The Classroom Teacher as Academic and Behavioral 'First ...

Response to Intervention & the Common Core State Standards

The Classroom Teacher as Academic and Behavioral 'First Responder' Jim Wright, Presenter 9 January 2013 Brooklyn Charter School

Jim Wright 364 Long Road Tully, NY 13159 Email: [email protected] Workshop Materials Available at: http://www.interventioncentral.org/brooklyncharter

Intervention & Related RTI Terms: Definitions Educators who serve as interventionists should be able to define and distinguish among the terms core instruction, intervention, instructional adjustment, and modification. (In particular, interventionists should avoid using modifications as part of an RTI plan for a general education student, as they can be predicted to undermine the student’s academic performance.) Here are definitions for these key terms. Core Instruction. Those instructional strategies that are used routinely with all students in a general-

education setting are considered ‘core instruction’. High-quality instruction is essential and forms the foundation of RTI academic support. NOTE: While it is important to verify that a struggling student receives good core instructional practices, those routine practices do not ‘count’ as individual student interventions.

Intervention. An academic intervention is a strategy used to teach a new skill, build fluency in a skill, or

encourage a child to apply an existing skill to new situations or settings. An intervention can be thought of as “a set of actions that, when taken, have demonstrated ability to change a fixed educational trajectory” (Methe & Riley-Tillman, 2008; p. 37). As an example of an academic intervention, the teacher may select question generation (Davey & McBride,1986.; Rosenshine, Meister & Chapman, 1996), a strategy in which the student is taught to locate or generate main idea sentences for each paragraph in a passage and record those ‘gist’ sentences for later review.

Instructional Adjustment (Accommodation). An instructional adjustment (also known as an

'accommodation') is intended to help the student to fully access and participate in the general-education curriculum without changing the instructional content and without reducing the student’s rate of learning (Skinner, Pappas & Davis, 2005). An instructional adjustment is intended to remove barriers to learning while still expecting that students will master the same instructional content as their typical peers. An instructional adjustment for students who are slow readers, for example, may include having them supplement their silent reading of a novel by listening to the book on tape. An instructional adjustment for unmotivated students may include breaking larger assignments into smaller ‘chunks’ and providing students with performance feedback and praise for each completed ‘chunk’ of assigned work (Skinner, Pappas & Davis, 2005).

Modification. A modification changes the expectations of what a student is expected to know or do—typically

by lowering the academic standards against which the student is to be evaluated. Examples of modifications are giving a student five math computation problems for practice instead of the 20 problems assigned to the rest of the class or letting the student consult course notes during a test when peers are not permitted to do so. Instructional modifications are essential elements on the Individualized Education Plans (IEPs) or Section 504 Plans of many students with special needs. Modifications are generally not included on a general-education student’s RTI intervention plan, however, because the assumption is that the student can be successful in the curriculum with appropriate interventions and instructional adjustments alone. In fact, modifying the work of struggling general education students is likely to have a negative effect that works against the goals of RTI. Reducing academic expectations will result in these students falling further behind rather than closing the performance gap with peers

References Davey, B., & McBride, S. (1986). Effects of question-generation training on reading comprehension. Journal of Educational Psychology, 78, 256-262. Methe, S. A., & Riley-Tillman, T. C. (2008). An informed approach to selecting and designing early mathematics interventions. School Psychology Forum: Research into Practice, 2, 29-41. Rosenshine, B., Meister, C., & Chapman, S. (1996). Teaching students to generate questions: A review of the intervention studies. Review of Educational Research, 66, 181-221. Skinner, C. H., Pappas, D. N., & Davis, K. A. (2005). Enhancing academic engagement: Providing opportunities for responding and influencing students to choose to respond. Psychology in the Schools, 42, 389-403.

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Jim Wright, Presenter www.interventioncentral.org 2

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‘How RTI Works’ Series © 2011 Jim Wright www.interventioncentral.org 2

Motivation Challenge 1: The student is unmotivated because he or she cannot do the assigned work. Profile of a Student with This Motivation Problem: The student lacks essential skills required to do the task. Areas of deficit might include basic academic skills, cognitive strategies, and academic-enabler skills. Here are definitions of these skill areas:

Basic academic skills. Basic skills have straightforward criteria for correct performance (e.g., the student defines vocabulary words or decodes text or computes ‘math facts’) and comprise the building-blocks of more complex academic tasks (Rupley, Blair, & Nichols, 2009). The instructional goal in basic skills is for students to become ‘automatic’ in the skill(s) being taught.

Cognitive strategies. Students employ specific cognitive strategies as “guiding procedures” to complete more complex academic tasks such as reading comprehension or writing (Rosenshine, 1995). Cognitive strategies are “intentional and deliberate procedures” that are under the conscious control of the student (Rupley, Blair, & Nichols, 2009; p. 127). The instructional goals are to train students to use specific cognitive instruction strategies, to reliably identify the conditions under which they should employ these strategies, and to actually use them correctly and consistently. Question generation is an example of a cognitive strategy to promote reading comprehension (Rosenshine, Meister, & Chapman, 1996); the student is trained to locate or write main-idea sentences for each paragraph in a passage, then write those main ideas onto separate note cards with corresponding questions.

Academic-enabling skills. Skills that are ‘academic enablers’ (DiPerna, 2006) are not tied to specific academic knowledge but rather aid student learning across a wide range of settings and tasks. Examples of academic-enabling skills include organizing work materials, time management, and making and sticking to a work plan. The instructional goal is to train students to acquire these academic-support skills and to generalize their use to become efficient, self-managing learners.

What the Research Says: When a student lacks the capability to complete an academic task because of limited or missing basic skills, cognitive strategies, or academic-enabling skills, that student is still in the acquisition stage of learning (Haring et al., 1978). That student cannot be expected to be motivated or to be successful as a learner unless he or she is first explicitly taught these weak or absent essential skills (Daly, Witt, Martens & Dool, 1997).

How to Verify the Presence of This Motivation Problem: The teacher collects information (e.g., through observations of the student engaging in academic tasks; interviews with the student; examination of work products, quizzes, or tests) demonstrating that the student lacks basic skills, cognitive strategies, or academic-enabling skills essential to the academic task.

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How to Fix This Motivation Problem: Students who are not motivated because they lack essential skills need to be taught those skills.

Direct-Instruction Format. Students learning new material, concepts, or skills benefit from a ‘direct instruction’ approach. (Burns, VanDerHeyden & Boice, 2008; Rosenshine, 1995; Rupley, Blair, & Nichols, 2009). When following a direct-instruction format, the teacher:

ensures that the lesson content is appropriately matched to students’ abilities.

opens the lesson with a brief review of concepts or material that were previously presented.

states the goals of the current day’s lesson.

breaks new material into small, manageable increments, or steps.

throughout the lesson, provides adequate explanations and detailed instructions for all concepts and materials being taught. NOTE: Verbal explanations can include ‘talk-alouds’ (e.g., the teacher describes and explains each step of a cognitive strategy) and ‘think-alouds’ (e.g., the teacher applies a cognitive strategy to a particular problem or task and verbalizes the steps in applying the strategy).

regularly checks for student understanding by posing frequent questions and eliciting group responses.

verifies that students are experiencing sufficient success in the lesson content to shape their learning in the desired direction and to maintain student motivation and engagement.

provides timely and regular performance feedback and corrections throughout the lesson as needed to guide student learning.

allows students the chance to engage in practice activities distributed throughout the lesson (e.g., through teacher demonstration; then group practice with teacher supervision and feedback; then independent, individual student practice).

ensures that students have adequate support (e.g., clear and explicit instructions; teacher monitoring) to be successful during independent seatwork practice activities.

References:

Burns, M. K., VanDerHeyden, A. M., & Boice, C. H. (2008). Best practices in intensive academic interventions. In A. Thomas & J. Grimes (Eds.), Best practices in school psychology V (pp.1151-1162). Bethesda, MD: National Association of School Psychologists.

Daly, E. J., Witt, J. C., Martens, B. K., & Dool, E. J. (1997). A model for conducting a functional analysis of academic performance problems. School Psychology Review, 26, 554-574.

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DiPerna, J. C. (2006). Academic enablers and student achievement: Implications for assessment and intervention services in the schools. Psychology in the Schools, 43, 7-17.

Haring, N.G., Lovitt, T.C., Eaton, M.D., & Hansen, C.L. (1978). The fourth R: Research in the classroom. Columbus, OH: Charles E. Merrill Publishing.

Rosenshine, B. (1995). Advances in research on instruction. The Journal of Educational Research, 88, 262-288.

Rosenshine, B., Meister, C., & Chapman, S. (1996). Teaching students to generate questions: A review of the intervention studies. Review of Educational Research, 66, 181-221.

Rupley, W. H., Blair, T. R., & Nichols, W. D. (2009). Effective reading instruction for struggling readers: The role of direct/explicit teaching. Reading & Writing Quarterly, 25:125–138.

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The Instructional Hierarchy: Linking Stages of Learning to Effective Instructional Techniques When mastering new academic skills or strategies, the student learner typically advances through a predictable series of learning stages. At the start, a student is usually halting and uncertain as he or she tries to use the target skill. With teacher feedback and lots of practice, the student becomes more fluent, accurate, and confident in using the skill. It can be very useful to think of these phases of learning as a hierarchy (See chart below). The learning hierarchy (Haring, Lovitt, Eaton, & Hansen, 1978) has four stages: acquisition, fluency, generalization, and adaptation: 1. Acquisition. The student has begun to learn how to complete the target skill correctly but is not yet accurate or

fluent in the skill. The goal in this phase is to improve accuracy. 2. Fluency. The student is able to complete the target skill accurately but works slowly. The goal of this phase is to

increase the student’s speed of responding (fluency). 3. Generalization. The student is accurate and fluent in using the target skill but does not typically use it in

different situations or settings. Or the student may confuse the target skill with ‘similar’ skills. The goal of this phase is to get the student to use the skill in the widest possible range of settings and situations, or to accurately discriminate between the target skill and ‘similar’ skills.

4. Adaptation. The student is accurate and fluent in using the skill. He or she also uses the skill in many situations or settings. However, the student is not yet able to modify or adapt the skill to fit novel task-demands or situations. Here the goal is for the student to be able to identify elements of previously learned skills that he or she can adapt to the new demands or situation.

When the teacher accurately identifies a student’s learning stage, the instructor can select instructional ideas that are more likely to be successful because these strategies match the student’s learning needs. Reference Haring, N.G., Lovitt, T.C., Eaton, M.D., & Hansen, C.L. (1978). The fourth R: Research in the classroom. Columbus, OH: Charles E. Merrill Publishing Co.

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Building Blocks of Effective Instruction 2

Instructional Hierarchy: Matching Interventions to Student Learning Stage (Haring, et al., 1978) Learning Stage Student ‘Look-Fors’… What strategies are effective… Acquisition: Exit Goal: The student can perform the skill accurately with little adult support.

• Is just beginning to learn skill

• Not yet able to perform learning task reliably or with high level of accuracy

• Teacher actively demonstrates target skill • Teacher uses ‘think-aloud’ strategy-- especially for thinking skills that are otherwise

covert • Student has models of correct performance to consult as needed (e.g., correctly

completed math problems on board) • Student gets feedback about correct performance • Student receives praise, encouragement for effort

Fluency: Exit Goals: The student (a) has learned skill well enough to retain (b) has learned skill well enough to combine with other skills, (c) is as fluent as peers.

• Gives accurate responses to learning task

• Performs learning task slowly, haltingly

• Teacher structures learning activities to give student opportunity for active (observable) responding

• Student has frequent opportunities to drill (direct repetition of target skill) and practice (blending target skill with other skills to solve problems)

• Student gets feedback on fluency and accuracy of performance • Student receives praise, encouragement for increased fluency

Generalization: Exit Goals: The student (a) uses the skill across settings, situations; (b) does not confuse target skill with similar skills

• Is accurate and fluent in responding

• May fail to apply skill to new situations, settings

• May confuse target skill with similar skills (e.g., confusing ‘+’ and ‘x’ number operation signs)

• Teacher structures academic tasks to require that the student use the target skill regularly in assignments.

• Student receives encouragement, praise, reinforcers for using skill in new settings, situations

• If student confuses target skill with similar skill(s), the student is given practice items that force him/her to correctly discriminate between similar skills

• Teacher works with parents to identify tasks that the student can do outside of school to practice target skill

• Student gets periodic opportunities to review, practice target skill to ensure maintenance

Adaptation: Exit Goal: The Adaptation phase is continuous and has no exit criteria.

• Is fluent and accurate in skill • Applies skill in novel

situations, settings without prompting

• Does not yet modify skill as needed to fit new situations (e.g., child says ‘Thank you’ in all situations, does not use modified, equivalent phrases such as “I appreciate your help.”)

• Teacher helps student to articulate the ‘big ideas’ or core element(s) of target skill that the student can modify to face novel tasks, situations (e.g., fractions, ratios, and percentages link to the ‘big idea’ of the part in relation to the whole; ‘Thank you’ is part of a larger class of polite speech)

• Train for adaptation: Student gets opportunities to practice the target skill with modest modifications in new situations, settings with encouragement, corrective feedback, praise, other reinforcers.

• Encourage student to set own goals for adapting skill to new and challenging situations.

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Intervention Planner for Academics: Checklist Maker

www.interventioncentral.org • Copyright © 2009-2012 Jim Wright

Classroom Interventions: Reading Fluency

Academic Intervention Strategies Research Citations

1. READING FLUENCY: ASSISTED CLOZE. Fluency is the goal of this reading intervention. Sessions last 10-15 minutes. The teacher selects a passage at the student's instructional level. The teacher reads aloud from the passage while the student follows along silently and tracks the place in the text with a finger. Intermittently, the teacher pauses and the student is expected to read aloud the next word in passage. Then the teacher continues reading. The process continues until the entire passage has been read. Then the student is directed to read the text aloud while the teacher follows along silently. Whenever the student commits a reading error or hesitates for 3 seconds or longer (whether during the assisted cloze or independent reading phase), the teacher stops the student, points to and says the error word, has the student read the word aloud correctly, has the student read the surrounding phrase that includes the error word, and then continues the current reading activity. Optionally, the teacher may then have the student read the passage again (repeated reading) up to two more times as the teacher continues to silently monitor and correct any errors or hesitations.

Ellis, W. A. (2009). The impact of C-PEP (choral reading, partner reading, echo reading, and performance of text) on third grade fluency and comprehension development. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Memphis. Homan, S. P., Klesius, J. P, & Hite, C. (1993). Effects of repeated readings and nonrepetive strategies on students' fluency and comprehension. Journal of Educational Research, 87(2), 94-99.

2. READING FLUENCY: CHORAL READING. This simple strategy to build reading fluency can be used with individuals and groups of students. Sessions last 10-15 minutes. The teacher selects an engaging text at students' instructional or independent level. During choral reading sessions, the teacher or other fluent reader takes the role of 'lead reader', reading the passage aloud, while students also read aloud. Students are encouraged to read with expression.

Moskal, M. K., & Blachowicz, C. (2006). Partnering for fluency. New York: Guilford Press.

