent%24ppdonatebuttonheaderother%27%2C%27%27%29/http://__dopostback%28%27ctl00%24ctl00%24cphcontent%24cphsubcontent%24ppdonatebuttonheader10%27%2C%27%27%29/http://__dopostback%28%27ctl00%24ctl00%24cphcontent%24cphsubcontent%24ppdonatebuttonheader5%27%2C%27%27%29/http://__dopostback%28%27ctl00%24ctl00%24cphcontent%24cphsubcontent%24ppdonatebuttonheader2%27%2C%27%27%29/http://__dopostback%28%27ctl00%24ctl00%24cphcontent%24cphsubcontent%24ppdonatebuttonheaderother%27%2C%27%27%29/http://__dopostback%28%27ctl00%24ctl00%24cphcontent%24cphsubcontent%24ppdonatebuttonheader10%27%2C%27%27%29/http://__dopostback%28%27ctl00%24ctl00%24cphcontent%24cphsubcontent%24ppdonatebuttonheader5%27%2C%27%27%29/http://__dopostback%28%27ctl00%24ctl00%24cphcontent%24cphsubcontent%24ppdonatebuttonheader2%27%2C%27%27%29/http://__dopostback%28%27ctl00%24ctl00%24cphcontent%24cphsubcontent%24ppdonatebuttonheaderother%27%2C%27%27%29/http://__dopostback%28%27ctl00%24ctl00%24cphcontent%24cphsubcontent%24ppdonatebuttonheader10%27%2C%27%27%29/http://__dopostback%28%27ctl00%24ctl00%24cphcontent%24cphsubcontent%24ppdonatebuttonheader5%27%2C%27%27%29/http://__dopostback%28%27ctl00%24ctl00%24cphcontent%24cphsubcontent%24ppdonatebuttonheader2%27%2C%27%27%29/http://www.biblearchaeology.org/tag/abraham.aspxhttp://www.biblearchaeology.org/tag/abraham.aspxhttp://www.biblearchaeology.org/tag/camels.aspxhttp://www.biblearchaeology.org/tag/camels.aspxhttp://www.biblearchaeology.org/post/2007/02/17/Genesis-and-Ancient-Near-Eastern-Stories-of-Creation-and-Flood-An-Introduction-Part-I.aspxhttp://www.biblearchaeology.org/post/2007/02/17/Genesis-and-Ancient-Near-Eastern-Stories-of-Creation-and-Flood-An-Introduction-Part-I.aspxhttp://www.biblearchaeology.org/post/2009/03/02/Bronze-Age-Camel-Petroglyphs-In-The-Wadi-Nasib2c-Sinai.aspxhttp://www.biblearchaeology.org/post/2009/03/02/Bronze-Age-Camel-Petroglyphs-In-The-Wadi-Nasib2c-Sinai.aspxhttp://www.biblearchaeology.org/post/2009/02/19/Patriarchal-Wealth-and-Early-Domestication-of-the-Camel.aspx


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the beginning of the 3rd millennium BC, depending on the availability of data, interpretation

of data, and personal opinions, leaving a large range of years in dispute.

Typically, ancient Near Eastern scholars especially those focusing on the Levant or on

archaeology related to the Bible subscribe to a date for the domestication of the camel

between the end of the 12th century BC to sometime in the 9th century BC. Redford, when

discussing a reference concerning camel domestication in the book of Judges, writes

anachronisms do indeed aboundcamels do not appear in the Near East as domesticated

beasts of burden until the ninth century B.C. 1 A radiocarbon study of select camel bones

from the Aravah valley in the southern Levant extrapolates that the findings may indicate

domesticated camels were not present anywhere in the region until the end of the 10th

century BC. 2 Finkelstein and Silberma nn state, We now know through archaeological

research that camels were not domesticated as beasts of burden earlier than the late

second millennium and were not widely used in that capacity in the ancient Near East untilwell after 1000 BCE. 3 This stance is similar, but allowing for the possibility of a few

centuries earlier on a much smaller scale. Although several scholars assert that camels were

not domesticated in the ancient Near East until about the 9th century BC, it may be

significant that by th e middle of the ninth century cavalries were obviously well

established, since at the Battle of Qarqar Shalmaneser III faced many men on horseback

(and some on the backs of camels). 4 This use of domesticated camels in the context of the

9th century BC cavalry battle in the Levant suggests that camels had been domesticated for

a significant length of time prior to the conflict, as use of a camel in warfare indicates a

tradition of reliability in addition to complex training.


