1

The Constructivist Viewof Perception

Lecture 16

2

Problems for Ecological Perception

• Conceptual Problem– Availability vs. Utilization

• Empirical Problems– Organization– Pattern Recognition– Perceptual Constancies– Ambiguous (Reversible) Figures– Perceptual Illusions– Cultural Differences– Perceptual Problem-Solving

3

Perception as Construction

• Conditions– Stimulus information insufficient for perception– Stimulus information is misleading

• Perception is intelligent– Problem-Solving Activity– Requires knowledge of the world– Entails judgment, inference, reasoning

The perceiver must go“beyond the information given”

by the stimulusJerome Bruner (1973)

4

The Constructivist Traditionin Perception

Hermann von Helmholtz

Richard Gregory

Julian Hochberg

Irvin Rock

5

The Rubin VaseRubin (1915)

6

Silver Jubileeof

Queen Elizabeth II

7

The Necker CubeNecker (1832)

8

The Schröder StaircaseSchröder (1854)

9

The “Antioch Cube”Gombrich (1960)

10

11

San Giovanni LaternoRome, c. 1587

12

The “Boring” FigureBoring (1930); Puck (1915)

13

The Jastrow FigureJastrow (1899, 1900)

Harper’s Weekly (1892); Die Fliegende Blatter (1892)

14

Ambiguous FiguresReversible Figures

Bistable Figures

• Pattern of proximal stimulation constant– Retinal image doesn’t change

• Perception of distal stimulus is changes– Mental representation does change

15

MC. Escher

16

Salvador Dali

17

“Slave Market with Disappearing Bust of Voltaire”

Dali (1940), after Houdon (1778)

18

The Müller-Lyer IllusionMüller-Lyer (1889)

19

The Müller-Lyer IllusionMüller-Lyer (1889)

20

Muller-Lyer Illusion

21

Muller-Lyer Illusion

22

The Ponzo IllusionPonzo (1913)

23

The Ponzo IllusionPonzo (1913)

24

The Ebbinghaus IllusionEbbinghaus (1897); aka “Titchener Circles” (1901)

25

Parallel Lines IllusionsHering (1861); Wundt (1897)

26

The Poggendorf IllusionPoggendorff (1860), after Zollner (1860)

27

The Poggendorf IllusionPoggendorff (1860), after Zollner (1860)

28

The Poggendorf Illusionand the Union JackPoggendorff (1860), after Zollner (1860)

J.D.A. Wiseman

29

Horizontal-Vertical IllusionWundt (1858), after Fick (1851)

30

Gateway Arch, St. LouisEero Saarinen (1947)

31

Unconscious Inference in Illusions

• Upper line appears farther away– Size an inverse function of distance

• Retinal image same size as lower line• Therefore the upper line must be longer than

the lower line

Unconscious inferences represent“going beyond the information given”

32

The Moon IllusionKaufman & Rock (1962); Rock & Kaufman (1962)

33

34

How the Ames Room WorksAmes (1934-1935)

35

Distance Cues and Unconscious Inference in the Ames Room

• Lack of distance cues– Misleading stimulus

information• Unconventional geometry

– Inappropriate expectations• No compensation for

differences in retinal size

36

“Shiprock” or “Rock with Wings”?Tse’Bit’Ai

37

38

Two Views of the Arizona Whale-Kangaroo

Canonical Noncanonical

39

Comparative Frequency of PerceptKihlstrom, Peterson, et al. (2006)

0

20

40

60

80

100

Noncanonical Canonical Noncanonical Canonical

% o

f Sub

ject

s

Orientation of Kangaroo

American Australian

Whale Kangaroo

40

Constellations as PerceptsOrion, Taurus, and Friends

Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency

41

Perceptionsof

Ursa Major

Japan Aerospace Exploration AgencyCarl Sagan, Cosmos

42

A “Gestalt” Figure

43

Gestalt Completion TestStreet (1931)

44

Gestalt Completion TestStreet (1931)

45

Gestalt Completion TestStreet (1931)

46

Gestalt Completion TestStreet (1931)

47

“Canali”On Mars

Schiaparelli (1880s)

Sheehan (1988)Sheehan & O’Meara (2001)

48

“Canals”on Mars

Lowell (1894)

Sheehan (1988)Sheehan & O’Meara (2001)

49Sheehan (1988)

Sheehan & O’Meara (2001)

