The Cold War in EuropeGeoffBruno

CHAPTER29

The Emergence of the Cold War

• Containment in American Foreign Policy– Policy of “containing” the influence of communism

being spread by the Soviet Union– Sought the eventual collapse of the Soviet Union– Defined American foreign policy from the late

forties until the early nineties– Caused the United States to become extremely

involved in European political affairs– The Truman Doctrine

• A policy of giving U.S. support to free nations who are being pressured to give in to communism

The Emergence of the Cold War

• Containment in American Foreign Policy– The Marshall Plan

• Promised financial aid to Western European countries• Created to keep Communist parties from taking root

in these states• Brought prosperity to many European nations• Succeeded at keeping Communism at bay in Western

Europe

The Emergence of the Cold War

• Soviet Domination in Eastern Europe– The Soviet Union sought to control the nations of

Eastern Europe to use them as a “buffer” against invasions from other nations

– Organized the Communist Information Bureau (Cominfrom) to aid in spreading Communism across Europe in late 1947

– Stalin brought the states of Eastern Europe under direct Soviet control in February 1948• Enforced Communism in these societies• Tightened control after Yugoslavia overcame Communist

control

The Emergence of the Cold War

• The Postwar Division of Germany– Disagreements over Germany

• Soviet actions in Eastern Europe made the United States more eager to have a strong influence in Germany

• The Allies never agreed on the way to divide Germany after its defeat

• The Soviet Union destroyed the industrial economy in their partition, as they feared the rise of a new, more powerful, Germany

• The United States promoted economic growth in theirs

The Emergence of the Cold War

• The Postwar Division of Germany– The Berlin Blockade

• The Western powers implemented new economic policies and a new currency in the western sector of Germany

• These policies and actions were affecting eastern Germany, primarily in Soviet controlled Berlin

• To prevent this, the Soviet Union cut Berlin off from the rest of society infrastructurally and socially, creating the Berlin Blockade

• Western powers gained access to Berlin through the air until direct access to the city was opened up in May 1949

• Created harsh tension between the Soviet Union and the Western powers– West Germany became established as the German Federal

Republic– East Germany became established as the German Democratic

Republic

The Emergence of the Cold War

• NATO and the Warsaw Pact– The Marshall Plan had encouraged international cooperation

• Belgium, the Netherlands, France, Britain, and Luxembourg signed the Treaty of Brussels, creating a policy of economic and military cooperation

• These nations later joined Italy, Denmark, Norway, Iceland, Portugal, Canada, and the United States in forming a cooperative and defensive alliance called the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)

• Later joined by Greece, West Germany, and Turkey

– The Soviet Union also established treaties in Eastern Europe• Council of Mutual Assistance - COMECON (1949)• The Warsaw Pact (1955) recognized the Soviet control of Eastern

European affairs through political and military dominance

The Creation of the State of Israel

• Great Britain had held influence since the establishment of the Middle East mandates after World War I– Jewish and Arab nationalists began to challenge British

authority after World War II• The British Balfour Declaration

– Zionist movement > established by Theodore Herzl– Many Jews migrated to the British territory of Palestine

between the wars and established their own political parties and social and societal systems

– Conflict ensued between the native Arabs and the Jews– These conflicts, while they couldn’t be resolved by the

British leadership, were stopped by Hitler’s brutality in World War II

The Creation of the State of Israel

• The U.N. Resolution– The British brought the conflicts in Palestine to

the attention of the United Nations in 1947– The United Nations decided to divide Palestine

into an Arab state and a Jewish state• The Arabs resisted this decision• Many Arabs became refugees in the Jewish

Palestinian state

The Creation of the State of Israel

• Israel Declares Independence– The British withdrew from Palestine in May 1948– The Jews declared the independence of their new state

called Israel• The United States officially recognized this nation two days

later• Israel was quickly invaded by Lebanon, Syria, Jordan, Egypt,

and Iraq• Israel defeated the Arab nations by 1949, and expanded its

borders• These conflicts would eventually bring about the intervention

and involvement and the world superpowers

The Khrushchev Era in the Soviet Union• The devastation of WWII had brought

about little economic change– Stalin stuck to traditional Communist

economics and politics

• Nikita Khrushchev began to gain influence within the Communist Party– While he eventually took control of the Soviet

Union, he never gained the power Josef Stalin had

The Khrushchev Era in the Soviet Union• Khrushchev’s Domestic Policies

– Retreated from Stalinism• Directly attacked his policies in a secret speech in 1956• Removed the strongest supporters of Stalinism from his

gov’t• Communist powers in Eastern Europe saw this as a license

to take more control

– Sought reform within the Soviet Union• Began to remove some restrictions on some private

industries

– Needed to maintain Communist dominance

The Khrushchev Era in the Soviet Union• The Three Crises of 1956• The Suez Intervention