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Domestic camels on the Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser III, British Museum. Credit:

TM Kennedy

Albright stated that our oldest certain evidence for the domestication of the camel cannot

antedate the end of the twelfth century B.C. 5 His argument was based on a belief that the

oldest published reference to the camel dates from the eleventh century B.C., referring to

an Assyrian text. 6 This text is the Broken Obelisk, probably from the reign of Ashur-bel-kala

(1074-1056 BC), but some of the reports on it may refer to the time of Tiglath Pileser I

(1115-1077 BC). The obelisk resides in the British Museum, and the inscription mentions

the breeding of Bactrian camels. Rosen and Saidel take a similar stance regarding the

earliest reliable date for the presence of domesticated camels, especially in the Levant. 7

These have been the dates assumed throughout many studies, and thus the general

consensus became that there were no domesticated camels in the ancient Near East prior to

the Iron Age.Since many scholars state that camels were not domesticated until perhaps as late as the

9th century BC, several references to domestic camels in the Bible have been considered

anachronistic. Numerous instances of camels being used as beasts of burden prior to the

9th century or even 12th century BC within the Old Testament books of Genesis, Exodus,

Judges, and Job would appear to be inaccurate, if archaeological data indicated that camels

were not being used in a domesticated context prior to this period. The word camel ( ) is

used in a domesticated sense 22 times in Genesis (Genesis 12:16, 20:10-64, etc.), once in

Exodus (Exodus 9:3), 4 times in Judges (Judges 6:5, 7:12, 8:21, 8:26) and 3 times in Job

(Job 1:3, 1:17, 42:12). 8 It is clear that in these books camels are used in a domesticated

sense, and often as beasts of burden. 9 Geographically, these references indicate the

presence or use of domesticated camels in the areas of Mesopotamia, Egypt, Arabia, and

the Levant. Chronologically, the references to camels in the books all take place in a context

prior to the late 12th century BC, and certainly prior to the 9th century BC date suggested

by some scholars.

As an answer to these ancient Bible texts that claim the Bronze Age use of domesticated

camels, a common explanation offered is that later scribal substitution of "camel" for some

other pack animal such as a donkey occurred. Yet, concerning the subsequent substitutionof camel for another animal, Millard argues that a later writer making modifications in the

text in an attempt to emphasize the wealth of the patriarchs would not substitute "camel"

but instead "horse," since horses were expensive and valuable during the Iron Age. 10 This is

a plausible assertion that demonstrates a textual emendation from horse or another

animal to camel would be h ighly unlikely. More clear evidence, however, comes from

Bronze Age texts. For example, cuneiform texts which suggest the use of domesticated


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camels in the Bronze Age could not be attributed to later scribal emendations or copying

error. Still, the general consensus by ancient Near Eastern scholars over the last several

decades has been that camels were not domesticated in the area until the Iron Age.

Camels as Imports from the East

Assuming that those who subscribe to a 12th century or later view for the domestication of

the camel in the ancient Near East are correct, there is still the possibility that domesticated

camels existed in the Near East before the 12th century as imports from the East, instead of

being locally domesticated. Daniel Potts presents this possibility, suggesting that camels

were domesticated in the area of eastern Iran long before the 12th century BC, and then

brought west for trade. 11 Therefore, domesticated camels may have been in use in the Near

East prior to the 12th century BC and the beginning of the Iron Age through trade, while the

people of the Near East may soon have learned to domesticate their own local camels.

Evidence for Early Camel Domestication in the Ancient Near East However, numerous discoveries have turned up in several areas of the Near East arguing for

a much earlier domestication date. First, an Aramean camel-rider carving on display in the

Walters Art Museum, Baltimore, dated to the 10th century BC, conflicts with the latest

suggested 9th century BC domestication. The artifact was found at Tell el-Halaf in

Mesopotamia by Max von Oppenheim, who had originally dated the piece to the early 3rd

millennium BC. 12


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Aramean rider on a camel. Walters Art Gallery. Credit: David Q. Hall

This carving predates the theory of several scholars by at a least century, and forces a

recalibration of their theory. Moving past the 9th century BC theory and examining the

viability of a 12th century BC theory, similar problems are discovered. In Lower Egypt,

Petrie found a dromedary statuette which appears to be carrying two water jars. Based on

provenance and the style of the pottery and the water jars, Petrie concluded the artifact was

in fact from the 19th Dynasty, dated between 1292-1190 BC. 13

An even earlier attestation from Egypt, again in the form of ancient petroglyphs

representing domesticated camels, was discovered next to Proto-Sinaitic inscriptions on a


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rock face in the Wadi Nasib. 14 To the right of the inscriptions are two distinctive animal

petroglyphs camels that were represented as walking caravan style across the rock to the

right (easterly direction). 15 Although the first camel has been partially defaced, the trailing

camel is distinct and easily identifiable as a dromedary. The lead camel appears to be

followed by a walking man. A second walking man is clearly leading the trailing camel. 16

Next to these inscriptions is an Egyptian hieroglyphic inscription translated Year 20 under

the majesty of the king of Upper and Lower Egypt Nemare, son of Re Ammenemes, liv ing

like Re eternally. 17

Proto-Sinaitic petroglyph of a man leading a dromedary camel at Wadi Nasib .

Credit: Younker 1997.

With boundaries of Ammenemes III, a 12th Dynasty ruler in the 19th century BC, and the

Proto-Sinaitic inscriptions in the 15th century BC, with no current evidence for activity in the

area much later than ca. 1500 BC, the camel petroglyphs could be dated to sometime in

between. 18,19 Therefore, the archaeological remains indicate that humans began using

camels as pack animals in this area no later than the 16th century BC.

