7

The Changing Context of

Supervision

DE 305

The changes in the focus or emphasis of supervision maybe traced to the different movements or theories of supervisory thought throughout history

There are many parallels in the practice of supervision in business and education. These are evident in supervisory practices in education which are heavily influenced by models in business and industry. In order to justify the use of business models in schools, education is conveniently compared to a production process.

To this extent, education is analogous to what goes on to a factory where the primary objective is maximum productivity. This is the reason why in the early part of the 20th century, the application of businesslike criteria such as economy and efficiency dominated supervisory practices in the school setting in the West (Wiles and Bondi, 1991)

Inevitably, as was true in business, the concept of supervision evolved overtime. The evolution was largely the result of the changing roles and functions of supervision as the emphasis or focus shifted to its different dimensions; administration, curriculum, instruction, human relations, evaluation and leadership.

Consequently, variations in definitions emerged.

Supervision in Education underwent several phases characterized by a gradual shift from an amateurish, trial and error mode to a highly professional and theory based mode which describes the current practice to applicable theories and principles on leadership and management ( Glanz, 2000)

DEFINITIONS OF SUPERVISION

Supervision was defined as a process of scanning a text for errors or deviations from the original material ( Smyth in Sullivan and Glanz, 2000 ). It was only later that supervision became associated with direction, control, and oversight of human behavior.

The following definitions by various scholars reflect the changing emphasis or focus of supervision on the specific dimensions across different periods of time:

Emphasis on Administration

Supervision is what school personnel do with adults and things to maintain or change the operation of the school in order to directly influence the attainment of major instruction goals (Harris and Bessent, 1969, p.11)

Emphasis on Curriculum

General supervision denotes activities like the writing and revisions of curriculums, the preparation of units and materials of instruction, the development of processes and instruments for reporting to parents, and such broad concerns as evaluation of the total educational program ( Cogan, 1973, p. 9).

Emphasis on instruction

Supervision of instruction is directed toward both maintaining and improving the teaching-learning process of the school (Harris, 1975, p. 10)

Emphasis on Human Relations

Instructional supervisory behavior is assumed to be an additional behavior system formally provided by the organization for the purpose of interacting with the teaching behavior system in such a way as to maintain, change, and improve the provision and actualization of learning opportunities for the students (Wiles and Lovell, 1975,pp.6-8)

Emphasis on Leadership

Supervision is teaching the teachers how to teach and the professional leadership how to reformulate public education, more specifically, its curriculum, its teaching, and its forms ( Mosher and Purpel, 1972, p. 4)

Emphasis on Evaluation

Supervision are regularly involve in evaluation through assessment of programs, processes, and people (Wiles and Bondi, p. 281)

In the 1950s this emphasis on evaluation in the supervision of Philippines education is described by Freznoza ( 1957):

Modern supervision evaluates the educational product in the light of the accepted objectives of education. This involve the cooperative determination and critical analysis of the objectives of education; the selection and application of instruments of evaluation; and the analysis of the resulting data to determine the strengths and weaknesses of the educational product.

Changes in Supervisory Thought1. The Scientific Management

Perspective of Supervision. From around 1900 to 1920s, supervision criteria were based on the Scientific Management Movement, the dominant philosophy that focused on accountability, control, and efficacy.

The scientific Management Theory was based largely on the Work of Frederick Taylor, a well known American Engineer. Taylor encapsulated his theory in four principles:

Four Principles:

a. Scientific job analysis

b. Selection of Personnel

c. Management Cooperation

d. Functional supervising

2. The Need for Uniformity During the American Regime

3. Human Relations Perspective of Supervision

Major Assumptions of the Human Relations Approach

1. Employees are motivated not only by economic incentives, but also by social and psychological needs such as recognition, belongingness and security which are important in determining morale and productivity than the physical conditions of the work environment.

2. As individual’s perceptions, beliefs, motivations, cognition, responses to frustration, and values are important determinants of behavior in the workplace.

3. Informal social organizations within a formal organization can promote or constrain the effectiveness of supervision through the creation and enforcement of their own norms and codes of conduct.

4. Under a democratic and supportive management, employees develop high morale and work harder thereby increasing productivity.

5. Effective communication promotes healthy working relationships between superior and subordinate in the organization.

Research findings have shown that differential performance across schools maybe attributed largely to the interpersonal skills of the school heads.

Khetarpal and Srivastava (2000) contend that the more interpersonally skillful and gifted the available leadership in school is, the better performing the institution becomes. This stems from the fact that leadership based on interpersonal behavior inspires cooperation and support, as well as organizational loyalty from the members.

To a great extent, the Human Relations Movement finds a responsive chord in the Filipino psyche then and now. Maintaining harmony between individuals and among groups and social divisions is a powerful construct in the dominant culture value of “smooth interpersonal relationship” (SIR). Values permeate and guide the daily lives and behaviors of Filipinos. SIR is manifested by four important interlocking Filipino values of pakikisama, amor propio, hiya, and utang na loob.

