The Broadcasting

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RachelKovacs

SchoolofCommunication,

HarryJackGrayCenterE224,UniversityofHartford,200BloomfieldAvenue,West

Hartford,CT06117,USA.Tel:+18607684016;Fax:+1860768

4096;E-mail:[email protected]

Thebroadcastingpublicsphere:Enduringissues,enduring

relationships,enduringactivists

Received(inrevisedform):29thNovember,2002

RachelKovacs


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isanassistantprofessorin

theSchoolofCommunicationattheUniversityofHartford,whereshehas

headeditspublicrelationsemphasissince1999.AsadvisertotheSchoolschapter

ofPublicRelationsStudentSocietyofAmerica(PRSSA),shedirectedits2001award-winningentryinthenationalBatemanCompetition.Sheisarecipientoftwo

InterdisciplinaryTopPaper


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Awards(PRSAEducatorsAcademy,1999;Institutefor

PublicRelations(IPR),2001)forherstudiesinBritishbroadcastingactivism.Since

thelate-1990s,DrKovacshaslectured,presentedatinternationalconferencesandpublishedon

thesubject.Inaddition,shewasawardedaYaleVisitingFacultyFellowshipin2001.FormerlyAssistantEditorofJournalofCommunication,DrKovacsholdsdegrees

inmasscommunication


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(PhD,UniversityofMarylandCollegeofJournalism,

MATowsonUniversity)andtheatrearts(BABrandeisUniversity,withstudiesat

ManchesterUniversity).

AbstractThisstudycomparesthestrategiesandimpactof

sixBritishactivistgroups,asdocumentedin1997,withdatagatheredonthesamegroupsin2000.Thesegroups,VoiceoftheListenerandViewer,

CampaignforQuality


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Television,DeafBroadcastingCouncil,ConsumersAssociation,National

ConsumersCouncilandNationalListenersandViewersAssociation,attemptedtobuilda

publicsphereforgeneratingdebatearoundandcatalysingchangestobroadcastingpoliciesand

programming.Theyweretrackedin2000inordertoidentifythoseissues,relationshipsandgroupsthathadendured.Theresearchdesignprovidedatelescopiclook

attheirinteractions


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withtheirtargetsandwitheachother

duringaperiodofrapidtechnologicalandindustrychange.Inamultichannel

broadcastingenvironmentwhereconvergenceandglobalisationarebuzzwords,activistsusedpublicrelationsto

createabroaderpublicforumforawiderangeofsignificantissueswithwhichtoengagedemographically,psychographicallyandgeographicallydiversepublics.Theensuingmedia

education,mediaadvocacy


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andrelationshipbuilding,althougheliteinorigins,

strengtheneddemocraticdiscourse,thusreaffirmingbroadcastingsinvaluableroleincivilsociety.

INTRODUCTION

ThispaperwillexplorehowactivistsTheindependenceprovided

byprivateconcernedaboutbroadcastingproperty,thecriticalreflectionfosteredby

lettersandnovels,thefloweringof

programmingandpolicyused

publicdiscussionin


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coffeehousesandsalonsand

relations

tofacilitateapublicsphereasa

aboveall,the

emergenceofanindependent,

corollarytodemocraticgrowthinthe

market-basedpress,createdanewpublic

UK.14

Thecreationofsuchaspherewas

engagedincriticalpolitical

discussion.From


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afundamentalpremiseandfunctionof

thiswasforgedareason-basedconsensus

publicservice

broadcastingintheUK.It

whichshapedthedirectionofthe

state.hasalsoservedasamodelfortransitional

(p.82)4nations.Curran4tracedtheroleofthemediainCurran4arguedthat

thepublicsphere


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catalysingsuchasphereforpublicdebate:

conceptualisedbyHabermas1was

#HenryStewartPublications1363254X(2003)

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Kovacs

supersededbyexpanded

state-organisedcorporatistinterests,theincreasingexclusionofthepublicfromdebateon

substantivesocietalissues,andthemanipulationofmassopinionbythemedia.Thus,

thoseconcernedaboutcompellingissuesinbroadcasting(whetherindemocraciesortransitionalpost-communistgovernments)developedbroadcastingmodelsthatwouldserveasaforumfor

debate.Further,Habermass1


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modelisreferredtoagainas:

aneutralzonewhereaccesstorelevantinformationaffectingthepublic

goodiswidelyavailable,wherediscussionisfreeofdominationbythestate

andwhereallthoseparticipantsinpublicdebatedosoonanequalbasis.Withinthispublicsphere,peoplecollectivelydeterminethroughtheprocessesof

rationalargumentthe


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waytheywanttoseesocietydevelop,

andthisshapesinturntheconductofgovernmentpolicy.(p.82)4

Dahlgren5conceivedofthepublicsphereasaseriesofsocietal

dialoguesdealingwithissuesofcommonconcernandpoliticsinanoverarchingsense.Boththisforumandtheconditionsforcommunicationwithinitareessential

fordemocracy,he


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maintained.Onecouldsaythatafunctioning

publicsphereisthefulfillmentofthecommunicationalrequirementsofaviable

democracy.(p.

1)5

TheBBCasexemplaroftheBritishmodel

TheBritishBroadcastingCorporation(BBC),asanexemplarofBritishpublicservicebroadcasting,isamodelthatEast/CentralEuropean6andWesternscholars1,4,5

haveassociatedwith


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thepublicsphere;however,Currans4caveatwas

thatbroadcastinghasnotfunctionedasanopenforumofpublicdebate

butasanagencyprivilegingdominantdiscoursesandsustainingdominantpowergroupsin

Britain.(p.45)4Theperceived

shortcomingsofboththeBBCandtheIndependentTelevision(ITV)franchiseshavespawneddiversepressuregroupsrepresentingviewing

andlistening/consumer


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publicsseekingredress.Thesegroupsaredetermined

topreservethemediaasapublicsphereinaformthat

isrelativelyautonomous(p.52)4andthathaspublicservicerequirements.711Somerequirements

fallundertherubricofsocialinclusion(egdisabled,minority,andothermarginalisedgroups).Overall,broadcastinginstitutionsmustbeaccountable.

Accountabilityandpublic

servicebroadcasters


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Theaccountabilityofthemediawill

followfromchangesinsocietyinamoregenericsenseand.

..theroleofthemediais,andalwayswillbeto,in

asense,transmitthevaluesofasociety.Anditsthestrengthwithwhichthesevaluesarebeingsetelsewhere,inthesocialfabric,that

dictatestherole


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ofthemedia.12

Howthe

rolesofthemediaandofbroadcastinginademocraticpublicsphere1314

havebeengreatlydebatedandscrutinisedhasbeenshownabove,ashasbeen

thedegreetowhichcitizensandconsumersasviewersandlistenerscreateandmaintainsuchasphere.Thisstudyexaminedhowsixcoreactivistgroups,

asperceivedby


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diverse,interestedparties,generatedandsustaineddebate,

andhadimpact,atleastinpart,ontheroleandfuture

ofbroadcastinginadigitalenvironment.In1997,researchintoeachgroupsstrategies

andimpactwascomparableinscopeandindepth.Intermsofthetotaldata,slightlymoreexposuretotheVoiceoftheListenerand

Viewer(VLV)took


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placebecause:

initialcontact

withVLVcatalysedthisworkJournalofCommunicationManagementVol.7,3

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HenryStewartPublications1363254X(2003)


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Thebroadcastingpublicsphere

theauthorwaspresentatVLVsInternationalConferenceandhad,

foronedaypriortothatevent,beenparticipant-observerinitsGravesendoffices.

Thismayinitiallybeinterpretedasabiasindatacollectionandinterpretation.Nevertheless,notonlywererespondentsfrom1997whowerequalifiedtoreport

ontheprogress


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ofthecoregroupsre-interviewedin

2000,butjustasmanyoftheformerwereinterviewedoffsite,in

amoreneutralsetting,asattheconference.Also,informalcontactsconcerningcore

groups,onsiteandoff,supplementedformalones.Inrecounting2000results,VLVmayappeartobementionedmoreoftenbecauseitproactivelypursuedabroadcasting

publicsphere,in


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thewaysconveyedbelow,withinachanging

environment.Dataweregatheredonallgroupsinthefollow-upstudy.

Thetwolinkedwaysthetermbroadcastingpublicsphereisusedin

thisworkmustbenotedhere.Thefirstreferstotelevisionandradiocontent,includingpublicdebates,itsaccessibilitytoaudiences,andifandhow

thatcontentis


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conducivetocitizensawarenessofandparticipation

indialoguessustainingdemocracy,inpluralisticrepresentationofdiversegroups,orin

politicsorothermattersofinteresttosociety.Theothersphereconsistsof

off-airdebateaboutbroadcastingpolicy,programminganddecisionmaking.Whathappensinthelatterspherehasimplicationsfortheformerandviceversa.Thispaper

pertainstothe


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activistgroupsthatoperateoffairin

ordertoaffectwhathappensonair.

Publicservicebroadcasting

andanewindustrylandscape

Thechallengesfacingpublicservicebroadcasters

haveputvulnerablevaluesatrisk.15Majortechnologicalandindustrychangesthreatenatraditioncentredonthe

publicinterest.Controversyoverprivatisationhas

plaguedtheBBCs


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commercialenterprisesdivision.16TheBeebspaternalisticmandate17

thatBritishtelevisionshouldinform,educate,andentertain7hasfacedoffagainst

marketalternativestopublicservicegoals.18TheUKmustalsoheedEuropeanCommunity

guidelines.1920

Britishregulatorybodies(theIndependentTelevisionCommission(ITC),theBroadcastingStandardsCommission,theRadioAuthority,andBBCsProgrammeComplaintsUnit)allowfor

audienceredress,although


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theBBCGovernorsrolesasmanagers/regulators

oftheCorporationhavebeenquestioned.2122DespitetheBroadcastingActsof1990

and1996,10,23government24haslargelyfavouredmarket-drivenbroadcasting.Twoassumptions(iethatexisting

regulationisresponsiveenoughtoaudienceneedsandthatmarketprinciplessufficeforprogramming/policychoices)arechallengedbypublicserviceadvocateswhomaintainthat

Britishbroadcastingwas


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aprioriconceptualisedasamodelfor

citizenparticipationinthepublicsphere.5,6,14Mostnotably,sinceMaryWhitehousesNational

ViewersandListenersAssociation25(NVALA)firstattemptedtoeffectchangeinprogramming,pressure

groupshavegenerateddebateaboutcompellingissuesinthepublicsphere.Althoughpressuregroupsmayhavelackedthepowertohaltindustrytrends,theyhave

pursuedtheiragendas


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despitetheodds(all-issuegroups,mostattuned

tothesetrends,seemedtofarebest).