From the Levant, a Syrian cylinder seal dated ca. 1800 BC depicts two small figures riding

on a two-humped camel. 20 It has been argued that the riders are gods, not humans, due toiconography found on other parts of the seal such as a divine star and a winged deity. While

the artist may have been depicting the couple riding on the camel as gods, it is also possible

that they are a royal human couple. Further, a depiction of gods riding upon a camel does

not invalidate the idea that humans were riding upon camels at the time, but rather

supports it by suggesting the idea came from reality. If the camel were a mythological


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creature such as a sphinx, then the scene would support a fanciful idea of the riders.

However, at least six real animals are depicted on the seal, and the only clearly

supernatural figure appears to be the winged deity. Thus, the riders on the seal suggest

that riding upon camels was known in the Levant as early as 1800 BC. In Macdonalds

analysis of camel warfare in ancient Arabia, he notes that it was customary for two riders to

share a single camel. He found that they would use the camel to get them to and from the

battle, often riding two to a camel, but would dismount to fight. If defeated, they would

remount and flee, again often two to a camel, with one rider trying to ward off the pursuers

with his bow. 21 While the knowledge of this practice comes from a later period, it

demonstrates the plausibility of the two riders sharing the camel being men rather than

gods.

Syrian cylinder seal depicting a Bactrian camel. Walters Art Museum.(Click to Enlarge)

Another figurine that appears to suggest an early date for camel domestication is found in the

Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York City (53.117.1). The figurine is a small copper alloy

statue of a Bactrian camel, equipped with what appears to be some type of harness. The artifact
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is dated to between the late 3rd and early 2nd millennium BC, from Bactria-Margiana. Thus,

there is evidence indicating early camel domestication from several geographical areas of the

ancient Near East.

Bactrian camel statue from the third to second millenium BC in theMetropolitan Museum of Art, New York. Credit: TM Kennedy

Inscriptional and Documentary Evidence The English word for camel comes from the Latin camelus , which comes from the Greek

kamelos ( ), which comes from the Hebrew gamal (

). The Hebrew gamal is closelyassociated with another Semitic form, the Akkadian gammalu . Many Akkadian words have their

origins in the Sumerian language, and gammalu is one of the words which contains a Sumerian

ancestor in its logograms. Regular usage of Sumerian pre-dates the late views for the

domestication of the camel, and it is interesting to note that Sumerian actually has two words for

camel, (ANSE.A.AB.BA; ANSE.GAM.MAL), meaning donkey or ass of the sea, and donkey or


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ass of the mountains, respectively. 22 Potts discusses the differences between the Bactrian and the

dromedary camel, demonstrating how the dromedary is more suited to the desert and arid

climates, while the Bactrian is more suited to the mountains and colder weather. 23 These two

variations of the Sumerian word for camel may be a reflection upon the differences of the

Bactrian and the dromedary. Although Sumerian having a word for an animal by no meanssuggests that it was domesticated in that society, it demonstrates that the animal was known by

the civilization at an early date. Yet, neither species of camel originates in Sumerian areas,

suggesting the geographical spread of the species. The presence of a word for camel associated

with the domesticated pack animal the donkey suggests the possibility that the camel was used in

a domestic context during in the 2nd millennium BC or earlier, although perhaps infrequently. However, more than merely ambiguous textual evidence exists. Three texts dating to

approximately the same period as the Patriarchs attest to domesticated camel use. A Sumerian

text found at Nippur from the Old Babylonian period, ca. 1950- 1600 BC, gives clear evidenceof the domestication of the camel by that time, for it allude s to camels milk. 24 Another text

mentions a Camel in a list of domesticated animals during the Old Babylonian period (1950 -

1600 BC) in a Sumerian Lexical Text from Ugarit. 25 The third text comes from a cuneiform

ration list found at Alalakh in the Level VII Middle Bronze Age city. This particular Alalakh

tablet (269:59) reads 1 SA.GAL ANSE.GAM.MAL, one (measure of) foddercamel. 26

Here we have a text stating that camels in the city were given food rations, an action which

would only be done for a domesticated animal. The aforementioned texts appear to be clear

evidence from the 2nd millennium BC for domesticated camels in Mesopotamia, Anatolia, and

the northern Levant. Yet, evidence for camel domestication may be found even into the 3rd millennium BC. A second

set of relevant camel petroglyphs in Egypt come from a rock carving near Aswan and Gezireh in

Upper Egypt. This carving depicts a man leading a dromedary camel with a rope, along with 7

hieratic characters to the left of the man.


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Third millenium BC Egyptian petroglyph of a man leading adromedary camel.

Credit: Ripinsky 1985. The entire carving was dated to the 6th Dynasty of Egypt, ca. 2345-2181 BC, based on the

inscription, the style, and the patina. 27 This places the use of domesticated camels in Egypt atleast as early as ca. 2200 BC. Other objects from Egypt include a limestone container, missing

the lid, in the shape of a lying dromedary carrying a burden from a First Dynasty tomb at Abusir

el-Meleq, 28 and a terra cotta tablet with a depiction of men riding and leading camels, dated to

the Pre-Dynastic period. 29

Container in the shape of a dromedary camel carrying a burden,Berlin Egyptian Museum .

