The cultural and spiritual values of nature in Chinese ...
Transcript of The cultural and spiritual values of nature in Chinese ...
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The cultural and spiritual values of nature in
Chinese World Heritage Sites: A comparative study
of Fanjingshan, Mount Wutai and Mount Taishan
By Xindan Hu
Registration No. 941113370080
MSc Forest and Nature Conservation Policy
Wageningen University
August 2019
Supervised by:
Dr. B (Bas) Verschuuren, Forest and Nature Conservation Policy Group
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Abstract
With the increasing awareness of the inseparable relationship between nature and culture
in the World Heritage Convention, the cultural and spiritual values of nature start to be
taken into account in the protection of World Heritage sites. According to the guidebook
“Cultural and Spiritual Significance of Nature: Guidance for its role in Protected and
Conserved Area Governance”, the cultural and spiritual values of nature can be classified
into 7 types: Aesthetic-Perceptual or Scenic value; Recreational and therapeutic value;
Artistic, traditional and contemporary value; Information, knowledge and educational
value; Historical, ethnological value; Linguistic traditions, both written and oral value;
Religious and spiritual value. To better understand the culture and spiritual values of
nature of indigenous or local people in Chinese World Heritage sites, I analysed the
official UNESCO World Heritage site documents to assess and compare their value types
and the related management activities of three Chinese World Heritage sites: Fanjingshan,
Mount Wutai and Mount Taishan. I analyzed the management of three sites using the
biocultural approach. The results show that the management of Fanjingshan is most
concerned about CSV through biocultural approach. While for Mount Wutai and Mount
Taishan, the involvement of indigenous or local people in the management insufficiently
meets the criteria of the biocultural approach. There are two common problems among
the three sites. First, all management committees pay much attention to the cultural and
spiritual values of all people in order to attract visitors. The cultural and spiritual values of
indigenous or local people appear not to be given much importance in site management.
Second, the notion of cultural and spiritual values included in the management plans is
quite general without the use of classification and according management planning. In
order to better protect the full spectrum of cultural and spiritual values of three sites, the
role of indigenous or local people has to be further emphasized.This study recommends
the integration of a value typology for cultural and spiritual values in site management as
well as the application of the biocultural approach in their implementation.
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Table of Content
1. Introduction ............................................................................................................................................. 5
Problem definition ...................................................................................................................................... 5
Objective and Research question .......................................................................................................... 7
Introductions of the research sites ........................................................................................................ 8
2. Theoretical Framework ......................................................................................................................... 9
Cultural and spiritual values .................................................................................................................... 9
Biocultural diversity and Biocultural approach .............................................................................. 11
Conceptual framework .......................................................................................................................... 12
3. Research methodology ..................................................................................................................... 13
4. Data collection ..................................................................................................................................... 13
5. Results ..................................................................................................................................................... 15
General situation and management of three WHSs .................................................................... 15
The Aesthetic-Perceptual or Scenic value ....................................................................................... 16
The Recreational and therapeutic value .......................................................................................... 18
The Artistic, traditional and contemporary value .......................................................................... 19
The Information, knowledge and educational value ................................................................... 21
The Historical, ethnological value ...................................................................................................... 23
The Linguistic traditions, both written and oral value ................................................................. 26
The Religious and spiritual value ........................................................................................................ 27
The role of cultural and spiritual values ........................................................................................... 32
Analysis based on eight principles of biocultural approach ...................................................... 33
6. Conclusion ............................................................................................................................................. 36
7. Discussion .............................................................................................................................................. 37
The relations to other research ........................................................................................................... 37
Discussion of the theoretical framework and research methodology ................................... 39
References .................................................................................................................................................. 40
Appendix 1 ................................................................................................................................................. 44
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Outline of tables and figures
Figure 1 Locations of the research sites .............................................................................................. 7
Figure 2 Guizhou Snub-nosed Monkey .............................................................................................. 8
Table 1. One possible classification of values that make up the cultural and spiritual
significance of nature in protected and conserved areas. ......................................................... 10
Table 2. The coded values based on Table 1 (Verschuuren et al. in press).......................... 14
Table 3.1 The Aesthetic-Perceptual or Scenic value of three WHSs as well as relevant
governance and management ........................................................................................................................ 18
Table 3.2 The Recreational and therapeutic value of three WHSs as well as relevant
governance and management ............................................................................................................ 19
Table 3.3 The Artistic, traditional and contemporary value of three WHSs as well as
relevant governance and management ........................................................................................... 21
Table 3.4 The Information, knowledge and educational value of three WHSs as well as
relevant governance and management ........................................................................................... 23
Table 3.5 The Historical, ethnological value of three WHSs as well as relevant governance
and management .................................................................................................................................... 25
Table 3.6 The Linguistic traditions, both written and oral value of three WHSs as well as
relevant governance and management ........................................................................................... 27
Figure 3 Pilgrim Trackway of North Terrace, Mount Wutai ....................................................... 28
Figure 4 Pilgrim Trackway of South Terrace, Mount Wutai ....................................................... 28
Figure 5 Stone steps of Mount Taishan ........................................................................................... 29
Table 3.7 The Religious and spiritual value of three WHSs as well as relevant governance
and management .................................................................................................................................... 31
Table 4 The certain groups that influence the management plan of three sites ............... 33
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1. Introduction
Problem definition
After World War I, the idea of creating an international movement for protecting heritage
emerged. In 1972, The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
(UNESCO) developed the World Heritage Convention to bring such concept into official
existence. The Convention aims to protect the World Heritage sites (WHSs) that have
outstanding universal value and meet at least one out of ten selection criteria. Criteria (i)
– (vi) are cultural criteria and criteria (vii) – (x) are natural criteria (see Appendix 1).
According to the criteria they meet, WHSs are divided into three types: cultural, natural
and mixed properties (WHC, 2019a). Though the Convention claims that it “recognizes
the way in which people interact with nature, and the fundamental need to preserve the
balance between the two and introduce the cultural landscapes” (WHC, 2019b), This
framing has been influenced by the culture-nature dichotomy which developed in the
Western countries from the 17th century (Byrne et.al, 2013). Based on this ontological
model, culture is radically separate from nature, arising partly because of the human
desire to dominate nature (Pretty et.al, 2009). So, the sites are nominated for isolated
cultural or natural criteria without considering the interactions between culture and
nature. Even for the mixed properties, their cultural and natural aspects are assessed
completely separately (Lilley, 2013). Such dichotomy brings various conflicts to heritage
protection. For example, to build the protected area for Borobudur (inscribed on the
World Heritage List in 1991), at least 381 households who had lived there for centuries
were forced to resettled with minimal compensation and work opportunities. They also
lost access to the monuments of Borobodur, which they perceive as their heritage. Facing
financial and cultural abuse, it was no surprise that local people protest the governance
of Borobudur (Tanudirjo, 2013).
Nowadays, culture and nature increasingly come to be viewed as interconnected and
indivisible. Human societies have already interplayed with nature for thousands of
generations (Pretty, 2009). Nature is more than a series of physical attributes, it is actually
subjected to and impacted by culture. So, “bridging the divide” is required to create a
holistic way to global heritage protection (Verschuuren & Brown, 2018). Since 1992,
significant interactions between people and the natural environment have been
recognized as cultural landscapes (WHC, 2019). This new category of heritage under the
World Heritage Convention stemmed from the discussion of how to protect heritage with
various environments and cultures. The new category was intended to overcome evident
conceptual and practical difficulties with the culture-nature dichotomy recognized in the
original World Heritage Convention (Fowler, 2013). This new category was thought to
improve consideration of the non-material and indigenous cultures (Inaba, 1998, cited in
Jimura, 2007). Indigenous knowledge systems often contain detailed information about
diversity and environments (Gadgil et al., 1993; Drew & Henne, 2006). There is no doubt
that indigenous cultures can contribute to contemporary World Heritage protection.
“Cultural and spiritual values (CSV)” is an important part of indigenous culture which
require to be recognized and taken into consideration. With the development of this topic,
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CSV takes on broader meanings from mostly applied to indigenous people to including
local people. In some cases, CSV of certain sites or species is important enough for
indigenous or local people to give up economic benefits to conserve the ecosystems
containing them (Verschuuren, 2012). So, it is also a matter of social justice and human
rights to understand CSV of indigenous or local people and give them equal weight to
make decisions for the heritage that is meaningful for them. If their voices are ignored,
indigenous and local people, as well as WHSs, would suffer by the dominant Western
cultures while the conflicts would continue to emerge. The participation of indigenous or
local people has been emphasized and discussed by the World Heritage Convention
recently. In 2007, the World Heritage Committee recognized “the critical importance of
involving indigenous, traditional and local communities in the implementation of the
Convention” (Decisions 31 COM 13A, 2007). So, the committee adopted a “Strategic
Objective” to enhance the role of communities in the implementation of the World
Heritage Convention. In a 2011 Decision, the Committee also encouraged States Parties
to involve indigenous and local people in decision making, monitoring and evaluation of
the conservation of WHSs while respecting the rights of indigenous and local people. The
theme of the Convention’s 40th anniversary in 2012 is “World Heritage and Sustainable
Development: The Role of Local Communities”. However, the Convention’s Operational
Guidelines were entirely inadequate for the implement of participation of indigenous and
local people (Disko & Tugendhat, 2014). The World Heritage Convention still lacks a
framework to preserve the WHSs for the benefit of the world and its people (Verschuuren,
2016). In 2017, another step was made by indigenous delegates of the 41st session of the
UNESCO World Heritage Committee. They created The International Indigenous Peoples’
Forum on World Heritage (IIPFWH) as a standing global body aiming to engage with the
World Heritage Committee during its meetings.
Objective and Research question
Though the protection of indigenous and local people’s rights is increasingly talked about,
only if we understand CSV of indigenous or local people who are most familiar with the
sites can we make the most appropriate plan to protect heritage.