– Egyptian gov’t took control of Suez Canal– British and French forces intervened when the

Egyptian were at war with Israel (without U.S. support)

– Egypt was still able to retain control of the canal– Illustrated the power of the U.S. and the Soviet Union

and how their reluctance to begin war impacted other states

The Khrushchev Era in the Soviet Union• The Three Crises of 1956• Polish Efforts Towards Independence– After the death of their Prime Minister, Poland

resisted appointing the recommendation for his replacement from Moscow

– Instead, Wladyslaw Gomulka came to power• He continued Polish membership in the Warsaw Pact

with strong Communist leadership• He reduced limits on private industry and improved

relations with the Polish Catholic Church

The Khrushchev Era in the Soviet Union• The Three Crises of 1956• The Hungarian Uprising

– Polish sympathies led to street fighting in Hungary– Former Premier Imre Nagy sought the neutralization of

Hungary and support from non-Communist groups• This included the withdraw from the Warsaw Pact• Caused Soviet forces to invade Hungary and replace Nagy

by bringing Janos Kadar into the control of Hungary

• All of these events solidified the role of the United States and the Soviet Union as the two world superpowers

Later Cold War Confrontations

• The Berlin Wall– Growing tensions between President Kennedy

and Premier Khrushchev– Many were migrating from East Berlin to free

West Berlin• Embarrassed the Soviet Union

– Constructed a wall between the two parts of the city, preventing the flow of migrant citizens and supplies

Later Cold War Confrontations

• The Cuban Missile Crisis (1962)– Most dangerous conflict of the war– Globalization-brought the United States directly into the war– Fidel Castro overthrew the American controlled Cuban

government and established a Communist state (Jan. 1959)• The Soviet Union began secretly sending them nuclear arms

(1962)• The U.S. set up a naval blockade around the island and demanded

the removal of the Soviet missiles

– The Soviet Union eventually gave in and pulled out of Cuba• Undermined the strength of the Soviet Union• Resulted in an agreement to ban nuclear testing

The Brezhnev Era• Khrushchev was forced to resign in October 1964

– Many thought he had attempted to make too many sweeping changes too quickly

– Replaced by Alexei Kosygin, but the party secretary, Leonid Brezhnev, eventually became the dominant figure

• The Invasion of Czechoslovakia (1968)– Alexander Dubcek began adding democratic and liberal

elements to the Czech government– The Soviet Union invaded and established a more

traditional communist government– The U.S.S.R established the Brezhnev Doctrine, stating

that they would interfere in the policies of other communist countries to maintain their integrity and suppress democracy and liberalism

The Brezhnev Era

• The United States and Detente– Brezhnev sought to maintain control of Communism

while reaching agreements with the United States– Limited support of North Vietnam in the war– Richard Nixon began a policy of detente (easing

strained relations) with the Soviet Union• Agreements were reached regarding trade and arms

reductions• However, Soviet military spending continued to increase

– The Helsinki Accords were signed by many nations, including the U.S. and the Soviet Union• Recognized the Soviet influence in Eastern Europe and

the human rights of all of the citizens of the signing nations

The Brezhnev Era

• The United States and Detente– Pres. Jimmy Carter cooled relations with the Soviet

Union– The Soviet Union continued to pursue an activist

policy internationally• Allowed Cuban forces to intervene in African nations• Funded the North Vietnamese and utilized naval bases

there• Provided finds and forces to Arab nations to fight Israel• Continued to build military forces

– The Soviet union possessed the worlds largest armed forces by the 1980’s

The Brezhnev Era

• The Invasion of Afghanistan– For reasons unknown, the Soviet Union sent forces

into Afghanistan, where they already held a presence• They gained more control over central Asia• Established a puppet government in Afghanistan• The U.S, in their sharp response, established trade

embargoes and cut off further agreements with the Soviet Union– Boycotted the 1980 Olympic Games in Moscow– Aided the Afghan rebels

– The Soviet forces were eventually extremely worn down, lowering Soviet moral

The Brezhnev Era

• Communism and Solidarity in Poland– Communist opposition grew and took root in Poland

even after the direct establishment of strong Communist forces• Karol Wojtyla, a strong oppositionist to Communism, was

elected into a position of authority in 1976• A workers union called Solidarity was allowed to form after a

widespread strike plagued Polish industry• The government became more open to political debate and

competition

– This experiment/foray away from Communism was ended when Gen. Wojciech Jaruzelski took control of Poland in 1981• He imposed strict Communism under martial law

The Brezhnev Era

• Relations with the Reagan Administration– U.S. began to seek better relations with the

Soviet Union• However, Regan increased military spending and the

integrity of anti-Communist forces • Developed new missile systems and established a

space-based nuclear defense system known as “Star Wars”