Credit: TM Kennedy

In Turkmenia, Altyn-depe, excavations revealed models of carts with camels yoked to them, in

contrast to horses or cattle in other areas. The artifacts representing this utilization are terracotta

models of wheeled carts drawn by Bactrian camels. 30 This type of utilization goes back to the

earliest known period of two- humped camel domestication in the third millennium B.C. 31 This

is relevant not merely because it demonstrates the use of domesticated camels, but the early date


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of the stratigraphic context in which it was found is quite astonishing 3000 to 2600 BC. 32 This

discovery is reminiscent of the camel figurines with saddles found in a 2nd millennium BC

context in Yemen, both of which show very early use of camels as pack animals and mounts. 33

Finally, biological camel remains have been discovered at multiple sites in stratigraphic contexts

from long before the Iron Age. Camel bone, dung, and woven camel hair dated to 2700-2500 BChave been discovered at Shahr-i Sokhta in Iran, preserved in jars. 34 This reinforces the

suppositions that these are domestic stock and that the Bactrian was domesticated slightly earlier

at the border of Turkmenistan and Iran. 35 In addition to the findings in Iran and Turkmenia,

discoveries of camel bones in a 3rd millennium BC context have been discovered at the

Levantine sites of Arad and Jericho. 36 At the sites of Umm an-Nar and Ras Ghanada in Abu

Dhabi, fauna from a late 3rd millennium BC context included a large collection of camel

remains, along with limited remains of domestic cattle, sheep, and goats. 37 Woven camel-hair

rope dated to the Third or early Fourth Dynasty was also found in Egypt at Umm es-Sawan.38

Atthe very least this suggests that the camel was used at these sites as a food source, but likely in

some domesticated sense, since camels usually would have been kept outside of settlements and

lived and died primarily in the steppe areas. 39 Thus, finding camel bones or other biological

artifacts in a settlement excavation is highly unlikely, and it follows that scribes, based in urban

settlements, would not often mention the camel. This is a plausible rationale for the limited

amounts of excavated camel remains and texts mentioning camels in any capacity. Conclusion from the Data As a result of the aforementioned data, many archaeologists regard the date for domestication of

the camel to be sometime in the 3rd millennium BC. Scarre states that both the dromedary (theone-humped camel of Arabia) and the Bactrian camel (the two-humped camel of Central Asia)

had been domesticated since before 2000 BC. 40 Saggs sees evidence for an early camel

domestication date by proto -Arabs of the arid regions of the Arabian Peninsula. 41 Macdonalds

research in southeast Arabia caused him to argue that based on archaeological remains, camels

were probably first domesticated for milk, hair, leather, and meat, and subsequently travel across

previously impassible regions in Arabia as early as the 3rd millennium BC. 42 Heide regards

evidence from multiple areas of the ancient Near East to demonstrate the presence of

domesticated camels by at least the 3rd millennium BC.43

For those who adhere to a 9th centuryBC or even 12th century BC date of domestic camel use in the ancient Near East, archaeological

and textual evidence must be either ignored or explained away. Bones, hairs, wall paintings,

models, inscriptions, seals, documents, statues, and stelae from numerous archaeological sites all

suggest the camel in use as a domestic animal in the ancient Near East as early as the 3rd

millennium BC, and certainly by the Middle Bronze Age. The wide geographical and

chronological distribution of findings related to camel domestication further strengthen the


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argument that the camel was domesticated far before the Iron Age, and with new excavations and

analyses, additional evidence will likely reinforce this theory.

Endnotes: [1] Redford, Donald B., 1992, Egypt, Canaan, and Israel in Ancient Times , Princeton UniversityPress, Princeton, New Jersey, 277. [3] Finkelstein, Israel and Silberman, Neil Asher, 2001 , The Bible Unearthed , Free Press: NewYork, 37. [18] Naveh, Joseph, 1982 Early History of the Alphabet: an Introduction to West Semitic

Epigraphy and Paleography , The Magnes Press, Jerusalem, 26. [19] Younker, 1997, Near East Archaeological Society Bulletin 42, 49. [22] Black, Jeremy; George, Andrew; Postgate, Nicholas, eds., 2000, A Concise Dictionary of

Akkadian , Harrassowitz Verlag, Wiesbaden, 89. Bibliography Albright, W.F. 1951. The Archaeology of Palestine . Penguin Books,Harmondsworth, Middlesex.

Archer, Gleason. 1970. Old Testament History and Recent Archeologyfrom Abraham to Moses. Bibliotheca Sacra 127:505 (1970): 3-25.

Barnett, Richard D. 1985. Lachish, Ashkelon and the Camel: A Discussionof Its Use in Southern Palestine. In J.N. Tubb, e d., Palestine in the Bronzeand Iron Ages. Papers in Honor to Olga Tuffnell . London, Institute ofArchaeology, 16-30.