ThesixBritish

groupsstudiedwere:

VoiceoftheListenerandViewer(VLV;

broadrangeofissues)ConsumersAssociation(CA;productquality,valueformoney)theCampaignforQualityTelevision(CQT;quality/diversity)#HenryStewartPublications

1363254X(2003)Vol.


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7,3209238JournalofCommunicationManagement


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Kovacs

theDeaf

BroadcastingCouncil(DBC;accessforthedeaf)NationalViewersandListeners

Association(NVALA;violence/taste/decency)theNationalConsumerCouncil(NCC;government-fundedconsumerwatchdog).They

useddiverse,culturally-appropriatestrategiestobringcompellingissuesintothepublicsphere.Theinitial,significantissuesconcerningthemaregroupedbelow.

Significantissues

in1997


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IssuesregardingtheaccountabilityofBritish

broadcasterstotheirdiverseviewingandlisteningpublicscouldbegroupedinto

anumberoflargerdomains.Theseincludedissuesofrepresentation,and,inpart,

linkedtothat,regionalconcerns,consultation,viewerandlistenerredress;accesstodecisionmakers,decision-makingprocesses,andservices;andqualityofbroadcasting(alsorelated,

inpart,to


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representationandaccess).Althoughtherehasbeen

morescrutinyoftheBBCasapublicly-fundedbroadcaster,ITVhasalso

hadpublicservicerequirementsandChannelFouradistinctremit.Withregardto

theBBC,thecontinuationofthelicencefee,setatanappropriatelevel,wasofmajorconcern,asweretheconflictingrolesoftheBBCs

GovernorsandBBC


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responsivenesstoviewerandlistenergrievances.Responsiveness

alsomeantincludingviewerandlistenerperspectivesinconsultationanddecisionmaking.

TheGovernors,whohaveactedasmanagersandregulators(judgeandjury)of

theCorporation,havebeenseenasunabletoactobjectivelyinthepublicinterest.ITCwascriticisedasbeingratingsdriveninitsprogrammingchoices.

The


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desireforgreaterrepresentationofdiversegroups

withinsocietyassubjectsofprogrammes,withaccesstoprogrammes,andas

decisionmakersforthoseprogrammes,wasamajorissue.Itembracedinclusionof

thedisabled,

minoritiesanddisadvantaged,aswellasthoseregionsoftheUK(egtheNorth,Scotland,orWales)thatmayhavebeen

marginalisedincomparison


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tocoveragegiventoLondonandthe

South.Noconsensusexistedaboutwhichgroupsinsocietycouldclaimto

berepresentativeandmeritrepresentation.Hypothetically,accesstofree-to-airprogrammingandlisted(sporting/cultural)

eventsshouldhavebeenavailabletoall,yet,manycitizenslackedthemoneyneededtoadoptdigitaltechnologyorsubscribetopaytelevision.Issuesof

tasteanddecency


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(oftendirectedagainstChannelFourbyNVALA)

andmechanismsforredress(single,versusmultiple,regulator(s))alsoconcernedactivists.Some

issuesenduredin2000(seebelow).

THEORETICALCONSIDERATIONS

The

studydrewonliteraturesofpoliticsandsociology,management/publicrelationsandmasscommunication,Mostofthepressure/interestgroupliterature2632didnotdirectlyrelatetobroadcasting

activism.Itwas


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limitedtogovernment/specialinterestrelations.Wapner33was

anexception.Governmentwasaccountabletocorporateinterests.34Thegroupsstudiedhere

couldhardlybecalledsocialmovements.35,36TheUKsocialmovementliteraturewasmore

descriptivethantheoretical,saidRucht.37Thiswasnottrueoftheliteraturesofpost-communistEast/CentralEurope.3840

Karlbergs41criticismofthepublicrelationsresearch

agendacanbe


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understoodfromadisproportionatelycorporate/organisationalviewof

activism.4248Karlbergs41idealresearchagendawouldfacilitatetheempowermentofvariouspublics.

Shoemakercommented,publicrelationseffortsonbehalfofinterestgroupscanactuallyhave

long-termpro-socialconsequencesby

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providingasociallyacceptableforumforthediscussionandintroductionofnew

ideas.(p.

215)49Yet,asKarlbergnoted,41relativelyfewattemptshavebeenmade

tounderstandif,andhow,activistgroupscanstrategicallyusepublicrelations.Coalitionbuilding5051and,morerecently,relationshipbuildinghavebecomefocalpointsforscholars.5257

Bothstrategiesrelate


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toactivistempowerment,withrelationshipbuildingthe

groundworkforinteractionsbetweenactivistpublic(s)andorganisation(s).Formalcoalitions,orloose,

adhocalliancesallowforagreaterdegreeofsymmetricalcommunicationandnegotiation.

Successful,long-termrelationshipsbetweenorganisationsandtheirpublicshavebeenthefocusofrecentscholarshipspecifically,relationshipsandrelationshipoutcomes,52,5661relationshipmanagement,62employee-community

relationships,63andnegotiation


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theory.6466Mediaadvocacy67hasframedissuesin

alargersocialcontext,empoweringactiviststoseeksupportandcatalysepolicy

change.

Culturalvariables68relatedtohowactivistswithintheBritishpolitical

cultureoperated.6974Theapproachofbroadcastingactivistsdifferedsomewhatfromthatofothergroups.Culturalidentityanddiversityofrepresentationtouchedacollective,oftennationalist

nerve.Termsused


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intheliteraturesonpublicinterestgroups75

andpublicgoodstheory76wererelevanttopublicservicebroadcasting,acommunicative

publicgoodandjointsupply,77whichdoesnotexcludeanyusers.78Scholarsdiscussed

broadcastingandthepublicsphereinthe

UK.1,4,5,13,7981

SomepointedtoaUKmodelforEast/CentralEurope.8284TheBBC,atrustee

forthenational


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interest

(p.50)7informednational

debate,butthattermhaselicitednegativereactionsfromregionsresentingLondons

culturaldominance.RESEARCHQUESTIONS

The1997studyasked:

Whatcommunicationstrategieshavepressuregroupsusedtoinfluenceandincreasetheaccountabilityoftheirtargets,includingbuildingrelationshipswiththeirpublics,otherpressuregroups,

targetorganisationsand


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thereferencepublics71ofthosetargets

Whatistheperceivedimpactofactivistgroupsonrelationshipswiththe

abovepublics,onbroadcastingpolicyandprogrammingandonpublicdiscourseonthese

issues?In2000thefociwere,enduring/compellingissues,enduringrelationshipsformedtopromotethoseissues,andenduringgroups.VLV,whoseworkcatalysedtheoriginal

study,alsoprominently


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figuredinthe2000study.Thegenesis

ofbothprojectsfollows.

METHODOLOGYOFTHESTUDY

Thefirstadvocacygroupthattheauthoridentified,whileona1995research

triptotheUK,wasVLV.Incontrast,mostoftheothergroupswereidentifiedthroughdatabasesearches.Anunderstaffed,lowbudget,buthighlyrespected

advocacygroup,it


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beganinreactiontoacrisisover

BBCRadioFour,butbroadeneditsagendatodiversebroadcastingissues.A

Lexis/Nexissearchuncovered78articleswrittenbetweenApril,1995andFebruary,1996about

VLV,withsubsequentsearchesproducingover500items.VLVhadpublishedaneditedvolumeonpublicservicebroadcastingintheEuropeanmarketplace.85Givenitsresources,

theorganisationsactivities


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in199596exceededmostexpectationsforit.

Membershipwasapproximately2,500,lessthanforCAandprobablymorethan

CQT.Olson86assessedthecollectiveactionofsmallgroupsasmoreeffectivethan

thatoflargeones,inasmuchasnomemberofasmallgroupcanassumethat

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ofCommunicationManagement


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Kovacs

anothermemberwill

contributeenoughtoachievethedesiredgroupgoals.

FounderJocelyn

Hayrecruitedandmobiliseddistinguishedindustryprofessionals,academics(egProfessorVincentPorter),consumer

advocates(egJeremyMitchell,formerlyofCAandNaomiSargant,veteranconsumerresearcherandeducator)todraftVLVconsultationandotherdocuments.SheranVLV

fromherhome


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withthehelpoftwopart-timesecretaries.

Manymemberswereolder,London-based(allegedlymoreprovincial),andhadmoretime

thanayoungercohorttogivetoVLV.Hay,VLVsolderchairwoman,assumed

analmostdisproportionateworkload.Withtheseconstraints,howcouldVLVtacklesuchabroadagenda?AlthoughthewaysVLVdifferedinitscharacteristicsandconstraints

fromothercore


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groupsmayhavehadanimpacton

strategies,themainfocusherewasoncommonstrategies,includingstrategicalliances.

Dataandpublicationswerecollectedforeachgroup,andfocusedheavilyongovernment

legislative,regulatoryandpolicydocumentsanddevelopmentsinBritishbroadcasting.TheauthorhasmonitoredUKbroadcastingsince1993forcompetitivenessandasapost-communistmodel.87

Four


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setsofinterviewprotocolswereconstructed

oneeachforactivists,broadcasters,governmentorotherpolicymakersandacademicsand

otherinterestedparties.InJanuaryandFebruary1997,theywerefairlyevenlydivided

among43intervieweeswithknowledgeofthecoregroups,someofwhomhadheldmultiplepositions.88Albury,88interviewedinLondon,suggestedthesuccessfulDeafBroadcasting

Council(DBC)to


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theauthor,whothenmetwithMyers,89

itsHonourableSecretary.Intervieweesinnon-corepressuregroupsincludedamarketingdirector,90

aunionexecutive(BECTU),91andaformerEUlobbyistfor

ITV.92

FieldworkandarchivalresearchwereconductedatBFIandITC.