• The Soviet Union also continued to increase military development– This would eventually lead to the economic and

political collapse of the Soviet Union

The European Retreat from Empire

• The second half of the twentieth century saw vast populations in territories worldwide overcome European control and become independent states– Rise of new nationalist movements– World War II / European shift of focus– The U.S. and the Soviet Union opposed the

colonial nations but strived to create spheres of influence in these new nations

– Some nations pursued a policy of neutrality to gain strength

The European Retreat from Empire• Major Areas of Colonial Withdrawal

– Dutch forced from the East Indies > Indonesia was formed (1949)

– Belgium forced from the Congo (1960)– Mozambique and Angola liberated from the Portuguese

(1974-75)– Liberation of South Africa (1994)

• India– British had gained and solidified control in the 17-1800’s– Nationalist groups began to arise (early 1900’s)

• Strong leadership resulted in a strong nationalist movement• Mohandas Gandhi was one of the most notable of these leaders

– Passive resistance to British rule became popular– The British Labour Government decided to back out of their

weakening control of India (1947)• India then became divided into two separate nations (India and

Pakistan)

The European Retreat from Empire• Further British Retreat from Empire

– The British accepted the loss of their empire as inevitable– Attempted to maintain economic and political links while

avoiding major conflicts in the process of decolonization• Also sought the individual maintenance of representative self-

governments once they abandoned their colonial territories

– India was the first of many nations to become independent from British rule during this era• Sri Lanka and Burma (1948)• Ghana (1957) and Nigeria (1960) were primary examples of

planned decolonization• Withdrew from Cyprus, Kenya, and Yemen due to nationalist

and military forces (sometimes resulted in violence)

The European Retreat from Empire• French Decolonization

– Unlike the British, the French were intent on expanding and developing their colonial empire and control

– The French pursued this goal on two main fronts, Algeria and Vietnam, both of which were met with disaster

• France and Algeria– Algeria had become an integral part of France by the

end of World War I– They slowly granted more rights to the discontented

Algerian Muslims, however this was ineffective in suppressing the movement for independence• Nationalists founded the National Liberation Front (FLN)

and a violent war began between the two forces

The European Retreat from Empire

• France and Algeria (continued)– Charles de Gaulle took control of the French

government• Began the Fifth French Republic under a new constitution• Undertook a long strategic retreat from Algeria

– Algeria became independent on July 3, 1962• FLN took control under Mohammed Ben Bella• French supporters fled Algeria before begin executed,

resulting in a large Muslim population in France

– France and Vietnam• The French struggle to maintain control in Indochina

resulted in a more global conflict

The European Retreat from Empire• France and Vietnam

– The French struggle to maintain control in Indochina resulted in a more global conflict

– Ho Chi Minh created the Indochina Communist Party from the nationalists who were pushing for independence• He gained influence during World War II• Despite being Communist, he never gained the support of the

Soviet Union or the Chinese• Declared Vietnamese independence in September 1945,

causing a civil war by 1947– While the United States didn’t show too much concern

over this conflict originally, upon the creation of the Communist People’s Republic, they viewed the French effort as ant-Communist and thus an integral part of the Cold War• The United States provided financial and eventually military

support

The European Retreat from Empire

• France and Vietnam– After unsatisfactory agreements on temporary

borders, the United States established the Southeast Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO)• The U.S. wrongly believed North Vietnam to be a puppet

state of the Soviet Union

– Provided expansive military and economic aid to the French forces• Supported Ngo Dinh Diem in Vietnamese politics, a

strong non-Communist nationalist

– The National Liberation Front was founded in 1960• Sought the removal of Diem from power• Anti-colonial, nationalist, communist forces

The European Retreat from Empire• Direct United States Involvement

– U.S. supported Diem while demanding gov’t reform – Continued to send troops (16,000 by 1963)– Diem was overthrown and killed

• The U.S. hoped a new gov’t would create larger support• Nguyen Van Thieu was brought to control South Vietnam

– Lyndon Johnson also expanded U.S. involvement in Vietnam• Bombing attacks began in February 1965

– Pres. Richard Nixon began the slow withdrawal from Vietnam• Policy of Vietnamization, in which the war effort was handed to

the South Vietnamese themselves • Peace negotiations resulted in a cease fire agreement (Jan. 1973)

– The North Vietnamese eventually united the country under their control

The Collapse of European Communism• Gorbachev Attempts to Reform the Soviet Union

– Mikhail S. Gorbachev came to power in 1985• Began reforms that would result in the collapse of

Communism in the Soviet Union

– Sought the revival of the Russian economy• Began a policy of perestroika or “restructuring” which

reduced the influence of the government in many industries• Promised higher wages and better working conditions to

workers• Eventually advocated private property and liberal free

market economic development• Large departures from traditional ideologies in attempts to

save the Soviet Union• However, his policies were largely unsuccessful

The Collapse of European Communism• Gorbachev Attempts to Reform the Soviet

Union– He allowed large discussions and criticisms of

Communism and Soviet policy in his policy of Glasnost (openness)• Relaxed censorship• Allowed for political criticism and public debate