Black, Jeremy; George, Andrew; Postgate, Nicholas, eds. 2000. AConcise Dictionary of Akkadian . Harrassowitz Verlag, Wiesbaden.
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Bulliet, Richard W. 1990. The Camel and the Wheel . Columbia UniversityPress.

Caesar, Stephen. 2000. Patriarchal Wealth and Early Domestication of theCamel . Bible and Spade 13:3 (200): 77-79.

Collon, Dominque. 2000. Lanimal dans les changes et les relationsdiplomatiques. In Les animaux et les hommes dans le monde syro-msopotamien aux poques historiques , Topoi Supplement 2, Lyon: 125-140.

Davis, John J. 1986. The Camel in Biblical Narratives. In A Tribute toGleason Archer: Essays on the Old Testament . Chicago, Moody Press: 141-150.

Drews, Robert. 1993. The End of the Bronze Age . Princeton UniversityPress, Princeton, New Jersey.

Finkelstein, Israel and Silberman, Neil Asher. 2001 . The BibleUnearthed . Free Press: New York.

Free, Joseph P. 1944. Abrahams Camels. Journal of Near EasternStudies 3: 187-193.

Gardiner, A.H. and Peet, T.E. 1955. The Inscriptions of Sinai, Vol 2. EgyptExploration Society, London.

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Heide, K.M. 2010. The Domestication of the Camel: Biological,Archaeological and Inscriptional Evidence from Mesopotamia, Egypt, Israeland Arabia, and Literary Evidence from the Hebrew Bible . Ugarit-Forschungen 42 (2010): 331-384. (Off-site link.)

Hesse, Brian. 1995. Animal Husbandry and Human Diet in the AncientNear East in J.M. Sasson ed., Civilizations of the Near East, Vol. 1. CharlesScribners Sons, New York: 205-218.

Kramer, Carol. 1977. Pots and People, in Levine, L.D. and Young, T.C.Mountains and lowlands: Essays in the archaeology of greater Mesopotamia.

Bibliotheca Mesopotamica . Vol. 7. Udena Publications, Malibu: 91-112.

Kohl, P.L. 1992. Central Asian (Western Turkestan): Neolithic to the EarlyIron Age, in Ehrich, R.W., ed., 1992, Chronologies in Old World

Archaeology . University of Chicago Press, Chicago and London: 179-195.

MacDonald, M.C.A. 1995. North Arabia in the First Millennium BCE. in

J.M. Sasson ed., Civilizations of the Near East, Vol. 2. Charles ScribnersSons, New York: 1355-1369.

Meyers, Eric M., ed. 1997. The Oxford Encyclopedia of Archaeology in theNear East . Oxford University Press, Oxford.

Millard, A.R. 1980. Methods of Studying the Patriarchal Narratives as

Ancient Texts. Essays on the Patriarchal Narratives , ed. A.R. Millard, D.J.Wiseman. InterVarsity Press, Leichester: 43-56.

Naveh, Joseph. 1982. Early History of the Alphabet: an Introduction toWest Semitic Epigraphy and Paleography . The Magnes Press, Jerusalem.
https://www.academia.edu/2065314/_The_Domestication_of_the_Camel_Biological_Archaeological_and_Inscriptional_Evidence_from_Mesopotamia_Egypt_Israel_and_Arabia_and_Literary_Evidence_from_the_Hebrew_Bible_in_Ugarit_Forschungen_42_2010_Munster_Ugarit-Verlag_2011_331-384https://www.academia.edu/2065314/_The_Domestication_of_the_Camel_Biological_Archaeological_and_Inscriptional_Evidence_from_Mesopotamia_Egypt_Israel_and_Arabia_and_Literary_Evidence_from_the_Hebrew_Bible_in_Ugarit_Forschungen_42_2010_Munster_Ugarit-Verlag_2011_331-384https://www.academia.edu/2065314/_The_Domestication_of_the_Camel_Biological_Archaeological_and_Inscriptional_Evidence_from_Mesopotamia_Egypt_Israel_and_Arabia_and_Literary_Evidence_from_the_Hebrew_Bible_in_Ugarit_Forschungen_42_2010_Munster_Ugarit-Verlag_2011_331-384https://www.academia.edu/2065314/_The_Domestication_of_the_Camel_Biological_Archaeological_and_Inscriptional_Evidence_from_Mesopotamia_Egypt_Israel_and_Arabia_and_Literary_Evidence_from_the_Hebrew_Bible_in_Ugarit_Forschungen_42_2010_Munster_Ugarit-Verlag_2011_331-384https://www.academia.edu/2065314/_The_Domestication_of_the_Camel_Biological_Archaeological_and_Inscriptional_Evidence_from_Mesopotamia_Egypt_Israel_and_Arabia_and_Literary_Evidence_from_the_Hebrew_Bible_in_Ugarit_Forschungen_42_2010_Munster_Ugarit-Verlag_2011_331-384https://www.academia.edu/2065314/_The_Domestication_of_the_Camel_Biological_Archaeological_and_Inscriptional_Evidence_from_Mesopotamia_Egypt_Israel_and_Arabia_and_Literary_Evidence_from_the_Hebrew_Bible_in_Ugarit_Forschungen_42_2010_Munster_Ugarit-Verlag_2011_331-384https://www.academia.edu/2065314/_The_Domestication_of_the_Camel_Biological_Archaeological_and_Inscriptional_Evidence_from_Mesopotamia_Egypt_Israel_and_Arabia_and_Literary_Evidence_from_the_Hebrew_Bible_in_Ugarit_Forschungen_42_2010_Munster_Ugarit-Verlag_2011_331-384https://www.academia.edu/2065314/_The_Domestication_of_the_Camel_Biological_Archaeological_and_Inscriptional_Evidence_from_Mesopotamia_Egypt_Israel_and_Arabia_and_Literary_Evidence_from_the_Hebrew_Bible_in_Ugarit_Forschungen_42_2010_Munster_Ugarit-Verlag_2011_331-384