OngoingcontactwithJocelynHayofVLV93suggestedtheneedtoreexaminethat

groupsandthe


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othersresponsestoemergingissuesandto

identifyenduringissues,groupsandrelationshipsamongthelatter.Inanticipationof

aMay,2000visittotheUK,anotherexhaustivedatabasesearchwasundertaken

regardingdevelopmentsaffectingUKbroadcasting,bothathomeandglobally.AttheVLV2000Conference(attheRoyalSocietyofArts),onsiteinterviewsof1997

respondents,andnew


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ones,tookplace.Inaddition,follow-up,offsite

interviewswerealsoconductedwith1997interviewees.Updatedorganisationalliteratureandprimary

datasupplementedinterviews.Resultsfromthe1997and2000studiesappearbelow.

STRATEGIESASPERTHE1997STUDY

Therespondentsinthe1997samplecametoaclearconsensusaboutallthecoregroups

strategies,alist


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ofwhichappearsinAppendixA.One

caveatisthatalthoughNVALAdidpursuerelationshipsandformalliancesin

ordertopressfortasteanddecency,itsmannerofdealingwithits

targetsdivergedgreatlyfromtheothergroups.Overall,thestrategiescouldbegroupedunderthreerubrics,eachofwhichfacilitatedagendasetting.Theyarelisted

asfollows.


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Howactivistsmovetheagendaforward

Theprincipalmeansofadvancingcompellingbroadcastingissueswererelationship

building,mediaeducationandmediaadvocacy.Respondentsregardedtheprocessesandoutcomesof

buildingstrategicrelationshipsasmorethanjustsignificantstepstowardsactivistsuccesstheyweresuccessfuloutcomesinandof

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3209238#HenryStewartPublications1363254X

(2003)


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themselves.Thedimensionsofsuchrelationships,recurrentlyidentifiedbyrespondents,arelisted

inthenextsection.Mediaeducation(notmediastudiesprogrammes)meanshereproviding

publicforums(egconferences,symposia)forbringingcompellingbroadcastingissuesintothepublicsphere,withthehelpofindustryprofessionalsandothers.

Media

advocacy67isstrategically


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framingissuespresentedinthemediain

ordertounderscoretheirramificationsforsociety.Theagendasetting94andguard

dog95rolesofthepressworktotheadvantageofpublicbroadcasting,particularly

whenprestigiousjournaliststakeupitsbanner.Priortothe1997elections,politiciansleakedinformationtothepressaboutproposedbroadcastingchangestotestreactions.2122

Coregroupsissued


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pressreleases,butchosetoapproachvarious

outletsforcoverage.VLVcourtedcoveragebybroadsheetpaperssuchasThe

Guardian,whereasNVALAanditsfounderMaryWhitehouseregularlywroteforthetabloid

press,96whichprintedsensationalcriticismsofoffendingbroadcasters.Inaddition,Whitehousewouldcatchthebroadcastersorthegovernment,broadcastersorregulatorsbysurprisebysending

amissivesimultaneously


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tothetargetandthepress.The

targetwouldthenbecaughtoffguardandtheissuewouldbe

propelledintopublicprominence.ThisdidnotaddtoWhitehousesorNVALAspopularity.

Therewasahugecredibilitygapbetweenthebroadsheetsandthetabloids,whichaffectedperceptionsofthetwogroupsthemselves,asexplainedinthesection

oneffectiveness.CQT


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masterfullyusedthepresstoshowcaseits

qualitythresholdagendawithendorsementsfromJohnCleese,GeorgeHarrison,andothers.

DBCengagedinlimiteduseofthemedia

magazinesfor

thedeaf,asexplainedfurther.89EvenNCCandCAvoicedtheirconcernsinletterstotheeditors.CAspublishingarmalsoproducedreportsona

singleregulator101and


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thequestionoffairtradewithinthe

BBCsenterprisesdivision.141

Vehiclesforexpressionlikepressreleasesand

opinioneditorialswereaccessibletoall.Othertacticsrequiredmoreresources,butoverall,

thedatadidnotsupporttheoriginalexpectationthattacticschosenwouldbecontingentonresources.AlthoughVLVandotherrelativelyresourcelessgroupscouldnot

affordtoadvertise


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inmajormediaoutlets,asdidCQT,

orrungalaparties(CQThadspentlavishlyonentertainingtheMinister

forBroadcastingandotherpoliticiansandoncelebrityadverts),therestoftheir

strategieswererelativelyconsistent(seeAppendixA).Allgroupsusedchannelsofmasscommunication;nevertheless,inBritishsociety,Itsallinterpersonal,saidSmith.97Thedimensions

forinterpersonalsuccess


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follow.

Goodrelationshipsandtheir

dimensions

Mostrespondentsagreedupontheingredientsofagood

relationship.Amongthesewerefrank,reasoneddialogue,mutualrespect,confidentialityandtrust,openness

andunderstanding,sharedinterests,networkingwithothers/befriendingtargets,accessandrecognisingtheconstraintsoftargets.Byfrank,reasoneddialogue,respondentsmeantawell-constructedand

well-supportedargument,for


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which,Mitchell98said,thereisnosubstitute.

Well-informedargumentswerebolsteredbycommissionedresearchandproceedingsofconferencesfeaturing

pre-eminentscholarsandindustryprofessionals.85Thisresearchwasaresourceforpoliticians,enabling

activiststoengagetheirsupport.12Mutualrespect,asperthoseinBBCmanagement,figuredamongtherulesofengagement99thatappearedtoexcludevilifying

#Henry


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Kovacs

broadcastingtargets(eg

labellingthempornographers100orbreachingthosetargetstrustandconfidentiality).Openness/understanding,implying

mutualdisclosure,overlappedsomewhatwithaccess,anotherdimensionrequisiteforsuccess.Theability

torecognisetargetsconstraintswasacrucialdimensionthatclearlyseparatedsuccessfulfromunsuccessfulgroups(seesectiononeffectiveness,below).

Relationshipbuildingand

alliancesbasedon


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sharedinterests

Manygroupsjoined

asadhocalliancesratherthanasformalcoalitions(egtheBroadcasting

LiaisonGroup(BLG),consistingofNCC,VLV,andCA,101CQTconcerningthequality

thresholdprovisioninthe1990Bill,andtheBBCsjointeffortswithVLVaroundthelicencefeerenewal.102103)DBC,astheonlypermanentcoalition,guardedits

autonomyandstrength


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ofitsagenda,asdidCQTfor

themostpart.Otherbroadcastinggroupswouldhavebeenreluctanttojoin

withNVALA,givenitsreputationasafringegroup;NVALAmusteredsupportfor

itspetitionsandmarchesfromchurchesandconservativeorganisationssuchastheMothersUnion.Groupsweresensitivetothepossibilitiesofcooptationbytargets,although

networkingamongand


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befriendingtargetshelpedmovegroupagendasforward.

Graham100stressedthatgroupsneedtorecognisethebroadcastersconstraints.

Goodrelationships,suchasthosecultivatedbyVLV,CAandNCC,facilitatedthese

groupsinputintogovernmentconsultationaboutbroadcastinginitiativesandtestimonybeforetheParliamentarySelectCommitteeonBroadcasting.Consequently,theserelationshipshelpedgeneratepublicdebateon

compellingissuesand


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catalysedavirtuouscircle,12,96asdidchoice

venuesthatdrewprominentspeakersand

audiences.Thus,mediaeducation

alsoprovidedamechanismforinformallobbying.Thethreeoverarchingrubricscitedabove

willbeexplicatedinthefollowingsectiononspecificgrouptactics.

Identifyingkeypublics

Allthegroupswereabletosingle

outthoseindividuals,


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orindividualswithinbodies,whowereopinion

leadersorwhohadthepotentialtoshapeorenactchangein

broadcastingpolicyandprogramming.Middleton142stressedidentifyingthefirstpointofcontactin

theotherorganisationandthepersoninthisorganisationwhocouldtalktothem.Forinstance,VLVengagedtheinterestofvariousveteranbroadcastersand

parliamentarians,andNVALA


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oftheleadingBritishconservativemoralmajority,

aswellaschurchleadersthroughoutthenation.DBChadsingledout

itsownchampioninLordJackAshley.

Toreachgovernment,or

theMinisterforBroadcasting,thegroupswouldfirstattempttocontacttheseniorcivilservantintheDepartmentofNationalHeritage(DNH),whohaddirect

linkstothe


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Minister.CQTsAlburyapproachedMinisterDavidMellor.

MembersofParliamentmightalsobereceptivetoactivists.

VLV

andtheconsumergroupswereparticularlyadeptatidentifyingprominentjournalistssuchas

ChrisDunkleyandRaymondSnoddy,whowouldshowcaseissuesongroupsagendas.WhitehousesNVALAidentifiedsympatheticjournalistsandwrotetotargetsandthepresssimultaneously.

Targetswerethus


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oftenforcedtorespondtothepress

aboutcriticalcommentsorissuesofwhichtheyhadnoknowledge.

Lobbying

Althoughthistactictranscendedinfluencinglegislators,itwasparticularly

importantwhenlegislationwaspending.



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MembersofParliament(MPs)wereabletoraisequestionssuggestedbya

pressuregrouporcouldactasspokesmenwhenbillswentbeforeParliament.Lord

JackAshleyadvocatedthusforDBC.Alternatively,groups(egCQT)approachedseniorcivilservantsinordertoreachDavidMellor,MinisterforBroadcasting,andhis

predecessor.CQTalso


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usedcelebritypower,galasocialevents,a

clear,consistentmessage88andattendanceatafringemeetingattheall-party

conferencetoreachpoliticians.VLValsoattendedfringemeetings.Alltheseoptionshelped

tofurtheractivistagendas.SomegroupssoughtsupportfromtheLabouroppositioninpre-election1997,includingDrLewisMoonie,104shadowMinisterforBroadcasting,especiallybefore

anelection.Moonie


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saidhewaswillingtomeetwith

activists,butnonehadapproachedhim.GivenNVALAsproblemsingettingaccess,

hisstatementseemedconfusing.Priortothe1996Act,VLV,CAandNCC

madeajointefforttointerestpoliticiansinsomeproblematicareasofdigitalbroadcasting(egaccess).Petitions,althoughusedbyNVALAforpoliticalleveragein

theircampaignto


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cleanuptelevision,25wereuncommon.Massletter

writing,whichsomerespondentsdismissedasineffective,helpedDBCsucceedinits

1996bidforgreatersubtitling.96VLVthreatenedtosuetheBBCovera

proposedsaleoftransmitters.NVALAprotestedandmarchedandhungerstrikeshadbeenusedbyWelshlanguageactivists.RespondentsfeltthatinUKculture,such

behaviourwascounterproductive


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tobuildingrelationships.