This thesis intends to explore the role of cultural and spiritual values of nature in three
WHSs inscribed respectively for natural, cultural and mixed properties. The aim is to help
understand the indivisible connection between culture and nature and their implications
for the management and governance of these sites. Fanjingshan (Natural property),
Mount Wutai (Cultural property) and Mount Taishan (Mixed property) are chosen as
examples. These three sites are all sacred mountain sites located in China (Figure 1),
enabling a comparison of the effects of the nomination under the different criteria.
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Figure 1. Locations of the research sites (Map data: 2019 Google, INEGI, ORION-ME)
It should be noted that because of the division between nature and culture, most
governments around the world make different policies for natural and cultural heritage
protection and implement them through various departments, administrative systems
and methods (Mallarach et.al, 2018), so is China. Based on the study of these three sites,
we can have some understanding of CSV in three sites. After the comparison, we can see
whether and how they play a role in governance and management. I conjecture that CSV
in cultural and mixed WHSs will be better integrated into governance and management
than in natural WHSs. So, the results might be used for the further governance and
management plan that natural WHSs should consider more about CSV and learn from
cultural and mixed WHSs. The research question and sub-questions are listed in the
following:
Research question:
1. What is the role of cultural and spiritual values of indigenous or local
people in three World Heritage sites inscribed respectively for natural,
cultural and mixed properties?
Sub-questions:
a) What are the cultural and spiritual values of indigenous or local
people in three sites?
b) How do cultural and spiritual values of indigenous or local people
influence the governance and management in three sites?
c) In respect of the role of cultural and spiritual values, what are the
similarities and differences between three sites?
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Introductions of the research sites
Fanjingshan located within the Wuling mountain range in southwest China. Fanjingshan
is a distinguished representative of a subtropical humid mountain ecosystem. Its relatively
independent living environment provides the most favorable conditions for the
reproduction of animals and the evolution of plants. There are 64 plant and 38 animal
species of Fanjingshan listed as Vulnerable, Endangered or Critically Endangered on the
IUCN Red List of species (requires a reference). The most notable one is the endangered
Guizhou Snub-nosed Monkey (Rhinopithecus brelichi, see Figure 2), which only
distributes in Fanjingshan. So, Fanjingshan is inscribed on the World Heritage List on the
basis of Criterion (x) (Decision: 42 COM 8B.6, 2018). Meanwhile, it is a sacred mountain
in Chinese Buddhism that attracts a large number of pilgrims. Local people even consider
Fanjingshan as the center for Buddhist Maitreya worship (Zhang, 2006; Jiang, 2013).
Figure 2 Guizhou Snub-nosed Monkey. Reprinted from Fanjingshan gallery, by
Chuandong Yang, 2015, Retrieved from whc.unesco.org/en/documents/165884.
Mount Wutai, which means “the five-terrace mountain”, locates in Shanxi province. It is
one of the four sacred Buddhist mountains in China that is seen as the global center for
Buddhist Manjusri worship. Mount Wutai reflects how religious belief and Chinese
philosophical thinking on the harmony between man and nature blend in the natural
landscape. The overall natural landscape illustrates the exceptional effect of imperial
patronage over one thousand years with the development of a religious temple
landscape, including buildings, statuary, paintings and steles. The survived religious
natural landscape and the tradition of pilgrimage to the Mount Wutai are still very much
alive. However, among the Criteria (ii) (iii) (iv) (vi) (vii) Mount Wutai nominated for,
Criterion (viii) is not met because Mount Wutai is of no exceptional significance for its
geological values (Advisory Body Evaluation of ICOMOS, 2009). So, Mount Wutai is
inscribed on the World Heritage List under cultural Criteria (ii) (iii) (iv) and (vi) (Decision:
33 COM 8B.7, 2009).
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Mount Taishan, located in Shandong province, is one of the most beautiful, sacred and
worshipful mountains in China. Mount Taishan has experienced complicated geological
and biological processes during a period of three billion years, contributing to a majestic
and gigantic mountain covered with dense vegetation. Mount Taishan is an important
cradle of oriental East Asian culture dating back to the Neolithic period and has been
worshipped throughout the last three millennia. Thousands of artistic monuments built
in different dynasties in Mount Taishan have witnessed the cultural and religious
development of human. Mountain Mount Taishan is a magnificent combination of a
beautiful natural landscape dominated by the cultural influences of long-time human use
(WHC, 2019c). It is the first mixed property worldwide under Criteria (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v) (vi)
and (vii) (Decision: CONF 005 VII.A, 1987).
2. Theoretical framework
Cultural and spiritual values
The phrase “cultural and spiritual values” can be seen as an output of the IUCN 2003
World Parks Congress. It is coined with specific reference to the values held by indigenous
and traditional people. So, “cultural and spiritual values” was the central part of the
IUCN’s work in recognizing “the role of, and engaging with, people in the governance
and management of protected and conserved areas”. Besides the emphasis on material
culture attributes of indigenous heritage like objectives or modified landscapes, CSV tries
to incorporate both material and non-material dimensions (Brown& Verschuuren, 2018).
CSV attributed to nature was highly context and culture-dependent and can change over
time. It was necessary to classify values clearly for further comparison and study. For this
purpose, this study made use of a CSV typology in protected and conserved areas, see
Table 1. The table came from the guidebook “Cultural and Spiritual Significance of Nature:
Guidance for its role in Protected and Conserved Area Governance”. It elaborated the
categories of CSV, which can be used to classify the values of different stakeholders. In
my thesis, I would identify the values as well as the relevant governance and management
of different stakeholders. According to the results, it was easy to recognize which kinds
of values were well understood and protected. Then, I would focus on the CSV of
indigenous or local people to see their role in the WHSs.
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Table 1. One possible classification of values that make up the cultural and spiritual
significance of nature in protected and conserved areas. (Verschuuren et al. in press).
Values Tangible and intangible attributes and qualities that convey those
values
Aesthetic-Perceptual
or Scenic
- Beauty, silence, tranquility, harmony
Recreational and
therapeutic
- Mental and physical well-being
Artistic, traditional
and contemporary
- Performing arts; music and dance
- Literature, poetry and prose
- Decorative arts
- Visual arts; landscape painting, installation and landscape
art, nature photography, movies and television show
etc.
Information,
knowledge and
educational
- Scientific knowledge
- Educational value
Historical,
ethnological
- Traditional knowledge, customs, law and governance
- Traditional practices and trades
- Festivals, fairs and historical events
- Gastronomy and food-cultures
Linguistic traditions,
both written and oral
- Languages or dialects
- Vocabulary related to nature; place names and their
etymologies
- Traditional folk-tales, legends, proverbs, epics and songs
Religious and spiritual - Natural elements considered holy, sacred, magical or
mythical (sacred natural sites and species);
- Built and living religious heritage set in a natural
environment
- Rituals, ceremonies and pilgrimages
Biocultural diversity and Biocultural approach
To better connect nature and culture, I also introduced the theory of biocultural diversity
and biocultural approach. Since the 1990s, the concept of “biocultural diversity” has been
emphasized to bridge the gap between nature and culture. The findings of the links
between biological and cultural diversity, including their global overlapping distributions
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and the common threats they face came from the thought-provoking phenomenon that
the continuous worldwide biodiversity loss is paralleled by the extinction of cultural
diversity, especially the linguistic diversity (Harmon& Maffi, 2002; Maffi, 2001). With the
efforts of a group of social scientists and conservationists, it became clear that diverse
cultural knowledge, beliefs, practices and languages threatened by the socio-economic
and political processes. The survival of indigenous and local cultures as well as the
environment they depend was in peril, let along the integrity of them (Maffi, 2005). The
loss of biocultural diversity has long-term implications since we lose the opportunity to
explore the potential use of extinct species for future use as well as the traditional
ecological knowledge and management systems originated from other cultures that may
enlighten future conservation (Muller, 2004; Zhang, 2004; Rudd et al., 2003; Pretty et.al,
2009). So, it was necessary to bring all these elements together and to protect the
diversity of life in all its form. The biocultural diversity includes biological diversity at all
its levels from genes to ecosystems as well as cultural diversity in all its manifestations
ranging from individual ideas to entire cultures. More importantly, there are interactions
among all of these (Loh& Harmon, 2005). In general, according to Maffi (2010), the central
tenet of biocultural diversity was that “the diversity of life is diversity in both nature and
culture and that the two diversities are co-evolved and interdependent”.
Biocultural diversity has significant implications for conservation practice and policy-
making. Based on the reorganization of biocultural diversity, the biocultural approach
takes both biological and cultural aspects into account to conserve the certain sites with
local knowledge, practices, and ontologies (Caillon et.al, 2017). Through the biocultural
approach, conservation discourse and policies increasingly promote the active and
effective participation of Indigenous and local people (Maffi, 2010). Davidson-Hunt et al.
(2012) pointed out that enhancing the participation and capabilities of indigenous and
local people could promote innovation and co-evolution of biocultural diversity. Also, in
a time of global change, the protection of WHSs based on biocultural approach should
pursue more interactional and inclusive approaches according to not only local but also
national and international contexts (Apgar, 2017). According to Gavin et. al (2015), there
are eight principles of biocultural approaches to conservation:
1. Acknowledge multiple objectives and stakeholders in conservation;
2. Emphasize intergenerational planning and institutions for long-term adaptive
governance;
3. Dynamic cultures shape resource use and conservation;
4. Tailored interventions to the specific social-ecological context;
5. Create diverse and nested institutional frameworks;
6. Nurture partnership and relationship;
7. Incorporate the diverse rights and responsibilities of all parties;
8. Respect and combine different worldviews and knowledge.
Though the principles also left room for other stakeholders, I mainly focused on the
indigenous and local people in my thesis. Based on the data I collected, I could verify
whether these principles are followed in the protection of three sites. Then, I would
compare the governance and management of three sites to see which heritage
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emphasized more on CSV of indigenous or local people.