– Created a new constitution that permitted openly contested elections (1988)• The Congress of People’s Deputies was elected in 1989• The Supreme Soviet elected Gorbachev the President as

well

The Collapse of European Communism• Revolution in Eastern Europe (Poland)– After the Polish government relaxed it’s control

over society, Solidarity prisoners were released and began to strike once again• The government was unable to regain control• Lech Walesa took center stage in the conflict

– Political and social reforms ensued– Communists overwhelmingly lost in the free

elections of 1989• A noncommunist prime minster was then appointed • Strongly approved by Gorbachev

The Collapse of European Communism• Revolution in Eastern Europe (Hungary)

– The elections of 1989 in Poland sparked further independence movements across Eastern Europe• Austrian border with Hungary was opened in 1989• Many began to demand a more liberal society

– Janos Kadar was taken from his position as leader of the Communist Party of Hungary• The Hungarian Communist Party changed its name to

the Socialist Party

– Free elections were promised as other parties were allowed to participate in the Hungarian government

The Collapse of European Communism• Revolution in Eastern Europe (Germany)– Popular demonstrations were occurring in East

Germany by 1989– East Germany lost the support of the Soviet

Union• The East German government quickly resigned,

giving rise to a weak new government of younger communists

– The East German gov’t ordered the opening of the Berlin Wall in November 1989• The push for reunification began shortly afterwards

The Collapse of European Communism• Revolution in Eastern Europe (Czechoslovakia)

– Quickly followed the destruction of the Berlin Wall– Vaclav Havel led revolutionaries against

communist forces • The leader of the weak communist government in the

state, Gustav Husak, was forced to resign• Havel became the president on December 28, 1989

• Revolution in Eastern Europe (Romania)– President Nicolae Ceausescu’s forces fired on

protesting crowds• Revolt ensued, and when the president tried to flee, he

was captured and killed

The Collapse of European Communism• The Collapse of the Soviet Union

– Gorbachev refused to support the communist regimes of Eastern Europe, and allowed them to be overthrown• Renounced the Brezhnev Doctrine• Proposed the renunciation of the communist political

monopoly in the Soviet Union• Faced opposition from and made concessions to

conservative forces • Tries and failed to negotiate new constitutional agreements

between the Russian Republics and the central government

– Russian conservative forces attempted a coup

The Collapse of European Communism• The Collapse of the Soviet Union

– Russian conservative forces attempted a coup in August 1991• The coup eventually collapsed, but embarrassed

Gorbachev• Yeltsin, the leader of the Russian democratic force,

gained more power and influence• This caused the collapse of the Communist Party as

the main political force in Russia

– The Soviet union collapsed with the resignation of Gorbachev in December 1991• Represented the end of Marxism as the dominant

socialist force in Europe

The Collapse of European Communism• The Yeltsin Decade and Putin– Boris Yeltsin became the President of Russia

• The most powerful leader in the new Commonwealth of Independent States

• He was opposed by the communist Russian Parliament, straining government relations– He crushed this opposition using military force in

October 1993 after Parliamentary riots

• Supported by the Russian military• Supported by the Western Democracies• Created a new constitution and elected a new

Parliament (1993)

The Collapse of European Communism• The Yeltsin Decade and Putin– Began to rebuild Russian society

• Privatized many industries• Many amassed great wealth in the economic

reorganization (the “oligarchs”)

– Economic and Political Downturn• Russia defaulted on its international debt in 1998• Economic downturn and political unrest ensued >

political assassinations• Yeltsin resigned and Vladimir Putin replaced him

The Collapse of European Communism• The Yeltsin Decade and Putin

– Vladimir Putin continued the war effort against Islamic extremists in Chechnya• Supported the American effort against Afghanistan after

the September 11th, 2001 terrorist attacks• There have been several Chechnya attacks on Russia in

the 21st century

– Sought the centralization of Russian government in order to control economic and political life• Feared independent control and influence in society• Russia was still more democratic than it ever had been

during the control by the Soviet Union• Remains a politically unstable state today

The Collapse of Yugoslavia and Civil War• Yugoslavia was a collection of smaller

territories comprising of several nationalities– Disputes ensued between the ethnic groups– Yugoslavia dissolved into civil wars– Ethnic tensions > violence in 1990 > Slovenia and

Croatia separated from Yugoslavia– Serbia was dedicated to maintaining a unified

Yugoslav state under its control• Clashed with Croatia for control of the state

– An agreement was eventually negotiated under U.S. leadership• Recognized an independent Bosnia

– NATO intervened to maintain peace and order in Yugoslavia throughout the 1990’s