3. READING FLUENCY: DUET READING. This strategy targets reading fluency. Sessions last for 10-15 minutes. The teacher selects an engaging text at the student's instructional or independent level. During duet reading, the teacher and student alternate reading aloud from the passage one word at a time, while the teacher tracks the place in the passage with an index finger. As the student grows more accomplished, the teacher can change the reading ratio to shift more responsibility to the student: for example, with the teacher reading one word aloud and then the student reading three words aloud in succession. As the student becomes more familiar with duet reading, the teacher can also direct the student to track the place in the text. Whenever the student commits a reading error or hesitates for 3 seconds or longer, the teacher stops the student, points to and says the error word, has the student read the word aloud correctly, has the student read the surrounding phrase that includes the error word, and then continues the reading activity.

Gallagher, T. M. (2008). The effects of a modified duet reading strategy on oral reading fluency. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Wisconsin-Madison.

4. READING FLUENCY: ECHO READING. In this strategy to boost student reading fluency, the teacher selects a text at the student's instructional level. The teacher reads aloud a short section (e.g.,

Ellis, W. A. (2009). The impact of C-PEP (choral reading, partner reading, echo reading,

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one-two sentences at a time) while the student follows along silently. The student then reads the same short section aloud--and the read-aloud activity continues, alternating between teacher and student, until the passage has been completed. Whenever the student commits a reading error or hesitates for 3 seconds or longer, the teacher stops the student, points to and says the error word, has the student read the word aloud correctly, has the student read the surrounding phrase that includes the error word, and then continues the reading activity.

and performance of text) on third grade fluency and comprehension development. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Memphis. Homan, S. P., Klesius, J. P, & Hite, C. (1993). Effects of repeated readings and nonrepetive strategies on students' fluency and comprehension. Journal of Educational Research, 87(2), 94-99.

5. READING FLUENCY: LISTENING PASSAGE PREVIEW. This intervention targets student reading fluency in sessions of 10-15 minutes. The teacher selects a passage at the student's instructional level. The student is directed to follow along silently and track the place in the text with a finger while the teacher reads the passage aloud. Then the student is prompted to read the passage aloud as the teacher follows along silently. Whenever the student commits a reading error or hesitates for 3 seconds or longer, the teacher stops the student, points to and says the error word, has the student read the word aloud correctly, has the student read the surrounding phrase that includes the error word, and then directs the student to continue reading. Optionally, the teacher may then have the student read the passage again (repeated reading) up to two more times as the teacher continues to silently monitor and correct any errors or hesitations.

Guzel-Ozmen, R. (2011). Evaluating the effectiveness of combined reading interventions on improving oral reading fluency of students with reading disabilities. Electronic Journal of Research in Educational Psychology, 9(3), 1063-1086. Hofstadter-Duke, K. L., & Daly, E. J. (2011). Improving oral reading fluency with a peer-mediated intervention. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 44(3), 641-646.

6. READING FLUENCY: PAIRED READING. This reading fluency intervention prompts the student to read independently with prompt corrective feedback. Each session lasts 10-15 minutes. The teacher selects an engaging passage at the student's instructional level. The student is told that the teacher and student will begin the session reading aloud in unison. The student is also told that, whenever the student chooses, he/she can give a silent signal (e.g., lightly tapping the teacher's wrist); at this signal, the teacher will stop reading aloud and instead follow along silently while the student continues to read aloud. In addition, the student is told that, if he/she hesitates for 3 seconds or longer or misreads a word when reading aloud independently, the teacher will correct the student and then resume reading in unison. The session then begins with teacher and student reading aloud together. Whenever the student commits a reading error or hesitates for 3 seconds or longer (during either unison or independent reading), the teacher stops the student, points to and says the error word, has the student read the word aloud correctly, has the student read the surrounding phrase that includes the error word, and resumes reading in unison. The teacher also praises the student for using the silent signal to read aloud independently and occasionally

Fiala, C. L., & Sheridan, S. M. (2003). Parent involvement and reading: Using curriculum-based measurement to assess the effects of paired reading. Psychology in the Schools, 40(6), 613-626.

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praises other aspects of the student's reading performance or effort.

7. READING FLUENCY: REPEATED READING. During 15-20 minute sessions, the student practices difficult words in isolation, reads the same passage several times to boost fluency, and tries to beat a previous fluency score. (1) PREPARATION: Before each session, the teacher selects a text within the student's instructional range long enough occupy the student for more than a minute of reading aloud and makes teacher and student copies. The teacher locates five challenge words in the passage to practice. (2) GOAL-SETTING: The teacher shows the student the performance graph with his/her most recent repeated-reading score and encourages the student to beat that score; (3) PREVIEW CHALLENGING WORDS: The teacher introduces each of the passage challenge words: "This word is ___. What is this word?"; (4) INITIAL READ: The student is directed to read the passage aloud, to do his/her best reading, to start at the beginning of the passage [which the teacher points out] and to read until told to stop. Also, the student is told that--if stuck on a word--the teacher will supply it. While the student reads aloud, the teacher marks reading errors. At the end of one minute, the teacher says "Stop", marks the student's end-point in the text with a bracket, totals the number of words correctly read, plots that score on the student graph, and labels that graph data-point "1st reading". (5) FEEDBACK AND ERROR CORRECTION: The teacher shows the student his/her graphed performance. The teacher then reviews student errors. Pointing to each error word, the teacher says, "This word is ___. What is this word?" and has the student repeat the correct word three times before moving to the next. (6) MODELING: The teacher directs the student to read aloud in unison with the teacher while using a finger to track the place in the text. The teacher takes the lead, reading the entire passage aloud at a pace slightly faster than that of the student. (6) REPEAT STUDENT READS. The teacher has the student repeat steps 4 and 5 twice more, until the student has read the passage independently at least 3 times. If the student's fluency score on the final read exceeds that of the previous session, the teacher provides praise and perhaps incentives (e.g., sticker, points toward rewards).

Begeny, J C., Krouse, H. E., Ross, S. G., & Mitchell, R. C. (2009). Increasing elementary-aged students' reading fluency with small-group interventions: A comparison of repeated reading, listening passage preview, and listening only strategies. Journal of Behavioral Education, 18, 211-228. Lo, Y., Cooke, N. L. & Starling, A. L. P. (2011). Using a repeated reading program to improve generalization of oral reading fluency. Education and Treatment of Children, 34(1), 115-140.

Classroom Interventions: Reading Comprehension


1. READING COMPREHENSION: ACTIVATE PRIOR KNOWLEDGE AND DEVELOP QUESTIONS. In this two-part strategy, students first engage in an activity to activate their prior knowledge of a topic, then preview an informational passage on the same topic to generate questions. ACTIVATING PRIOR KNOWLEDGE: The teacher prepares a short series (e.g., 3-5) of general questions or prompts about the topic to be covered in the informational passage assigned for the day's reading (e.g., "Today we are going to read about animals that live in and

Taboada, A., & Guthrie, J. T. (2006). Contributions of student questioning and prior knowledge to construction of knowledge from reading information text. Journal of Literacy Research, 38(1), 1-35.

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around the seashore. Describe animals that live around a beach."). Students are given a brief period (10-20 minutes) to write answers to these general questions based on their prior knowledge of, and experience with, the topic. DEVELOPING QUESTIONS: Students are next given a short amount of time (e.g. 3-5 minutes) to preview the informational passage assigned for that day's reading and glance over titles, figures, pictures, graphs, and other text structures appearing in the selection. Students then put the text aside and are told to write questions about the topic that they hope to have answered when they read the text. The teacher can collect these prior activation/question generation sheets as evidence of student use of this strategy.

2. READING COMPREHENSION: CLASSWIDE INSTRUCTION: DEVELOP A BANK OF MULTIPLE PASSAGES FOR CHALLENGING CONCEPTS. Having several passages of differing reading levels can be a useful way to help more students grasp challenging content. The teacher notes which course concepts, cognitive strategies, or other information will likely present the greatest challenge to students. For these ‘challenge’ topics, the teacher selects alternative readings that present the same general information and review the same key vocabulary as the course text but that are more accessible to struggling readers (e.g., with selections written at an easier reading level or that use graphics to visually illustrate concepts). These alternative selections are organized into a bank. Students are encouraged to engage in wide reading by choosing selections from the bank as a means to better understand difficult material.

Kamil, M. L., Borman, G. D., Dole, J., Kral, C. C., Salinger, T., & Torgesen, J. (2008). Improving adolescent literacy: Effective classroom and intervention practices: A practice guide (NCEE #2008-4027). Washington, DC: National Center for Education Evaluation and Regional Assistance, Institute of Education Sciences, U.S. Department of Education. Retrieved from http://ies.ed.gov/ncee/wwc

3. READING COMPREHENSION: CLASSWIDE INSTRUCTION: PROVIDE MAIN-IDEA PRACTICE THROUGH PARTNER RETELL. This brief paired activity can be during lectures to facilitate promote students' ability to summarize passage main ideas. Students are paired off in class and are assigned a short information passage, which either one student reads aloud to the other or is read silently by each student. Next, one student is assigned the role of ‘reteller’ and the other appointed as ‘listener’. During a 1-2 minute discussion period, the reteller recounts the main idea to the listener, who can comment or ask questions. The teacher then pulls the class together and, with student input, summarizes the passage main idea and writes it on the board.. Then the student pairs resume their work, with the reteller locating two key details from the reading that support the main idea and sharing these with the listener. At the end of the activity, the teacher does a spot check -- randomly calling on one or more students in the listener role and asking them to recap what information was shared by the reteller.

Carnine, L., & Carnine, D. (2004). The interaction of reading skills and science content knowledge when teaching struggling secondary students. Reading & Writing Quarterly, 20, 203-218.

4. READING COMPREHENSION: LINK PRONOUNS TO REFERENTS. The student reinforces understanding of abstract text by replacing pronouns with their referent nouns during independent reading. (1) PREPARING THE TEXT. On a photocopy of the text, the student circles each pronoun,

Hedin, L. R., & Conderman, G. (2010). Teaching students to comprehend informational text through rereading. The Reading Teacher, 63(7),

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identifies that pronoun’s referent (i.e., the noun that it refers to), and writes next to the pronoun the name of its referent. For example, the student may add the referent to a pronoun in this sentence from a biology text: “The Cambrian Period is the first geological age that has large numbers of multi-celled organisms associated with it. [Cambrian Period]". (2) WHEN READING, SUBSTUTE REFERENTS FOR PRONOUNS. In each subsequent reading of the text, the student substitutes the referent for each pronoun.

556–565.

5. READING COMPREHENSION: QUESTION GENERATION. This strategy incorporates paragraph main ideas and note-cards to promote retention of textual information: (1) LOCATE MAIN IDEAs. For each paragraph in an assigned reading, the student either (a) highlights the main idea sentence or (b) highlights key details and uses them to write a ‘gist’ sentence. (2) WRITE MAIN IDEAS ON NOTE-CARDS. The student then writes the main idea of that paragraph on an index card. Cards are sequentially numbered to correspond with paragraphs in the passage. (3) GENERATE REVIEW QUESTIONS. On the other side of the card, the student writes a question whose answer is that paragraph’s main idea sentence. This stack of ‘main idea’ cards becomes a useful tool to review assigned readings.

Davey, B., & McBride, S. (1986). Effects of question-generation training on reading comprehension. Journal of Educational Psychology, 78, 256-262. Rosenshine, B., Meister, C., & Chapman, S. (1996). Teaching students to generate questions: A review of the intervention studies. Review of Educational Research, 66, 181-221.

6. READING COMPREHENSION: READING ACTIVELY THROUGH TEXT ANNOTATION. Students are likely to increase their retention of information when they interact actively with their reading by jotting comments in the margin of the text. Using photocopies, the student is taught to engage in an ongoing 'conversation' with the writer by recording a running series of brief comments in the margins of the text. The student may write annotations to record opinions about points raised by the writer, questions triggered by the reading, or unknown vocabulary words. The teacher can set specific student annotation goals (e.g., directing the student to complete and turn in a reading with a minimum of six annotations in the margins).

Harris, J. (1990). Text annotation and underlining as metacognitive strategies to improve comprehension and retention of expository text. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the National Reading Conference (Miami). Sarkisian V., Toscano, M., Tomkins-Tinch, K., & Casey, K. (2003). Reading strategies and critical thinking. Retrieved from http://www.academic.marist.edu/alcuin/ssk/stratthink.html

7. READING COMPREHENSION: READING-REFLECTION PAUSES: This strategy is useful both for students who need to monitor their understanding as well as those who benefit from brief breaks when engaging in intensive reading as a means to build up endurance as attentive readers. The student decides on a reading interval (e.g., every four sentences; every 3 minutes; at the end of each paragraph). At the end of each interval, the student pauses briefly to recall the main points of the reading. If the student has questions or is uncertain about the content, the student rereads part or all of the section just read.

Hedin, L. R., & Conderman, G. (2010). Teaching students to comprehend informational text through rereading. The Reading Teacher, 63(7), 556–565.

8. READING COMPREHENSION: RECIPROCAL TEACHING. This cooperative-learning activity builds independent reading-comprehension skills while motivating students through regular (e.g., daily) peer interactions. Students meet in pairs,

Klingner, J. K., & Vaughn, S. (1996). Reciprocal teaching of reading comprehension strategies for students with

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with reciprocal teaching sessions lasting 30-40 minutes. In advance of each session, students are given a challenging passage. Alternating roles at each session, one of the students assumes the 'teacher' role, taking the lead in guiding discussion through these six steps of the reciprocal tutoring model: The students (1) look over the passage and predict what it will cover; (2) discuss what they currently know ('prior knowledge') about the passage topic; (3) review the passage for words or phrases that are unclear and attempt to clarify their meaning; (4) review each paragraph in the passage and highlight its main idea; (5) review each paragraph again to summarize (either orally or in writing) its main idea and important details; and (6) develop questions about the passage and answer those questions from the text or their own knowledge and experience. Students practice these steps under teacher guidance until fluent. They also have the reciprocal teaching steps posted to refer to as needed.

learning disabilities who use English as a second language. The Elementary School Journal, 96, 275-293.

9. READING COMPREHENSION: RESTRUCTURING PARAGRAPHS TO PUT MAIN IDEA FIRST. This intervention draws attention to the main-idea sentence during independent reading. The student highlights or creates a main idea sentence for each paragraph in the assigned reading. When rereading each paragraph of the selection, the student (1) reads the main idea sentence or student-generated ‘gist’ sentence first (irrespective of where that sentence actually falls in the paragraph); (2) reads the remainder of the paragraph, and (3) reflects on how the main idea relates to the paragraph content.

Hedin, L. R., & Conderman, G. (2010). Teaching students to comprehend informational text through rereading. The Reading Teacher, 63(7), 556–565.

10. READING COMPREHENSION: RETAIN STORY DETAILS WITH TEXT PREVIEWING. To help students to better comprehend and retain details from an assigned story, the teacher prepares a written text preview script to be shared with students before they read the story. The strategy can be used with an individual or group of students. SCRIPT: The script opens with several statements and questions chosen to interest students in a discussion about the story topic or theme (e.g., "Today we are going to read about a boy who gets lost in the wilderness and must find his way home. Has anyone in this class ever been lost?"). The preview next includes a plot-summary up to the story climax--but does not give away the ending. As part of the summary, the preview describes the setting of the narrative and introduces the main characters. The preview also selects three to four difficult words appearing in the story and defines them. PRESENTATION: The teacher uses the preview script as a framework for introducing the story. Optionally, students also receive a handout listing main characters and their descriptions and the difficult vocabulary terms and definitions.