Conceptual framework
The biocultural approach was used to guide the analysis of conservation of a certain site,
reminding decisionmakers and governance actors of the importance of both biological
and cultural aspects. So, indigenous or local people were stimulated to participate in
conservation. The CSV typology could further help to analyze which kind of values were
most important, which values already have been included in the plan and which values
still needed more attention. The results could be used to make specific plans to study and
protect certain values that were less emphasized. Otherwise, if the protection of CSV was
too general, the CSV typology and principles of biocultural approaches were useful to
deepen the understanding and management of CSV.
The principle “1. Acknowledge multiple objectives and stakeholders in conservation”
could relate to each type of CSV, the multiple objectives could be the protection of any
tangible or intangible attributes and qualities that convey the CSV.
The principle “2. Emphasize intergenerational planning and institutions for long-term
adaptive governance” more connected to traditional knowledge, customs, law and
governance of Historical, ethnological value. The traditional customs, law and governance
of indigenous or local people were possibly included in the planning and governance.
The principle “3. Dynamic cultures shape resource use and conservation” referred to each
value because CSV closely connected to natural resource no matter for recreation, study,
make a living or other use.
The principle “4. Tailored interventions to the specific social-ecological context” generally
protect the rights of indigenous or local people depending on specific situations.
The principle “5. Create diverse and nested institutional frameworks” more related to
traditional knowledge, customs, law and governance of Historical, ethnological value. The
traditional institutions, traditional forms of organization might be adapted to the modern
institutional frameworks, involving indigenous or local people into management systems.
The principle “6. Nurture partnership and relationship” and principle “7. Incorporate the
diverse rights and responsibilities of all parties” generally protected the CSV and
promoted the participation of indigenous or local people.
The principle “8. Respect and combine different worldviews and knowledge” was
concerned more to Artistic, traditional and contemporary; Historical, ethnological;
Linguistic traditions; Religious and spiritual values. These values showed the special
worldviews and knowledge created by indigenous or local people in different forms.
The principles 4, 6, 7 did not directly relate to certain values. They were more like the
basis for other principles, while the principles 1, 2, 3, 5 could be used immediately to
protect certain value.
3. Research methodology
This qualitative research offers a comparative case study, mainly using the method of
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documents analysis. As mentioned before, all three sites are mountain sites in China but
inscribed for different types of heritage. With relatively similar mountainous features and
political conditions, it was possible to compare these three sites. After analyzing them
separately, I identified similarities and differences between the three cases and discussed
possible reasons behind.
Comparing to other methods in a qualitative study trying to collect the raw data,
document analysis relied more on the description and interpretation of existing data. It
was an efficient and effective way to gather data because many documents were in the
public domain (Bowen, 2009), especially in the field of the WHSs.
The iterative process of document analysis consisted of content analysis and thematic
analysis. Content analysis was the process of organizing data into categories related to
the research questions (Bowen, 2009). Thematic analysis was a process involves focused
re-reading and review of the data to recognize pattern based on emerging categories
(Fereday &Muir-Cochrane, 2006). In this thesis, I focused on the CSV of local people in
three WHSs. Since I decided to use Table 1 as categories, I organized data based on Table
1 during the content analysis. Meanwhile, I was objective and sensitive to identify whether
there were some other values. Then in the process of thematic analysis, I checked the
categories and explored the patterns of CSV. The back-and-forth interaction with the
data continued throughout the study.
4. Data collection
The data was mainly collected from the official website of UNESCO, including the
nomination, decision, evaluation, management and other documents of three sites. Since
Fanjingshan, Mount Wutai and Mount Taishan were inscribed as WHS in 2018, 2009 and
1987 respectively, the relevant of Mount Taishan was much less and behind the times
than other two sites. I also searched for other articles relevant to the three sites, especially
management plans and other grey literature from websites of three sites and Chinese
WHSs, like the “Regulations on the protection and administration of Mount Taishan scenic
area” (2018) from the website of The Management Committee of Scenic Spots and
Historic Sites of Taishan. Other relevant literature was an important resource as well.
The data analysis has mainly focused on the category of CSV (Table 1). I focused on the
way of coding. The values of Table 1 were coded from 1-7 as initial top-level codes.
Tangible and intangible attributes and qualities of each value could be seen as sub-codes.
Sub-codes were coded as well start from a to x. For example, Value 3 Artistic, traditional
and contemporary had four attributes and qualities, which can be coded from 3a to 3d
(See Table 2). Then, I went through all the resources I collect and marked CSV of local
people at each site with codes. According to what emerged from the data, no codes had
to be changed and no new codes were developed. After reviewing all the documents, the
CSV of each site and relevant governance and management were synthesized and
concluded. A short description of each value was listed in the Table. Finally, I compared
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the results of CSV as well as governance and management between three sites, discussing
the possible reason.
Table 2. The coded values based on Table 1 (Verschuuren et al. in press).
Values Tangible and intangible attributes and qualities that convey those
values
1.Aesthetic-
Perceptual or Scenic
- 1a. Beauty, silence, tranquility, harmony
2.Recreational and
therapeutic
- 2a. Mental and physical well-being
3.Artistic, traditional
and contemporary
- 3a. Performing arts; music and dance
- 3b. Literature, poetry and prose
- 3c. Decorative arts
- 3d. Visual arts; landscape painting, installation and
landscape art, nature photography, movies and
television show etc.
4.Information,
knowledge and
educational
- 4a. Scientific knowledge
- 4b. Educational value
5.Historical,
ethnological
- 5a. Traditional knowledge, customs, law and governance
- 5b. Traditional practices and trades
- 5c. Festivals, fairs and historical events
- 5d. Gastronomy and food-cultures
6.Linguistic traditions,
both written and oral
- 6a. Languages or dialects
- 6b. Vocabulary related to nature; place names and their
etymologies
- 6c. Traditional folk-tales, legends, proverbs, epics and
songs
7.Religious and
spiritual
- 7a. Natural elements considered holy, sacred, magical or
mythical (sacred natural sites and species);
- 7b. Built and living religious heritage set in a natural
environment
- 7c. Rituals, ceremonies and pilgrimages
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5. Results
I first introduce the general situation and management of three sites. Then, the
differences between each type of values and managements between three sites are
discussed separately. Finally, I make an analysis of management based on the biocultural
approach principles.
General situation and management of three WHSs
Fanjingshan was once seen as a barren wasteland where the indigenous people and
migrants were referred to as barbarians by the Central Dynasties of China. However,
Fanjingshan was the sacred mountain for residents all the time. It was the spreading of
Buddhism from the Song Dynasty through which Fanjingshan gradually attracted the
attention of the Central Dynasties. The natural WHS, Fanjingshan currently focuses on the
development of ecotourism. From 2014 to 2019, the main goal is protecting abundant
forest resources and natural ecological environment of Fanjingshan according to the
Master Plan of Ecotourism Development of Guizhou Fanjingshan National Nature Reserve
from 2014 to 2023 submitted to UNESCO. Meanwhile, multi-dimensional publicity and
educational system would be formed. The goal between 2020-2023 is promoting the
coordinated, sustainable development of nature, society and economy to create a
"Fanjingshan" as a model of ecotourism. It should be noted that the folk culture of
minorities is one of the emphases in the Master Plan. The property is managed by a multi-
level from the national to the local level government system. Otherwise, a co-operative
system involving various sectors of the government, technical institutions, research
institutions and local communities has been created. (Ministry of Housing and Urban-
Rural Development People’s Republic of China, 2016a; 2016b; 2016c; 2018)
Mount Wutai has fostered the world Buddhist Manjusri worship center for over 1600 years
based on the special landscape with cold climate. Mount Wutai is also a testimony to the
extinct Chinese royal religious civilization lead by emperors. It displays a unique and
dynamic cultural landscape. The Conservation and Management Plan for the Nominated
WHS of Mount Wutai from 2005 to 2025 aims at the restoration of the visual landscapes
and the overall environment of the Core Zone. The Ministry of Construction takes the
overall responsibility for the management of Mount Wutai. While several different
agencies of Shanxi Province directly participate in management. Otherwise, each
registered temple had an administrative/ management committee (People’s Government
of the Mount Wutai National Park, 2007). The Religion and Heritage Administration
Bureau of Mount Wutai National Park supervise religious activity inside the Park. The
Bureau subordinate to the Shanxi Provincial Administration of Religious Affairs which is
responsible to protect the rights of religious groups. The Mount Wutai Buddhist
association is a civil group consisted of representatives from the Temples. It works as a
bridge between the administrative agencies and devotees (Advisory Body Evaluation of
ICOMOS, 2009). As for the involvement of local people, the Master Plan of the Mount
Wutai National Park from 2005 to 2025 emphasized multi-stakeholder cooperation and
community coordination.
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Mount Taishan is a mixed WHS where cultural values were enhanced by the natural
setting, and the natural setting enables the expression of cultural values. It is a famous
Chinese sacred mountain, "a partial miniature of Chinese culture" like the scholar Guo Moruo
said. The Master plan of Mount Taishan scenic area from 2016 to 2035 (2016) focuses
more on strengthening monitoring, building a data platform and beautifying the
environment. The present administrative organization is the Management Committee of
Scenic Spots and Historic Sites of Taishan. The representatives of the National World
Heritage Office, the Bureau of Cultural Relics and Religions, the Bureau of Hygiene and
Environmental Protection, and other functional departments, administrative units also
play a role in the management (Decision 36COM 8E, 2012). Based on The Master plan of
Mount Taishan scenic area from 2016 to 2035 (2016), the Regulations on the protection
and administration of Mount Taishan scenic area (2018), there is no emphasis on multi-
stakeholder cooperation and local involvement. According to the research of Meng and
Jiao (2009) and Xiang (2009), local people are at the bottom of the heritage stakeholder
hierarchy. They shared little benefits comparing to the government and enterprises while
having very limited ways to involve in the plan and management of Mount Taishan.