Internaland

externalcommunicationwithdiversepublics

Mostgroupspublishednewslettersto

keeptheirpotential/currentconstituentsinformed.VLVsnewsletterwassubstantial,containingarticles,bookreviews,

membereventsandinterviews.

NVALAswasfarlesssophisticated,butstillcoveredmajoreventsandissues,aswellasmemberprofiles.Albury88attributed

muchofCQTs


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successtocomputers,whichfacilitateddirectmail

andupdatesonthecampaignsprogress.Atthetimeofthestudy,

mostcoregroupshadmademinimaluseoftheWebande-mail

astoolsforgeneratingmembership,groupmobilisationandkeepingcurrentmembersinformed.Theyrecogniseditsstrengthasanactivisttoolhowever.VLVsetupa

Web-basedmembershipform/


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questionnairebyspring,1997,butaswith

othercoregroups,fundingandmanpowerforhi-techexpansionwasalwaysan

issue.CQT,accordingtoMills,itssecretary,12hadlittleinterestinmassmembership

recruitment,groupe-mail,ortheWeb.TheexceptionwastheConsumersAssociation,withitssubscription-fundedWhich?and,in1997,fullyoperationalwebsite.Amongnon-coregroups,

CampaigntoSave


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theWorldServicehadasophisticated,successful

Webcampaign;90BECTU,thetradeunion,91plannedone.TheCampaignforPress

andBroadcastingFreedomhade-mailandawebsite.Internetpenetration/useisdiscussedbelow.

Thetransitionfromanalysingstrategiestoanalysingimpactwasdifficult.Overwhelminglyconsistentresponsesaboutstrategiesweredirectlyproportionaltothelackofconsensus

aboutimpact.This


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wasinpartattributabletothefact

thatmanyrespondentshaddivergentoperationaldefinitionsofeffectiveness.

EFFECTIVENESS

ASPER1997DATA

Thecreationofatypologyforeffectiveness

(seeAppendixB)wasanoutgrowthoftheauthorswishtobetterunderstandtowhatextentVLVsactivismwascredibleandsuccessful.Thedatastrongly

supportedthetypology


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asan

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appropriatemeasureof

effectiveness;oneminorrevisionwasmadeafterdataanalysis.Thecriteriafor

effectiveness,drawnfrompublicrelations,organisationaltheory,105negotiation,65politicalscience29,106andsociology,107emphasized

processgoals.Thiswasreflectedintheinterviews,whereincriteriaforgoodrelationshipsandperceptionsofeffectivenessfiguredinoverallgroupevaluations;goodrelationshipswere

weightedliketangible


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evidenceofimpact.

Theauthor

beganwithcertainassumptionsabouteffectiveness:

itwasunlikely

forallcriteriaforeffectivenesstobesustainedbygroupsovertime

CQTandVLVwouldmeetmanyofthecriteriaatwo-way,mixed-motive(seeMurphys108modificationofGrunigsandHunts109symmetrical)modelofcommunicationwould

leadtoeffectiveness.


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Alltheseassumptionsweresupportedbythe

data.

Includedintheoriginaltypologywastheprovisionof

high-qualityinformation,whichisessentialtogroupcredibility.98,110Inreality,thisprovisionis

moreastrategythananindicatorofeffectiveness.Awell-constructedmessagenotacknowledgedbyitsreceivercannotbeacriterionforeffectiveness.

Providingayardstick


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foreffectiveness

Theoriginaland

revisedtypologiesusedthetermindicatorratherthancharacteristic,tomarkhow

effectivenessfollowedfromaprogressiontowardsarelationshipbetweenapressuregroupand

itstarget.Thoseindicators,aslistedinAppendixA,cumulativelyimpliedthatthefollowingbasesforrelationshipsbetweenbroadcastingactivistsandtheir

targets

werelikelyto


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exist:acknowledgment,acceptance,communication,sharedinterests,reciprocity,

definingconstraints,inclusion,input/feedback,(sometimes)groupinstitutionalisation,negotiation,(sometimes)acquiescencebytargets

andaccess.Trust,citedearlier,wasanimplicitcriterion.Grouprelationshipsdidnot

havetoreflecteverycriterion.

Thedataneithersuggestedthatonlygroupsthatachievetangiblepolicyorprogramme-makingchangesareeffective,nor

couldtheysupport


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sustainedeffectivenessifotherindicatorsweremissing.

Activistsachievementofgoalsmaybeconsideredimportantbenchmarksoftheirimpact

onaccountability.Theymayalsoserveastestimonytothepowerofthe

viewerandlisteneroverthatofthemarket,butthedatasuggestedthattangiblechangesinthebehaviourofthetarget,asexpressedinprogramming

orpolicychange,


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donothavetobepresentfor

apressuregrouptobeconsideredeffective.56

Thedatafurther

suggestedthatgroupsthatachieveshort-termgoalslosegroundovertimeifthey

cannotdeveloporsustaingoodrelationshipswiththeirtargets.Therefore,theanalysisofgroupgrouporgrouptargetrelationshipsyieldedthemostsignificantdata.Theall-issuegroups

(VLV,CAand


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NCC),bothaloneandintandemwith

eachother,builtrelationshipsthatgainedthementrytodecisionmakers,while

developingtheirownvenues(egconferences,symposia)forinfluentialpeopletogeneratepolicy

debate.Forinstance,Whitworth143describedthegrowingrelationshipbetweenNCCandtheBBCscorporateaffairs.ThepersistenceofNCCandothergroups,shesaid,eventually

resultedinthe


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BBCopeningthemselvesuptothem.VLV

hadworkedtogetherwithNCCandCA,sometimesastheadhoc

BroadcastingLiaisonGroup(BLG).Thisrelationship

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facilitatedcollaborativeresearchandattempts,in1996,tomovepoliticianstowardsgreater

legislationondigitalbroadcasting.CQTandDBCalsoinvestedgreateffortinbuilding

andsustainingstrongrelationshipswithpoliticiansandotherelitesthatcametofruitionwhenthelatterbecametheiradvocates.Incontrast,NVALAsufferedfromits

relationshipswithits


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targets.Targetswerealienatedbythegroups

poorly-informedperspectiveandpersistenceinlabellingthemnegatively.Eachgroupsrelationshipswith

itstargetshadramificationsforitssuccessovertime.

Effectivenessis,

inmanyways,adouble-edgedsword.Wheneverthereisarapprochementbetweenpressuregroupsandtheirtargets,theconcernexiststhatthegroupsmay

havebeencoopted.


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VLVisonlyoneofanumber

ofgroupsaboutwhichtherehavebeeninferencestothatend.CQT,

withitsfocusonquality,particularlyvis-a`-visdocumentariesandnewsprogrammes,hassometimes

beenreferredtoasregressiveandoverlynostalgic.Similarly,withitsover-representationofbroadcastersandotherindustryprofessionals,VLVsReithianyearningsmaybesaid

toparallelthose


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ofsomeofitstargets.Mostpressure

groupstreadafinelinebetweensuccessfuladvocacyandabsorption,unless,like

NVALA,theymakeapointofsoclearlydecryingtheiniquitiesoftheir

targetsthattheyriskalienatingthem.Atthepointofsuccessfuladvocacy,activistsandtargetsinterestsdoconverge;itisoftenonlywhenbothidentify

theirsharedinterests


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thatthereisawillingnessonthe

partofeitherorbothtonegotiateandyieldtotheother.

Thenegotiationaroundsharedinterestsisinextricablylinkedtostrategicrelationshipbuilding.

Onevariablethatmightexplainiftheyieldingthattranspireswillpressuretheactivisttoconformmoretothetargetsagendathantoits

ownisthe


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power

differentialbetweenthem.In

manycultures,andoccasionallyintheUK,activistshavetakenmoreextreme

actiontodemonstratetotheirtargetsthatsuchadifferentialdoesnotdeter

themfromtheirgoals.Nevertheless,evenifactivistsdecidetoyieldtowardsthetarget,itdoesnotfollowthattheyhaverelinquishedtheirgoals;the

ongoingdialoguebetween


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bothsidesandanyattendantnegotiationmay

setthestageforfuture,andpossibly,fromtheactivistsperspective,more

substantivegains.

Moreover,perhapsitisvaluabletorethinkonenotion

abouteffectivenessthatinanyeffort,theremustbewinnersandlosers.Activistsandtargetscanbothbenefitfromthemereinterchangeofdialogue.

Regardlessofwins


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orlosses,thefactthattheinterchange

isongoingisamanifestationofthepublicsphere.Inaddition,the

termcooptationhasonlynegativeconnotations.Inreality,though,whatanactivistmay

considerhisorherowncooptationmayhaveavalueinkeepingtheinterchangegoing.Activistscannotbackdownpubliclyfromtheirstatements;indoing

sotheyrisk


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losingfacewiththeirownconstituentsand

theirtargetsaswell.Inprivate,though,theycannegotiatetheirviews

inthepublicinterestwithoutlossofface.Furthermore,thereisaneven

greaterdilemmaaboutactivisteffectiveness.Ifactiviststhatis,singleissueactivistsdoeverythingrightandsucceed,theygooutofbusinessas

Isaacssuggested.111All-issue


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groupsmoveontoanotheragenda.Thiscan

becomeamotivationforactiviststoforgeontoneworrenewed

areasofredressand/orchange,andbydoingso,toremainviable.Effectiveness,

thus,iscomplex.

Propellingissuesintothepublicsphere

Coregroups,whenactinginalliancesorassoleagents,raisedthe

consciousnessofbroader


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publicsconcerningissuesof

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consequence.Giventhe

Britishpoliticalcultureandbroadcastinglandscape,activistsweresuccessfulinbringingcompelling

issuesintoforumslikelytomakeanimpactonelitesandotherpublics.