Mars: The View from MarinerNASA, 1960s

50

Contrasting Views of Perception

• Ecological View– Perception given by information in stimulus– Perceive the world, as it is, directly

• Constructivist View– Perception “goes beyond the information given”– Actively construct mental representation of world

51

Perception as Problem Solving

• Sources of Information– Proximal Stimulus (“Bottom-Up”)

• figure, ground• primary, secondary modalities

– Schemata (“Top-Down”)• world knowledge• expectations, beliefs

• Inferential Rules– Unconscious inferences– Conscious problem-solving

52

The Perceptual CycleNeisser (1976)

Object

Schema(Knowledge,Expectations,

Beliefs)

Action(Thought,Behavior)

Modifies(Accommodation)

Directs

Modifies(Assimilation)

“Perception is where cognition and reality meet”

53

Perceptual Hypothesis-Testing

• Perceptual Cycle Begins– Mismatch between object and schema

• … Continues– Assimilation of object to schema– Accommodation of schema to object

• … Completed – Object identified, categorized

• … Begins Anew – New surprising event

54

Perceptual Hypothesis-Testing

• If Stimulus Information Rich, Structured– Perception is Automatic

• If Stimulus Information Vague, Fragmentary– Perception Requires Active Problem-Solving

• Percept as Compromise– Between Expectations, Reality

• Constructive Alternativism– Different Perceptions of Same Object, Event

55

Perception as Effort After MeaningBartlett (1932)

• Constructive Activity– “Build Up” Mental Representation of World– Test a Hypothesis About the World

• Goes “Beyond the Information Given”– Draws on Memory– Invokes Judgment, Reasoning, Inference

The Constructivist View�of PerceptionProblems for Ecological PerceptionPerception as ConstructionThe Constructivist Tradition�in PerceptionThe Rubin Vase�Rubin (1915)Silver Jubilee�of�Queen Elizabeth II�The Necker Cube�Necker (1832)The Schröder Staircase�Schröder (1854)The “Antioch Cube”�Gombrich (1960)Slide Number 10San Giovanni Laterno�Rome, c. 1587The “Boring” Figure�Boring (1930); Puck (1915)The Jastrow Figure�Jastrow (1899, 1900)�Harper’s Weekly (1892); Die Fliegende Blatter (1892)Ambiguous Figures�Reversible Figures�Bistable FiguresMC. EscherSalvador Dali“Slave Market �with Disappearing Bust of Voltaire”�Dali (1940), after Houdon (1778)The Müller-Lyer Illusion�Müller-Lyer (1889)The Müller-Lyer Illusion�Müller-Lyer (1889)Muller-Lyer IllusionMuller-Lyer IllusionThe Ponzo Illusion�Ponzo (1913)The Ponzo Illusion�Ponzo (1913)The Ebbinghaus Illusion�Ebbinghaus (1897); aka “Titchener Circles” (1901)Parallel Lines Illusions�Hering (1861); Wundt (1897)The Poggendorf Illusion�Poggendorff (1860), after Zollner (1860)The Poggendorf Illusion�Poggendorff (1860), after Zollner (1860)The Poggendorf Illusion�and the Union Jack�Poggendorff (1860), after Zollner (1860)Horizontal-Vertical Illusion�Wundt (1858), after Fick (1851)Gateway Arch, St. Louis�Eero Saarinen (1947)Unconscious Inference in IllusionsThe Moon Illusion�Kaufman & Rock (1962); Rock & Kaufman (1962)Slide Number 33How the Ames Room Works�Ames (1934-1935)Distance Cues and Unconscious Inference in the Ames Room“Shiprock” or “Rock with Wings”?�Tse’Bit’AiSlide Number 37Two Views of the �Arizona Whale-KangarooComparative Frequency of Percept�Kihlstrom, Peterson, et al. (2006)Constellations as Percepts�Orion, Taurus, and FriendsPerceptions�of�Ursa MajorA “Gestalt” FigureGestalt Completion Test�Street (1931)Gestalt Completion Test�Street (1931)Gestalt Completion Test�Street (1931)Gestalt Completion Test�Street (1931)Slide Number 47Slide Number 48Slide Number 49Contrasting Views of PerceptionPerception as Problem SolvingThe Perceptual Cycle�Neisser (1976)Perceptual Hypothesis-TestingPerceptual Hypothesis-TestingPerception as Effort After Meaning�Bartlett (1932)