Otherwise, to preserve the integrity and authenticity of properties, three sites have many
similarities between their management plans, for example, the restoration of vegetation,
relocation of residents inside the property, removal of the improper building and the
exclusion of mining. The visitors’ numbers and their behavior are also strictly controlled.
The carrying capacity of Fanjingshan, Mount Wutai and Mount Taishan are 8000, 10000
and 30000 visitors per day respectively.
In the next part, I mainly extracted each type of value and management from the
documents of UNESCO. The references about Fanjingshan mainly included Executive
Summary of Mount Wutai (2007), World Heritage Nomination Natural Heritage: China
Fanjingshan (2016a), World Heritage Nomination Natural Heritage: China Fanjingshan
Atlas (2016b), World Heritage Nomination Natural Heritage: China Fanjingshan
Management Plan (2016c), Supplementary Information to the World Natural Heritage
Nominated property: Fanjingshan (2018) and Advisory Body Evaluation of IUCN on
Fanjingshan (2018). The Reference about Mount Wutai mainly included The Nomination
file of Mount Wutai (2007), Advisory Body Evaluation of ICOMOS on Mount Wutai (2009),
Advisory Body Evaluation of IUCN on Mount Wutai (2009) and Decision: 33 COM 8B.7
(2009). The reference about Mount Taishan mainly included Advisory Body Evaluation of
ICOMOS on Mount Taishan (1987), Advisory Body Evaluation of IUCN on Mount Taishan
(1987), Periodic Reporting Cycle 1, Section II of Mount Taishan (2003) and Document 36
COM 8E - Adoption of retrospective Statements of Outstanding Universal Value (2012).
The contents from other resources were cited as usual.
The Aesthetic-Perceptual or Scenic value
Fanjingshan:
1a: Fanjingshan is distinguished by its typical subtropical mountain forest ecosystem and
numerous landscapes like peculiar peaks, pristine rivers, thick forest and stunning
17
wildflower. The variable meteorological phenomena like rainbows, cloud seas make
Fanjingshan even more attractive and mysterious. The stark seasonal contrasts also
contribute to the beauty of Fanjingshan. Every season, visitors can enjoy different scenery.
Meanwhile, the geological features, favorable climatic conditions combine with little
disturbance by human activities has made extremely rich biodiversity in Fanjingshan.
According to the nomination document, 7,161 species of wild animals and plants have
been recorded in the property. Based on the Aesthetic-Perceptual or Scenic value of
Fanjingshan, more trails and viewing platforms will be built to let visitors enjoy the beauty
of Fanjingshan. Since the quick development of tourism brings some pressures to the
aesthetic value presentation, the monitoring system will be used to study the tourists’
preference for the future plan to optimize tourists’ time, spatial distribution. Otherwise,
Fanjingshan’s beauty can also be presented to the public vividly by creative photography,
painting and specimen exhibitions of flora and fauna etc., which is connected to Artistic,
traditional and contemporary value- Visual arts (3d).
Mount Wutai
1a: The Aesthetic-Perceptual or Scenic value of nature in Moutain Wutai is closely related
to temples. In other words, the Aesthetic-Perceptual or Scenic value in Mount Wutai is
inseparable from Religious and spiritual value- Built and living religious heritage set in a
natural environment (7b). Its buildings are a record of Buddhist temples and are
harmonious with the surrounding landscape both visually and religiously. The high peaks,
snow cover, thick forests of pines, firs, poplar and willow trees and lush grassland of
Mount Wutai are attractive but usual. It is the temples make it unique. The management
of Aesthetic-Perceptual or Scenic value of Mount Wutai can be seen as the protection of
whole property, so I do not discuss it here.
Mount Taishan
1a: Mount Taishan has experienced nearly 3 billion years of natural evolution, it is formed
through complicated geological and biological processes that resulted in a gigantic rock
mass covered with dense vegetation. Thousands of years’ human use contributed to a
beautiful landscape dominated by humans, but there are substantial areas free of both
historic and modern features such as the Rear Rocky Basin. Mount Taishan is tall and
huge, so the climate changes apparently at the different elevation. Some well-known
natural sights scenery depends on the specific weather or season, like the sunrise, “golden
shining from the sky” and “icy cave in midsummer”. Some ancient trees also have
memorable meanings. In general, the beauty of Mount Taishan comprises the
characteristics of magnificence, seclusion and elegance. According to the Master plan,
Management Committee tries to construct a beautiful, special and balanced ecosystem
through natural and artificial restoration for Mount Taishan. While ancient trees are
registered and protect especially.
All three mountain sites have great Aesthetic-Perceptual or Scenic value because of their
natural environment and geological landscapes. Since they were WHSs, the management
all focuses on the protection and minimize the negative effect of keeping beauty. The
18
management pattern of this value is different between Fanjingshan and the other two
mountains. Mount Wutai and Mount Taishan are distinctive because of the landscape
that showing the harmony between human and nature. In order to experience the best
Aesthetic-Perceptual or Scenic value of two mountains, natural elements and cultural
elements are inseparable. While for Fanjingshan, the best Aesthetic-Perceptual or Scenic
value comes from the natural landscape. Though the management might be similar to
three sites. The principle of management is different. Mount Wutai and Mount Taishan
focus on the harmony between natural elements and cultural elements. Fanjingshan aims
to keep the natural landscape as original as possible.
Table 3.1 The Aesthetic-Perceptual or Scenic value of three WHSs as well as relevant
governance and management
Values Fanjingshan (Natural) Mount Wutai (Cultural) Mount Taishan (Mixed)
1. Aesthetic-Perceptual
or Scenic
1a: Diverse mountain/
water/ forest/ climate
landscapes, geological
features and landforms;
Meteorological
phenomena; Seasonal
contrasts; Numerous
unique species
1a: Buddhist temples with
the surrounding
Landscape
1a: Diverse geological
landscapes; gigantic rock
mass covered with dense
vegetation; Meteorological
phenomena; Ancient trees
Management 1a: More trails and
viewing platforms; More
professional interpreters;
Optimize tourists’ time,
spatial distribution; Hold
creative photography,
painting, specimen
exhibitions-linked to 3d
1a: General protection 1a: Construct a beautiful,
special and balanced
ecosystem through natural
and artificial restoration;
Register and protect ancient
trees
The Recreational and therapeutic value Fanjingshan:
2a: Fanjingshan aims to develop the“Fanjingshan” model of ecotourism, which is suitable
for people who want to get close to nature. Abundant forest resources are appropriate
for forest bathing, hiking, camping and biking, while outdoor barbecues, cave expeditions
or mountaineering expeditions are not allowed. In the ecotourism zone, visitor tour
processes are monitored to study the satisfaction and duration of people’s stay. The
Monitoring system also helps to prompt and warn visitors.
19
Mount Wutai:
2a: As a Buddhist sacred mountain, hiking is the only form of recreation mentioned in the
management plan. The relevant management is designing routes.
Mount Taishan:
2a: The situation of Mount Taishan is similar to Mount Wutai. However, Mount Taishan is
the easternmost mountain in China, so most Chinese people have a Mount Taishan
complex that they want to climb Mount Taishan, especially climbing to see the sunrise.
The magnificent sunrise also linked to The Aesthetic-Perceptual or Scenic value (1a). The
annual International Mountain Tai Climbing Festival started from 1987 is one of the most
important festivals in Mount Taishan (Jia, 2010), attracting a great number of visitors and
mountaineering enthusiasts.
Considering the Outstanding Universal Value of WHSs, the first principle of management
is protection. So, some recreation like hiking might be limited to a certain area and some
area might be closed when necessary. In general, the Recreational and therapeutic value
of all WHSs is to some extent limited. Relative to cultural and mixed heritages, natural
heritages often have more resource and activities for recreation and therapy, but the
activities have to be strictly managed. So, the patterns of Fanjingshan is different from
the other two mountains.
Table 3.2 The Recreational and therapeutic value of three WHSs as well as relevant
governance and management
Values Fanjingshan (Natural) Mount Wutai (Cultural) Mount Taishan (Mixed)
2.Recreational and
therapeutic
2a: Ecotourism; Forest
bathing; Hiking; Outdoor
sports (biking)
2a: Hiking 2a: Climbing (Mount
Taishan complex, climbing
to see the sunrise)
Management 2a: Design walking route;
Monitor visitors’ behavior,
satisfaction and duration
of stay
2a: Design routes 2a: Organize annual
International Mountain Tai
Climbing Festival
The Artistic, traditional and contemporary value Fanjingshan:
3a: Fanjingshan area has its own tea culture which gave birth to the special song, dance
and performances of the Tang Dynasty (Xiao, 2018). The performances show scenes of
life that relate to picking tea-leaves. It has been listed as Provincial intangible cultural
heritage (The fifth representative of intangible cultural heritage in Guizhou province,
2019). The relevant management plan for this intangible heritage has not been found.
3c: Many different minorities have lived in Fanjingshan area since ancient time. The
custom and batik of Tujia, customs, silver jewellery and batik of Miao are famous all over
China. The decorative themes of their customs, jewellery are often plants and animals. As
20
many visitors are interested in folk culture, Tuanlong Folk Village of Tujia people is
developed to display the life of Tujia people including their customs, handiworks.
3d: The natural beauty of Fanjingshan attracts various photographers. For example, the
sea of azalea flowers is one of the most popular scenic sites. In this scenic site, the specific
photography site is going to be built. The Fanjingshan management organizations also
plan to provide an interactive platform to professional photographers, organize photo
shows and invite camera crew. Through such methods, Fanjingshan can become more
famous.
Mount Wutai
3b: Mount Wutai has been a classical subject of Chinese writers and historians since the
Tang Dynasty. Some Buddhist masters from India and Japan also write articles related to
Mount Wutai. Some historical records, travel notes, poetry and prose are published since
the Ming Dynasty.