MaryWhitehousebecameahouseholdwordasshepropelledNVALAsmoralmessageand,accordingtoIsaacs,111raisedawarenessofviolencenationally.Thiswasdonenot

onlythroughthe


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assistanceofcertainConservativepoliticians,butalso

withthecooperationofthepress.Itwassuggestedbyseveralrespondents96

thattosomeextent,thepressusedMaryWhitehousetoadvanceitsown

agendaagainstthebroadcasters.Nevertheless,despiteitssensationalism,theBritishpresshelpedraiseWhitehousesprofiletotheextentthatshehadsome,ifnotsole,

impactonbroadcasting


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policy.Thedifferencewasthatwhatrespondents

perceivedasWhitehousesill-informedperspective,aswellasherinabilitytostep

insidethebroadcastersshoesandunderstandthebroadcastingbigpicture,fuelledanirrevocable

animositywiththelatter.This,andthepresssensationalismNVALAwhippedup,ultimatelycostWhitehouse,andthegroup,substantialdamageintermsofcredibilityand

relationships.UnlikeVLV,


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whoseresearch,argumentsandgoodrelationships,particularly

withopinion-formingjournalists,seemtohaveachievedacceptance,WhitehouseandNVALA

weredislikedbymanywithintheindustry.

Causalattributioninan

environmentofmultipleactors

Evenwhentargetorganisations(includingsomeinbroadcasting)concededthatbroadcastershadahistoryofbeinglessthanreceptive

toactivistsand


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tochange,itwassuggestedthattargets

mightnotwanttoadmitthattheyhadcapitulatedtopressuregroup

demands.Ontheotherhand,therewererespondents,includingactivists,whoavoidedattributing

too

muchcredittopressuregroupinterventionbecauseofaconfluenceofinfluences,112ofwhichpressuregroupswerebutone.Sargant,113maintainingthat

theclimatein


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theUKwasconducivetochangesaid,

Howfaryoucanactuallysucceed...isanothermatter.

BBCSecretaryGraham100said,Itsasignofthetimes,notpressuregroups,

(thatthere)ismuchmoreemphasisinpublicservicesonmeasuringdelivery.EvenVLVsPorter103said,Itsalwaysdifficulttosay...what

weveachievedbecause


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quiteoftenintheseaffairsyoureforming

alliancesstrategicalliances.Intheclimateofaccountabilityfosteredbythe

CitizensCharter,114

publicinstitutionsandtheirmanagers(whohadbeenperceivedasunapproachable)

couldnowbemovedbyamultiplicityofvariables.Itwasmostprobablynotpossibletosaythatanygroupwassolelyresponsibleforchange.

Theexamplesabove


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activistoutcomesmayappeartobeattributable

toaparticulargrouporalliance,wheninfacttheyarenot,

isbecauseoftheconfluenceofinfluences112citedrepeatedlythroughoutthispaper.VLVs

Porter,whomighthavegivenVLVsolecreditforchanges,insteadreferredtothelargerimpactofmanyforcesoperatingintheenvironmentatthe

sametime.One


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oftheseforcesistheclimatefor

change,catalysedbytheCitizensCharter,anddescribedabovebySargant.Consequently,

althoughitwouldbedifficult,inmostcases,toidentifyoneprimemover

foranygivensuccess,manyofthebroadcastingactivistseffortsareatleastsuccessfulinacumulativesense.In

JournalofCommunicationManagement

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addition,thegeneralclimateforchange(egtheCitizensCharter)orthe

prevailingpoliticalwillmayprovidesupportforactivists.Andsometimes,politicalwindswork

againstthatend.

Cangroupsengagelargerpublicsinbroadcastingandcantheydrivepoliticalwill?Hay102said:

Itsahuge

problemandit


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needsahugeeducationalcampaign,andweve

beentryingtodothisforyears...wehavent

hadtheresourcestodoit...asadequatelyaswe

shouldandwearehamperedby...thefactthatthepresswillonlyfocusonsensationandemotionalissues...

soitsvery


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difficulttogetreasoneddebateonthe

importanceoftheissues.

Hayunderscoredsomeofthedifficulties

inengagingthosepublicsinbroadcastingissues,evenwhenthoseissuesbearon

theaverageviewerandlistener.AlthoughCQTSecretaryMills12saidtheorganisationhadnointerestinmembershipoutreach,hehypothesisedthatinvolvingbroaderpublicsmight

bethemost


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significantthingCQTcoulddo.Thus,one

ponderstheelitenatureofbroadcastingactivism.Isitafunctionof

pragmatismorofexclusion?Theinabilitytosweepsociallyinclusivepublicsmaynot

signifyfailure.Respondents(includingStevenson144)argumentsthatgroupsmustberepresentative,iftheyaretohavevoicesinpolicyorprogrammingmatters,wouldbe,at

leastinpart,


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addressedbygreaterinclusiveness.Thislong-termgoal

isinsyncwithalong-termperspectiveoneffectiveness.

Long-term

perspectivesoneffectiveness

Sargantsaid,Onedoesntalwaysseesmall,precise

victories.113Rather,asreflectedinAppendixB,relationshipoutcomesaresignificantindicatorsofeffectiveness,workingincrementally

towardstargetresponsiveness,groupscredibilityandtheir

abilitycumulativelyto


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generatedebatearoundcompellingissues

forexample,universaldigitalaccess(in1997,merelyanemergentissue).

Relationshipsmayalsobesignificantwhenexaminingpressuregroupsimpactinothercontexts

orcultures.Overall,inacumulativesense,givencoregroupscredibilityandrelationshipoutcomes,whichaffecttheirabilitytogeneratedebate(asperAppendixB)

the1997rankings


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foreffectivenessmighthavebeen:VLV,CQT,

DBC,CA,NCCandNVALA.Thesewouldhavebeenapproximatepositionson

acontinuum,withvariancebothinrespondentsperspectivesbutalsowithinindividualresponses

(egJ.Isaacs111andR.Collins139conflictedviewsofNVALA).Amereknowledgeofeachgroupsstrategiesandsuccessinrelationshipswasbyfarthe

largestpredictorof


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whereitwasplacedontheeffectiveness

typology(seeAppendixB).Giventheemphasisinthattypologyonrelationship

building,accesstotargetsandinclusioninthelattersthought(ifnotdecision

making)processes,onecanlargelydeducetherationalefortheaboverankings.Forexample,VLVandtheconsumergroupshadmadealimitedlegislativeimpact,

yettheirnetworking


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andstrategicrelationshipbuildinghadaffordedthem

regularaccesstokeydecisionmakersandopinionleaders.Althoughtheyhad

notmovedpoliticianstoactontechnology-relatedlegislation,thesegroupsheraldedsomeless

desirableeffectsoftechnologyforcertainsectorsofsociety.Therippleeffectoftheirefforts,withinanenvironmentincreasinglyreceptivetoviewerandlistenerinput,

openeddebateand


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consultationaboutthedirectioninwhichdigital

broadcastingwouldleadBritain.Yet,therewasatleastonesubstantivereason

whytheconsumergroupsmightbeconsideredlesseffective.VLVonlyconsideredissues

ofcostand

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consumptioninasmuchas

theyhadanimpactondemocraticlifefromaculturalorsocial

perspective.Incontrast,fortheconsumergroups,broadcastingwassubordinatetotheiroverriding

concernwithvalueformoney/productqualityandthus,wasalessercommitment.VLVholisticallyfocusedonsuchissuesasthefutureofpublicservicebroadcasting

andqualitychildrens


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programming,aligningitmorecloselywiththose

targetsforwhombroadcastingrepresentednotonlyacommoditybutadeeply

embeddedsetofculturalvalues.Nevertheless,thewell-informedandwell-constructedargumentsof

bothVLVandtheconsumergroupsbolsteredgroupcredibility,asdidjointresearch101andstrategicrelationshipbuilding.CQTandDBCsurpassedtheconsumergroups,for

reasonsstatedbelow.


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CQT,asaproducer-basedgroup,

hadmoresolidfinancialsupportandoptionsthanothers.Itssupport,though,

wasbutonefactorinitssuccess;anotherwasitsreliableinformationabout

theBroadcastingAct.Itproducedaclear,consistentmessage88aboutqualityandmusteredthesupportofcelebritiesandpoliticians,includingDavidMellor,MinisterforBroadcasting.

Thegroupssingle


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legislativevictoryeffectedaqualitythresholdin

the1990BroadcastingAct.Onceitcameintoforce,CQTfadedfrom

thelimelight.Itthenappearedtobesingle-issuewithoutanissue,re-emergingwith

changedleadershipandengagedwithothersinadhocalliancesaboutqualityandaccessaspartofthecoalition,PublicVoice.

Inits

heyday,CQTrelied


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heavilyonaggressivemediarelations,whichwas

thestarkestcontrastbetweenitselfandDBC.Thelatter,asacoalition

ofdeafgroups,successfullyengagedintacticssuchasletterwriting,strategicrelationship

building,andtheeffortsofcredibleadvocates(egLordJackAshley,whoisdeaf).Itparticipatedin

aone-of-a-kind,systematic,nationalstudyby

ITC145ofthe


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qualityofsubtitlednewsprogrammes.Withmedia

coverage(bychoice)restrictedtomagazinesforthedeaf,itstillwon

asubstantivevictoryinthe1996BroadcastingAct,withamandatoryincreasein

subtitlingto50percentofallbroadcasts.

Theoneconspicuouslydifferent,paradoxicalgroupwasNVALA.Clearlythemostsensationalgroup,withenormous

tabloidcoverageand


136/320

MaryWhitehouse,ahouseholdnameforover

adecade,itappliedpolitical,legalandmoralpressureasitassailed

broadcasters.Despitethis,itsadversarialstanceandlackoffinesseinrelationshipswith

itstargetsclearlyalienatedthem(Grahams100referencetobroadcastersbeinglabeledpornographersalludedtothis).Itcanthusbeseenthatforapressuregroup,

effectivenessanddegree


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ofmediaexposurearenotsynonymous.In

addition,respondentsfeltthatNVALAalsoreceivedpoormarksforthequality

oftheirarguments.Shaw,132forexample,insistedthatMaryWhitehouse...

doesntreallywanttobebetterinformed.Inhisview,shehadapoorunderstandingoftheprevailingpressuresonbroadcastersandhowthataffected

theirprogrammingand


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policychoices.RespondentsfeltthatWhitehousealienated

hertargets;therelationshipaspectfiguredmostprominentlyintheirnegativeassessments.

Inaddition,severalfeltWhitehousehadbeencooptedbythepresstorail

againstbroadcasters.Nonetheless,NVALAwascreditedwithraisingnationalconsciousnessaboutviolence.