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Oppenheim, Max von Freiherr. 1931. Der Tell Halaf: Eine neue Kultur imltesten Mesopotamien . F.A. Brockhaus, Leipzig.

Potts, Daniel. 2004. Bactrian Camels and Bactrian-Dromedary Hybrids (off-site link), last accessed Feb. 2014. Based on: Potts, Daniel, 2004,

Camel hybridization and the role of Cam elus bactrianus in the Ancient NearEast. Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient 47: 143-165.

Redford, Donald B. 1992. Egypt, Canaan, and Israel in Ancient Times .Princeton University Press, Princeton, New Jersey.

Renfrew, Colin. 1987. Archaeology and Language . Penguin Books,Harmondsworth, Middlesex.

Ripinsky, Michael. 1983. Camel Ancestry and Domestication in Egypt andthe Sahara. Archaeology 36: 21-27.

1985. The Camel in Dynastic Egypt. Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 71:134-141.

Rosen, Steven and Saidel, Benjamin. The Camel and the Tent: AnExploration of Technological Change Among Early Pastoralists. Journal ofNear Eastern Studies 69/1 (2010): 63-77.

Saggs, H.W.F. 1989. Civilization Before Greece and Rome . Yale UniversityPress, New Haven and London.

Sapir-Hen, Lidar and Ben-Yosef, Erez . 2013. The Introduction ofDomestic Camels to the Southern Levant: Evidence from the Aravah Valley.Tel Aviv 40 (2013): 277-285.
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Scarre, Chris. 1993. Smithsonian Timelines of the Ancient World . DK Adult.

Shanks, Hershel, ed. 1995. WorldWide: Assyria (Iraq). Biblical

Archaeology Review 21: 02.

Wapnish, Paula. 1981. Camel Caravans and Camel Pastoralists at TellJemmeh. Journal of the Ancient Near East Society 13: 101-121.

Wiseman, Donald J. 1959. Ration Lists from Alalakh VII. Journal ofCuneiform Studies 13: 19-33.

Younker, Randall W. 1997. Bronze Age Camel Petroglyphs In The WadiNasib, Sinai . Near East Archaeological Society Bulletin 42: 47-54.

[43] Heide, K. M. The Domestication of the Camel: Biological,Archaeological and Inscriptional Evidence from Mesopotamia, Egypt, Israeland Arabia, and Literary Evidence from the Hebrew Bible . Ugarit-

Forschungen 42 (2010): 331-384. (Off-site link.) 42] MacDonald, M. C. A., 1995, North Arabia in the First Millennium BCE. in J. M. Sasson ed.,Civilizations of the Near East, Vol. 2, Charles Scribners Sons, New York, pp. 1355-1369, 1357.