3d: The beauty of the Wutai landscape with its temples has inspired many artists since ancient
time. In the Dunhuang Grottoes, there is a large landscape painting of Mount Wutai. It is
almost a detailed map of all the temples in their verdant surroundings. In addition, since 1990,
some documentaries have been made to propagandize Mount Wutai.
Mount Taishan
3b: Mount Taishan has been the inspiring resource for philosophers, writers and poets for a
long time. The traditional Chinese culture of Mount Taishan is so abundant that the status of
it is the highest among Chinese mountains.
3c: The folk crafts of Mount Taishan closely related to the religion, like phoenix robe and
embroidered shoes are the offerings to the goddess of Mount Taishan (Cui, 1989).
3d: Inspired by Mount Taishan, a model of mountain painting was raised in the Northern Song
Dynasty (BC 960-1127). The conceptual model of a mountain includes the traces of man,
graceful structures bridges, gateways or pavilions while contrasting with somber pine forests
or frightening rocky cliffs. It has influenced generations of landscape painters. The
documentary and TV show of Mount Taishan are also diverse.
All three sites have impressive traditional Artistic, traditional and contemporary value. With
technological development, modern visual arts like photography and film become
increasingly important for the three sites. The indigenous Artistic, traditional and
contemporary value of Fanjingshan is emphasized as well. However, the management of
traditional Artistic, traditional and contemporary value of three sites is less or even not
mentioned in the management plan. So, the only difference of this pattern between
Fanjingshan and other two mountains are the emphasis of indigenous Artistic, traditional and
contemporary value.
21
Table 3.3 The Artistic, traditional and contemporary value of three WHSs as well as
relevant governance and management
Values Fanjingshan (Natural) Mount Wutai (Cultural) Mount Taishan (Mixed)
3. Artistic, traditional and
contemporary
3a: Song, dance and
performance of tea culture
3c: Tujia customs and
batik; Miao customs, silver
jewellery and batik
3d: Photographs and films
of the sea of azalea
flowers; Documentary and
TV shows
3b: Historical records,
travel notes, poetry and
prose since the Tang
Dynasty; Writings by
visiting Buddhist masters
from India and Japan
3d: A large landscape
painting of nearly whole
Mount Wutai in the
Dunhuang
Grottoes; Documentary
and TV shows
3b: Literature works of
famous Chinese artists and
scholars like Confucius,
Libai, Dufu, etc
3c: Folk crafts like
phoenix robe and
embroidered shoes
3d: The landscape painting
of depicting mountainous
landscapes; Documentary
and TV shows
Management 3c: Develop Tuanlong Folk
Village of Tujia people to
display customs,
handiworks of minority
3d: Provide photography
sites and interactive
platform to the
professional
photographer; Organize
photo shows and related
activities; Invite camera
crew to shoot
The Information, knowledge and educational value
Fanjingshan
4a: Typical subtropical mountain forest ecosystem, special geographical conditions and
great biological diversity of Fanjingshan is valuable for the scientific research. Fanjingshan
management institutions attach great importance to research. A series of projects are
carried out mainly contain regular basic research or special investigation of background
resources, long-term monitoring, application research on protection and management.
For further study, they plan to strengthen and enlarge the research team, establish and
improve the scientific mechanism of Fanjingshan. The cooperation with universities and
scientific institutes at home and abroad is also significant. Moreover, Panxi rare wildlife
ecological park is planning to be built as the wildlife protection and research center.
4b: Besides the exploration of new scientific knowledge, Fanjingshan management
institutions also have a detailed plan for education. They plan to build an ecological
popular science education center to introduce the scientific value of Fanjingshan. After
22
understanding the overview of Fanjingshan in education canter, visitors can choose
special trips to explore more about nature. The signs and interpretations of science
popularization education are also set in particular areas. Since the audio interpretation
on cable cars is the main way of interpretation for a long time, professional interpreters
will be trained to help visitors. As for local people, community education programs have
been compiled in the education center. Meanwhile, giving out handouts, calendars or
other awareness and publicity materials about natural protection content is
supplemented to guide residents to protect the environment spontaneously. Especially,
education for students could be more specific by cooperating with the educational
department.
Mount Wutai
4a: May experts and scholars both home and abroad have been making study tours to
Mount Wutai to research the geology, physiognomy, biological resources over the years.
The protection and management of Mount Wutai have been actively supported by
different scientific research institutions. The current goal of scientific research is
strengthening monitoring to collect and record data at different stages.
4b: Mount Wutai has long been a base of the field of geology, geomorphology and
biology research for universities and institutes. So, it is a great place to investigate for
students majoring in geology. The interpretation and education are not only about
natural elements but also closely connected to Buddhist culture. Mount Wutai has 8
themes in interpretation and education like typical ancient plantation surfaces and
cultural landscape. Otherwise, basic geology summer camps for primary and middle
school students in neighbouring areas are organized.
Mount Taishan
4a: Special geotectonic location, long geological evolution history and typical geological
remains of Mount Taishan are attractive for geologist home and abroad. For example, it
has been selected by the 30th International Geological Conference (IGC) and the 15th
International Mineral Assembly (IMA) as one of the after-meeting fields for investigation. It is
also a popular site for scholars specialized in palaeontology to visit and have field studies.
Mount Taishan management committee is now working on the establishment of a
monitoring system.
4b: Mount Taishan administration has cooperated with some internal geological, forestry
and agricultural universities to build teaching and research base. They also plan to set up
a Mount Taishan museums for presentation and education. The publicity through various
media is emphasized to improve the awareness of local people and visitors, especially the
Mount Taishan conservation day of June 9. The management committee also encourages
related education in schools.
All three sites pay much attention to the information, knowledge and educational value,
especially the Fanjingshan. It might because the Fanjingshan is during the early stage of
planning, so Fanjingshan management institutions have more work to do to develop
research and education of Fanjingshan like designing the education center. The pattern
23
of the Information, knowledge and educational value is different between Fanjingshan
and Mount Wutai and Mount Taishan. Fanjingshan has greater biological diversity and
unique species, so it has to pay much more attention to certain research and education.
Table 3.4 The Information, knowledge and educational value of three WHSs as well as
relevant governance and management
Values Fanjingshan (Natural) Mount Wutai (Cultural) Mount Taishan (Mixed)
4. Information,
knowledge and
educational
4a/b: Original, special
ecosystem; Great
biological diversity; Typical
geographical conditions;
Specific species
4a/b: Great geology,
physiognomy, biological
resources
4a/b: Special geotectonic
location, long geological
evolution history, typical
geological remains;
paleontological resources
Management 4a: Strengthen and
enlarge the research team;
establish and improve
scientific mechanism
Multiple scientific projects
including long-term
monitoring, application
research etc.; Coordinate
with different scientific
research institutions; Plan
research region
4b: Delivery handouts;
Presentation and training;
Build museums,
education center; Species
information signs
4a: Coordinate with
different scientific
research institutions;
Study tours conducted by
experts and scholars both
home and abroad;
Strengthen monitoring
4b: Remained as a base of
the field of geology,
geomorphology and
biology research for
universities and institutes
since the 1930’s; Organize
Summer Camp for
primary and middle
school students
4a: Strengthen monitoring;
Attract geologists and
palaeontologist home and
abroad
4b: Cooperate with some
internal geological, forestry
and agricultural universities
to set up research base;
Build museums; Publicity
through various media;
Encourage related
education in schools
The Historical, ethnological value
Fanjingshan
5a: The property, its buffer zone and surrounding areas are mainly inhabited by ten or
more ethnic minorities including Tujia, Miao, Dong. In general, they are kindhearted,
believing in practiced animism and worship of ghosts, so they traditionally protect the
environment and sustainably use resource. Miao and Tujia people who live in surrounding
areas particularly cherish natural forests that they have formulated “village regulations
and folk laws” to protect forests. The well-preserved primary vegetation in the
Fanjingshan is closely bound up with the environmental cognition and cultural beliefs of
indigenous people. Nowadays, indigenous people are encouraged to participate in the
planning and management of Fanjingshan. The China Man and Biosphere committee
have organized various studies of this valuable ethnobotanical knowledge. Their
24
traditional practices of environment and natural resources protection have been
preserved.
5b: Traditional mode of production of indigenous people have been maintained for a
thousand years and wood has been used as main materials for their building. Now
traditional farming, planting activities of indigenous people are permitted in the
community protection zone. Tourists can enjoy the residential landscape of indigenous
people and experience the process of producing tea in Tuanlong Folk Village.
5d: Tujia people have the custom of making glutinous rice cakes and drinking tea. The
Chinese herbal dietary therapy of indigenous people is also attractive. In Tuanlong Folk
Village, visitors can try the indigenous food.
Mount Wutai
5b: The surroundings of the temples have been traditionally managed as farmland. The
farmers make a strong contribution to the management of surrounding areas for
provisions for monks and residents.
5b: Now, the Management committees adjust the development of agriculture within the
appropriate area and guide the farmers to develop special ecological agriculture with
high science and technology content. The focus is shifted from production to protection.
Mount Taishan
5b: Traditionally, habitats made a living mainly by farming, supplementing by collecting,
hunting, husbandry and so on. Since Taishan has been the sacred mountain from ancient
time, the tertiary industry has developed for a long time (Cui, 1989).
5d: The water, Chinese cabbage, tofu, pancake of Mount Taishan is special and famous
all over China. Also, Mount Taishan area has a long history of brewing liquor. The liquor
made of Mount Taishan water is of great quality (Cui, 1989).
It is clear that the patterns of the three sites are different. Fanjingshan and Mount Wutai
pay more attention to the Historical, ethnological value. While for Mount Taishan, the
Historical, ethnological value might not important enough to be managed.