IncomparingtheimpactofVLVandtheconsumergroupsto

thatofCQT


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andDBC,whichhadlimitedlegislativeimpact

butmadeconsiderableinroadsintobuildingstrategicrelationshipswithkeyopinionleaders,

theformergroupsthusraisedtheoveralllevelofbroadcastingdebatebeyonda

narrowsingleissue.DBCwas,is,andwillbepreoccupiedwithdeaf

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access.CQTssingularfocuswasonquality.NCCs,CAs,andVLVsrelationship

building,whencombinedwithotheradvocacytacticsinpursuitofbroaderagendas,may

bemoreeffective,longterm,thanDBCsorCQTssingularlegislativevictories.GiventhatCAsandNCCsenergieswerenominallydevotedtobroadcasting,canbe

betterunderstoodthe


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rankings.

Itwasparticularlycomplex

toassesstheeffectivenessofCQT,giventhatitwas,in1997,

aratherlow-profileorganisation,notthecelebritygroupof1990.Wasthe1997

CQTdefunctorjustunderground?Howdoesonemeasureitasaproducer-ledgroupagainstviewerandlistenerandconsumergroups,evenwhenagendas(eg

quality)overlap?Thus,


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absolute,definitiverankingsofeachgroupwould

beinfeasible.

Theissueofpersonalbiasesmustalsobe

stronglyconsidered.ItwasclearthatNVALAandMaryWhitehouse,itsfounder,were

dislikedbymostrespondents,includingthosewhoconcededWhitehousesroleinthedebateonviolence.Theyfoundheralienating,poorlyinformedandobstinate,amongother

epithets.Incontrast,


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therewasnonotableantipathytowardsJocelyn

Hay,evenamongthosewhothoughtshewasineffective.Itisalways

possiblethatrespondentswereunabletoseparatetheirviewofthewomenfrom

theirviewsofthegroups.Itisalsopossiblethat,inthecaseofWhitehouse,theycouldnotdealwithsuchpolarisedviewsofbroadcasting,

evenwerethey


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tobeiteratedinaculturally-acceptableway.

Movingforwardtotheyear2000,thepapernowshowshowadvocacy

playsoutovertimeforNVALAandtheothers.

Issues,relationships,

andgroupsthatendure

Thedatagatheredin2000,bothoffsiteandonsiteattheVLVconference,withrepeat

intervieweesand

newones,further


146/320

supportedthe1997findingsthatthosegroups

buildingsuccessfulrelationshipswouldbemostlikelytodrawattentiontoand

generatedebatearoundcompellingissues.IntervieweesinMay2000weretoldthatthe

focuswasonenduringissues,relationshipsandgroups.Repeatrespondentswerealsoaskedquestionsonstrategiesandimpactinordertoidentifyshiftingperceptions.

Anumber


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ofrespondentsatthe2000conferencewere

committedVLVmemberswhogreatlyrespectedJocelynHay,itschairman.Thus,personal

biasmayhavecolouredtheirassessments.Ontheotherhand,thesemembersbroadcasting

backgroundsandongoingindustryinterestsaddedtotheirowncredibilityaseducatedrespondents.Porter103refusedtocreditonlyVLVwithsuccess.Groombridge115said:

Ifyourelooking


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attheroleofthelobbygroups,

itwouldbeveryeasy,Ithink,foralobbygroupor

someonelikemyselfconnectedtoonetooverstatetheoverallsignificanceofthat.

Andinsofarasithasanysignificance,itispartlybecauseofallsortsofotherthingshappeninginthissocietyatthesametime.

Thus,


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VLVmembersputtheirloyaltybehindtheir

objectivity.Giventhatresearchwasconducted,inpart,ataVLVconference,

VLVwillleadthediscussionofenduringgroups.Firsttheissueswillbe

tracked.

Issuesthatendure

WhentheUKfollow-upbegan,Macdonald,116ITCLibrarian,enumeratedfourumbrellaareasofconcerninbroadcasting:

digital


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Kovacs

Theserubricscovered

manycompellingissuesbutwerenotinclusive.Paterson117addedtothesethe

impactofrapidtechnologicalchangeonpeopleintheindustryandqualityof

output(althoughthedebateaboutqualityisfraughtwithlackofdefinition),regulatorychange(iemultiplevs.singleregulator),EUinitiativesonpublicservicebroadcasting,

andsocialinclusion


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(aVLVfocusandbuzzwordforuniversal

serviceandtherepresentationofunder/non-representedgroups).Broadcastingethicswasnotablyabsent

fromtheactivistagenda,saidPaterson.

Styles118identifiedthesameissues

asin1997,underscoringaneedforpluralisminmediaownership,accesstoqualitymediacontent(egnews),andaccesstotheInternet,includingthe

rangeofbroadband


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services,inausablehomeenvironment.Shaws119

issuewasthecontinuationofthelicencefee;whileSargant120citedglobalisation

acrossissues,theneedtokeepasmuchprogrammingaspossiblefree-toair,diverse/educational

programmingandthedecisiononacutoffdateforanalogueservicesasVLVfoci.Inthecurrentenvironment,everyonebecomesapressuregroup,(includingITV

andtheBBC)


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saidMacdonald,116forwhomglobalizationissueswere

centraltothebroadcastingactivistagenda.Franchiseownersregionalbroadcastingobligationswere

overshadowedbyconvergenceasthemainthrustofgovernmentpolicy(seeGreenPaper121).

Healy122notedtelevisionaccessforthehearingimpaired.Porter123sawtimeshifting(asaffectinginformedchoiceforviewersandlisteners),childrensprogramming,anddepictionof

environmentalissuesas


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compelling.Therewasgreateremphasisontechnological

aspectsofglobalisationthathaveeconomicandculturalimplicationsforbroadcastersand

citizens/consumers,asreflectedinVLVpaneltopics(egseparatingbroadcastingcontentfromcarriage).

Groombridge125

pointedtopoliticalcommunication,thatis,therelationshipbetweentelevisionandthegeneralelection,and,inparticular,whathesawasthe

inadequacyoftelevision


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forthattopic.Wherevoterturnoutis

importantandfewerpeoplearevoting,thenmakingcoveragepopularandgood

isessential.

Groupsframesofreferencewerereflectedintheagendas

theyassembled.Asin1997,CAandNCCpursuedconsumer-relatedbroadcastingissues(egaccess).AgeingmembersofVLVsupportedpublicservicevaluesaswell

asaccessand


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childrensprogramminginitiatives.DBCwasstillintent

onachievinghigherquotas,andimprovedtechnicalquality,ofsigningandsubtitling

services.CQTsmajorissueswerequalityanddiversityaspartofpublicservice

broadcastingvalues.Thedebateaboutthelicencefeewasongoing,butaclearlackofconsensusmarkedtheissue;NCC,VLVandCAdepartedfrom

theirunifiedstance


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onviewerandlisteneraccess;whereasVLV

andCAsupportedthefee,NCCsawitasaregressivetax.

Expandedandongoingstrategiesusedin2000

Overall,strategies

remainedthesameintheinterimbetweentheoriginalandfollow-upstudies(SeeAppendixA).Themostproductiveamongthemwereidentifyingandapproachingkey

publics,lobbyingin


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Parliamentandgovernment,engaginginmediaeducation

inselectvenues,usingmediaadvocacy(mosteffectivelywithcoverageinthe

broadsheetpressandcultivatingrespectedjournalists),publishingresearchand/orconferenceproceedings,formingcoalitions/ad

hocalliancesaroundcompellingissues,communicatinginternallyandthroughtheInternet,andbuildingrelationships.Thepetitionsandprotesttacticsthatwereoutoffavourin

1997werestill


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rarely,ifever,usedbybroadcastingactivists

in2000.Thesestrategiessometimesneededtobe

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implementedininternationalvenues;concernsattheEuropeanlevelmeantthatmost

ofthegroups,includingNVALA,wereattunedtoandinteractingwithregulatorsand

policymakersinBrussels,wheremostoftheEU/EC-centeredbroadcastingdecisionmakingtakesplace.

Notableactivitywithregardtothegovernment,selectcommittees

andITCas


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regulator

Oneusefulbarometerof

pressuregroupactivity,atableoforganisationsthatarekeyplayersin

thegovernmentalpublicsphere,wasgiventotheauthorduringaninterviewwith

ITCLibrarianMacdonald.116ThetableliststhoseorganisationsthathavegivenoralevidenceorwrittensubmissionstovariousGovernmentCommitteesofInquiryorWhite/GreenPapers,

orHouseof


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CommonsSelectCommittees,orrespondedtoITC

consultationsonarangeofissues.146Underthecategoryconsumerorganisations,CA

gavewrittensubmissionsfourtimesbetween1977and1998toGovernmentCommitteesof

InquiryorGreen/WhitePapersandtwice(1997,1998)toSelectCommittees.IthadrespondedtothreeITCConsultations(twoofthemin1996).NCCswritten

submissionstoGovernment


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werefourbetween1977and1998and

thegroupwrotetoSelectCommitteesin1993and1998.Ithad

respondedtothreeITCconsultationsin1998.DBCdidnotgiveneitheroral

orwrittentestimonytotheGovernmentorSelectCommittee,butitdidrespondtofourITCconsultations,in1996,1997(twice)and1999.DBCsdifficulty

ingivingoral


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testimonymaybeunderstood.Interestingly,theCampaign

forQualityTelevisiononlyoncepresentedwrittenevidencetotheGovernment,in

1988(beforeitsbig1990BroadcastingBillcampaign)andonce,in1993,to

theSelectCommittee.IthadneverrespondedtoITCconsultations.Onemayconjecture

CQTsreasonforthis,giventhatthegroupislargely

comprisedofITV,


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orformerITVproducers.PerhapsCQTfelt

thatITCwasalreadyawareofitsviews.Interestingly,NationalViewersand

ListenersAssociationsthricepresentedwrittentestimonytotheGovernment:once(togetherwithoral

testimony)in1977,oncein1986,andfinallyin1998.ItsperiodofgreatestactivityappearstohavecoincidedwiththatofMaryWhitehouse.It

hasneverwritten


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totheSelectCommittee,norhasit

respondedtoITCconsultations.Intermsofthisstrategy,Voiceofthe

ListenerandViewer,throughoutvirtuallyitsentireexistence,hasbeenextremelyprolific.Between

1986(itwasfoundedin1983)and1998,itsubmittedwrittentestimonytotheGovernmentfourtimes.Italsogaveoralandwrittentestimonybefore

theSelectCommittee


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in1993and1997andwrote,without

oralpresentation,totheCommitteein1998.Whatisstrikingisthat

VLVrespondedtoeightITCconsultationsbetween19961999.Thataveragesouttotwo

responsesperyear.Itssubmissions,includingoralones,total17,whichisnearlydoublethoseofCAandNCC,thetwonextmostactivegroups

inthisvein,


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forthatperiod.Thisdoesnotrender

VLVbetterorworse,ormoreorlesseffectivethantheother

groups;itjustmakesthegroupmorevisibleandmorelikelytobe

consideredaviablepartofthepublicsphere.