Burns, M. K., Hodgson, J., Parker, D. C., & Fremont, K. (2011). Comparison of the effectiveness and efficiency of text previewing and preteaching keywords as small-group reading comprehension strategies with middle-school students. Literacy Research and Instruction, 50, 241-252. Graves, M. F., Cooke, C. L., & Laberge, M. J. (1983). Effects of previewing difficult short stories on low ability junior high school students' comprehension, recall, and attitudes. Reading Research Quarterly,18(3), 262-276.

11. READING COMPREHENSION: RETAIN TEXT INFORMATION WITH PARAPHRASING (RAP). Students who fail to retain important details from their reading can be taught a self-directed paraphrasing strategy. The student is trained to use a 3-step cognitive strategy when reading each paragraph of an

Hagaman, J. L., Casey, K. J., & Reid, R. (2010). The effects of the paraphrasing strategy on the reading comprehension of young students. Remedial and

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information- text passage: (1) READ the paragraph; (2) ASK oneself what the main idea of the paragraph is and what two key details support that main idea; (3) PARAPHRASE the main idea and two supporting details into one's own words. This 3-step strategy is easily memorized using the acronym RAP (read-ask-paraphrase). OPTIONAL BUT RECOMMENDED: Create an organizer sheet with spaces for the student to record the main idea and supporting details of multiple paragraphs to be used with the RAP strategy. RAP organizer forms can provide structure to the student and yield work products that the teacher can collect to verify that the student is using the strategy.

Special Education, 33, 110-123. Klingner, J. K., & Vaughn, S. (1996). Reciprocal teaching of reading comprehension strategies for students with learning disabilities who use English as a second language. The Elementary School Journal, 96, 275-293.

12. READING COMPREHENSION: RETAIN TEXT INFORMATION WITH SELF-QUESTIONING FROM TEXT TITLES. To better retain information from textbooks and other informational text, the student is taught to use a four-step self-questioning strategy and related 'fix-up' skills during independent reading. SELF-QUESTIONING STRATEGY: The teacher creates a strategy sheet as a student resource for this intervention. The sheet contains several simple steps in checklist format that the student applies to independent reading of an informational passage: (1) Preview the titles and sub-titles in the passage; (2) Rewrite each title as a question: e.g., The title "Causes of the American Civil War" might convert to the question "What were the main causes of the Civil War?"; (3) Read the passage; (4) Review the self-generated questions and--based on the reading--attempt to answer them. FIX-UP STRATEGIES: The strategy sheet also directs the student to apply simple fix-up strategies if unable to answer a self-generated question: (1) Re-read that section of the passage; (2) Verify that you know all vocabulary terms in the passage--and look up the meaning of any unknown words; (3) examine the passage for other 'text structures' such as tables, graphs, maps, or captioned pictures that may help to answer the question; (4) write down remaining unanswered questions to review with the teacher or tutor. To monitor use of this strategy, the teacher may direct the student to write down self-generated questions from reading assignments for the teacher's review.

Berkeley, S., Marshak, L., Mastropieri, M. A., & Scruggs, T. E. (2011). Improving student comprehension of social studies text: A self-questioning strategy for inclusive middle school classes. Remedial and Special Education 32, 105-113.

13. READING COMPREHENSION: SUMMARIZE READINGS. The act of summarizing longer readings can promote understanding and retention of content while the summarized text itself can be a useful study tool. The student is taught to condense assigned readings into condensed summaries--consisting of main ideas and essential details and stripped of superfluous content.

Boardman, A. G., Roberts, G., Vaughn, S., Wexler, J., Murray, C. S., & Kosanovich, M. (2008). Effective instruction for adolescent struggling readers: A practice brief. Portsmouth, NH: RMC Research Corporation, Center on Instruction.

14. READING COMPREHENSION: TEXT ENHANCEMENTS. Text enhancements can be used to tag important vocabulary terms, key ideas, or other reading content. If working with photocopied material, the student can use a highlighter to note key ideas or vocabulary. Another enhancement strategy is the ‘lasso and

Hedin, L. R., & Conderman, G. (2010). Teaching students to comprehend informational text through rereading. The Reading Teacher, 63(7),

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rope’ technique—using a pen or pencil to circle a vocabulary term and then drawing a line that connects that term to its underlined definition. If working from a textbook, the student can cut sticky notes into strips. These strips can be inserted in the book as pointers to text of interest. They can also be used as temporary labels—e.g., for writing a vocabulary term and its definition.

556–565.

Classroom Interventions: Spelling


1. SPELLING: ASSESSMENT: EVALUATE STUDENT GROWTH DAILY. Each day, before the student practices spelling words (whether alone, with a peer, or with an adult), the teacher administers a brief spelling pre-test. The daily pre-test contains any spelling words that the student is currently working on or that will be introduced during the day's session.( In addition, the daily pre-test should also contain a sampling of words previously learned as a maintenance check.) At the end of the student's practice period, the same spelling list is readministered to the student--with words presented in a different order-- to formatively track spelling growth. Results are shared with the student.

Graham, S.,& Voth, V. P. (1990). Spelling instruction: Making modifications for students with learning disabilities. Academic Therapy, 25(4), 447-457.

2. SPELLING: ASSESSMENT: GIVE PRE- AND POST-TESTS. Before assigning a spelling list, the teacher tests students' knowledge of words on the list by giving a non-graded spelling pre-test. Students then study the words they spelled incorrectly--narrowing the number of spelling items to be practiced. At the end of the study period, students are re-tested on the full spelling list and receive a grade.

Graham, S. (1999). Handwriting and spelling instruction for students with learning disabilities: A review. Learning Disability Quarterly, 22(2), 78-98.

3. SPELLING: MOTIVATE ON-TASK BEHAVIOR THROUGH SELF-MONITORING. During spelling-review sessions, direct the student to keep track of the number of times that he or she practices a particular word (e.g., by putting a series of tally marks next to each word on the spelling list). Self-monitoring can increase the student's rate of on-task behavior and academic engagement.


4. SPELLING: PERSONALIZED DICTIONARY. As a writing aid, help the student to compile her or his own spelling dictionary made up of 'spelling demons' (common words that challenge any speller), as well as other words that the student commonly misspells. When writing and revising a writing assignment, the student consults the dictionary as needed. This dictionary should grow over time as the student encounters more advanced vocabulary and more demanding spelling lists.


5. SPELLING: PRACTICE: ADD-A-WORD. The Add-a-Word program is well-suited for the student who needs a high rate of success and review to maintain spelling motivation. The student

Schermerhorn, P. K., & McLaughlin, T. F. (1997): Effects of the Add-A-Word

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is given an initial list of 10 spelling words. For each word, the student applies the Cover-Copy-Compare (CCC) strategy: (1) The student looks the correctly spelled word on the spelling list; (2) The student covers the model word(e.g., with an index card); (3) From memory, the student writes the spelling word; (4) The student uncovers the original model and compares it to the student response; (5) If incorrect, the student repeats the CCC steps with the error word. The student reviews each spelling word on the list using CCC until he or she spells it correctly twice in a row. At the end of the practice session, the student is given an exit spelling test on all 10 words and scores (or has the teacher score) the test. All correct words on the test are added to the student's log of mastered spelling words. Any word spelled correctly on the exit test two days in a row is removed from the current 10-word list, to be replaced by a new word. A week after initial mastery, mastered words are included as review words on the student's daily exit spelling test . If spelled correctly on the one-week checkup, mastered words are placed again as review words on the spelling test one month later. Any mastered word misspelled on either review test goes back onto the student's 10-item current spelling list.

spelling program on test accuracy, grades, and retention of spelling words with fifth and sixth grade regular education students. Child & Family Behavior Therapy, 19(1), 23-35.

6. SPELLING: PRACTICE: ADOPT A KINESTHETIC APPROACH. The student is trained to practice spelling words using the following sequence: (1) The student says the word aloud; (2) The student writes the word and then says it again; (3) The student checks the word by consulting the spelling list and corrects the word if required; (4) The student traces the letters of the word while saying the word; (5) The student again writes the word from memory, checks the word, and corrects it if required. The student then moves to the next word on the spelling list and repeats the steps above.

Graham, S., & Freeman, S. (1986). Strategy training and teacher vs. student-controlled study conditions: Effects on learning disabled students' spelling performance. Learning Disability Quarterly, 9, 15-22.

7. SPELLING: PRACTICE: BREAK THE LARGER LIST INTO SMALLER SEGMENTS. Rather than overwhelming the student with a large set of spelling words to be mastered all at once, introduce 3-4 new words per day for the student to practice from the larger list. Once all words from the master list have been introduced, continue to practice until the full list has been mastered.


8. SPELLING: PRACTICE: COVER-COPY-COMPARE. The student is trained to practice spelling words using the following sequence: (1) The student looks at a model of the correctly spelled word; (2) The student covers the model word(e.g., with an index card); (3) From memory, the student writes the spelling word; (4) The student uncovers the original model and compares it to the student response; (5) If incorrect, the student repeats steps 1-4 with the error word. If correct, the student goes to the next word on the spelling list and applies steps 1-4.

Skinner, C. H., McLaughlin, T. F., & Logan, P. (1997). Cover, copy, and compare: A self-managed academic intervention effective across skills, students, and settings. Journal of Behavioral Education, 7, 295-306.

9. SPELLING: PRACTICE: ENGAGE IN A CLASSWIDE GAME. To make the study of spelling words more engaging, the teacher can divide the class at random each week into two teams. Within each team, students are paired off. Each pair meets through the

Graham, S. (1999). Handwriting and spelling instruction for students with learning disabilities: A review.

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week (e.g., daily) for 10-minute sessions. During the first 5 minutes, one student takes the role of tutor. The tutor reads words from the weekly spelling list aloud to the other student/tutee, who writes the word down and at the same time calls out each letter of the word being written. If the tutee correctly spells the word, he or she is awarded 2 points. If the word is incorrect, the tutor reads the word and spells it correctly aloud; has the tutee successfully write the word three times; and then awards the tutee 1 point. At the end of 5 minutes, the pair reverses the roles of tutor and tutee and repeat the process. When finished, the pair reports its cumulative points to the teacher. Team totals are posted each day and added to the weekly team point totals. At the end of the week, students take the final spelling test and receive 3 points for each correct word. These spelling test points are also added to the team totals. At the end of the week, the class team with the most spelling points wins a certificate.

Learning Disability Quarterly, 22(2), 78-98.

10. SPELLING: PRACTICE: HIGHTLIGHT PHONEMIC ELEMENTS. The teach and student practice spelling words using the following sequence: (1) The teacher states the word aloud, then points to each letter and gives its name; (2) The student next states the word aloud, then points to each letter and gives its name; (3) The teacher shows a copy of the word to the student with the onset and rime displayed in different colors; (4) The teacher points first to the onset of the word and pronounces it, then points to the rime and pronounces it; (5) The student then points first to the onset and pronounces it, then points to the rime and pronounces it. NOTE: In a single-syllable word, the onset consists of the consonant(s) appearing at the front of the word, while the rime is the part of the word made up of its vowel and any consonants that follow the vowel. For example, in the word black, the onset is [bl-] and the rime is[–ack].

Berninger, V., Vaughn, K., Abbott, R., Brooks, A., Abbott, S., Rogan, L., Reed, E., & Graham, S. (1998). A multiple connections approach to early intervention for spelling problems: Integrating instructional, learner, and stimulus variables. Journal of Educational Psychology, 90, 587-605.

11. SPELLING: PRACTICE: OFFER CHOICE OF STRATEGIES. Students can be offered several strategies for effective spelling practice and directed to select one or more to use independently or under teacher supervision. Strategies include (1) pronouncing a word slowly and clearly before writing it; (2) saying the letters aloud while writing them; (3) tracing the word as part of the practice sequence; (4) closing one's eyes and visualizing the letters that make up the word; and (5) circling the problem letters of a word misspelled by the student , studying them, and then studying the correct spelling of that word.


12. SPELLING: PRACTICE: REPEATED DRILL WITH SOUNDING OUT. The teach and student practice spelling words using the following sequence: (1) The teacher shows the student a flashcard with the spelling word and reads the word aloud; (2) The student reads the word aloud from the flashcard; (3) The teacher withdraws the flashcard; (4) The student writes the word from memory, saying the name of each letter while writing it; (5) The student reads aloud the word just written; (6) The teacher again shows the correct word model on the flashcard. If the

Graham, S. (1999). Handwriting and spelling instruction for students with learning disabilities: A review. Learning Disability Quarterly, 22(2), 78-98. Mann, T. B., Bushell Jr., D., & Morris, E. K. (2010). Use of

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student response is incorrect, the student corrects the spelling using the flashcard model. (7) Teacher and student repeat steps 1-6 twice.

sounding out to improve spelling in young children. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 43(1), 89-93.

13. SPELLING: PRACTICE: VISUALIZATION. The student is trained to practice spelling words using the following sequence: (1) The student looks at the target spelling word, reads it aloud, then covers the word (e.g., with an index card); (2) The student closes his or her eyes and pictures the word; (3) Still with eyes closed, the student silently names each letter in the word; (4) The student opens his or her eyes and writes the word; (5) The student uncovers the original model and checks the spelling of the student response. (6) If incorrect, the student repeats steps 1-5 with the current word. If correct, the student advances to the next word to repeat the process.

Berninger, V., Abbott, R., Whitaker, D., Sylvester, L., & Nolan, S. (1995). Integrating low- and high-level skills in instructional protocols for writing disabilities. Learning Disability Quarterly, 18, 293-310.

14. SPELLING: TRAIN SPELLING-WORD PREDICTION SKILLS. When students can accurately assess which words on a spelling list are likely to be the most difficult, they can better and more efficiently allocate study time. Whenever giving the student a spelling list, have the student review the new words and circle those that the student predicts that he or she can spell correctly. In follow-up assessments, compare these initial predictions to actual performance as feedback about how accurately the student can predict success. Over time, the student should become more skilled in judging which spelling words will require the greatest study effort.


Classroom Interventions: Writing Production


1. WRITING: PRODUCTION: DRAWING AS A PRE-WRITING ACTIVITY. The teacher presents the student with a motivating writing topic and allocates a sufficient time (e.g., 30 minutes) for the student to produce a composition. During the writing period, the student is directed to first draw a picture about the topic and then to write a composition on the same topic.

Norris, E., Mokhtari, K., & Reichard, C. (1998). Children's use of drawing as a pre-writing strategy. Journal of Research in Reading, 21(1), 69-74.