Pakikisama is not only a value, but also a skill and a goal. It is the ability to maintain good feelings, and to get along well with others at all costs – from avoiding stressful confrontations, and using metaphorical language, to repressing negative feelings, and not being critical.

The English translation of hiya is shame, embarrassment, or losing face. It is a relational concept that focuses on how one is perceived by others. It is derived from amor propio which means self – esteem or self – respect. When one loses face, or is put to shame, one loses self – esteem. Hiya is manifested by a feeling of inferiority, shyness, and alienation.

Utang na loob is related to reciprocity. It is a conventional wisdom that a beneficiary of a past favor, whether in terms of material benefits, good deed, good will, good behavior, or display of loyalty, becomes indebted to the benefactor. In return, the recipient of the favor is expected to reciprocate as a sign of gratitude.

Figure 1. Interlocking Relationship of the Four Values that constitute SIR

HIYA PAKIKISAMA

AMOR PROPIO

UTANG NA LOOB

SIR

Leadership Perspective of Supervision

Perhaps because of the dissatisfaction with the Human Relations Movement, scientists and scholars begun looking for an alternative that could balance the need to maintain harmonious relations in the organization and the completion of tasks.

Luneberg and Ornstein reported two major studies regarding this phenomenon conducted by Ohio University and Michigan University.

The Ohio Studies identified two dimensions that relate to relationship and tasks:

1. Initiating structure, which has a task orientation; and

2. Consideration, which focuses on human relations.

Figure 2. The Ohio State Leadership Grid.

1

2

4

3High

Low

Con

sid

era

tion

HighInitiating Structure

Q1: High Structure, Low ConsiderationQ2: High Structure, High ConsiderationQ3: Low Structure, High ConsiderationQ4: Low Structure, Low Consideration

The same dichotomy was also the basis of the Michigan Studies which identified two similar categories:

1. Production – Centered Leadership, which emphasizes tasks and procedures for completion; and

2. Employee – Centered Leadership, which emphasizes interpersonal relationships and concern for personal needs.

Situational Leadership Theory

Hersey, Blanchard, and Johnson developed a leadership theory which posits that the overall leadership process is a function of the leader, the follower, and other situational variables. These different variables determine, to a large extent, the choice of the appropriate leadership style. Hersey and Blanchard describe these leadership style as directing, coaching, supporting, and delegating.

The Leader Factor

The choice of the appropriate style is defined by two important leadership behaviors:

1. The Directive Behavior, describes the extent to which the supervisors are likely to classify and define the roles of the teachers by explaining what, were, when, and how tasks are accomplished, and

2. The Supportive Behavior, stresses relationships through communication and socio – emotional support. This is done by listening to the teachers, praising them, promoting team – building, asking for input, and mutual problem – solving among others.

The Follower Factor In the choice of the appropriate style, two

important dimensions that reflect readiness on the part of the follower must be considered: work or job maturity, and psychological or emotional maturity. These two variables determine, to a large extent, the appropriate leadership style. Work or job maturity, and psychological or emotional maturity (Lunenberg and Ornstein, 1991). These two variables determine, to a large extent, the appropriate leadership style. Work maturity refers to the competence or readiness of an individual to do the task at hand because of the experience and qualification

Emotional Maturity on the other hand, pertains to the readiness of the individual to do the task assigned regardless of psychological considerations

Effective Leadership Styles

In decision- making, the supervisor’s main concern is to use an effective strategy based on the work and emotional maturity of the people in the organization

The directing style which demonstrates high directive and low supportive behavior is effective for the followers who have low competence for and high commitment to the job. This style requires structure and guidance.

It is appropriate to use the coaching style (high directive and high supportive) for followers with low competence for and low commitment to the job. This styles requires a two – way communication pattern. The supervisor explains to the teacher the importance of the task to be done and what is needed to accomplish it, but in the process, listens to the ideas of the teacher, as well as to specific concerns.

Supporting style ( high supportive and low directive behavior) is most suitable when followers have high competence for and low commitment to the job. A supporting supervisor reassures and motivates experienced teachers who have low commitment or confidence, or at worst, who are not willing to do an assigned task.

The delegating style ( low supportive and low directive behavior) is most appropriate for followers who have high competence for and high commitment to the job.

The four leadership styles lie in a continuum where directing and delegating are on the extreme ends, while coaching and supporting constitute the middle choices.

Figure 3Eff ective Leadership styles Based

on the Model by Hersey and blanchard

Directing Delegating

Coaching Supporting

Com

mit

men

t

Competence

Effective vs. Ineff ective Leadership

Reddin developed another effective leadership model based on the combination of different level of task behavior (initiating structure) and relationship behavior (consideration) as identified by the Ohio State research team. The Reddin model integrates the concepts of an effective leadership style with situational considerations. A style is considered effective when it’s appropriate for a given situation, and ineffective when it’s inappropriate. Reddin argues that a particular leadership style may be effective or ineffective depending on the given situation.