GiventhatthisauthorsfirstdataweregatheredinJanuaryandFebruaryof1997,it

appearsthatthe


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coregroups,withtheexceptionofDBC,

haveoftentakentheopportunitytopresentwritten,andsometimes,oraltestimony

beforeGovernmentandSelectCommitteesandprepareresponsestoITCconsultations.Themost

concentratedactivitytookplacebetween1988and1998,whichcouldbeexplainedbytheexistenceofsevenbroadcastinginitiativesonthetableduring

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thisperiod,in

bothvenues.Nevertheless,itshowsthewillingnessofvirtuallyallthecore

groupstogetinvolvedandstimulategreaterpublicparticipationinthepublicsphere.

Thiscouldhavesignificantimpactonraisingthelevelofdebateaboutcompellingissuesandthus,thatsphereshealthyfunctioning.

AccordingtoMcCulloch,131

atleastseveral


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tacticalchangesoccurredwithVLV:1)paid

adsinTheGuardianattractedaudiencestoconferences,2)strategictargetingof

newmembersandwideningofthedebateoccurredatout-of-Londonvenues(University

oftheThirdAgeandatfiveBritishuniversities).Porter123underscoredhowgroupsinsocietyneedtoappreciatethemediassocialconstructioniethat

mediaispart


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ofcivilsocietyandthus,citizensneed

tobeeducatedaboutit.

Themoststrikingmodificationin

strategiesbetween1997and2000wastheexpandeduseofelectronictechnologiesby

activistsforactivism.Inparticular,theuseofWebsitesforpostingdocumentsandcalendars,communicationandrecruitmentpurposesbyallgroups(evenCQT,which,

in1997,had


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nointerestinoutreach)grewexponentially.Increased

penetrationofnewelectronictechnologiesmeantthatmoremembers,andpotentialmembers,

ofviewerandlistenergroups,aswellastheirtargetshadaccessto

computers.Therefore,Internetaccesstothesepublicsthroughe-mailsandWeb-basedfunctionsbecameamoreintegralpartofgroupoutreach,informationsharinganddata

gathering.Also,issues


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flaggedbydevelopmentsindigitalbroadcasting,which

hadbeenemergentin1997butweretrulysalientin2000,were

beingaddressedinconsultationsbyanumberofthegroups.Suchinformationwas

morereadilyavailableonwebsitesanddisseminatedbye-mailwhereappropriate.Inaddition,asinmanyotherrealmsofpressuregroupendeavours,activistscouldbe

moreeasily,


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rapidlyandeffectivelymobilisedthroughelectronic

communication.

Therealmsofendeavourforthesestrategiesmovedfrom

primarilylocal,UKregional,ornational,toEUregionalandglobalvenues.The

EuropeanAllianceofListenersandViewers(EURALVA),catalysedbyVLVsHay,representsviewersandlistenersgroupsintheUK,France,Spain,Portugal,Denmark,Finlandand

theNetherlands(as


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wellasassociategroupsinAustralia,Canada

andNewZealand)andlobbiesinBrusselsonbehalfofviewerand

listenerinterestsaffectedbyEUlegislation.HaytravelstoBrusselstolobby,as

havedonerepresentativesfromtheothercore,includingtheconsumer,groups.

WithdirectivesfromtheEUandinternationaltradeissuesontherise,

ithasbecome


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customaryforcross-channel,andevenglobalvisitors,

toreciprocate.The2000VLVconferencefeaturedrepresentativesfromtheDanishViewers

andListenersAssociation,variousECdirectorates(egtheDirectorGeneralforTrade),the

EBU,CouncilofEurope,theEuropeanParliamentandtheCommonwealthBroadcastingAssociation.ForVLV,atleast,advocacyin2000,asopposedto1997,entailedextensive

regionalandglobal


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relationshipsinsupportofBritishpublicservice

broadcasting.AttheVLV2000conference,speakersandactivists,suchasPorter,123

expressedconcernabouttheimpactofelectronicconvergenceondiversityandavailabilityof

broadcasting.PortermaintainedthattheexistenceoftheInternetshouldnotleadtodominancebymajorcompaniesandthattheWTOshouldbeusedto

fightagainstthis.


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Thecross-geographicpursuitofbroadcastingobjectivesnecessitates

British,includingconsumer,activists,consciouslyextendingthemselvestoandbuildingrelationshipswith

regionalandglobalalliesandtargetsiftheywishtoconstructandpreserve

thetypeof



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culturallydiversepublicspheredescribedearlier

inthispaper.Shaw119feltthattheUKshouldmaintainpublicservice

forumsasapropforcivilsociety.

Coalitionsandadhoc

alliancesamonggroupsappearedtohaveincreased;theendof2000sawthebirthofPublicVoice,acoalitionformedtohelppreservepublicservice

broadcasting,inwhich


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bothVLVandCQT,amongothergroups,

participateasmembersofitsSteeringCommittee.PublicVoicealsoaimedto

introduceanindependentcitizenbodytohelpensurethattheforthcomingdraftsof

thenewcommunicationsbill,includingprovisiononOFCOM,theproposednewsingleregulator,wouldrepresentthepublicinterest.NCC,CAandVLVstillworkedcollaboratively,

aswellas


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independently,onpolicyissues.SianHealy,BBC

CorporateRelations,describedJocelynHayasacriticalfriend122insupportingand

workingtogetherwiththeBBCinthelatestlicencefeereview.

Useofthepressvaried.AsHay124wasquicktopointout,thepressstillthrivedonnegativenews,andso,itwashardto

getthemto


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focusonanythingsubstantive.ToMcCulloch131the

factthatsexandsentimentsellandthatthepresswantonly

soundbitesandextremeviewsgetsinthewayofeffectivecoverage.Conferences

venuessuchasthosecreatedbyVLVwereonewaytogetthepresstotakenoticeofthegroup,saidHealy.122Despitethegrowing

involvementofactivists


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ontheglobalEuropeanandregionallevels,

Sargant120notedthatmuchactivismoccursonthelocalandregional(UK)

levelswithinlocalnewpapersandthatactivistsworklargelythroughthepressand

MPs.VLVsPorter123saidthatjournalistswereusedonlyoccasionally,intheeventthattheorganisationwantedtosettheagendawithissuestowhich

noonewas


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willingtolisten.Abundantpresscoverage,though,

wasstillnotasubstitute


forbuildinglong-termrelationshipswithtargetsaroundsignificantissuesinbroadcasting.

Relationshipsthatendure

Clearlywhatyousayformsapattern.Itis(all)aboutrelationship-building.117

Thissectioniscalledrelationships

thatendurerather


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thanstrategiesthatendurebecauseitwas

stronglysuggestedthatrelationshipswereatthecoreofallstrategies.For

example,Paterson117pointedtoVLVsabilitytoidentifyandgettheattentionof

keyindividuals(egLordGeorgeThomson,aPatron),whoarethentakenseriouslyandusedtohelpthegroupdrawattentiontoitselfthroughmajor

events.Relationshipbuilding,


189/320

hesaid,isparticularlyimportantgiventhe

revolvingdoorthroughwhichpeopleinthetelevisionindustrypass(especiallyin

broadcasting,and,inregulatoryorganisations)andrapidchangeintechnology,bothofwhich

mayaffectquality.

Relationshipsalsohavecrucialimpactonpresscoverage.Paterson117describedHayscultivationoflong-termrelationships,suchthatthepressfeels

comfortableenoughto


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ringherupforaquote.Sargants120

viewwasthatactivistsoftenoperateatthelocalandregionallevel,

workinglargelythroughthepress(localnewspapers)andMPs.Thisisasignificant

areainwhichNVALAfelldown.

Therelationshipdimensionsderivedfromthe1997datawerestillrelevant.Sharedinterestsbroughtmanyatarget

ordiverseset


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ofgroupstogether.Respectingtheconstraintsof

broadcasterswasstillparticularlyproblematicforinstance,SianHealy,122BBCCorporate

Relations,indicatedthatdisabilityactivistswouldhavelikedthebroadcasterstomovemore

quicklyinimplementingchange.ForHealy,broadcastersandpressuregroupsneededtoworktowardsrecognitionof

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mutualinterestsand

realisticgoalsandtimescales(egdeafgroupswant100percent

subtitlingimmediately,whentheBBChasahugedeficitofpeoplewiththose

skills).Healydescribedoutcomesasgenerallymorepositivewhentherelationshipisoneofconstructiveandconstantdialogue,suchaswhentheBBCmetwith

VLVsHayand


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Porterregardingthelicencefee.Wefelt

confidentthatwhenthepresswhentoJocelynforcomment,sheknew

ourpointofview.Inotherwords,Haywaswellinformedandcould

betrustedtorelateaccuratelytheBBCspositiontothepress.AccordingtoPaterson,117VLVwasthemostadvancedinitsthinkingaboutthenew

communicationsbilland


195/320

wouldgetthemostsympathetichearingwithin

thegovernmentandwithinpublicservicebroadcasting.Ithadrespondedtoevery

relevantconsultation.

AverypublicVLV

Overtheprevious

threeyears,VLVhasbuiltupcredibilitybeyondanybodysexpectations,saidSargant.120Buttherehavebeensoberingmoments.Wearereachingaplateau,saidVLVs

Porter,123asregards


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manpowerandresources.Asidefromconsultations,it

hasbeenheavilyengagedinbroadcastingatthepan-European,nationaland,

morerecently,globallevels(VLVappliedforNGOstatus124andHaywentto

Seattleduringthe1999WTOmeetings).Itscredibilityandfinesseinbuildingrelationshipsallowedittomountarelativelysophisticateddefenseofpublicservicebroadcasting.