2. WRITING: PRODUCTION: REGULAR WRITING WITH PROMPTS. The student engages in 20-minute writing sessions. Before each writing session the student briefly reviews the following prompts for writing mechanics--with an instructor or in peer pairs or groups--and has them available as a written checklist: (1) Use complete sentences. Each sentence should 'sound complete' and contain at least one subject and one verb. (2) Indent and punctuate. The first sentence of each new paragraph is indented. Each sentence in the passage has appropriate end-punctuation (period, question mark, exclamation point). Quotation marks are used to denote the exact words spoken by someone. (3) Capitalize. The initial letters of these words are capitalized: the first word in a sentence; the names of proper nouns. At the end of the session, the student uses the

Harriman, N. E., & Gajar, A.H. (1986). The effects of repeated writing and repeated revision strategies on composing fluency of learning disabled adolescents (Report No. ED290312). Educational Resources Information Center.

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mechanics checklist to revise the writing sample before turning it in.

3. WRITING: PRODUCTION: TIME-DRILLS AND GRAPHING. This intervention uses 5-minute writing drills with visual feedback (graphing) to improve the writing fluency of groups or the entire class. WRITING DRILL: The session opens with quick brainstorming or topic discussion to prime student writers. Then the teacher sets a timer and tells the students to write for five minutes. The teacher announces when there is one minute remaining in the session and tells students to stop writing when the timer sounds. The following rules are publicly posted and reviewed with students before writing sessions: (1) Write quickly in legible handwriting;(2) Cross out mistakes and continue writing;(3) Write for the full 5 minutes; (4) Refrain from talking or other distracting behavior; and(5) Do not request bathroom or drink breaks during the drill. SCORING: Students count up the number of words written and exchange their writing samples with a neighbor, who re-counts total words written to ensure accuracy. (The teacher resolves any scoring disagreements between students.) GRAPHING AND INCENTIVES: Each student updates a paper or computerized bar graph to include the current day's writing total and cumulative weekly total. Students receive recognition (e.g., praise) for improved daily scores and earn incentives (e.g., 10 minutes free time) for improved weekly scores. The teacher also collects writing scores from all students on a daily basis, with rotating students updating a daily class chart. The teacher acknowledges daily class improvement and provides an incentive for weekly class improvements (e.g., special class game played at the end of the week).

Kasper-Ferguson, S., & Moxley, R. A. (2002). Developing a writing package with student graphing of fluency. Education and Treatment of Children, 25(2), 249-267.

Classroom Interventions: Math Computation

Academic Intervention Strategies Teacher Notes

1. MATH: COMPUTATION STRATEGY: ADDITION: COUNT-UP. Train the student to use this strategy to complete basic addition operations: (1) The student is given a copy of a number-line spanning 0-20. (2) When presented with a two-addend addition problem, the student is taught to start with the larger of the two addends and to 'count up' by the amount of the smaller addend to arrive at the answer to the addition problem.

2. MATH: COMPUTATION STRATEGY: SUBTRACTION: COUNT-UP. Train the student to use this strategy to complete basic subtraction operations: (1) The student is given a copy of a number-line spanning 0-20. (2) The student is taught to refer to the first number appearing in the subtraction problem (the minuend) as 'the number you start with' and to refer to the number appearing after the minus (subtrahend) as 'the minus number'. (3) The student is directed to start at the minus number on the number-line and --from that start point--to count up to the starting number while keeping a running tally of numbers counted up on his or her fingers.

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(4) The final tally of digits separating the minus number and starting number is the answer to the subtraction problem.

3. MATH: COMPUTATION STRATEGY: MULTIPLICATION: COUNT-BY. Train the student to use this strategy to complete basic multiplication operations: (1) The student looks at the two terms of the multiplication problem and chooses one of the terms as a number that he or she can count by (the 'count by' number). (2) The student takes the remaining term from the multiplication problem (the 'count times' number) and makes a corresponding number of tally marks to match it. (3) The student starts counting using the 'count by' number. While counting, the student touches each of the tally marks matching the 'count times' number. (4) The student stops counting when he or she has reached the final tally-mark. (5) The student writes down the last number said as the answer to the multiplication problem.

Classroom Interventions: Math Facts


1. MATH: ARITHMETIC FACTS: ACQUISITION: COVER-COPY-COMPARE. To memorize arithmetic facts, the student can be trained to independently use Cover-Copy-Compare: The student is given a worksheet with computation problems and answers appearing on the left side of the sheet, and the right side of the page left blank. The student is also given an index card. For each arithmetic-fact item, the student is directed (1) to study the correct arithmetic problem and answer on the left, (2) to cover the correct model with the index card, (3) from memory, to copy the arithmetic fact and answer onto the work space on the right side of the sheet, and (4) to compare the student version of the arithmetic fact and answer to the original model to ensure that it was copied correctly and completely.

Skinner, C. H., McLaughlin, T. F., & Logan, P. (1997). Cover, copy, and compare: A self-managed academic intervention effective across skills, students, and settings. Journal of Behavioral Education, 7, 295-306.

2. MATH: ARITHMETIC FACTS: ACQUISITION: INCREMENTAL REHEARSAL. Incremental rehearsal is a useful strategy to help the student to acquire arithmetic facts. Sessions last 10-15 minutes. In preparation for this intervention, the teacher prepares a set of arithmetic-fact flashcards displaying equations but no answers. The teacher reviews all of the flashcards with the student. Flashcards that the student correctly answers within 2 seconds are sorted into a 'KNOWN' pile, while flashcards for which the student gives an incorrect answer or hesitates for longer than 2 seconds are sorted into the 'UNKNOWN' pile. During the intervention: (1) the teacher selects a card from the UNKNOWN pile (Card UK1), presents it to the student, reads off the arithmetic problem, and provides the answer (e.g., '4 x 8=32'). The student is then prompted to read the problem and give the correct answer (2) Next, the teacher selects a card from the KNOWN pile (Card K1) and adds it to the previously practiced card (UK1). In succession, the teacher shows the student

Burns, M. K. (2005). Using incremental rehearsal to increase fluency of single-digit multiplication facts with children identified as learning disabled in mathematics computation. Education and Treatment of Children, 28, 237-249.

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the unknown (UK1) and the known (K1) card. The student has 2 seconds to provide an answer for each card. Whenever the student responds incorrectly or hesitates for longer than 2 seconds, the teacher corrects student responses as needed and has the student state the correct response. (3) The teacher then selects a second card from the KNOWN pile (card K2) and adds it to the student stack--reviewing cards UK1, K1, and K2. (4) This incremental review process repeats until the student's flashcard stack comprises 10 cards: 1 unknown and 9 known. (5) At this point, the original unknown card (UK1) is now considered to be a 'known' card and is retained in the student's review-card stack. To make room for it, the last known card (K9) is removed, leaving 9 known cards in that student's stack. (6) The teacher then draws a new card from the UNKNOWN pile (card UK2) and repeats the incremental review process described above, each time adding known cards from the 9-card student stack in incremental fashion.

3. MATH: ARITHMETIC FACTS: FLUENCY: PERFORMANCE FEEDBACK & GOAL-SETTING. The student gets regular feedback about computation fluency and sets performance goals. In preparation for this intervention, the teacher decides on a fixed time limit for worksheet drills (e.g., 5 or 10 minutes) --with an equivalent worksheet to be prepared for each session. In each session, before the student begins the worksheet, (1) the teacher provides the student with feedback about the number of correct problems and errors on the most recent previous worksheet, and (2) the teacher and student agree on an improvement-goal for the current worksheet (e.g., to increase the number of correct problems by at least 2 and to reduce the errors by at least 1). Student performance on worksheets is charted at each session.

Codding, R. S., Baglici, S., Gottesman, D., Johnson, M., Kert, A. S., & LeBeouf, P. (2009).Selecting intervention strategies: Using brief experimental analysis for mathematics problems. Journal of Applied School Psychology, 25, 146-168.

4. MATH: ARITHMETIC FACTS: FLUENCY: PROVIDE INCENTIVES. A student may benefit from incentives to increase fluency with math facts. BRIEF ANALYSIS: The teacher first conducts a brief experimental analysis to determine whether incentives will increase a particular student's performance: (1) The student is given a worksheet with arithmetic facts and allotted two minutes to complete as many items as possible. The student receives a point for each correct digit written on the worksheet. (2) The teacher next prepares an equivalent worksheet with different problems--but composed of the same type and number of problems. (3) Before administering the second worksheet, the teacher presents the student with a 'prize bag' with tangible items (e.g., markers, small toys) and perhaps edible items (e.g., packaged raisins, crackers, etc.). The student is told that if he/she can increase performance on the second worksheet by at least 30%, the student will earn a prize. The student is asked to select a preferred prize from the prize bag. (4) The student is given the second worksheet and works on it for 2 minutes. Again, the worksheet is scored for correct digits. (5) If the student meets the fluency goal, he/she receives the selected prize. If the student fails to meet the goal, he/she is given a sticker as a consolation prize. USE OF INCENTIVES: The teacher uses incentives only if the preceding brief analysis indicates that incentives are an effective motivator. For this intervention, the

Codding, R. S., Baglici, S., Gottesman, D., Johnson, M., Kert, A. S., & LeBeouf, P. (2009).Selecting intervention strategies: Using brief experimental analysis for mathematics problems. Journal of Applied School Psychology, 25, 146-168.

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teacher decides on a fixed time limit for worksheet drills (e.g., 5 or 10 minutes) --with an equivalent worksheet to be prepared for each session. In each session, before the student begins the worksheet, (1) the student is asked to select a potential prize from the prize bag, (2) the student reviews his/her most recent previous worksheet score, and (3) the student and teacher set an improvement goal for the current worksheet (e.g., to exceed the previous score by at least 2 correct digits). If the student meets the goal, he/she is given the prize; if the student falls short, the teacher provides verbal encouragement and perhaps a sticker as a consolation prize. Student performance on worksheets is charted at each session.

5. MATH: ARITHMETIC FACTS: FLUENCY: TIME DRILLS. Explicit time-drills are a method to boost students’ rate of responding on arithmetic-fact worksheets: (1) The teacher hands out the worksheet. Students are instructed that they will have 3 minutes to work on problems on the sheet. (2) The teacher starts the stop watch and tells the students to start work. (3) At the end of the first minute in the 3-minute span, the teacher ‘calls time’, stops the stopwatch, and tells the students to underline the last number written and to put their pencils in the air. Then students are told to resume work and the teacher restarts the stopwatch. (4) This process is repeated at the end of minutes 2 and 3. (5) At the conclusion of the 3 minutes, the teacher collects the student worksheets.

Rhymer, K. N., Skinner, C. H., Jackson, S., McNeill, S., Smith, T., & Jackson, B. (2002). The 1-minute explicit timing intervention: The influence of mathematics problem difficulty. Journal of Instructional Psychology, 29(4), 305-311. Skinner, C. H., Pappas, D. N., & Davis, K. A. (2005). Enhancing academic engagement: Providing opportunities for responding and influencing students to choose to respond. Psychology in the Schools, 42, 389-403.

Classroom Interventions: Math Word Problems


1. MATH: WORD PROBLEMS: ACQUISITION: USE WORKED EXAMPLES. Students acquiring math skills in the form of word-problems benefit from being given completed problems ('worked examples') to study. Teachers should observe these recommendations when formatting, teacher, and using worked examples as a student support: (1) FORMAT PROBLEM-SOLVING STEPS: the solution presented in the worked example should be broken down into discrete, labeled sub-steps/sub-goals corresponding to the appropriate process for solving the problem. (2) COMBINE TEXT AND GRAPHICS. If both text and visual elements appear in the worked example, they should be integrated into a single unitary display, if possible, rather than split into separate components--so as not to overwhelm the novice learner. (3) PAIR WORKED WITH UNWORKED EXAMPLES. Whenever the student is given a worked example to study, he or she should then immediately be presented with 1-2 similar examples to solve.

Atkinson, R. K., Derry, S. J., Renkl, A., & Wortham, D. (2000). Learning from examples: Instructional principles from the worked examples research. Review of Educational Research, 70(2), 181-214.

2. MATH: WORD PROBLEMS: METACOGNITION: PARING Atkinson, R. K., Derry, S. J.,

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WORKED EXAMPLES WITH SELF-EXPLANATION. Students who can coach themselves through math problem-solving steps ('self-explanation') demonstrate increased conceptual understanding of the task. The student should be explicitly coached to 'self-explain' each of the steps to be used in solving a particular type of problem--starting with completed problems ('worked examples') before advancing to unworked problems: (1) INTRODUCTION TO SELF-EXPLANATION. The teacher first explains the importance of self-explanation as a student math self-help skill. (2) TEACHER MODELING. Next, the teacher models self-explanation, applying the appropriate problem-solving steps to a worked example. (3) STUDENT MODELING WITH TEACHER FEEDBACK. The teacher then coaches the student's own self-explanation efforts, as the student moves through the steps of a second worked example. (4) INDEPENDENT STUDENT APPLICATION. When the student has successfully mastered the process, he or she is directed to use self-explanation during the problem-solving steps with any unworked problems.

Renkl, A., & Wortham, D. (2000). Learning from examples: Instructional principles from the worked examples research. Review of Educational Research, 70(2), 181-214. Tajika, H., Nakatsu, N., Nozaki, H., Neumann, E., & Maruno, S. (2007). Self-explanation for solving mathematical word problems: Effects of self-explanation as a metacognitive strategy for solving mathematical word problems. Japanese Psychological Research, 49(3), 222-233.

3. MATH: WORD PROBLEMS: STRATEGY: DRAW THE PROBLEM. The student can clarify understanding of a word problem by making a drawing of it before solving. To teach this strategy: (1) The teacher gives the student a worksheet containing at least six word problems. (2) The teacher explains to the student that making a picture of a word problem can make that problem clearer and easier to solve. (3) The teacher and student independently create drawings of each of the problems on the worksheet. (4) Next, the student shows his or her drawings for each problem while explaining each drawing and how it relates to the word problem. (5) The teacher also participates, explaining his or her drawings to the student. (6) The student is then directed to 'draw the problem' whenever solving challenging word problems.

Van Garderen, D. (2006). Spatial visualization, visual imagery, and mathematical problem solving of students with varying abilities. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 39, 496-506.

4. MATH: WORD PROBLEMS: STRATEGY: 4-STEP PLANNING PROCESS. The student can consistently perform better on applied math problems when following this efficient 4-step plan: (1) UNDERSTAND THE PROBLEM. To fully grasp the problem, the student may restate the problem in his or her own words, note key information, and identify missing information. (2) DEVISE A PLAN. In mapping out a strategy to solve the problem, the student may make a table, draw a diagram, or translate the verbal problem into an equation. (3) CARRY OUT THE PLAN. The student implements the steps in the plan, showing work and checking work for each step. (4) LOOK BACK. The student checks the results. If the answer is written as an equation, the student puts the results in words and checks whether the answer addresses the question posed in the original word problem.

Pólya, G. (1957). How to solve it (2nd ed.). Princeton University Press: Princeton, N.J. Williams, K. M. (2003). Writing about the problem solving process to improve problem-solving performance. Mathematics Teacher, 96(3), 185-187.