25
Table 3.5 The Historical, ethnological value of three WHSs as well as relevant governance
and management
Values Fanjingshan (Natural) Mount Wutai (Cultural) Mount Taishan (Mixed)
5.Historical, ethnological 5a: The indigenous people
including Tujia, Miao,
Dong are kindhearted and
believe in practiced
animism and worship of
ghosts; village regulations
and folk laws; Indigenous
people continue
traditional environment
protection and sustainably
use resource
5b: Traditional mode of
production; Use wood as
main building materials
5d: Chinese herbal dietary
therapy; The custom of
making glutinous rice
cakes and drinking tea of
Tujia people
5b: The surroundings to
the temples have been
traditionally managed as
farmland for provisions
for monks and residents
5b: Traditionally, habitats
made a living mainly by
farming, supplementing by
collecting, hunting,
husbandry and the tertiary
industry
5d: The water, Chinese
cabbage, tofu, pancake of
Mount Taishan is special
and famous; Mount Taishan
has a long history of
brewing liquor
Management 5a: Encourage indigenous
people to participate in
conservation; Study
ethnobotanical
knowledge; Traditional
practices of indigenous
people have been
preserved
5b: Traditional farming,
planting activities are
permitted in the
community protection
zone; Tourists can
experience the process of
producing tea in Tuanlong
Folk Village
5d: Display Chinese herbal
dietary therapy, provide
tea in Tuanlong Folk
Village
5b: Adjust the
development of
agriculture within the
appropriate area; Guide
the farmers to develop
special ecological
agriculture
26
The Linguistic traditions, both written and oral value
Fanjingshan
6a: There are minority languages of indigenous people in the Fanjingshan area.
6b: Tea is of special meaning for people who live in the Tongren area (where Fanjingshan
located). More than 50 areas were named after tea in Fanjingshan region (Xiao, 2018).
6c: Because of the popularity of tea culture, there are many wide-spread folk-tales about
tea in Tongren (Xiao, 2018). Diverse legends of Buddha and celestial beings originated
from specific scenic spots are also popular.
Mount Wutai
6c: As a Buddhist sacred mountain, the legends of Mount Wutai mainly relate to
Buddhism. For example, there is a legend says that Mount Wutai is once a mountain with
a harsh climate, thanks to the help of Manjusri, the climate of Mount Wutai becomes
suitable.
Mount Taishan
6b: The god of Mount Taishan as the god of death is popular locally, so many local areas
are named after death.
6c: The folk literature of Mount Taishan is abundant, including folk-tales and legends of
celestial beings, anecdotes of famous people and proverbs of Mount Taishan. For
example, there is a famous Chinese story of Confucius in “the book of rites”, a collection
of texts. One day, Confucius passed by Mount Taishan and he found a woman weeping
at the grave. The woman’s families were killed by tigers in succession, but she did not
want to move because there is no tyranny in this place. Confucius educated his students
that tyranny was crueler than a tiger.
The pattern of Fanjingshan is different because of the indigenous culture. It is the only
site mainly lived by indigenous people, so there are minority languages in Fanjingshan
property. The long history of three sites all brings about abundant traditional stories.
However, the Linguistic traditions, both written and oral value seems not closely relate to
the outstanding values of three sites. So, there is no emphasis on the management of the
Linguistic traditions, both written and oral value.
27
Table 3.6 The Linguistic traditions, both written and oral value of three WHSs as well as
relevant governance and management
Values Fanjingshan (Natural) Mount Wutai (Cultural) Mount Taishan (Mixed)
6. Linguistic traditions,
both written and oral
6a: Minority languages of
indigenous people
6b: More than 50 areas
were named after tea in
Fanjingshan region
6c: Many wide-spread
folk-tales about tea;
Legends of scenic spots
and buildings
6c: Buddhist legends
originated from
the natural scenery of
Mount Wutai
6b: Many areas were named
after death as the god of
Mount Taishan is the god of
death
6c: Folk-tales and legends
of celestial beings;
Anecdotes of famous
people; Proverbs of Mount
Taishan
Management
The Religious and spiritual value
Fanjingshan
7a: Fanjingshan has been the sacred mountain since ancient time for residents. “Sleeping
Buddha” consists of mountains is one of the most famous sceneries of Fanjingshan.
“Fengshui” greatly affect the indigenous people, most minorities define and protect
“Fengshui” forests to ensure a healthy environment and good luck. So, some oldest trees
of Cinnamomum and conifers are revered in such Fengshui forests. They also believe that
wild animals are the good spirits of the mountain, so they protect and respect wild
animals. The indigenous people in the property area are well aware of the co-existence
relationship between natural resource and human (Xing and Ma, 2004). The Buddhism
principles like “All living things are equal” are consistent with indigenous cultural beliefs.
So indigenous people tend to protect nature spontaneously (Zhang, 2014). The
management committee tries to make use of the positive effect of indigenous culture
and Buddhist culture to encourage indigenous people to involve in conservation.
7b: During the 17th and 18th centuries there were 5 Royal Temples and 48 Ordinary
Temples in Fanjingshan. Some temples and ruins have remained until now. Recently years,
management committee works on the repair and reconstruction of old temples. A
detailed study of the temple ruins in Fanjingshan is also going to be made on the premise
of authenticity.
7c: Besides international religious festivals of Buddhism like lunar June 19, there are some
local religious festivals related to nature like lunar February 1. The Zen tea culture derived
from Buddhism culture has remained in the temples. Zen tea ceremony is a great part of
Fanjingshan Buddhism. Visitors are permitted to partake in pilgrimage and related
activities on religious festivals. Zen tea ceremony will be developed as a high-quality
tourism project. So, a tea room will be built on the platform near the cliff.
28
Mount Wutai
7a: Mount Wutai is one of the four sacred Buddhist Mountains of China. It is identified as
the dwelling place of Manjusri by Dharani Sutra. The remarkable natural shape with
precipitous sides and five open rounded treeless peaks is closely connected to Buddhist
beliefs that top five peaks of Mount Wutai symbolizing the “Five Wisdoms” of Manjusri.
Many aspects of its landscapes around the five peaks have been deified sacred for
Buddhism as well. Another important characteristic is the fairly low temperature, which
meets the requirement for “a cool world” of the Buddhist sutras. Management committee
plans to change the road and roadside buffer zones and increase local vegetation cover
to keep the sacredness.
7b: Temples were constructed in Mount Wutai from 1st century AD, 53 monasteries
remained as well as other buildings like pagodas. As the global center for Buddhist
Manjusri worship, some temples also reflect ideas from Nepal and Mongolia. The
landscape and building ensemble of Mount Wutai as a whole become sacred. So, the
improper buildings are removed to keep the harmony between human and nature. Every
temple with the environment inside is protected by a sole committee.
7c: From the Northern Wei period (471-499), 9 emperors made 18 pilgrimages to pay
tribute to the bodhisattvas. The tradition of pilgrimage to the five peaks started by the
emperors is still alive. There are two types of pilgrimage: the grand Buddhist ritual of
Dachaotai (Big Pilgrimage) and Xiaochaotai (Small Pilgrimage). As a center of pilgrimage,
Mount Wutai is important for Han, Mongolian and Tibetan adherents. Management
committee tries to recover the important historical landscapes on the way along the
pilgrimage route and maintain the routes as original as possible (see Figure 3&4).
Otherwise, the management of pilgrimage during the period of religious ritual is
strengthened.
Figure 3&4 Pilgrim Trackway of North Terrace, Mount Wutai & Pilgrim Trackway of South
Terrace, Mount Wutai. By Shanxi Ancient Building Protection and Research Institute, 2007
Mount Taishan
7a: Mount Taishan is the spiritual home of the Chinese Nation consists of complex
religions. First, it is a place of worship for a faithful official cult called “the King equal to
Heaven" and the “Holy Emperor”. Second, the worship of God of Mount Taishan and the
29
Princess of the Azure Clouds play an important role for local people. Third, Mount Taishan
is the sacred mountain for national religion Taoists, Confucians. Fourth, it is also sacred
for Buddhists. So, Mount Taishan can be seen as the symbol of the Chinese nation. Other
less systematic worship like Mount Taishan Shigandang (Worship of Yaishan stone) is also
popular all over China. It even influences Japan, Vietnam and other countries (Cui, 1989;
Zhang, 2017). The whole Mount Taishan as a sacred place, the management focus more
on ecological restoration.
7b: Mount Taishan has extremely rich cultural heritage. There are 22 temples, 97 ruins,
819 stone tablets, 1018 stone inscriptions, 6660 steps between heaven and earth (see
Figure 5). The buildings are in harmony with the specific environment. All buildings are
strictly protected while the improper building is gonging to be removed.
7c: “Fengshan” sacrifice (The ceremony in homage to Heaven and Earth carried out by
emperors) shows the lost civilizations of imperial China. Multiple festivals of different
religions also attract many followers and visitors. The “fengshan” sacrifice area and
buildings along the route are under the key protection.
Figure 5 Stone steps of Mount Taishan. By Charlie Fong, 2008,Retrieved from
https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=5327850
30
According to the resource I find, the Religious and spiritual value is the most important
one among 7 values. All three sites are sacred mountains of great importance. Even for
natural heritage Fanjingshan, the Religious and spiritual value is emphasized. The pattern
of the Religious and spiritual value is similar among three sites. The Religious and spiritual
value has deeply twisted with the mountain itself. Since the whole mountains of three
sites are considered as sacred, the management of such value is actually the management
of the whole mountain.