Effective Styles:• developer• executive• bureaucrat and• Benevolent autocrat

Ineffective styles:• missionary• compromiser• deserter• autocrat

Figure 4Eff ective leadership

Style Grid Based on the Reddin Model

Developer

Executive

Bureaucrat Benevolent Autocrat

Rela

tion

ship

O

rienta

tion

Task Orientation

Source: Reddin’s Model of Leadership Style in Lunenberg and Ornstein.

1. A developer gives maximum concern to relationships and minimum attention to tasks. The focus is on people and their development as individuals.

2. A leader using the executive style gives equal emphasis to both task and relationship concerns.

3. A bureaucrat is less concerned with both tasks and relationships. This type of leader maintains and controls the situation by implementing rules

4. A benevolent autocrat gives maximum attention to tasks and minimum concern to relationships. This types of leader knows exactly what he/she wants, and how to go about it without causing bad feelings.

Figure 5. Ineffective Leadership Style Grid Based on the Reddin Model.

Missionary Compromiser

Deserter AutocratRela

tion

ship

O

rienta

tion

Task Orientation

Source: Reddin’s Model of Leadership Style in Lunenberg and Ornstein.

1. A missionary gives maximum attention to relationships and minimum concern to tasks. This type of leader is perceived as a “do – gooder” who considers harmony as the highest priority.

2. A compromiser is considered a poor decision – maker who does not know what the situation demands, and is, therefore, easily affected by pressure.

3. A deserter gives minimum attention to both tasks and relationships, and is, therefore, perceived as uninvolved and passive.

4. An autocrat gives minimal concern to both tasks and relationships, and is, therefore, perceived as having no trust and confidence in others, and is only interested in the accomplishment of the task.

Disagreements Regarding The Nature of

Supervision The shift in focus on the different

dimensions of supervision also underscores the disagreement about its essential nature which according to Blasé and Blasé, has been going on for more than 140 years. However, despite the variety of approaches, the practice of supervision has been one of inspection and judgment over the years.

Thus, although the idea of collegial supervision is given emphasis in literature for the most part of the 20th century, experts argue that advanced forms of collegiality are rarely found in practice. To Glanz, contemporary supervision is nothing more than bureaucratic legacy of fault – finding and inspectional supervision. For his part, Gordon laments that control supervision, rather than collegiality and empowerment, still dominates current professional practice.

However, these negative views about the contemporary approach to supervision are not shared by Pajak who believes that the emerging practice focuses on helping teachers develop professional knowledge and skills, and by Schon who contends that contemporary practice emphasizes support, guidance, and encouragement of reflective teaching. Likewise, a similar view is shared by McBride and Saku who consider current practice as a process that builds trust, empowerment, and reflection. According to these educators, the key to effectiveness of supervision is reflective practice.

Reflective Practice in Supervision

More and more, the use of reflective practice as potentially powerful enhancement to supervisor – teacher interaction is gaining support. The research conducted by Blasé and Blasé points to the potency of this practice in increasing the complexity of teachers’ thinking about teaching – learning problems, and enhancing their problem – solving skills. Reflection enables teachers to question teaching – learning events and consequences or outcomes, as well as to conceptualize alternative behaviors.

Supervisors can support reflective practice by providing rich opportunities for interaction, shared reflection, and modeling. This can be accomplished by giving timely descriptive feedback, asking questions, soliciting feedback and opinions, as well as challenging and rewarding reflective practice. Osterman and Kottkamp argue that reflective practice is important because:

1. Everyone needs professional growth opportunities.

2. All professionals want to improve.

3. All professionals can learn.

4. All professionals are capable of assuming responsibility for their own professional growth and development.

5. People need and want information about their own performance.

6. Collaboration enriches professional development.

Table 3. Comparison of Different Perspectives of Supervision

KEY CONCEPTPERSPECTIVE OF SUPERVISION

ScientificSupervision

HumanRelations

Leadership(Situational)

Philosophy Autocratic Democratic Democratic

Objective Efficiency,Uniformity

Person’s well – being and

satisfaction

Effectiveness,Appropriate

Action

ApproachInspection,

ControlMotivation,

Group dynamicsTransformation,

Reflection

Characteristics Hierarchical,Bureaucratic

Collegial,Cooperative

Collegial,Cooperative

Focus Task Relationship Situation

Decision – making

Consideration

Work MaturityEmotional Maturity Readiness

Supervisor’sRole

Evaluator,Superior

Motivator,Facilitator

Agent of Change,

Colleague

Summary the evolution supervision from inspectional to

developmental orientations brought about many radical changes in supervisory practices. The practices vary in accordance with overarching movements or theories about supervision during different periods of time. Differences in perspectives have caused dramatic changes in supervisory behavior. Because of the evolution of supervisory behavior, current practice is very different from the hit – and – miss process of the past. Supervisory behavior is now based on applicable universal concepts, theories, and principles of leadership and management.