5. MATH: WORD PROBLEMS: STRATEGY: 7-STEP PLANNING PROCESS. Students with a consistent strategy to take on math word problems work more efficiently and avoid needless errors. Presented here is an all-purpose 7-step cognitive strategy useful for solving any math word problem: This strategy should be formatted as a checklist for independent student use: (1) READ THE

Montague, M. (1992). The effects of cognitive and metacognitive strategy instruction on the mathematical problem solving of middle school students with learning

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PROBLEM. The student reads the problem carefully, noting and attempting to clear up any areas of uncertainly or confusion (e.g., unknown vocabulary terms). (2) PARAPHRASE THE PROBLEM. The student restates the problem in his or her own words. (3) DRAW THE PROBLEM. The student creates a drawing of the word problem, converting words to a visual representation of that problem. (4) CREATE A PLAN TO SOLVE. The student decides on the best way to solve the problem and develops a plan to do so. (5) PREDICT/ESTIMATE THE ANSWER. The student estimates or predicts what the answer to the problem will be. The student may compute a quick approximation of the answer, using rounding or other shortcuts. (6) COMPUTE THE ANSWER. The student follows the plan developed previously to solve the problem and arrive at the correct answer. (7) CHECK THE ANSWER. The student methodically checks the calculations for each step of the problem. The student also compares the actual answer to the estimated answer calculated in a previous step to ensure that there is general agreement between the two values.

disabilities. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 25, 230-248. Montague, M., & Dietz, S. (2009). Evaluating the evidence base for cognitive strategy instruction and mathematical problem solving. Exceptional Children, 75, 285-302.

6. MATH: WORD PROBLEMS: STRATEGY: SELF-CORRECTION CHECKLISTS. The student can improve accuracy on particular types of word and number problems by using an ‘individualized self-instruction checklist’ to direct attention to his or her unique error patterns: (1) To create such a checklist, the teacher meets with the student. Together they analyze common error patterns that the student tends to commit on a particular problem type (e.g., ‘On addition problems that require carrying, I don’t always remember to carry the number from the previously added column.’). For each type of error identified, the student and teacher together describe the appropriate step to take to prevent the error from occurring (e.g., ‘When adding each column, make sure to carry numbers when needed.’). (2) These self-check items are compiled into a single checklist. (3) The student is encouraged to use the individualized self-instruction checklist when working independently on number or word problems. TIP: As older students become proficient in creating and using these individualized error checklists, they can begin to analyze their own math errors and to make their checklists independently whenever they encounter new problem types.

Uberti, H. Z., Mastropieri, M. A., & Scruggs, T. E. (2004). Check it off: Individualizing a math algorithm for students with disabilities via self-monitoring checklists. Intervention in School and Clinic, 39(5), 269-275.

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Good Behavior Game: A Tier 1 (Classroom) Whole-Group Method for Enhancing Student Attending & Work Completion The Good Behavior Game is an approach to the management of classrooms behaviors that rewards children for displaying appropriate on-task behaviors during instructional times. The class is divided into two teams and a point is given to a team for any inappropriate behavior displayed by one of its members. The team with the fewest number of points at the Game's conclusion each day wins a group reward. If both teams keep their points below a preset level, then both teams share in the reward. The program was first tested in 1969; several research articles have confirmed that the Game is an effective means of increasing the rate of on-task behaviors while reducing disruptions in the classroom (Barrish, Saunders, & Wolf, 1969; Harris & Sherman, 1973; Medland & Stachnik, 1972). The process of introducing the Good Behavior Game into a classroom is a relatively simple procedure. There are five steps involved in putting the Game into practice. Steps in Implementing This Intervention:

1. Decide when to schedule the Game. The teacher first decides during what period(s) of the school day the Game will be played. As a rule of thumb, instructors should pick those times when the entire class is expected to show appropriate academic behaviors. Blocks of time devoted to reading, math, content instruction, and independent seatwork would be most appropriate for putting the Game into effect.

2. Clearly define the negative behaviors that will be scored during the Game. Teachers who have used the Good behavior Game typically define three types of negative behavior that will be scored whenever they appear during the Game. Those behaviors are:

• leaving one's seat, • talking out, and • engaging in disruptive behavior.

Out-of-seat behavior is defined as any incident in which a student leaves his or her seat without first getting permission from the teacher. Related behaviors, such as "scootching" one's seat toward another desk are usually scored as out-of-seat. Instructors often build in certain exceptions to this rule. For example, in some classrooms, children can take a pass to the bathroom, approach the teacher's desk for additional help, or move from one work site to another in the room without permission as long as these movements are conducted quietly and are a part of the accepted classroom routine. Children who leave their seats intending to complete an allowed activity but find that they cannot (e.g., walking toward the teacher's desk and then noticing that another student is already there) are not scored as being out of their seat if they quickly and quietly return to their desk.

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Talking-out behavior is defined as any incident of talking out loud without the permission of the instructor. Permission is gained by raising one's hand and first being recognized by the teacher before speaking. Any type of unauthorized vocalization within the hearing of the instructor is scored as talking out, including shouts, nonsense noises (e.g., growling, howling, whistling), whispers, and talking while one's hand is raised. Disruptive behavior consists of any movement or act that is judged by the teacher to be disruptive of classroom instruction. For example, knocking on a table, looking around the room, tearing up paper, passing notes, or playing with toys at one's desk would all be scored as disruptive behaviors. A good rule of thumb would be to regard as disruptive behavior any action that does not fall under another category but is perceived by the teacher as annoying or distracting.

3. Decide upon suitable daily and (perhaps) weekly rewards for teams winning the Game. Teachers will need to choose rewards that they feel will effectively motivate students to take part in the Game. Most often, instructors use free time as a daily reward, since children often find it motivating. To cite a single example, one teacher's reward system included giving her daily 4th-grade Game winners the privilege of wearing a "victory tag," putting a star next to their names on a "Winner's Chart," lining up first for lunch, and getting 30 minutes of time at the end of the day to work on fun, educationally related topics. When choosing rewards, instructors are advised to consider using reinforcers that fit naturally into the context and mission of a classroom. For example, allowing winners to play quietly together at the end of the school day may help to promote social skills, but dispensing material rewards (e.g., comic books) to winners would probably be less likely to contribute directly to educational and social goals. Of course, if both teams win on a given day or a given week, the members of those teams all receive the same rewards.

4. Introduce the Game to the class. Once behaviors have been selected and clearly defined by the teacher, the next step is to introduce the Game to the class. Ideally, time should be set aside for an initial group discussion. The teacher mentions that the class will be playing a game and presents a schedule clearly setting forth the instructional times during which the game will be in effect. The teacher next divides the classroom into two teams. For ease of recording, it is usually recommended that the instructor divide the class down the center of the room into roughly equal halves. Some teachers have used three teams successfully as well. To build a sense of team spirit, students may be encouraged to name their groups. The children are informed that certain types of behavior (i.e., leaving one's seat or talking without permission, and engaging in disruptive behaviors) will earn points for the team to which they belong. Students are also told that both teams can win if they earn no more than a certain number of points (e.g., 4 points maximum per day). If both teams happen to exceed 4 points, then the team with the lowest total at the end of the day is the winner. In case of a tie, both teams earn the reward. The instructor is the final judge of whether a behavior is to be scored. (As an option, students can also be told that the team with the fewest number of points at the end of the week will win an additional reward.)It is a good idea when introducing the Game to students to clearly review examples of acceptable and unacceptable behaviors. After all, it is important that all children know the rules before the Game begins. To more effectively illustrate those rules, children may be recruited to demonstrate acceptable and unacceptable behaviors, or the teacher may describe a

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number of behaviors and ask the class to decide with a show of hands whether such behaviors are to be scored or not.

5. Put the Game into effect. The instructor is now ready to start the Game. During those times that the game is in effect in the classroom, the teacher continues to carry out his or her usual instructional practices. The only alteration in the routine is that the instructor is also noting and publicly recording any negative points incurred by either team. Instructors might want to post scores on the blackboard or on a large piece of paper visible to everyone in the room. If working with children in a small group, the instructor can record negative behaviors on a small note pad and later transfer them to the blackboard. Teachers can also choose to publicly announce when another point has been earned as a reminder to the class about acceptable behavior. It is helpful to keep a weekly tally of points for each team, especially if teams are competing for weekly as well as daily rewards. Care should be taken to be as consistent as possible in scoring negative behaviors. Winning teams should be praised as well as rewarded for their efforts, with that praise tied when possible to specifically observed behaviors. Instructors may want to alter the Game somewhat as necessary (e.g., changing rewards or more carefully defining acceptable and unacceptable behaviors with students). Obviously, any alteration of the Game, no matter how small, should be shared with the classroom before being put into effect.

Troubleshooting: How to Deal With Common Problems in Using the 'Good Behavior Game' Q: What should I do if a small number of students try to sabotage the game for other children by deliberately acting out and earning penalty points for their team? If a small number of students are earning a large number of points during the Game, consider forming them into a separate team. While not the norm, occasionally a single student or small group of children may be tempted to undermine the Game by deliberately incurring a large number of penalty points for their teams. (Such children may find the resulting negative social attention of other members of their team to be its own reward!) A simple remedy for this problem is to modify the Game by making those disruptive students into a separate team. The Game will continue unchanged, except that your room will now have three teams rather than two competing for rewards. Q: I have used the Good Behavior Game for a while and have found it to be effective. But lately it doesn't seem to have the same impact on my students. What do you recommend? If the Good Behavior Game appears to be losing effectiveness over time, be sure that you are consistently noting and assigning team points for inappropriate behaviors and that you are avoiding verbal arguments with students. It is very important that points be assigned consistently when you witness inappropriate behavior; otherwise, the Game may not bring about the expected behavioral improvement among your students. Teachers using the Game sometimes find it helpful to have another adult familiar with the Good Behavior Game observe them and offer feedback about their consistency in assigning points and success in avoiding negative verbal exchanges with students.

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References Barrish, H.H., Saunders, M, & Wold, M.M. (1969). Good behavior game: Effects of individual contingencies for group consequences on disruptive behavior in a classroom. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 2, 119-124. Harris, V.W. & Sherman, J.A. (1973). Use and analysis of the "Good Behavior Game" to reduce disruptive classroom behavior. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 6, 405-417. Medland, M. B. & Stachnik, T.J. (1972). Good-behavior Game: A replication and systematic analysis. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 5, 45-51.

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Behavior Contracts The behavior contract is a simple positive-reinforcement intervention that is widely used by teachers to change student behavior. The behavior contract spells out in detail the expectations of student and teacher (and sometimes parents) in carrying out the intervention plan, making it a useful planning document. Also, because the student usually has input into the conditions that are established within the contract for earning rewards, the student is more likely to be motivated to abide by the terms of the behavior contract than if those terms had been imposed by someone else.

Steps in Implementing This Intervention The teacher decides which specific behaviors to select for the behavior contract. When possible, teachers should define behavior targets for the contract in the form of positive, pro-academic or pro-social behaviors. For example, an instructor may be concerned that a student frequently calls out answers during lecture periods without first getting permission from the teacher to speak. For the contract, the teacher's concern that the student talks out may be restated positively as "The student will participate in class lecture and discussion, raising his hand and being recognized by the teacher before offering an answer or comment." In many instances, the student can take part in selecting positive goals to increase the child's involvement in, and motivation toward, the behavioral contract. The teacher meets with the student to draw up a behavior contract. (If appropriate, other school staff members and perhaps the student's parent(s) are invited to participate as well.) The teacher next meets with the student to draw up a behavior contract. The contract should include: a listing of student behaviors that are to be reduced or increased. As stated above, the

student's behavioral goals should usually be stated in positive, goal-oriented terms. Also, behavioral definitions should be described in sufficient detail to prevent disagreement about student compliance. The teacher should also select target behaviors that are easy to observe and verify. For instance completion of class assignments is a behavioral goal that can be readily evaluated. If the teacher selects the goal that a child "will not steal pens from other students", though, this goal will be very difficult to observe and confirm.

a statement or section that explains the minimum conditions under which the student will earn

a point, sticker, or other token for showing appropriate behaviors. For example, a contract may state that "Johnny will add a point to his Good Behavior Chart each time he arrives at school on time and hands in his completed homework assignment to the teacher."

the conditions under which the student will be able to redeem collected stickers, points, or

other tokens to redeem for specific rewards. A contract may state, for instance, that "When Johnny has earned 5 points on his Good Behavior Chart, he may select a friend, choose a game from the play-materials shelf, and spend 10 minutes during free time at the end of the day playing the game."

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bonus and penalty clauses (optional). Although not required, bonus and penalty clauses can provide extra incentives for the student to follow the contract. A bonus clause usually offers the student some type of additional 'pay-off' for consistently reaching behavioral targets. A penalty clause may prescribe a penalty for serious problem behaviors; e.g., the student disrupts the class or endanger the safety of self or of others.

areas for signature. The behavior contract should include spaces for both teacher and student

signatures, as a sign that both parties agree to adhere to their responsibilities in the contract. Additionally, the instructor may want to include signature blocks for other staff members (e.g., a school administrator) and/or the student's parent(s).

Hints for Using Behavior Contracts Behavior contracts can be useful when the student has behavioral problems in school locations other than the classroom (e.g., art room, cafeteria). Once a behavior contract has proven effective in the classroom, the instructor can meet with the student to extend the terms of the contract across multiple settings. Adults in these other school locations would then be responsible for rating the student's behaviors during the time that the student is with them. For example, a goal may be stated in the contract that a student "will participate in class activities, raising his hand, and being recognized by the classroom or specials teacher before offering an answer or comment." Art, gym, or library instructors would then rate the student's behaviors in these out-of-class settings and share these ratings with the classroom teacher. Troubleshooting: How to Deal With Common Problems in Using Behavior Contracts Q: What do I do if I find that the behavior contract fails to work? There may be several possible explanations why a behavior contract is ineffective: Students may not be invested in abiding by the terms of the contract because they did not have a significant role in its creation. If this is the case, students should be consulted and their input should be incorporated into a revised contract. The rewards that can be earned through the contract may not sufficiently motivate students to cause them to change their behavior. The teacher should review the list of rewards with students, note those rewards that students indicate they would find most appealing, and revise the reward list to include choices selected by the students. Points and rewards may not be awarded frequently enough to motivate the student. Each person reacts in his or her own way to reward systems such as behavior contracts; some must have rewards delivered at a frequent rate in order for those rewards to have power sufficient to shape these students' behavior. The instructor can try altering the contract to increase the rate at which

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points and rewards are given to see if these changes increase student motivation to follow the behavior contract. (NOTE: Once the behavior contract proves effective, the teacher can gradually cut back the rate of rewards to a level that is more easily managed.) Q: How do I respond if the student starts to argue with me about the terms of the contract? It is not unusual--especially when a behavior contract is first introduced--for the teacher and student to have honest disagreements about the interpretation of its terms. If this occurs, the teacher will probably want to have a conference with the student to clarify the contract's language and meaning. Occasionally, though, students may continue to argue with the instructor about alleged unfairness in how the teacher enforces the contract--even after the teacher has attempted to clarify the contract's terms. If the student becomes overly antagonistic, the teacher may simply decide to suspend the contract because it is not improving the student's behavior. Or the instructor may instead add a behavioral goal or penalty clause to the contract that the student will not argue with the teacher about the terms or enforcement of the contract. Hints for Using Behavior Contracts

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Effective Dates: From 10/20/99 to 12/20/99Mrs. Jones, the teacher, will give Ricky a sticker to put on his 'Classroom Hero' chart each time he does one of the following:

turns in completed homework assignment on time turns in morning seatwork assignments on time and completed works quietly through the morning seatwork period (from 9:30 to 10:00 a.m.) without needing to

be approached or redirected by the teacher for being off-task or distracting others

When Ricky has collected 12 stickers from Mrs. Jones, he may choose one of the following rewards:

10 minutes of free time at the end of the day in the classroom 10 minutes of extra playground time (with Mr. Jenkins' class) choice of a prize from the 'Surprise Prize Box'

Bonus: If Ricky has a perfect week (5 days, Monday through Friday) by earning all 3 possible stickers each day, he will be able to draw one additional prize from the 'Surprise Prize Box'. Penalty: If Ricky has to be approached by the teacher more than 5 times during a morning period because he is showing distracting behavior, he will lose a chance to earn a 'Classroom Hero' sticker the following day.