2] Sapir-Hen, Lidar and Ben- Yosef, Erez. The Introduction of DomesticCamels to the Southern Levant: Evidence from the Aravah Valley. Tel Aviv40 (2013): 277-285. [4] Drews, Robert, 1993, The End of the Bronze Age , Princeton University Press, Princeton, New Jersey,165.
http://www.biblearchaeology.org/post/2009/03/02/Bronze-Age-Camel-Petroglyphs-In-The-Wadi-Nasib2c-Sinai.aspxhttp://www.biblearchaeology.org/post/2009/03/02/Bronze-Age-Camel-Petroglyphs-In-The-Wadi-Nasib2c-Sinai.aspxhttp://www.biblearchaeology.org/post/2009/03/02/Bronze-Age-Camel-Petroglyphs-In-The-Wadi-Nasib2c-Sinai.aspxhttp://www.biblearchaeology.org/post/2009/03/02/Bronze-Age-Camel-Petroglyphs-In-The-Wadi-Nasib2c-Sinai.aspxhttps://www.academia.edu/2065314/_The_Domestication_of_the_Camel_Biological_Archaeological_and_Inscriptional_Evidence_from_Mesopotamia_Egypt_Israel_and_Arabia_and_Literary_Evidence_from_the_Hebrew_Bible_in_Ugarit_Forschungen_42_2010_Munster_Ugarit-Verlag_2011_331-384https://www.academia.edu/2065314/_The_Domestication_of_the_Camel_Biological_Archaeological_and_Inscriptional_Evidence_from_Mesopotamia_Egypt_Israel_and_Arabia_and_Literary_Evidence_from_the_Hebrew_Bible_in_Ugarit_Forschungen_42_2010_Munster_Ugarit-Verlag_2011_331-384https://www.academia.edu/2065314/_The_Domestication_of_the_Camel_Biological_Archaeological_and_Inscriptional_Evidence_from_Mesopotamia_Egypt_Israel_and_Arabia_and_Literary_Evidence_from_the_Hebrew_Bible_in_Ugarit_Forschungen_42_2010_Munster_Ugarit-Verlag_2011_331-384https://www.academia.edu/2065314/_The_Domestication_of_the_Camel_Biological_Archaeological_and_Inscriptional_Evidence_from_Mesopotamia_Egypt_Israel_and_Arabia_and_Literary_Evidence_from_the_Hebrew_Bible_in_Ugarit_Forschungen_42_2010_Munster_Ugarit-Verlag_2011_331-384https://www.academia.edu/2065314/_The_Domestication_of_the_Camel_Biological_Archaeological_and_Inscriptional_Evidence_from_Mesopotamia_Egypt_Israel_and_Arabia_and_Literary_Evidence_from_the_Hebrew_Bible_in_Ugarit_Forschungen_42_2010_Munster_Ugarit-Verlag_2011_331-384https://www.academia.edu/2065314/_The_Domestication_of_the_Camel_Biological_Archaeological_and_Inscriptional_Evidence_from_Mesopotamia_Egypt_Israel_and_Arabia_and_Literary_Evidence_from_the_Hebrew_Bible_in_Ugarit_Forschungen_42_2010_Munster_Ugarit-Verlag_2011_331-384https://www.academia.edu/2065314/_The_Domestication_of_the_Camel_Biological_Archaeological_and_Inscriptional_Evidence_from_Mesopotamia_Egypt_Israel_and_Arabia_and_Literary_Evidence_from_the_Hebrew_Bible_in_Ugarit_Forschungen_42_2010_Munster_Ugarit-Verlag_2011_331-384https://www.academia.edu/2065314/_The_Domestication_of_the_Camel_Biological_Archaeological_and_Inscriptional_Evidence_from_Mesopotamia_Egypt_Israel_and_Arabia_and_Literary_Evidence_from_the_Hebrew_Bible_in_Ugarit_Forschungen_42_2010_Munster_Ugarit-Verlag_2011_331-384http://www.biblearchaeology.org/post/2009/03/02/Bronze-Age-Camel-Petroglyphs-In-The-Wadi-Nasib2c-Sinai.aspxhttp://www.biblearchaeology.org/post/2009/03/02/Bronze-Age-Camel-Petroglyphs-In-The-Wadi-Nasib2c-Sinai.aspx


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[5] Albright, W.F., 1951, The Archaeology of Palestine , Penguin Books, Harmondsworth, Middlesex, 207.

[6] Ibid, 206. [7] Rosen, Steven and Saidel , Benjamin. The Camel and the Tent: AnExploration of Technological Change Among Early Pastoralists. Journal ofNear Eastern Studies 69/1 (2010): 63. Rosen and Saidel also note evidencethat points to 3rd millennium BC camel domestication in Arabia (cf. 2010:74-76). [8] Although the date for the setting of Job is debatable, it is plausible toplace it in a Middle Bronze context similar to Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob.There are several similarities in the texts, such as life over 140 years, wealthmeasured in livestock, the patriarch as the priest of the family, and nomention of the nation Israel or the Mosaic Law. [9] In Egypt, Abraham is given a gift of servants and several types ofdomesticated animals, including sheep and oxen and donkeysand femal edonkeys and camels (Genesis 12:16) and later one of his servants madethe camels kneel down outside the city by the well of water at evening time(Genesis 24:11). Jacob used camels for transportation, putting his childrenand his wives upon camels (Genesis 31:17) and to own milking camels and

their colts (Genesis 32:15). The camels in Exodus were part of the variousdomesticated animals of the Egyptians (Exodus 9:3), while in Judges camelsare domesticated beasts of the Midianites and Amalekites (7:12). The bookof Job claims that the protagonist possessed camels in the context of otherdomesticated animals (Job 1:3). [10] Millard, A.R, 1980, Methods of Studying the Patriarchal Narratives as Ancient Texts, Essays on thePatriarchal Narratives , ed. A.R. Millard, D.J. Wiseman, InterVarsity Press, Leichester, pp.43-56, 50.

[11] Potts, Daniel, 2004, Bactrian Camels and Bactrian-Dromedary Hybrids , (off -site link), based onPotts, Daniel, 2004, Camel hybridization and the role of Camelus bactrianus in the Ancient Near East,

Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient , 47:143-165.

[12] Oppenheim, Max von Freiherr, 1931, Der Tell Halaf: Eine neue Kultur im ltesten Mesopotamien .F.A. Brockhaus, Leipzig, 140.
http://www.silkroadfoundation.org/newsletter/vol3num1/7_bactrian.phphttp://www.silkroadfoundation.org/newsletter/vol3num1/7_bactrian.phphttp://www.silkroadfoundation.org/newsletter/vol3num1/7_bactrian.phphttp://www.silkroadfoundation.org/newsletter/vol3num1/7_bactrian.php


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[13] Ripinsky, Michael, 1983, Camel Ancestry and Domestication in Egypt and the Sahara, Archaeology 36:21-27, 27.