117Porter123cited


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additionalvariablescontributingtoVLVsuccess,including

itsuseofthemediatosettheagenda,facilitatedbystrategic

relationshipbuilding.Everyonetruststhem,saidGroombridge.125Thevalueofgainingtargetstrust

andrespectingtheirconstraintsclearlyaffectsrelationships.Haysaid:

Intheend,youdontgetanywhereifyouconfront.Ifyourenotcareful,

youpushpeople


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intoacorner,especiallypowerfulpeople.

.

.youdontgettobepowerfulunlessyouredominating.

..provideface-savingarguments,youachievealot...

Wearemorereasonablethanotherpressuregroups.124

Cooptationandtheactivistagenda

Asdiscussedearlier,effectiveactivismraisesseveralcogent

issuesthatrelate


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totheintegrityofactivistgroups.Groups

thatarerespectedbyandgetalongwiththeirtargetsareinvited

backbythelattertheyarerewardedforbeingreasonablebybeing

askedtoconsult,bybeinginvitedtoeventshostedbythetarget,andbyhavingthetargetsrepresentativeattendorspeakattheactivistsevents.

Whensuchclose


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cooperationoccurs,onemightaskwhethersuccessful

adjustmentsbypressuregroupstotargetsexpectationssubtlytearatthegroups

agendaorweardownitsintegrity.Ithasbeensuggestedthatthesebroadcasting

activistsmayhavebeenunwittinglyorevenwillinglymanipulatedtomeettargetsagendas.Afewrespondentsproposedthatcoregroupsmayhaveactedasmouthpieces

fortheirtargets


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orotherwisecompromisedtheirgoals.Forexample,

MaryWhitehousesNVALAwasaccused,in1997,ofbeingusedbythe

presstowhipuppublicsentimentagainstbroadcasters,96withwhomthepapershad

arivalry.Theextentofriskforthecoregroupswasunclear,buthistoricalprecedentsforcooptationofactivistgroupsexist.Boththepoliticalscience

literatureandcross-cultural


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developmentssuggestedthatsuccessfulpressuregroupshave

beenabsorbedorcooptedbyinstitutionstheysoughttochange.Barlik126indicated

thatassoonasPolishdissidentgroupshaveachievedtheirgoals,theyare

absorbedaspoliticalparties.Etzioni-Halevys127discussionofthecooptation/absorptionofpressuregroups

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pertainedtoWesterndemocraciesandwasinpartinformedbyherearlier,

thoroughanalysisoftheUKbroadcastingsystem.128Coregroupssoughttofurtherpublic

servicevalues,ademocraticpublicsphere,standardsoftasteanddecency,theconsumerinterestandqualityanddiversityinbroadcasting.Politicalcloutwasonlya

meanstothe


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endofbroadcastingchange.TheBBCsSteel129

haddiscussedabsorptionintheUK:

Idontunderestimatethe

extenttowhichinthiscountrythingsdonthappenbydirectactionof

theconsumerupontheprovider,butbyabsorptionintovariousinstitutional,orquasi-institutionalwaysofmanagingevents...ThewaytheVoiceof

theListenerand


206/320

Viewergotsortofincorporatedintothe

discussion...wasbyinvolvementinapilotgroup.

..thatisaverycharacteristicwayinwhich...

youmightsaygrassrootsactivismiskindofabsorbedthroughofficialsintoofficialchannels...itisanotablefeatureofthiscountry,

ascontrastedwith


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theUS,thattoalargeextent,

itwillbemediatedthroughinstitutionsorlargelyinstitutional-lookingarrangements.

Onecouldhypotheticallyextendthenotionofcooptation/absorptiontoconsultations,testimonyat

SelectCommitteehearingsandanynumberofactivitiesinvolvingactivistinput.Tolabelallthosevenuescooptationseemsabitextreme,butanytimeatarget

raisesthebar


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forbehaviourleadingtoactivistacceptance,then

thetargetisdefiningthetermsoftherelationship.Ontheother

hand,effectiveactivistgroupsmaynegotiate,buttheydonotnecessarilycave.Nevertheless,

perceptionsofriskofabsorption/cooptationforactivistsstillprevail.Paterson117(callinghiscommentsabitunfair)suggestedthatVLVisoftenaneutralconduitfor

BBCpropaganda.Others


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proposedthatthegroupservesauseful

functionfortheBBC.GiventhecitizenparticipationaspectofBritishpolitical

culture,7274this

wasprobablynot

absorption/cooptationasdefinedbyEtzioni-Halevy127and

Barlik.126TheUKdoesnotnecessarilyconformtothepostcommunistmodel,wherecollaborationwithofficial,includingmedia,institutions,stronglyimpliedabsorption.NCCsgovernmentfundingis

notproofof


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itscooptation.Hay102andothergroupleaders

knewtheriskswellandjudiciouslyguardedagainstthem.Nevertheless,itwas

anenormouschallenge.OneisremindedofIsaacs111commentthatanygroupthat

tellsitstargetoritsconstituentsithasachievedallitsgoalswillbeputimmediatelyoutofbusiness.Itisironicthatthetrue

testofsuccess


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forasingle-issuegroupmaybewhen

itplantstheseedsofitsowndemise.Sometimes,itwasharder

forgroupstoplanttheseedsfortheirownperpetuity.

Heeding

thecallfromwithin

Anotherconcernregardingpressuregroupswastheirinternalpublics.Althoughthe1997studyfocusedonpressuregroupsrelationshipswith

theirexternalpublics,


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itwasclearby2000thatgroups

internalrelationshipsfactoredheavilyintogroupstrategiesandimpact.Porter103andother

VLVmembers

consulted119,120,123,125,131

concededthatplansforVLVsinternal

structureandHayssuccessionwereimportant,butthatfocusingprematurelyonthem,eventhoughtheorganisationwashighlydependentonherleadership,woulddetractfrom

groupgoals.Similarly,


213/320

NVALAsmarginalisation(or,saidPaterson117irrelevance)was

based,inpart,onlackofastrongsuccessorafterWhitehousesretirement,

itsreputationforbeingill-informedandintolerant,123anditsalienationofkeyindividuals

intargetpublics.100

Groupsthatendure:Astatusreport

Allgroupsatthetimeofthefollow-upfieldworkwereactivelypursuing

their


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agendas,andCQT

seemedtohavebeenre-energisedbyitsresearcheffortsandnewleadership.

Intervieweesin1997and2000suggestedthattheall-issuegroupswouldfarebetter

overtimethanthesingle-issueones.Thisbeggedthequestionofhowtodefineall-issue.CAandNCCwereall-issueintermsofoverall

consumerissues,but


216/320

theyonlyaddressedviewersandlistenersas

consumers.Incontrast,VLVhadoccasionallybeencalledasingle-issuegroupwith

theheadingpublicservicebroadcasting,butabroaderfocusontheviewer/listeneras

citizenissuesopeneduparangeofissues.CQT(quality,includingdiversity),DBC(access)andNVALA(taste/decency)qualifiedassingle-issuegroups.Theallvs.single-issue

classificationwasnot


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aclearpredictorofsuccessifone

weretofollowthe1997grouprankings(seesectiononeffectiveness,above).

Thatmay,inpart,havebeenattributabletothedilemmaofclearlydefining

singlevs.all-issueandinevaluatingthebroadcastingcontributionsoftheconsumersgroups,whosefociweremainlyrelatedtocostandproductquality.Below,

summaryevaluationsof


218/320

groupstrategies/resultsaregiven.

The

consumersgroups

CAandNCC,respondentsnoted,sometimesalliedwith

eachotherandVLVandoftenoperatedindependently.Althoughtheywerenotknown

fortheirdynamicleadershiportheirideologicalcommitmenttopublicservicevalues,theyprovidedcredibleresearch,funding,andpromotedvalueformoney.114NCCsfree-marketorientation

broughtfairmarket


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valuestoitsengagementwithbroadcastingissues,

Porter123said.Aloneandintandem,theconsumergroupssucceededincalling

attentiontocriticalissueslikeaccessandcostandqualityofdigitalbroadcasting

hardware/software.Forthem,Internetuse(websites)andpublicationsstrengthenedtheirabilityto

providecredibleinformationtotheiraudiences.Mediaadvocacyandlobbyingeffectively

laidouttheir


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agendaitemstotargets,andstrategicrelationship

buildingandallianceshelpedthemtothengettheseitemsdebated,if

notlegislated.

DBC

Thispermanentcoalitioncontinuedtopersevere

andsucceedinincreasingdeafaccesstosigningandsubtitlingandimprovedtechnicalqualityofbroadcastingservices.Thegroupslimiteduseofthemediadid

notimpairits


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success.Instead,itsuccessfullymobiliseditsconstituent

publicsthroughitsMailshotnewsletterandconferencescombinedwitheffectiveletterwriting.

Itislikelytosurvive,atleastshortterm,becauseofitsongoing

determined,assertive,strategicrelationshipbuildingwithbroadcasters,politicians,andpolicymakers.AccordingtoHealy,122PartIIIoftheDisabilityDiscriminationAct133andITC8changeswill

increasebroadcastersaccountability


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tothehearingimpairedandtheblind

(inpart,throughaudiodescriptionrequirements).TheBBCwaspressedtodouble

thecurrentsubtitlinglevel(50percent)byNovember,2008andinMay,

2000,thoughnotobligatedtodoso,itbegantosign1percentofallprogrammes(eighthoursperweekdigital/analogue)matchingITCs

levelfordigital


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terrestrialtelevision.Currently,DBChasaraison

detre.Whensubtitlingreaches100percentandsigningisatthe

maximumlevelthatbroadcasterscanhandle,oneknowsnotwhatwillholdthe

grouptogether,ifnotfornewtechnologiesthataffectdeafaccess.

CQT

ThefutureofCQTislessclear.Spearheadedin

2000bythe


224/320

zealousnessofRayFitzwalter,asitwas

in1990bySimonAlbury,itsstrategyofconductinganddistributingcredible

research130,147hasbolstereditsreputation.Nevertheless,ifit

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continuesasproducer-drivenandoriented,usingpastartisticanddocumentaryachievementsas

itsyardstick,anddoesnotreachouttoabroadermembership,asMills12

predicted,thenitisunlikelytohaveawiderimpact,evenintermsofpublicdebat

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