The student, Ricky, helped to create this agreement. He understands and agrees to the terms of this behavior contract.

Student Signature: ___________________________________ The teacher, Mrs. Jones, agrees to carry out her part of this agreement. Ricky will receive stickers when be fulfills his daily behavioral goals of completing homework and classwork, and will also be allowed to collect his reward when he has earned enough stickers for it. The teacher will also be sure that Ricky gets his bonus prize if he earns it..

Teacher Signature: ___________________________________ The parent(s) of Ricky agree to check over his homework assignments each evening to make sure that he completes them. They will also ask Ricky daily about his work completion and behavior at school. The parent(s) will provide Ricky with daily encouragement to achieve his behavior contract goals. In addition, the parent(s) will sign Ricky's 'Classroom Hero' chart each time that he brings it home with 12 stickers on it.

Parent Signature: ___________________________________

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Creating Reward Menus That Motivate: Tips for Teachers Rewards are often central to effective school interventions. As possible incentives that students can earn for appropriate school performance or conduct, these reinforcers (or ‘rewards’) often serve as the motivational ‘engine’ that drives successful interventions. Choosing rewards to use as incentives for a student intervention may seem simple and straightforward. A reinforcer, however, probably will not be successful unless it passes three important tests:

• Acceptability Test. Does the teacher approve of using the reinforcer with this child? Are parent(s) likely to approve the use of the reinforcer with their child?

• Availability Test. Is the reinforcer typically available in a school setting? If not, can it be

obtained with little inconvenience and at a cost affordable to staff or parents?

• Motivation Test. Does the child find the reinforcer to be motivating? Reward systems are usually most powerful when a student can select from a range of reward choices (‘reward menu’). Offering students a menu of possible rewards is effective because it both gives students a meaningful choice of reinforcers and reduces the likelihood that the child will eventually tire of any specific reward. However, some children (e.g., those with Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder) may lose interest in specific reward choices more quickly than do their typical peers. Teachers will want to regularly update and refresh reward menus for such children to ensure these reinforcers retain their power to positively shape those students’ behaviors. Creating a ‘Reward Deck.’ A Reward Deck is an idea that can help teachers to quickly select and regularly update student reward menus. This strategy involves 5 steps:

1. The teacher reviews a list of reward choices typically available in school settings. (Instructors can use the comprehensive sampling of possible school rewards that appears in the next section: Jackpot! Ideas for Classroom Rewards.). From this larger list, the teacher selects only those rewards that she or he approves of using, believes would be acceptable to other members of the school community (e.g., administration, parents), and finds feasible and affordable.

2. The teacher writes out acceptable reward choices on index cards-- to create a master

‘Reward Deck’

3. Whenever the teacher wants to create a reward menu for a particular student, he or she first ‘screens’ reward choices that appear in the master Reward Deck and temporarily removes any that seem inappropriate for that specific case. (For example, the teacher may

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screen out the reward ‘pizza party’ because it is too expensive to offer to a student who has only minor difficulties with homework completion.)

4. The teacher then sits with the child and presents each of the reward choices remaining in

the Reward Deck. For each reward option, the child indicates whether he or she (a) likes the reward a lot, (b) likes the reward a little, or (c) doesn’t care for the reward. The teacher sorts the reward options into three piles that match these rating categories. The teacher can then assemble that child’s Reward Menu using the student’s top choices (“like a lot”). If the instructor needs additional choices to fill out the rest of the menu, he or she can pull items from the student’s “like a little” category as well.

5. (Optional but recommended) Periodically, the instructor can meet with the student and

repeat the above procedure to ‘refresh’ the Reward Menu quickly and easily.

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Jackpot Reward Finder: Checklist Maker

Elementary Level: Sample Reward Ideas

This list includes a column listing selected reward/reinforcer ideas, a second column listing the categoryassociated with each reward, and a third column with space for teacher notes.

Reinforcer/Reward Idea Reinforcer Category Teacher Notes1. Sit with friends of the student's choosing

during instructionPeer Attention

2. Select friends to sit with to complete acooperative learning activity

Peer Attention

3. Select a friend as a 'study buddy' to workwith on an in-class assignment

Peer Attention

4. Be given reserved cafeteria seating for thestudent and several friends

Peer Attention

5. 'Adopt' a younger student and be allowedto check in with that student as a mentor

Peer Attention

6. Eat lunch with a preferred adult Adult Attention 7. Shadow a school staff member (e.g.,

principal, custodian) for part or all of a dayAdult Attention

8. Be the teacher's helper for the day Adult Attention 9. Be a teacher helper in another classroom Adult Attention

10. Sit next to the teacher during a lesson oractivity

Adult Attention

11. Help the library media specialist Adult Attention 12. Help the custodian Adult Attention 13. Help a specials teacher (e.g., art, physical

education, music)Adult Attention

14. Choose a book to be read aloud in class Academic Activity 15. Have 5 minutes on the Internet researching

a topic of interestAcademic Activity

16. Listen to a book on tape/audio book Academic Activity 17. Invite an older-student or adult "reading

buddy" to the classroom to read with thestudent

Academic Activity

18. Choose an in-class or homeworkassignment for the class

Academic Activity

19. Teach (or help the teacher to teach) alesson

Academic Activity

20. Help the teacher to operate theSmartBoard or PowerPoint projector

Academic Activity

21. Get extra help from the teacher on a topicof the student's choosing

Academic Activity

22. Read to a younger child Academic Activity 23. Read aloud using a tape recorder to tape

the storyAcademic Activity


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Reinforcer/Reward Idea Reinforcer Category Teacher Notes24. Choose from a list of supervised school

locations (e.g., library, another classroom)to complete an independent readingassignment

Academic Activity

25. Be given a pass to go to the library duringfree class time

Academic Activity

26. Serve as timekeeper for an activity,announcing a 5-minute warning near end ofthe activity, and informing the group whenthe activity is over

Academic Activity

27. Help a classmate with an academicassignment

Academic Activity

28. Receive a ticket to be redeemed at a latertime for a preferred activity

Non-Academic Activity

29. Choose any class job for the week Non-Academic Activity 30. Assign other students in the class to

helping roles, chores, or tasksNon-Academic Activity

31. Have 5 minutes on the computer engagedin recreational activities (e.g., visitingInternet sites)


32. Deliver the schoolwide announcements Non-Academic Activity 33. Design a school bulletin board for a cause

or eventNon-Academic Activity

34. Post artwork or school work on a class orhall bulletin board


35. Make deliveries from the classroom to theoffice


36. Play a favorite game Non-Academic Activity 37. Work on a jigsaw or other puzzle Non-Academic Activity 38. Use a 'special item' (e.g., art supplies, toy)

available only as a rewardNon-Academic Activity

39. Be the leader of a class game Non-Academic Activity 40. Choose a group game during recess Non-Academic Activity 41. Write or draw using a

blackboard/whiteboard/easel paperNon-Academic Activity

42. Get extra specials time (e.g., gym, art,music) with another class


43. Select a fun activity from the "Activity Shelf"(stocked with play materials, games)


44. Take care of the class animal(s) for the day Non-Academic Activity 45. Watch part or all of a video (pre-selected

by the teacher and cleared with thestudent's parent)


46. Choose a video for the class to watch Non-Academic Activity 47. Take one turn in an ongoing board game

with a staff member (e.g., chess), with thestaff member then taking the next turn at aconvenient time



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Reinforcer/Reward Idea Reinforcer Category Teacher Notes48. Tell a joke or riddle to the class Non-Academic Activity 49. Sit wherever the student chooses in the

classroomEnvironmental Adjustment

50. Listen to music while working Environmental Adjustment 51. Receive a silent "thumbs up" or other sign

from teacher indicating praise and approvalPraise/Incentives/Prizes

52. Be awarded a trophy, medal, or otherhonor for good behavior or a caring attitude

Praise/Incentives/Prizes

53. Earn school supplies (e.g., pencil, eraser,pen, sticky notes)


54. Receive an IOU redeemable for credit onone wrong item on a future in-class quiz orhomework assignment


55. Earn a ticket to be put into a drawing withother students for prizes


56. Have a postcard or email sent to parent(s)to praise the student


57. Be cited in the schoolwide announcementsfor academic accomplishment, helpingbehavior, or appropriate conduct


58. Call the parent(s) to praise the student Praise/Incentives/Prizes 59. Eat lunch at a preferred table Praise/Incentives/Prizes 60. Be allowed to sit in the teacher's chair for

part or all of the dayPraise/Incentives/Prizes

61. Be allowed to sit in the teacher's chair forpart or all of the day


62. Receive a certificate or note of appreciationfrom the teacher or principal


63. Write with a special pen, pencil, or markerfor the day


64. Select a prize from the treasure box Praise/Incentives/Prizes 65. Select a reward sticker Praise/Incentives/Prizes 66. Receive a 'raffle ticket' on which the

student writes his or her name and dropsinto a fishbowl for later prize drawings


Powered by TCPDF (www.tcpdf.org)


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http://www.tcpdf.org

Intervention Planner for Behavior: Checklist Maker


Behavioral Interventions: Academic Adjustments

Behavior Intervention Strategies Research Citations

1. ALTERNATIVE ACADEMIC RESPONSE FORMATS: REDUCING STUDENT FRUSTRATION. For some students, a trigger for misbehavior is that they are asked to complete an academic task in a response format that they find difficult or frustrating. A strategy to address this issue is to offer the student a more acceptable alternative response format. For example, a student who does not like to write by hand can be given access to a keyboard to draft an essay while a student who is put off by completing a math computation worksheet independently can answer the same math facts orally from flashcards. Note that alternative response formats should preserve the rigor of the underlying academic expectations.

Kern, L. & Clemens, N. H. (2007). Antecedent strategies to promote appropriate classroom behavior. Psychology in the Schools, 44, 65-75.

2. BEHAVIORAL MOMENTUM: INCREASING COMPLIANCE. Students with low-frustration tolerance or lack of confidence may balk when asked to complete challenging academic tasks assigned as independent seatwork. A strategy to increase the probability that a student will attempt a challenging academic task is to precede that task with a short series of brief, easy academic tasks. (For example, a student may do three easy problems on a math worksheet before encountering a challenge problem.) The student builds 'behavioral momentum' in completing the easy items and is thus 'primed' to attempt the challenge item that might otherwise derail them. Teachers using this strategy should, of course, first ensure that the student has the actual skills to complete any target challenge tasks. Generally, a ratio of three to four easy items interspersed between each challenge items can be quite effective.


3. CHOICE: ALLOWING STUDENTS CONTROL OVER LEARNING. Teachers who allow students a degree of choice in structuring their learning activities can increase engagement and reduce classroom behavior problems. One efficient way to promote choice in the classroom is for the teacher to create a master menu of options that students can select from in various learning situations. For example, during independent assignment, students might be allowed to (1) choose from at least two assignment options, (2) sit where they want in the classroom, and (3) select a peer-buddy to check their work. Student choice then becomes integrated seamlessly into the classroom routine.

Kern, L., Bambara, L., & Fogt, J. (2002). Class-wide curricular modifications to improve the behavior of students with emotional or behavioral disorders. Behavioral Disorders, 27, 317-326.

4. INSTRUCTIONAL MATCH: ENSURING STUDENTS CAN DO THE WORK. A frequent trigger for behavior problems is that the student lacks the skills necessary to do the assigned schoolwork. To verify instructional match, the teacher (1) inventories the target student's academic skills and (2) adjusts assignments or provides additional academic assistance as needed to ensure that the student is appropriately challenged but not overwhelmed by the work.


5. NON-CONTINGENT ESCAPE: REDUCE STUDENT DISRUPTIVE BEHAVIOR. When students engage in disruptive behavior to escape or avoid academic work, the teacher can use

Waller, R. D., & Higbee, T. S. (2010). The effects of fixed-time escape on

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'non-contingent escape breaks' as one solution. Here are the 6 steps to implement this strategy: (1) SELECT A STARTING MINIMUM WORK INTERVAL. Based on observation and knowledge of the student, the teacher selects a minimum interval length during which the student is likely to be able consistently to remain engaged in work. For example, a teacher may observe at baseline that a student is typically able to work for at least 3 minutes before engaging in escape behaviors.(2) DECIDE ON THE LENGTH OF ESCAPE BREAKS. The teacher decides how long a student's non-contingent escape break will last (e.g., 30 seconds, 1 minute)--to be provided at the conclusion of each work interval. (3) SELECT A TARGET LENGTH FOR WORK INTERVALS. The teacher decides on a reasonable, socially valid exit goal for student to be able to work without interruption or seeking escape (e.g., 10 minutes). (4) START NON-CONTINGENT ESCAPE INTERVENTION. The teacher writes 'Work' and 'Break' on two sticky notes of different colors and places them on the student's desk during the work session. At the start of the first work interval, the teacher approaches the student and points silently to the 'Work' sticky note At the end of the work interval, the teacher approaches the student and points silently to the 'Break' note. At the conclusion of the escape-break interval, the teacher again points to the 'Work' note. The process repeats until the end of the student work session. The teacher uses a timer to track time intervals. (5) MAKE INTERVAL ADJUSTMENTS AS NEEDED. When in the teacher's judgment the student's problem escape behaviors fall to an acceptable level (e.g., 10 percent of work time or less) for at least 3 consecutive work sessions, the teacher increases the work interval by a pre-determined increment (e.g., 30 seconds, 1 minute). If the student's problem behaviors spike when the work interval is increased, the teacher reduces the work session by a pre-determined increment (e.g., 30 seconds, 1 minute) until behaviors improve. (6) FADE THE PROGRAM. When the student reaches the goal length for work intervals, escape breaks can be reduced in length (e.g., falling from 1 minute to 30 seconds) and eventually discontinued. TIPS: Improvements in student behavior can be paired with teacher praise during this intervention to maintain gains at its conclusion. Also, there are inexpensive cell-phone applications--e.g., MotivAider--that can serve as silent timers to help teachers to track time intervals.

inappropriate and appropriate classroom behavior. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 43, 149-153.

6. REDUCE RESPONSE EFFORT: INCREASING COMPLIANCE. Teachers can increase student motivation and compliance through any method that reduces the apparent ‘response effort’ of an academic task- so long as that method does not hold the student to a lesser academic standard than classmates. Appropriate response-effort examples include (1) breaking a larger student assignment into smaller ‘chunks’ and providing the student with performance feedback and praise for each completed ‘chunk’ of assigned work, and (2) arranging for students to start challenging reading or homework assignments in class as a cooperative activity and then complete the remainder on their own.