[14] Gerster, Georg, 1961, Sinai , Darmstadt, Germany, 62.

[15] Younker, Randall W., 1997, Bronze Age Camel Petroglyphs In The Wadi Nasib, Sinai , Near East Archaeological Society Bulletin , 42:47-54, 49.

[16] Ibid, 49. [17] Gardiner, A. H., and Peet, T. E., 1955, The Inscriptions of Sinai. Vol 2. Egypt Exploration Society,London, 76.

[20] Barnett, Richard D., 1985, Lachish, Ashkelon and the Camel: A D iscussion of Its Use in SouthernPalestine in: J.N. Tubb, ed. Palestine in the Bronze and Iron Ages. Papers in Honor to Olga Tuffnell ,London, Institute of Archaeology, pp. 16-30, 16.

[21] MacDonald, 1995, North Arabia in the First Millennium BCE, 1363.

[23] Potts, Daniel, 2004, Bactrian Camels and Bactrian-Dromedary Hybrids , (off -site linke), last

accessed Feb. 2014. Based on Potts, Daniel, 2004, Camel hybridization and the role of Camelusbactrianus in the Ancient Near East, Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient , 47:143-165.

[24] Archer, Gleason, 1970, Old Testament History and Recent Archeology from Abraham to MosesBibliotheca Sacra 127:505 pp. 3-25, 17.
http://www.biblearchaeology.org/post/2009/03/02/Bronze-Age-Camel-Petroglyphs-In-The-Wadi-Nasib2c-Sinai.aspxhttp://www.biblearchaeology.org/post/2009/03/02/Bronze-Age-Camel-Petroglyphs-In-The-Wadi-Nasib2c-Sinai.aspxhttp://www.biblearchaeology.org/post/2009/03/02/Bronze-Age-Camel-Petroglyphs-In-The-Wadi-Nasib2c-Sinai.aspxhttp://www.silkroadfoundation.org/newsletter/vol3num1/7_bactrian.phphttp://www.silkroadfoundation.org/newsletter/vol3num1/7_bactrian.phphttp://www.silkroadfoundation.org/newsletter/vol3num1/7_bactrian.phphttp://www.silkroadfoundation.org/newsletter/vol3num1/7_bactrian.phphttp://www.biblearchaeology.org/post/2009/03/02/Bronze-Age-Camel-Petroglyphs-In-The-Wadi-Nasib2c-Sinai.aspx


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[25] Davis, John J., 1986 The Camel in Biblical Narratives, in A Tribute to Gleason Archer: Essays on theOld Testament , Chicago, Moody Press: pp.141-150, 145.

[26] Wiseman, Donald J., 1959, Ration Lists from Alalakh VII, Journal of Cuneiform Studies 13:19-33,29.

[27] Ripinsky, 1985, Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 71 , 138.

[28] Ripinsky, Michael, 1985, Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 71 , 136.

[29] Fr ee, Joseph P., 1944, Abrahams Camels, Journal of Near Eastern Studies, 3:187-193, 189-190.

[30] Kohl, P. L., 1992 Central Asian (Western Turkestan): Neolithic to the Early Iron Age. in Ehrich, R.W., ed., 1992, Chronologies in Old World Archaeology , University of Chicago Press, Chicago and London:pp. 179-195, 186.

[31] Bulliet, Richard W., 1990, The Camel and the Wheel . Columbia University Press, 183.

[32] Renfrew, Colin, 1987, Archaeology and Language , Penguin Books, Harmondsworth, Middlesex, 201.

[33] Meyers, Eric M., ed., 1997, 407.

[34] Wapnish, Paula, 1981, Camel Caravans and Camel Pastoralists at Tell Jemmeh, Journal of the Ancient Near East Society , 13:101-121, 104-105.

[35] Meyers, Eric M., ed., 1997, The Oxford Encyclopedia of Archaeology in the Near East , OxfordUniversity Press, Oxford, 407.

[36] Ibid, 407.


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[37] Hesse, Brian, 1995, Animal Husbandry and Human Diet in the Ancient Near East in J. M. Sassoned., Civilizations of the Near East, Vol. 1, Charles Scribners Sons, New York, pp. 205-218, 217.

[38] Ripinsky, Michael, 1985, The Camel in Dynastic Egypt, Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 71:134-141, 138.

[39] Kramer, Carol, 1977, Pots and People, in Levine, L. D. and Young, T. C. Mountains and lowlands:Essays in the archaeology of greater Mesopotamia; Bibliotheca Mesopotamica. Vol. 7, UdenaPublications, Malibu: pp. 91-112, 100.

[40] Scarre, Chris,1993, Smithsonian Timelines of the Ancient World , DK Adult, 176.

The Date of Camel Domestication in the Ancient Near East

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