31
Table 3.7 The Religious and spiritual value of three WHSs as well as relevant governance
and management
Values Fanjingshan (Natural) Mount Wutai (Cultural) Mount Taishan (Mixed)
7. Religious and
spiritual
7a: “Sleeping Buddha”
consists of mountains;
“Fengshui” forests;
Worship for Mountain
Spirits and totems of
fauna and flora
7b: During the 17th and
18th centuries there
were 5 Royal Temples and
48 Ordinary Temples in
Fanjingshan, some
temples and ruins remain
7c: International religious
festivals like lunar June 19;
Local religious festivals
like lunar February 1; Zen
tea ceremony
7a: Top Five Peaks of Mount Wutai
symbolizing the “Five Wisdoms” of
Manjusri; Mount Wutai with fairly
low temperature meets the
requirement for “a cool world” of
the Buddhist sutras which is
regarded as the dwelling place of
Manjusri
7b: Temples were constructed in
Mount Wutai from 1st century AD,
53 monasteries remained as well
as other buildings like pagodas
7c: The grand Buddhist ritual of
Dachaotai (Big Pilgrimage) and
Xiaochaotai (Small Pilgrimage); As
a center of pilgrimage, Mount
Wutai is important for Han,
Mongolian and Tibetan adherents
7a: The mountain is a place
of worship for a faithful
official cult called “the King
equal to Heaven" and the
“Holy Emperor”; Worship of
God of Mount Tai and the
Princess of the Azure
Clouds; The sacred
mountain for Taoists,
Buddhists and Confucians;
the symbol of Chinese
Nation; Mount Taishan
Shigandang (Worship of
Yaishan stone)
7b: There are 22 temples, 97
ruins, 819 stone tablets,
1018 stone inscriptions,
6660 steps between heaven
and earth; the buildings are
in harmony with the specific
environment
7c: Fengshan sacrifice (The
ceremony in homage to
Heaven and Earth carried
out by emperors); Religious
festivals
Management 7a: Make use of the
the positive effect of
folklore culture and
Buddhist culture
7b: Repair and reconstruct
old temples; Make a
detailed study of the
temple ruins
7c: Visitors are permitted
to partake in pilgrimage
and related activities;
Build a tea room
7a: Change the road and roadside
buffer zones; Increase local
vegetation cover
7b: Relocate improper buildings
like hotels; Conserve, maintain
temples and environment inside
7c: Recovery the important
historical landscapes on the way;
Maintain the routes as original as
possible; Strengthen management
during the period of religious
ritual
7a: Ecological restoration
7b: Protect historical relics
and buildings; Remove
improper buildings
7c: Protect “fengshan”
sacrifice area and buildings
along the route
32
The role of cultural and spiritual values
Though the three sites all have seven types of cultural and spiritual values, some types of
values are not included in the management plan. To understand the role of cultural and
spiritual values of indigenous or local people, seven types of values can be divided into
three sites in this research. First, the values of all people, whether they are indigenous
people, local people or outside people, these values are more or less the same for all
people. The first set includes 1. Aesthetic-Perceptual or Scenic, 2. Recreational and
therapeutic and 4. Information, knowledge and educational values. Second, the values of
indigenous or local people only, including 5. Historical, ethnological and 6. Linguistic
traditions, both written and oral values. The third set is uncertain values, including 3.
Artistic, traditional and contemporary and 7. Religious and spiritual values. They can be
either side or the combination of two sides. For example, a place with 7. Religious and
spiritual value can relate to either Buddhism or indigenous worship or the combination
of Buddhism and indigenous worship. According to this division, the first set- values of
all people make a difference in the management plan in three sites. For 6. Linguistic
traditions, both written and oral values, though each site has indigenous or local
attributes, no one influences the management. As for 5. Historical, ethnological value,
Fanjingshan has indigenous attributes which a difference in the management of
Fanjingshan. Mount Wutai and Mount Taishan have local attributes, but only the
management of Mount Wutai is influenced. Under 3. Artistic, traditional and
contemporary value, the indigenous attributes of Fanjingshan are included in the
management plan of Fanjingshan, but local attributes of three sites all make no difference.
Under 7. Religious and spiritual value, the value of all people and indigenous people
influence the management plan of Fanjingshan. The value of all people and local people
influence the management plan of Mount Taishan. The management plan of Mount
Wutai only affected by the value of all people. The results are listed in Table 4.
33
Table 4 The certain groups that influence the management plan of three sites
The management
plan of Fanjingshan
The management
plan of Mount Wutai
The management
plan of Mount
Taishan
1.Aesthetic-
Perceptual or Scenic
All people All people All people
2.Recreational and
therapeutic
All people All people All people
3.Artistic, traditional
and contemporary
Indigenous people no no
4.Information,
knowledge and
educational
All people All people All people
5.Historical,
ethnological
Indigenous people Local people no
6.Linguistic traditions,
both written and oral
no no no
7.Religious and
spiritual
All people
Indigenous people
All people All people
Local people
Analysis based on eight principles of the biocultural approach
After identifying the cultural and spiritual values in management, I use eight principles of
biocultural approaches of Gavin et. al (2015) to analyze the management of three sites:
1. Acknowledge multiple objectives and stakeholders in conservation.
According to the documents, the Master Plan of Fanjingshan and Mount Wutai
emphasizes multi-stakeholder cooperation. The Management plan of Fanjingshan
especially mentions the involvement of indigenous people from inscription to
management. Indigenous people are consulted to set their objectives. The objectives like
keeping the traditional lifestyle and improving the livelihood are satisfied. However, the
article of Wang et.al (2013) shows the problem of relocation program in Mount Wutai
area. According to the “The Master plan of Mount Wutai scenic area from 2006 to 2025”
(2006), six villages should move to the new community built for them in tourism service
base. Meanwhile, they could get the compensations and job opportunities offered by the
management committee of Mount Wutai. But, after the inscription of Mount Wutai, the
relocation program is less emphasized, so the relocation meets the problem lacking fund.
The villagers did not really move to the new community. They can only rent houses near
their original villages to live. The community involvement of Mountain Wutai is also
34
limited (Xiao and Wu, 2008). The research of Meng and Jiao (2009) and Xiang (2009) also
shows the predicament of local people that they share little in benefits derived from
World Heritage sites. There are limited ways for local people to get involved in the
planning and management of Mount Taishan.
2. Emphasize intergenerational planning and institutions for long-term adaptive
governance.
In Fanjingshan, village rules created by local residents make a great difference in protecting
the local ecosystem and environment. The management plan aims to improve the village
regulations and give full play to their role. Otherwise, the indigenous residents are organized
to participate in the nominated property’s protection. The Nomination Text (2016b) also
mentioned the long Buddhism Culture influences the belief systems of indigenous people,
ensuring folk groups to conserve nature in everyday life. Therefore, a more complete top-
down protection management system for heritage is built in Fanjingshan. In Mount Wutai,
very little involvement of local communities is mentioned apart from firefighting, but the
Community Regulation from Nomination file (2007) shows the principles of community
coordination. For example, the principle that the community shall take the responsibility
of monitoring and managing the environmental condition. So, there is the potential of
indigenous people to affect the intergenerational planning and long-term governance in
future for Mount Wutai. As for Mount Taishan, there is no relevant information about this
principle according to the data I found.
3. Dynamic cultures shape resource use and conservation.
Only Fanjingshan meets the situation of dynamic cultures. The management plan allows
traditional farming, planting activities. However, hunting, grazing, logging, harvesting,
fishing, mining (quarrying, sand-excavating), groundwater extraction and dam
constructing are prohibited.
4. Tailored interventions to the specific social-ecological context;
Based on the nomination document of Fanjingshan, all residents including indigenous
people lived in the property area are consulted. All residents agree for the inscription of
Fanjingshan. Indigenous people worry about whether their customs will be prohibited.
They get the promise that they can keep farming, planting and having custom festivals in
a certain area. Most counties inside the property are poor counties. They are promised
to locate to places suitable for living and be offered free training opportunities. The
relocation is voluntarily and compensated. The information on Mount Wutai and Mount
Taishan is not enough.
5. Create diverse and nested institutional frameworks;
For Fanjingshan, the property is managed by a multi-level (national to the local)
government system. Meanwhile, a co-operative system involving various sectors of the
government, technical institutions, research institutions and local communities has been
created. For Mount Wutai, the Ministry of Construction takes the overall responsibility for
the management of Mount Wutai. While several different agencies of Shanxi Province
35
directly participate in management. The Mount Wutai Buddhist association, a civil group
consisted of representatives from the temples, works as a bridge between the
administrative agencies and devotees. The Master Plan of Mount Wutai National Park
(from 2005 to 2025) emphasized multi-stakeholder cooperation and community
coordination. The present administrative organization of Mount Taishan is The
Management Committee of Scenic Spots and Historic Sites of Taishan. Other functional
departments and administrative units also take part in the management. In all three sites,
besides the government, other stakeholders are not directly involved in governance.
6. Nurture partnership and relationship;
Related to principle 5, in Fanjingshan and Mount Wutai, it is possible to nurture
partnership and relationship.
7. Incorporate the diverse rights and responsibilities of all parties;
The Management plan of Fanjingshan shows the rights of indigenous people that they
are aware of the nomination of Fanjingshan and their reasonable request could be
satisfied. So, indigenous people are allowed to keep their customs, traditional farming
and planting activities. Meanwhile, the management committee aims to improve the
social protection consciousness and the sense of responsibility, organize the voluntary
indigenous residents to participate in the protection and monitoring of field burning and
the illegal collection of plants and hunting. For Mount Wutai, the Community Regulation
from Nomination file (2007) lists the principles of community coordination. First, the
principle of resource and environmental protection that the community shall be
responsible for monitoring and managing the environmental condition. Second, the
community should benefit in terms of economy, environment and education. Third, there
should be a balanced share of rights, responsibilities and benefits. The Community
Regulation shows the intention to incorporate the right and responsibility of the
community. However, the relocation problem (Wang et.al, 2013) and low community
involvement of Mount Wutai (Xiao and Wu, 2008) I mentioned in the principle 1 reveals
that the implementation of Community Regulation is inadequate. The rights of the local
community are not respected. The Management Plan of Mount Taishan has no
information about the rights and responsibilities of different parties. The research of
Meng and Jiao (2009) and Xiang (2009) also shows that local community share little
benefits and it is hard for them to get involved in the plan and management of Mount
Taishan. The management committee does not recognize the right of the local
community.