Skinner, C. H., Pappas, D. N., & Davis, K. A. (2005). Enhancing academic engagement: Providing opportunities for responding and influencing students to choose to respond. Psychology in the Schools, 42, 389-403.

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Behavioral Interventions: Communication Tools


1. CRITICISM PAIRED WITH PRAISE: COMMUNICATING ACCEPTANCE. When receiving critical feedback, some students may assume that the teacher is rejecting them personally and react strongly to this perceived rejection. Here is a way to structure critical feedback to convey that the teacher continues to value the student despite the misbehavior: (1) The teacher describes the problem behavior that the student should target for change; (2) The teacher describes (or encourages the student to brainstorm) appropriate behavioral alternatives; (3) The teacher praises some noteworthy aspect of the student's past classroom behavior or accomplishments, and finally (4) The teacher affirms that he or she values having the student as a part of the classroom community. Here is an example of this communication strategy: (1) Description of problem behavior: "Trina, you said disrespectful things about other students during our class meeting this morning. You continued to do so even after I asked you to stop." (2) Appropriate behavioral alternative(s): "It's OK to disagree with another person's ideas. But you need to make sure that your comments do not insult or hurt the feelings of others." (3) Specific praise: "I am talking to you about this behavior because know that you can do better. In fact, I have really come to value your classroom comments. You have great ideas and express yourself very well." (4) Affirmation statement: "You contribute a lot to class discussion!"

Thompson, G.J., & Jenkins, J.B. (1993). Verbal judo: The gentle art of persuasion. New York: William Morrow.

2. EMPHASIZE THE POSITIVE IN TEACHER REQUESTS: INCREASING STUDENT COMPLIANCE. When an instructor's request has a positive 'spin', that teacher is less likely to trigger a power struggle and more likely to gain student compliance. Whenever possible, the teacher avoids using negative phrasing (e.g., "If you don't return to your seat, I can’t help you with your assignment"). Instead, the teacher restates requests in positive terms (e.g., "I will be over to help you on the assignment just as soon as you return to your seat").

Braithwaite, R. (2001). Managing aggression. New York: Routledge.

3. SAY NO WITH PREFERRED ALTERNATIVE: INCREASING COMPLIANCE. This strategy can reduce the non-compliance and acting-out of students who react negatively to being told that they cannot engage in a preferred activity or access a desired item. First, the teacher creates a list of those activities or items preferred by the student that can actually be provided. Then, whenever the student requests an unavailable activity or item, the teacher structures the 'no' statement as follows: (1) The teacher states that the student cannot engage in the requested activity or have the desired item; (2) The teacher provides the student with an explanation for why the preferred activity or item is not available; (3) The teacher offers the student an alternative preferred activity or item in place of that originally requested. Here is a sample teacher 'no' statement with preferred alternative: "Roger, you cannot listen to your music now because student music players are not allowed in class. However, you can take a five-minute break to play the Math

Mace, F. C., Pratt, J. L., Prager, K. L., & Pritchard, D. (2011). An evaluation of three methods of saying "no" to avoid an escalating response class hierarchy. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 44, 83-94.

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Blasters computer game that you like."

4. TEACHER COMMANDS: ESTABLISHING CLASSROOM COMMAND AND CONTROL. Teacher commands play an important role in classroom behavior management. Teacher commands are most likely to elicit student compliance when they (1) are delivered calmly, (2) are brief, (3) are stated when possible as DO statements rather than as DON'T statements, (4) use clear, simple language, and (5) are delivered one command at a time and appropriately paced to avoid confusing or overloading students. Effective teacher commands avoid both sarcasm or hostility and over-lengthy explanations that can distract or confuse students.

Kern, L. & Clemens, N. H. (2007). Antecedent strategies to promote appropriate classroom behavior. Psychology in the Schools, 44, 65-75. Walker, H.M. & Walker, J.E. (1991). Coping with noncompliance in the classroom: A positive approach for teachers. Austin, TX:: Pro-Ed, Inc.

5. TWO-PART CHOICE STATEMENT: DELIVERING CLEAR CONSEQUENCES FOR NON-COMPLIANCE. When a student is non-compliant, the teacher can structure verbal requests to both acknowledge the student’s freedom to choose whether to comply and to present the logical consequences for non-compliance (e.g., poor grades, office disciplinary referral, etc.). The teacher frames requests to uncooperative students as a two-part 'choice' statement: (1) The teacher presents the negative, or non-compliant, choice and its consequences (e.g., if a seatwork assignment is not completed in class, the student must stay after school); (2) The teacher next states the positive behavioral choice that the student is encouraged to select (e.g., the student can complete the seatwork assignment within the allotted work time and not stay after school). Here is a sample 2-part choice statement, 'John, you can stay after school to finish the class assignment or you can finish the assignment now and not have to stay after class. It is your choice.'

Walker, H.M. (1997). The acting-out child: Coping with classroom disruption. Longmont, CO: SoprisWest.

Behavioral Interventions: Consequences


1. IN-CLASS TIME-OUT: TEMPORARY REMOVAL FROM REINFORCEMENT. This strategy briefly excludes a student from desirable class activities and peer or adult interactions because of significant misbehavior. Here are steps for setting up in-class time-out: (1) The teacher chooses an in-class location away from other students (e.g., study carrel) as the timeout site; (2) The teacher determines an amount of time appropriate for timeout sessions (typically not to exceed 5 minutes); (3) The teacher clearly defines, explains, and demonstrates classroom rules or behavioral expectations with all students; (5) The teacher tells students that, when any student continues to misbehave despite a warning, that student will receive in-class timeout at the teacher's discretion for a pre-determined duration (e.g., 5 minutes) -- but that timeout will continue past the time limit if necessary until misbehavior ceases;(5) The teacher instructs classmates that they are not to interact with a

Foxx, R. M. & Shapiro, S. T. (1978). The timeout ribbon: A nonexclusionary timeout procedure. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 11, 125-136. Kazdin, A.E. (1989). Behavior modification in applied settings. Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole Publishing Yell, M.L. (1994). Timeout and students with behavior disorders: A legal analysis. Education and Treatment of

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student in timeout; (6) The teacher keeps a written log (at minimum to include date, student name, start time, and end time) for each timeout session.

Children, 17, 293-301.

2. RESPONSE COST: INCENTIVE TO REDUCE PROBLEM BEHAVIORS. To reduce non-compliant or distracting behaviors, the teacher can use 'response cost': first awarding points or tokens and then deducting those points or tokens whenever a student behavior disrupts instruction or distracts other students. Here is a simple classroom version of this strategy: (1) At the start of each class period, the teacher awards the student a certain number of 'behavior points' (e.g., 5) and writes a series of tally marks on the blackboard to equal this number; (2) The teacher privately informs the student that each time the student engages in misbehavior that obviously distracts other students, the teacher will silently go to the board and erase one point from the student's total; (3) At the end of each class period, the student is allowed to keep any 'behavior points' that still remain; (4) The student is informed that he or she can collect points across multiple days and eventually redeem a certain number of collected 'behavior points' for prizes or privileges (e.g., extra free time).

DuPaul, G.J., & Stoner, G. (2002). Interventions for attention problems. In M. Shinn, H.M. Walker, & G. Stoner (Eds.) Interventions for academic and behavioral problems II: Preventive and remedial approaches (pp. 913-938). Bethesda, MD: National Association of School Psychologists.

3. SIT AND WATCH: IMPROVE BEHAVIORS IN LESS-STRUCTURED SETTINGS. Schools can use the Sit and Watch intervention (brief time out from reinforcement) to address the problem of groups engaging in unsafe or noncompliant behaviors in less-structured settings such as physical education or on the playground: (1) DEFINE UNACCEPTABLE BEHAVIORS. Adults supervising the less-structured settings must first define specific behaviors that are unacceptable, such as aggression, non-compliance, and disrespect towards peers or adults. Examples of defined problem behaviors are 'Speech or gestures that disrespect others', or 'Engaging in a behavior that is unsafe to self or others'. (2) BEGIN THE 'SIT AND WATCH' INTERVENTION. At the start of the intervention, students review the list of unacceptable behaviors and are given specific examples. Students also learn the following details of the Sit and Watch intervention: If a student is observed engaging in an unacceptable behavior, he or she will be sent to a designated 'time-out' area and handed a 3-minute hourglass sand timer. The student must turn over the timer and wait for the sand to run out before being allowed to return to the activity. (3) [OPTIONAL] CREATE ADDITIONAL LIST OF CONSEQUENCES FOR REPEAT OFFENSES. If additional supports are needed to change student behaviors, school staff may generate a list of consequences associated with repeat offenses. For example, a student who receives 2 or more Sit and Watch citations during a week may lose a classroom privilege such as free time. Additionally, the school may use Sit and Watch as a consequence for students who tattle or attempt to talk with other students currently in Sit and Watch.

White, A. G., & Bailey, J. S. (1990). Reducing disruptive behaviors of elementary physical education students with sit and watch. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 23, 353-359.

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Behavioral Interventions: Defusing Strategies


1. BRIEF REPRIMANDS/REMINDERS: REDIRECTING STUDENT BEHAVIORS. The teacher gives a brief, gentle signal to direct back to task any students who is just beginning to show signs of misbehavior or non-compliance. These ‘soft’ reprimands can be verbal (e.g., a quiet word to the student directing them to stop engaging in problem behavior) or non-verbal (e.g., a significant look or head shake).

Simonsen, B., Fairbanks, S., Briesch, A., Myers, D., & Sugai, G. (2008). Evidence-based practices in classroom management: Considerations for research to practice. Evaluation and Treatment of Children, 31(3), 351-380.

2. COOL-DOWN BREAK: CALMING THE EMOTIONALLY ESCALATING STUDENT. This idea addresses students who become angry or upset and need time to collect themselves. (1) The teacher selects an area of the room (or area outside the classroom with adult supervision) where the target student can take a brief 'respite break' whenever he or she feels angry or upset. (2) Whenever a student becomes upset and defiant, the teacher first offers to talk the situation over with that student once he or she has calmed down. (3) The teacher then directs the student to the cool-down corner. (E.g., "Thomas, I want to talk with you about what is upsetting you, but first you need to calm down. Take five minutes in the cool-down corner and then come over to my desk so we can talk.") The teacher makes cool-down breaks available to all students in the classroom, to avoid singling out only those children with anger-control issues. The teacher also ensures that students see the cool-down strategy not as punishment but instead as a support. It is also recommended that the teacher keep a written log of students using the cool-down location (at minimum to include date, student name, start time, and end time).

Long, N.J., Morse, W.C., Newman, R.G. (1980). Conflict in the classroom. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing Company.

3. PLANNED IGNORING: OVERLOOKING THE SMALL STUFF. In this tactic, the teacher identifies in advance low-level problem student behaviors (e.g., minor talking out) and makes the commitment to ignore such behaviors if they do not seriously distract other students, disrupt classroom routine, or otherwise violate important behavioral expectations. NOTE: The teacher can always follow up privately with a student regarding low-level problem behaviors even if the instructor chooses to ‘ignore’ them during the class period. However, planned ignoring is not recommended if the student’s behavior represents a serious infraction or if the student has a pattern of escalating behaviors until he or she gains teacher attention.

Colvin, G. (2009). Managing noncompliance and defiance in the classroom: A road map for teachers, specialists, and behavior support teams. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin.

4. PRE-CORRECTION: GIVING A TIMELY REMINDER. Pre-corrections are a simple means of keeping students mindful of behavioral expectations just before they encounter situations in which they are most likely to misbehave. Here are the steps to using effective pre-corrections: (1) The teacher specifically defines the student problem behavior(s) and identifies those situations in the school setting where the problem behavior(s) tend to be displayed;

De Pry, R. L., & Sugai, G. (2002). The effect of active supervision and pre-correction on minor behavioral incidents in a sixth grade general education classroom. Journal of Behavioral Education,

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(2) The teacher meets with the student to share information about that student's problem behaviors and the related situations or settings where they occur; (3) In their meeting, the teacher and student next come up with expected or acceptable replacement behaviors that the student should instead display in those situations; (4) At the 'point of performance' (that is, whenever the student is about to encounter a problem situation), the teacher delivers a brief pre-correction, a timely behavioral reminder that alerts the student verbally or non-verbally to remember to follow the classroom behavioral rule or expectation.

11(4), 255–267.

5. SILENT SIGNAL: PROVIDING LOW-KEY BEHAVIORAL PROMPTS. The teacher can unobtrusively redirect students who begin to show problem behaviors by using a silent signal. (1) The teacher meets privately with the student to identify those problem behaviors that appear to be most challenging. (2) The student and teacher agree on a silent signal to be used to alert the student whenever his or her behavior has crossed the threshold and now is distracting others or otherwise creating classroom problems. (3) The teacher role-plays several scenarios with the student in which the student begins to display a problem behavior, the teacher uses the silent signal, and the student then successfully controls the problem behavior. NOTE: When the silent signal is put into use, the teacher should be sure to praise the student privately for responding appropriately and promptly when the signal is given.

U.S. Department of Education (2004). Teaching children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: Instructional strategies and practices. Retrieved from http://www.ed.gov/teachers/needs/speced/adhd/adhd-resource-pt2.doc

Behavioral Interventions: Environmental Adjustments


1. ACTIVE SUPERVISION: ROAMING THE CLASSROOM. The teacher circulates through the classroom periodically, using physical proximity to increase student attention to task and general compliance. While moving about the room, the teacher provides corrective academic feedback and encouragement to students, as well as reinforcing students for showing appropriate behaviors.

Simonsen, B., Fairbanks, S., Briesch, A., Myers, D., & Sugai, G. (2008). Evidence-based practices in classroom management: Considerations for research to practice. Evaluation and Treatment of Children, 31(3), 351-380.

2. CLASSROOM RULES: PROVDING CLEAR BEHAVIORAL EXPECTATIONS. Clear rules outlining behavioral expectations are an essential part of any classroom behavior management plan. Here are recommendations for strong classroom rules: (1) Rules should be limited to no more than five; (2) Students should have input in developing classroom rules, to provide a sense of ownership; (3) Rules should be stated in simple language, be brief, and - whenever possible - be stated as DO rather than as DON'T statements; (4) Rules should be publicly posted so that students can easily see and refer to them; (5) The teacher should regularly teach and demonstrate these rules with students, particularly at the start of the school year, and generate both examples and non-examples to

Kern, L. & Clemens, N. H. (2007). Antecedent strategies to promote appropriate classroom behavior. Psychology in the Schools, 44, 65-75. Simonsen, B., Fairbanks, S., Briesch, A., Myers, D., & Sugai, G. (2008). Evidence-based practices in classroom management:

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illustrate specific behavioral expectations. Considerations for research to practice. Evaluation and Treatment of Children, 31(3), 351-380.