8. Respect and combine different worldviews and knowledge.
As I discussed above, in Fanjingshan, Buddhism culture and indigenous culture of nature
are consistent with each other. In Mount Wutai and Mount Taishan, local people mainly
influenced by Chinese mainstream culture, especially in Mount Taishan. The Chinese
mainstream culture of Daoism and Confucianism recognize the value of nature. Referring
to the attitudes towards nature, Daoism emphasizes the harmony between human and
nature. Confucianism claims that human should be benevolent to nature. So, Chinese
36
people have an inherent tendency to protect nature. So, in Mount Wutai and Mount
Taishan, the worldviews and knowledge of Chinese mainstream culture and Buddhism
are also consistent with each other. So, respecting and combining different worldviews
and knowledge is not a problem for three sites.
In general, though the management of Fanjingshan only clearly relate to Historical,
ethnological value of indigenous people, it basically follows the eight principles of
biocultural approaches, ensuring the participation of indigenous people. However, for
Mount Wutai and Mount Taishan, the involvement of indigenous or local people in the
management insufficiently meets the criteria of the biocultural approach. The
management of Mount Wutai express the intention of local community coordination, but
a definite plan is absent. The relocation problem even reveals the disrespect of the local
community. The management of Mount Taishan nearly mentions nothing about local
community involvement.
6. Conclusion
Refer to the main research question: What is the role of cultural and spiritual values of
indigenous or local people in three World Heritage sites inscribed respectively for natural,
cultural and mixed properties?
Three WHSs all emphasized the cultural and spiritual values of nature that they take
natural and cultural elements into the account to make the management plan. However,
the management committee mainly concerned about the CSV of all people, the role of
CSV of indigenous or local people is not given specific importance.
The similarity is that the 1. Aesthetic-Perceptual or Scenic, 2. Recreational and therapeutic,
4. Information, knowledge and educational and 7. Religious and spiritual values of all
people are important for three sites. While 6. Linguistic traditions, both written and oral
value of indigenous or local people has no influence on the management of all three sites.
The differences are: For Fanjianshan, 3. Artistic, traditional and contemporary, 5. Historical,
ethnological and 7. Religious and spiritual values of indigenous people make a difference
in the management plan.
For Mount Wutai, 5. Historical, ethnological value of local people play a role in the
management plan.
For Mount Taishan, 7. Religious and spiritual value of local people influences the
management plan.
Contrary to my conjecture, the management plan of natural heritage Fanjingshan are
most concerned with CSV through biocultural approach, then cultural heritage Mount
Wutai and then mixed heritage Mount Taishan. The design of these two management
plans lacks community involvement which warrants a serious problem. The management
committee of Mount Taishan does not treat the local community as stakeholders. There
are two potential reasons behind the different importance of the three sites. First,
Fanjingshan, Mount Wutai and Mount Taishan were inscribed as WHS in 2018, 2009 and
37
1987 respectively. Maybe with increasing awareness of biocultural diversity and the WHC
focus on community involvement, aspects that testify of the biocultural approach were
more easily adopted in the more recent nominations. Second, Fanjingshan is mainly lived
by indigenous people. Comparing to local people, the protection of indigenous people
might be prioritized.
Though the management plans of three sites all seem to pay much attention to the CSV
of nature. There are several problems with the role of CSV of indigenous or local people.
First, the management plans mainly consider the CSV of all people. Especially in Mount
Wutai and Mount Taishan, the CSV of local people are not emphasized. Local people
nearly have no way to involve in the management. It might because CSV of all people is
easy to understand and accept. Second, the CSV included in the management is quite
general without the classification. Only Historical, ethnological value of indigenous people
in Fanjingshan is clearly emphasized in the management through the biocultural
approach. Probably because the attributes of Historical, ethnological value of indigenous
people, especially traditional knowledge, customs, law and governance is easy to be
implemented in the management. Other types of CSV have not connected to the basic
rights of indigenous or local people yet. The management of them is only a small part of
whole management and they are mainly managed for tourism rather than the protection
of themselves. So, it is impossible to have a detailed understanding and protection plan
of a certain type of values. Third, the involvement of local people in the management of
Mount Wutai and Mount Taishan insufficiently meets the criteria of the biocultural
approach. It distinctly shows that the role of CSV of local people is not important in the
management of Mount Wutai and Mount Taishan.
7. Discussion
The relations to other research
Globally, the studies of CSV of nature are increasing quickly (Programme des Nations
Unies pour l'environnement, 1999; Verschuuren & Brown, 2018). In China, such studies
are lacking, but community involvement has been emphasized in World Heritage
conservation recently and this acts a san example to China too. Scholars mainly focus on
the development of World Heritage tourism (Wang et.al, 2008; Zhang, 2010; Su, 2012)
through community involvement. It is consistent with the phenomenon that the
management committees mainly consider the CSV of all people to attract visitors. When
we mainly focus on the interests of prestige, tourism profits and economic development
that World Heritage sites can bring, the economic and political interests might override
all other concerns, including human rights principles and even conservation
considerations. This phenomenon runs contrary to the original intention of the World
Heritage Convention. However, it is a common problem among many States Parties to
the Convention, including many of those serving as Members of the World Heritage
Committee (Disko & Tugendhat, 2014).
My thesis could be used as an example of how to explore the CSV of world heritage in
38
detail. Based on the results I found, different World Heritage sites have different
stakeholders and management plans. In Fanjingshan, indigenous people’s rights play a
role in the management. While in Mount Wutai, Buddhist’s rights have been considered.
Though the three sites are all mountain sites located in China, they are quite different.
Considering Fanjingshan is the only site that covers the territory of indigenous people,
further comparative research can be done between World Heritage sites that all have
indigenous people. Also, there is a great difference between the inscription time of three
sites. It seems that the later the site is inscribed as WHS, the more it concerns about
biocultural diversity in management. Choosing the World Heritage sites inscribed in the
same year could help to understand the level of concern of CSV in a certain year.
Otherwise, it is possible to compare the period documents of a particular site to see the
development of the management of CSV.
The current management of Fanjingshan is a great start for the involvement of indigenous
people. The concern of CSV of indigenous people should be extended to the full
spectrum, then strengthening the collaboration of government and indigenous people
to combine them into a future management plan appropriately. The research of Mount
Wutai and Mount Taishan shows that there is a severe shortage of community
involvement in these two sites. The relocation problem in Mount Wutai and little benefits
for the local community of Mount Taishan both reveal that the management committee
does not respect local community enough. Such disrespect of local community is a
shortcoming that leads to increasing disparities between stakeholders needs and
management application. The disparities will, in turn, reduce the possibility of
implementing a biocultural approach. So, it is necessary to better understand the needs
of local people and adapt the management to take them into account. The current
management systems of Mount Wutai and Mount Taishan has implemented for years led
by governments. Most importantly, governments have to train and support local people
strongly and independently express their rights and needs through education and
sensitization. Access to information for local people also has to be improved. After
increasing the motivation of local community involvement, the comprehensive
assessment and consultation of CSV are necessary to understand the realities and
objectives of local people. Based on such objectives, better management plan and
mechanisms could be created following the criteria of biocultural approach.
It should be noted that with the increasing awareness of CSV in the World Heritage
Convention, nomination itself is an important opportunity for tentative properties to
resolve the problems refer to indigenous or/and local people. The evaluators will
undertake dialogue with State Parties to resolve on-going conflicts and unresolved issues
indigenous or/and local people (Larsen et.al, 2014). Now, indigenous or/and local people
possibly to be involved in the WHS management at the very beginning. Some CSV of
them even possibly be recognized as part of the outstanding universal value of the site
(Olenasha, 2014).
39
Discussion of theoretical framework and research methodology
Documents analysis is a great way to create an overview of the cultural and spiritual values
of WHSs and their related management activities. The CSV typology helps to identify the
different values, which is better for further study and management. The eight principles
of biocultural approaches of Gavin et. al (2015) is a useful tool to analyze whether the
management takes into account both natural and cultural elements. However, documents
analysis can only work well as the first step to understanding value-based management.
The interviews and surveys are needed to further verify the implementation of
management.
40
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Appendix 1. The Criteria for WHSs Selection
(i)
to represent a masterpiece of human creative genius;
(ii)
to exhibit an important interchange of human values, over a span of time or within a
cultural area of the world, on developments in architecture or technology, monumental
arts, town-planning or landscape design;
(iii)
to bear a unique or at least exceptional testimony to a cultural tradition or to a civilization
which is living or which has disappeared;
(iv)
to be an outstanding example of a type of building, architectural or technological
ensemble or landscape which illustrates (a) significant stage(s) in human history;
(v)
to be an outstanding example of a traditional human settlement, land-use, or sea-use
which is representative of a culture (or cultures), or human interaction with the
environment especially when it has become vulnerable under the impact of irreversible
change;
(vi)
to be directly or tangibly associated with events or living traditions, with ideas, or with
beliefs, with artistic and literary works of outstanding universal significance. (The
Committee considers that this criterion should preferably be used in conjunction with
other criteria);
(vii)
to contain superlative natural phenomena or areas of exceptional natural beauty and
aesthetic importance;
(viii)
to be outstanding examples representing major stages of earth's history, including the
record of life, significant on-going geological processes in the development of landforms,
or significant geomorphic or physiographic features;
(ix)
to be outstanding examples representing significant on-going ecological and biological
processes in the evolution and development of terrestrial, fresh water, coastal and marine
ecosystems and communities of plants and animals;
45
(x)
to contain the most important and significant natural habitats for in-situ conservation of
biological diversity, including those containing threatened species of outstanding
universal value from the point of view of science or conservation.