3. DAILY SCHEDULES: INCREASING PREDICTABILITY. Students may become agitated and misbehave when they do not know the purpose of a current classroom activity, cannot predict how long that activity is to last, or do not know what activity will occur next. One strategy to increase the predictability of events for individual students or an entire classroom is to post or otherwise provide a schedule outlining the day's classroom events. In simplest form, such a schedule lists a title and brief description for each scheduled activity, along with the start and end times for that activity. Teachers may wish to add information to the schedule, such as helpful reminders of what work materials a student might need for each event. Students who have difficulty interpreting a written schedule may benefit from having their schedules read aloud and/or from having pictorial equivalents included in their schedules.


4. ESTABLISH CLASSROOM ROUTINES: INCREASING PREDICTABILITY. Many behavior problems occur when classroom situations are unstructured or lack behavioral guidelines. Classroom routines can help. A strategy to reduce the likelihood for misbehavior is for the teacher (1) to create a list of those potentially problematic situations when misbehavior is most likely to occur (e.g., transitioning from one activity to another; individual students entering or exiting the classroom, student dismissal) (2) to establish clear, consistent classroom behavioral routines for each of these problem situations, (3) to teach students the steps of these routines; (4) to have students practice routines under teacher supervision until mastered; and (5) to regularly reinforce students through acknowledgment, praise, and perhaps rewards for successfully and consistently following those routines.


5. PREFERENTIAL SEATING: INCREASING ATTENTION AND REMOVING DISTRACTIONS. The teacher seats a student who is distracted by peers or other environmental factors in a location where the student is most likely to stay focused on instructional content. NOTE: The teacher can increase student motivation by allowing that student to choose from two or more preferential-seating options.

U.S. Department of Education (2004). Teaching children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: Instructional strategies and practices. Retrieved from http://www.ed.gov/teachers/needs/speced/adhd/adhd-resource-pt2.doc

Behavioral Interventions: Reinforcement


1. FIXED-TIME TEACHER ATTENTION: INCREASE ON-TASK BEHAVIOR. Putting students on a steady, predictable 'dose' of teacher attention at fixed time intervals can reduce off-task

Austin, J. L., & Soeda, J. M. (2008). Fixed-time teacher attention to decrease off-task

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behaviors: (1) DECIDE ON AN ATTENTION INTERVAL SCHEDULE. The teacher first decides on a manageable fixed-time interval schedule (e.g., every 4 minutes) when the student is to receive teacher attention.(2) BEGIN FIXED-TIME TEACHER ATTENTION INTERVENTION. During the intervention, the teacher engages in the usual instructional activities. At the conclusion of each fixed-time interval, the teacher provides a brief dose of attention to the target student: If on-task, the teacher praises the student--while if off-task, the teacher redirects the student to task. The teacher then resumes instruction. The teacher ignores the student's on-task or off-task behaviors that occur between fixed-time intervals. TIP: There are inexpensive cell-phone applications--e.g., MotivAider--that can serve as silent timers to help teachers to track fixed-time intervals.

behaviors of typically developing third graders. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 41, 279-283.

2. LINK PREFERRED ACTIVITIES/ITEMS TO WORK COMPLETION: INCREASING COMPLIANCE. This strategy is intended to increase the academic engagement and work completion of non-compliant students who request access to desired items or preferred activities. In preparation, the teacher defines reasonable short-term academic work expectations for the student: e.g., to complete 10 math computation problems; to read independently for 20 minutes. When the student requests an activity or item that can reasonably be provided, the teacher structures the response as follows: (1) The teacher says that the student can access the requested activity or item; and (2) The teacher describes the conditions of the academic activity that the student must first perform to access the preferred activity or item. Here is a sample teacher response to a student request: "Yes, Alice, you can spend five minutes drawing at your desk--once you complete the 10 problems on the math worksheet that I just handed out."

Mace, F. C., Pratt, J. L., Prager, K. L., & Pritchard, D. (2011). An evaluation of three methods of saying "no" to avoid an escalating response class hierarchy. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 44, 83-94.

3. PRAISE: ACKNOWLEDGING AND SHAPING BEHAVIOR. To increase desired behavior, the teacher praises the student in clear, specific terms whenever the student engages in that behavior. The teacher uses praise statements at a rate sufficient to motivate and guide the student toward the behavioral goal: (1) The teacher selects the specific desired behavior(s) to encourage through praise; (2) The teacher sets a goal for how frequently to deliver praise (e.g., to praise a student at least 3 times per class period for working on in-class assignments). (3) The teacher makes sure that any praise statements given are behavior-specific.


4. PRAISE NOTES: IMPROVE BEHAVIORS IN LESS-STRUCTURED SETTINGS. Student misbehavior in common areas such as the lunchroom can be addressed through use of Praise Notes. Here are 5 steps to implement the intervention: (1) DEFINE UNACCEPTABLE BEHAVIORS. The school targets 3-4 problem behaviors to be reduced, defining them in clear, specific terms. For example, 'running' may be defined in a lunchroom setting as 'moving forward with both feet off the ground at once'. (2) DESIGN 'PRAISE NOTES'. The school designs Praise Notes, small slips of paper with the school name as well as blanks to write a student's name, name of the adult issuing the note, and date. (These notes can also be embellished with a picture of the school mascot, motto, use of

Wheatley, R. K., West, R. P., Charlton, C. T., Sanders, R. B., Smith, T. G., & Taylor, M. J. (2009). Improving behavior through differential reinforcement: A praise note system for elementary school students. Education and Treatment of Children, 32, 551-571.

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colored paper stock, or other motivating elements.) (3) TRAIN STAFF TO USE PRAISE NOTES. Staff who supervise the setting(s) where Praise Notes will be used are given daily supplies of blank notes. Each supervising adult is instructed to hand out Praise Notes at a rate of about 1 note every 3 minutes to students who display appropriate behaviors (i.e., are not engaging in the problem behaviors targeted for reduction). When issuing a note, the adult fills in student and issuer names and the current date. When handing the note to the student, the adult praises the student's positive behaviors in specific terms. (4) TIE PRAISE NOTES TO INCENTIVES. The school sets up a jar (or other receptacle) in the main office or other supervised common area. Each student issued a praise note drops the note into the jar at some point during the day. At the end of each day, the school draws five names from the jar, announces the names over the public address system, and invites those students chosen to visit the office to select small prizes (e.g., pencil, ruler, eraser) from a prize box. To motivate staff to use Praise Notes, the names of adult supervisors appearing on the five student tickets drawn daily from the jar go into a weekly raffle for small prizes (e.g., gift certificates). (5) CREATE A PUBLIC PRAISE-NOTE DISPLAY. After each daily drawing, all Praise Notes are removed from the jar and stapled to a large bulletin board or other public space accessible to students and visitors. When the designated space is eventually filled with Notes, students earn a group prize or incentive (e.g., extra free time or a healthy food treat). Then the space is cleared for new Notes.

Behavioral Interventions: Relationship-Building


1. MAINTAIN A HIGH RATIO OF POSITIVE INTERACTIONS: BUILDING STUDENT CONNECTIONS. Teachers can increase the odds of building a positive relationship with any student by maintaining a ratio of at least three positive teacher-student interactions (e.g., greeting, positive conversation, high-five) for every negative (disciplinary) interaction (e.g., reprimand).

Sprick, R. S., Borgmeier, C., & Nolet, V. (2002). Prevention and management of behavior problems in secondary schools. In M. A. Shinn, H. M. Walker & G. Stoner (Eds.), Interventions for academic and behavior problems II: Preventive and remedial approaches (pp.373-401). Bethesda, MD: National Association of School Psychologists.

2. STRIVE FOR DAILY POSITIVE INTERACTIONS: BUILDING STUDENT CONNECTIONS. If the teacher lacks a positive relationship with a particular student, the teacher makes the commitment to have at least one positive verbal interaction per class period with that student (e.g., greeting at the door, positive conversation, praise for student discussion comments). Whenever

Fields, B. (2004). Breaking the cycle of office referrals and suspensions: Defensive management. Educational Psychology in Practice, 20, 103-115.

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possible, the teacher continues to interact in positive ways with the student throughout the rest of the class period through both verbal (e.g., praise comment after a student remark) and non-verbal (e.g., thumbs-up sign, smile) means. In all such interactions, the teacher maintains a polite, respectful tone.

3. TOOTLING: IMPROVE PEER RELATIONSHIPS. To encourage increased pro-social behaviors and stronger student relationships, the teacher can use a form of positive peer reporting called 'tootling'. Here are the 5 steps to this intervention: (1) DEFINE TOOTLING. The teacher meets with students and defines 'tootling' as reporting to the teacher or other adult when another student has done something helpful. The teacher contrasts this term with 'tattling', defined as telling the teacher or another adult when another student has done something bad. Students are encouraged to describe examples of tootling (students helping students), and the teacher supplies praise or corrective feedback to those examples. (2) DESIGN TOOTLING SLIPS. The teacher designs Tootling slips, small pieces of paper with blanks for the student to record another student's name, a short description of that student's helping behavior(s), and whom that student helped. The teacher also selects a receptacle (e.g., jar; shoe box) to collect Tootling slips. (3) PRACTICE TOOTLING. Students are given copes of Tootling slips. Across several days, students are asked to observe other students' helping behaviors and to capture them on Tootling slips, which are then placed in the Tootle collection box/jar. Each day, the teacher reviews the slips collected, informs the students how many slips were submitted that day, praises the students for their efforts, and uses sample Tootle notes to illustrate correct use of the slips. Practice continues until students have mastered completing the Tootle slips. (4) BEGIN THE TOOTLING INTERVENTION. The teacher sets a cumulative goal for Tootle slips to be collected (e.g., 100) and also selects a class privilege or prize to be given when the goal is attained (e.g., pizza party; extra recess time). Sufficient Tootling slips are given out to students or stored in a location where students can easily access them. Students are encouraged to fill out Tootling slips whenever they observe helping behaviors and to place them in the collection box/jar. Each day, the teacher (or student helper) counts up the number of submitted slips and plots the progress toward the goal on a publicly displayed chart. (5) INCREASE THE TOOTLING GOAL INCREMENTALLY. When a cumulative goal is achieved, the teacher increases the Tootling goal (e.g., to collect 125 Tootle slips) and selects another student privilege or prize.

Skinner, C. H., Cashwell, T. H., & Skinner, A. L. (2000). Increasing tootling: The effects of a peer-monitored group contingency program on students' reports of peers' prosocial behaviors. Psychology in the Schools, 37, 263-270.

4. 'TWO-BY-TEN': STRUCTURING POSITIVE TEACHER-STUDENT INTERACTIONS. This strategy (‘non-contingent teacher attention’) can be helpful with students who lack a positive connection with the teacher. The instructor makes a commitment to spend 2 minutes per day for ten consecutive days ('two-by-ten') engaging the student in a positive conversation about topics of interest to that student. NOTE: During those two-minute daily conversations, the teacher maintains a positive tone and avoids talking about the student’s problem behaviors or poor academic performance.

Mendler, A. N. (2000). Motivating students who don’t care. Bloomington, IN: National Educational Service.

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Behavioral Interventions: Skill-Building


1. BEHAVIOR CONFERENCE: ENCOURAGING STUDENT RESPONSIBILITY. When a student misbehaves, the teacher may choose to meet with that student briefly to discuss and attempt to resolve the problem behavior(s). The teacher should take the student aside for a private conversation. Here is a recommended outline for conducting a behavior conference: (1) Maintaining a calm and respectful tone, the teacher describes the student misbehavior that led to the conference; (2) The teacher asks open-ended questions (e.g., who, what, where, how) as necessary to fully understand the student's view of why the problem behavior has occurred; (3) The teacher asks the student to identify one or more solutions to resolve the behavior problem(s)--with the teacher prepared to offer solutions if the student appears unable or unwilling to do so; (4) From solutions offered, teacher and student select one to implement; (5) Before concluding the conference, the teacher summarizes the selected solution to resolve the behavior problem. The teacher may also wish to remind the student of the disciplinary consequences that will follow if the problem behavior(s) continue. It is recommended that the teacher keep a written record of these behavioral conferences, to be shared with faculty, administration, or parents if needed.

Lanceley, F.J. (1999). On-scene guide for crisis negotiators. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press. Walker, H. M., Colvin, G., Ramsey, E. (1995). Antisocial behavior in school: Strategies and best practices. Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole Publishing.

2. HABIT-REVERSAL TECHNIQUE: BEHAVIOR CHANGE. Student problem behaviors can be habit-forming. To break an ingrained behavior pattern, the teacher can use a 3-step habit-reversal technique: (1) TRAIN FOR AWARENESS. The student is trained to recognize when he/she is displaying the problem behavior(s) (e.g., loud angry outbursts; throwing objects); to identify signs of the onset of those problem behavior(s) (e.g., raised voice, scowl); and to describe typical situations that can trigger the problem behavior(s) (e.g., when told 'no' by an adult; when teased by peers). During this phase, the student may require adult coaching (e.g., teacher prompts) to alert the student when the problem behavior is occurring. (2) TEACH A COMPETING RESPONSE. The student is taught a replacement behavior that is incompatible with the problem behavior (e.g., taking 3 deep, calming breaths to replace an angry outburst; moving away from another student rather than getting into an argument). (3) REWARD THE NEW HABIT. Adults reinforce the student for episodes of successful behavior replacement with praise and points that can be banked and later applied to earn privileges or prizes. TIP: Teaching staff can foster habit change by eliminating triggers (e.g., adult 'nagging', peer teasing) that may elicit problem behaviors.

Allen, K. D. (1998). The use of an enhanced simplified habit-reversal procedure to reduce disruptive outbursts during athletic performance. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 31, 489-492.

3. REINFORCING LOWER RATE OF HELP REQUESTS: INCREASE STUDENT INDEPENDENCE. When a student too frequently seeks teacher help and reassurance, one strategy to fix the problem is to reinforce lower rates of help-seeking: (1) TRAIN THE STUDENT IN SELF-HELP STRATEGIES. The teacher meets with the student to generate a checklist of appropriate self-help skills (e.g., consult a

Austin, J. L., & Bevan, D. (2011). Using differential reinforcement of low rates to reduce children's requests for teacher attention. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 44,

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glossary or dictionary, ask a peer) that should be attempted before seeking teacher help. (2) SELECT A MAXIMUM LIMIT FOR HELP REQUESTS. The teacher decides on a reasonable upper limit of times that the student can request help during a given period. For example, a teacher may decide that, during a 20-minute independent seatwork period, the student should require no more than 3 opportunities to seek teacher help. (3) CREATE A REQUEST-MONITORING CARD. The teacher makes a daily monitoring index-card to be placed on the student's desk. The card contains a series of check-off boxes equivalent to the acceptable maximum of help requests--plus an 'extra' box. For example, if 3 is the maximum for allowable help requests during a period, the card contains 4 check-off boxes. (4) IMPLEMENT THE INTERVENTION. The teacher shows the monitoring card to the student, presents the maximum number of times the student can request teacher assistance during the defined academic period, and explains that each time the student requests assistance, the teacher will check off one of the boxes on the monitoring card. If the student requests help beyond the pre-defined upper limit, the teacher checks off the 'extra' box on the card--but does not offer assistance. For each period in which the 'extra' box remains unchecked (i.e., the student did not exceed the limit for teacher help), the student earns a point that can be banked and later applied to earn privileges or prizes.

451-461.

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